Available online at www.sciencedirect.
com Current Opinion in
ScienceDirect
Recent Trends in Green and Sustainable Chemistry &
Waste Valorisation: Rethinking Plastics in a circular
economy
Guneet Kaur, Kristiadi Uisan, Khai Lun Ong and
Carol Sze Ki Lin
Abstract
The review presents the recent trends in green and sustainable
chemistry, as well as waste valorization and their applicability
to understand and realize the concept of a circular economy. It
also provides a comprehensive global perspective of the linear
plastics economy and makes the case for its transformation
into a circular plastics economy. Furthermore, bioconversion in
a food waste biorefinery to produce fructose as an example of
a high value-added product is given as a case study to
demonstrate the feasibility of a circular economy.
Addresses
School of Energy and Environment, City University of Hong Kong, Tat
Chee Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
Corresponding author: Lin, Carol Sze Ki (carollin@cityu.edu.hk).
Fax: +852 3442 0688.
Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry 2018,
9:30–39
This review comes from a themed issue on Selected Papers from the
2nd Green and Sustainable Chemistry conference
Edited by Zhimin Liu and Klaus Kümmerer
Available online 26 November 2017
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogsc.2017.11.003
2452-2236/© 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Introduction
The concept of circular economy was launched in 2010.
With the current global drivers of sustainability, material
and energy efficiency, reduced waste generation and
greenhouse gases emissions, circular economy is gaining
momentum and seen more than from a research
perspective [1]. It can be described as a process which
replaces the linear and extract-process-consumption-
disposal concept with development emphasising on
maintaining the value of products, materials and re-
sources in the economy as long as practically possible. In
other words, circular economy can be described as an
industrial system which is restorative and regenerative
by intention and design. This is considered possible by
the use of renewable energy, elimination of use of toxic
chemicals and development of bio-benign products, to
allow reuse and return to biosphere, and elimination of
waste through superior design of materials, products,
Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry 2018, 9:30–39
Green and Sustainable Chemistry
systems and business models [2]. An advanced circular
economy needs participation of not only researchers and
policy makers, but also involvement and incentives to
businesses and people overall [3]. This aspect has been
focused by the launch of European Union action plan
involving a concrete framework aimed at closing the loop
of product life cycles while creating businesses and jobs
for people. This advanced scenario also lays greater re-
sponsibility on producers/manufacturers not only based
on the product and process, but also consider the costs
and risks associated with the waste generated. Industrial
symbiosis by producing innovative and useful products
in one industry via utilising co- or by-products from
another industry has been established within chemical
companies for a long time. The European Union Action
Plan has laid down further plans and measures for con-
crete implementation such as developing quality pat-
terns for secondary raw materials to gain confidence in
market, planning actions in eco-design to improve
repairability, durability and recyclability of products, and
revising regulations concerning recognition of bio or
waste-based products (e.g. fertilizers) in market [4].
This is a crucial step as it provides economic incentives
for businesses to launch and maintain sustainable
products in market, and support recovery and recycling
systems in applications including food, packaging,
medicines, vehicles, electric devices, while advancing
the progress made in research [5].
The circular economy concept underpins and aligns with
the green chemistry approach which focuses on using (bio)
renewable resources in benign reaction media to develop
processes and products which promote human health and
environmental protection [6]. However, it is important
that renewability is not confused with sustainability. This
could be understood from the “food versus fuel” issue for
biofuel production using edible food crops, which is an
unsustainable option. It is important to understand that in
contrast to green chemistry, sustainability has an economic
component. In this regard, the utilization of increasing
amount of accumulating organic waste as chemical feed-
stock is viewed as an interesting opportunity. However, it is
important to keep in mind that the source of product i.e.
renewability and low-cost origin is only one of the factors
contributing to a circular economy. In principle, biode-
gradability, recyclability and potential re-use applications
are other major considerations. Thus, from a technological
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Recent Trends in Green and Sustainable Chemistry & Waste Valorisation: Rethinking Plastics in a Circular Economy Kaur et al.
point of view, the fulfilment of green chemistry and sus-
tainable development in a circular economy concept is
feasible through integration of renewable and greener
processes which aim to achieve high production efficiency,
yield, and productivity, while utilising resources efficiently
and generating reduced waste flows thereby adopting a
holistic approach [7].
Recent progress of chemical processes in synthesis of fine
chemicals, pharmaceuticals and polymers encompasses
greener reaction media, such as polyethylene glycol and
water. In combination with alternative energy input sys-
tems such as photo activation, microwave and ultrasonic
irradiation, and/or mixing under solvent free conditions,
these would ensure numerous greener alternatives [8].
Furthermore, the development of greener nanocatalysts
for routine oxidation, reduction and condensation re-
actions is making a significant impact on greener syn-
thesis in recent years. However, the use of noble metals
such as Au, Pt, Pd, Ru and Rh as nanocatalysts is a major
concern in the context of their scarcity and cost. Conse-
quently, increasing attention is also being paid towards
development and use of novel earth-abundant metal-
based nanocatalysts. For instance, iron for olefin and
alcohol oxidations, and oxidative coupling reactions; or
rare/abundant bimetallic catalytic systems which contain
greatly reduced amount of rare element, e.g. Pt-ZnO/
Al2O3 for dehydrogenation reactions [9]. It is also
important to note that the major challenge with the use of
nanocatalysts is their instability and aggregation which
reduces the specific surface area and interfacial free
energy, thereby diminishing their desired reactivity pro-
file. An additional problem is their difficulty in recovery or
separation after the reaction. A potential solution to this
problem has been suggested through the design of
nanoparticle-adorned magnetic supports to recover for
instance, iron-based magnetic nanoparticles using an
external magnet. The intrinsic instability has been
addressed via functionalization, and/or coating nano-
catalysts with polymers, surfactants, or fixing benign li-
gands such as glutathione or dopamine on their surfaces
to form heterogeneous catalysts. This heterogenization
reaction facilitates efficient recovery and subsequent
reuse of nanocatalysts without any extensive energy or
process steps [8].
Considering the example of bio-based production of
chemicals and fuels, the development of hybrid inte-
grated systems such as in-situ product removal (ISPR)
techniques which couple the upstream (fermentation)
processes utilising the second and third generation
waste feedstocks with downstream (product recovery
or separation) processes such as gas stripping, adsorp-
tion, pervaporation, extraction, ion-exchange, electro-
dialysis in a real-time manner provide several
sustainable benefits. These include product enrich-
ment, high productivities (efficient resource utilisa-
tion), use of concentrated feedstocks, reduced
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wastewater generation and energy consumption,
thereby facilitating to achieve various objectives of a
circular and sustainable economy [10,11]. One relevant
example of ISPR-coupled fermentation process is the
industrial implementation in a production plant with a
capacity of 68
106 L operated by Gevo in Luverne,
Minnesota. The integrated fermentation technology
uses flash distillation followed by phase separation for
production of isobutanol. Increased volumetric pro-
ductivity and reduction in energy required to dry
the spent fermentation broth are two major benefits
demonstrated [10].
New plastics economy via the circular
economy perspective
Need for a circular plastics economy
The transition to a stronger circular economy scenario
needs hybrid models combining several aspects starting
from resource management to create sustainable solu-
tions for products, processes and businesses which
debottleneck the current social and environmental
issues such as pollution, scarcity and low recycling and/
or recovery of resources. A relevant current example in
this regard would be the plastic packaging value chain in
the plastics economy, which represents the largest
portion (i.e. 26% of the total volume) [12]. This is an
iconic example of a linear economy which utilises 98%
finite feedstock while recycling only a meagre of 5%
plastic packaging material value. This economy is reliant
on non-renewable resources of petroleum, consuming
around 6% of world’s oil production as material feed-
stock and in manufacturing process [13]. This is
alarming since it is equivalent to oil consumption of
global aviation sector. Additionally, today’s plastic gen-
erates significant after-use effects in three ways:
degradation of natural ecosystems especially oceans, as a
result of leakage, greenhouse gas emission resulting
from incineration, and health and environmental im-
pacts from subjects of concern (SoC) [14]. While the
results are not conclusive, there is substantial evidence
for possible adverse effects relating to SoC in plastic
packaging. Few examples include monomer styrene,
claimed as a human carcinogen by US National Research
Council, and phthalates, many of which are suspected to
be toxic for reproduction and endocrine-disrupting with
emerging evidence of their linkage to diabetes and
obesity [15,16]. Furthermore, SoCs also act as barriers to
close the material loops safely. For instance, heavy
metals in packaging components hinder composting by
inhibiting bacterial growth required for the process. In
addition, their presence in final compost is detrimental
as it could potentially allow SoCs to enter the food chain
and pose a risk to human health. Therefore, the devel-
opment of new circular plastics economy offers oppor-
tunities to tackle some of these problems and envisages
global material flow with high resource efficiency to
create an effective after-use plastics economy.
Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry 2018, 9:30–39
32 Selected Papers from the 2nd Green and Sustainable Chemistry conference
Table 1
Recent examples of the major food and agri-waste related European projects funded by the EU Framework Programme Horizon2020.
Project name
Food waste valorization for
sustainable chemicals,
materials and fuels (EUBIS)
[36]
Valorisation of lignocellulosic
biomass side streams for
sustainable production of
chemicals, materials & fuels
using low environmental
impact technologies
(LIGNOVAL) [37]
AGROinLOG [38]
AgroCycle [39]
NoAW (Innovative approaches
to turn agricultural waste into
ecological and economic
assets) [40]
Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry 2018, 9:30–39
Funding agent
European Cooperation in
Science and Technology
COST TD1203
European Cooperation in
Science and Technology COST
FP1306
Horizon 2020 research and
innovation fund
Horizon 2020 research and
innovation fund
Horizon 2020 research and
innovation fund
Project members
Lead by Green Chemistry
Centre of Excellence,
University of York, United
Kingdom.
301 members worldwide, from
31 participating COST countries
Lead by University of Cordoba,
Spain
31 partners from EU countries,
6 international partners from
non-EU countries.
Lead by School of Biosystems
and Food Engineering at
University College Dublin,
Ireland.
26 partners from 8 EU
countries, two partners from
mainland China, and one from
Hong Kong
Lead by INRA in France
32 partners from universities,
public research organizations/
institutions from both EU and
non-EU countries: Italy, Serbia,
Sweden, France, Taiwan,
China, Hong Kong, Greece,
Germany, Denmark, Hungary,
Portugal, Switzerland and the
Netherlands
Scope
The EUBis Action brings
together skills and expertise in
biology, chemistry,
biotechnology, food science
and technology, environmental
and economic assessment to
harness the potential of food
and supplier chain waste
(FSCW) as an alternative
carbon source to produce
commercially viable chemical
commodities.
The aim is to develop low
impact environmentally sound
and cost-effective
lignocellulose valorisation
technologies to be exploited in
the production of industrially-
relevant bio-derived chemicals,
materials and fuels.
Demonstration of Integrated
Biomass Logistic Centres
(IBLC) for food and non-food
products, evaluating their
technical, environmental and
economic feasibility. The
project aims to open new
markets from fodder (Spain),
olive oil production (Greece)
and cereal processing
(Sweden) sectors in bio-
commodities (energy, transport
and manufacturing purposes)
and intermediate bio-products
(transport and biochemicals).
Deliver sustainable waste
valorisation pathways
addressing the European policy
target of reducing food waste by
50% by 2030, as well as
contributing to sustainable
changes in China.
The deliverable of the project
includes the AgroCycle
Protocol, a blueprint for
achieving sustainable agri-food
waste valorisation.
The NoAW project will bring
about solutions to transform
todays agro-waste in
tomorrow’s additional value:
 Creating sustainable agro-
waste bio-refinery concepts.
 Shifting towards integrative
eco-design approaches with
emphasis on environmental
impacts of product and pro-
cess in design phase.
 Providing innovative and
robust tools for
determination of waste-
resource recovery strategies
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Recent Trends in Green and Sustainable Chemistry & Waste Valorisation: Rethinking Plastics in a Circular Economy Kaur et al.
Table 1 (continued )
Project name Funding agent
REFRESH [41] Horizon 2020 research and
innovation fund
The adoption of circular economy needs a concerted
global initiative for significant improvement on the
current capture of only 5% plastic material value. This
would be possible by substantial improvement of
collection, sorting, and reprocessing yields, quality and
uptake, while simultaneously allowing for regional dif-
ferences, innovating bio-benign materials and enabling
secondary markets for recycled products through regu-
lations and collective commitments from various in-
dustrial sectors [12]. Although recycling and reuse are
critical to circular economy, however we should consider
the cycle losses caused in reuse and recycling loops, in
which the need for virgin feedstock to compensate for
those losses is still high. This calls for exploring the role
of renewable resources. Renewable and bio-based
sourcing could significantly contribute to the advance-
ment of circular economy concept, if the other associ-
ated factors are suitably considered [17]. For example,
the use of bio-based resources without creating signifi-
cant externalities requires application of regenerative
agricultural principles and accounts the impacts of land
use and biodiversity. In addition, since the renewably
sourced plastics also utilise commodity feedstocks with
market prices subject to local market pressures, so price
volatility is still a concern. One way to address this risk is
to diversify the array of options for recycled materials
and renewable sourced feedstocks to build in system
resilience in the new plastics economy [18]. Another
ensuing debate is recyclability versus biodegradation
and/or compostability. The current materials technology
and after-use infrastructure allows materials to be either
recyclable or compostable. For most applications, recy-
cling pathway is the preferred option since it keeps the
material in economy boarder closed loop resource cir-
culation. Usually pure thermoplastics (e.g. clear
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33
Project members Scope
Lead by Wageningen University  Develop strategic agree-
at the Netherlands. ments to reduce food waste
26 partners from 12 European with governments, business
countries and China and local stakeholders in four
pilot countries (Spain,
Germany, Hungary and the
Netherlands).
 Formulate EU policy recom-
mendations and support
national implementation of
food waste policy frameworks.
 Design and develop techno-
logical innovations to
improve valorisation of food
waste, e.g. from food
processing, and Industrial
and Commercial Technology
(ICT)-based platforms and
tools to support new and
existing solutions to reduce
food waste.
polyethyleneterephthalate (PET)) can undergo closed-
loop recycling (e.g. from a newly made PET bottle to
another recycled PET bottle), if they contain no con-
taminants or additives. Innovations in searching higher
applications for recycling polymers in a closed-loop
processes has also allowed replacement of virgin poly-
mers. For example, PET sheet for thermoforming uses
A-B-A layer sheet where the outer layer (A) is food-
contact-approved virgin resin and the inner layer (B) is
recycled PET. Additionally, food grade recycled PET is
also widely available in market for direct food contact
nowadays due to the development of super-clean grades
of PET [12]. On the other hand, biodegradation allows
plastic to break down into harmless, but essentially low-
value elements such as water and carbon dioxide.
Nevertheless, in certain targeted applications, the latter
might be a useful mechanism for returning nutrients
into soil. In this regard, four pertinent questions facing
circular plastic economy are (i) sourcing of plastics i.e.
what feedstock these plastics are made from; (ii)
manufacturing processes i.e. how these plastics are
made; (iii) applications i.e. functionality and perfor-
mance and (iv) after-use i.e. how is it recovered and re-
utilised.
Bio-based sourcing of products through green
chemistry and waste valorization approaches
From sheer volume point of view, plastics appear as
attractive products to be synthesized via bio-based re-
sources. Additionally, there is also increasing pressure to
substitute fossil feedstock-based polymers with more
sustainable and renewable alternatives. In the recent
years, bio-based sourcing has attracted a great deal of
attention. Projects transcending both geographical and
scientific borders were funded by the European Union
Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry 2018, 9:30–39
34 Selected Papers from the 2nd Green and Sustainable Chemistry conference

which brought together experts skilled in cross-
disciplinary fields such as chemistry, biology, material
science from countries throughout the world. The major
thrust areas of these projects were development of green
production routes for (bio)commodities and products
through waste valorisation (Table 1). Initiatives have
been taken by European Union to fund research and
innovation networks across Europe. The launch of spe-
cific COST actions such as FP1303, FP1003, FP0602
(BIOBIO) and TD1203 (EuBis) are few examples of the
recent efforts in promoting the development and evalu-
ation of bio- or waste-based products [19]. WorldFood-
Waste Network which emerged from EUBIS is one of the
examples which supports and facilitates the transnational
cooperation of knowledge, skills and resources for food
waste valorisation into products and progress towards
circular economy [20]. Acids, sugars, terpenes, phenols,
furans, polyethylene furanoate (PEF), polylactic acid
(PLA), polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA), biobutanol and
biodiesel have been considered as the ten most promising
food supply chain waste derived products focused by this
COST action [21]. It also aimed to create standards,
labels and certifications for biobased products, which
would allow consumers to be confident in product quality.
Moreover, the assessment of environmental and social
impacts of products was performed for leading transition
towards a circular economy. Such initiatives indeed make
fundamental inroads to make biobased production in
circular economy reality.
In recent years, a great number of scientific forums and
conferences have been held in various parts of the world
with special focuses on green and sustainable chemistry,
and waste utilisation technologies. Table 2 presents an
account of these conferences and their main objectives.
Food waste valorization to valuable products has been
increasingly investigated in the present times in many
countries due to the staggering amounts of food wastes

Table 2

Recent examples of the major conferences on renewable, green and sustainable chemistry, waste valorisation.

Name of conference Date Location Major organising committee Aim

2nd Green and Sustainable May 14–17, 2017 Berlin, Germany Leuphana University, Bring together international
Chemistry Conference Germany researchers from academia and
[42] industry to communicate and share
the latest developments diverse
fields of Green and Sustainable
Chemistry.
The 2nd International May 25–28, 2017 Hong Kong The Hong Kong Polytechnic Deliberates recycling and recovery
Conference on Biological University, Hong Kong of a wide diversity of organic
Waste as Resource 2017 wastes, including food waste, yard
[43] and wood waste, sewage sludge,
animal manure and plant resides,
from a comprehensive perspective
embracing technical, financial,
social and political viability.
13th International June 7–9, 2017 Wroclaw, Poland Ghent University, Belgium University, industry, governmental
Conference on Development Agency of and non-governmental
Renewable Resources West Flanders, Belgium organizations and venture capital
and Biorefineries [44] Wroclaw University of providers to present their views on
Environmental & Life industrial biotechnology,
Sciences, Poland sustainable (green) chemistry and
agricultural policy related to the use
of renewable raw materials for non-
food applications and energy
supply aiming to give an impetus to
biobased economy.
5th International Conference June 21–24, 2017 Athens, Greece Lead by National Technical Address the significant issue of
on Sustainable Solid University of Athens sustainable solid waste
Waste Management [45] management through the
promotion of safe practices &
effective technologies.
It focuses mainly on modern solid
waste technologies.
Global Green Chemistry July 27–28, 2017 Melbourne, Lead by University of York, The G2C2 network was born out of
Centre – G2C2 Australia United Kingdom the need to promote
5th Annual Workshop and Membership of over 30 communication between the many
symposium [46] collaborators worldwide green chemistry centers scattered
around the world.

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Recent Trends in Green and Sustainable Chemistry & Waste Valorisation: Rethinking Plastics in a Circular Economy Kaur et al.
generated globally [22]. Novel and innovative products
such as functional food (ingredients), polyesters and
biofuels obtained from food waste transformations
present a new paradigm in green and sustainable
manufacturing. This also emerged as the predominant
theme in the above initiatives. A growing inclination to-
wards waste-to-resource objective via green and sustain-
able chemistry approach is also seen by the number of
publications in this area in recent years. A detailed search
was performed by using keywords such as ‘waste valori-
zation’, ‘green and sustainable chemistry’, ‘waste valori-
zation and sustainability’ and ‘circular economy and waste
valorization’ according to the ScienceDirect database.
Results shown in Figure 1 indicate an increasing number
of journal articles focused on these intertwined areas in
the past five years (i.e. from 2012 to 2017). It is note-
worthy that the sustainability concept is often considered
together with waste valorization. This can be seen in an
increase of number of publications with ‘waste valoriza-
tion and sustainability’ by 24% from 2016 to 2017. How-
ever, it might be more interesting to find out whether the
sustainability assessment such as life cycle analysis is
indeed performed in these studies. Such detailed in-
vestigations would be useful for the establishment of bio-
based circular economy. With regard to waste valorization
to high-value added products, food waste presents
valuable opportunities due to their high availability
throughout the world. High nutritional content of food
waste makes it an idea feedstock for production of a wide
range of chemical products. A good example of food waste
valorization into various product streams can be provided
by citrus waste. This could be used for extraction
Figure 1
An overview of general trends in publications concerning ‘green and sustainable chemistry’ and/or ‘waste valorization’ using ScienceDirect database
from 2012 to 2017. (a) Total and (b) increasing number of publications from 2012 to 2017.
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35
of valuable pectin, terpenes (especially limonene), fla-
vonoids (e.g. healthcare supplements) and cellulose
which could be fermented to a large number of products
such as bioethanol [23]. This makes food waste as valu-
able renewable feedstock in biorefinery for integrated
production of chemicals, materials and fuels, as an
analogue to those derived from petroleum [24]. Another
relevant example could be provided for plastics produc-
tion using food waste, including food crop residues,
discarded food waste or expired packaged food waste
streams. These wastes are rich in sugar constituents
which could be obtained by various treatments such as
chemical (e.g. acid or alkali) or enzymatic hydrolysis.
Sugars could serve as feedstock for synthesis reactions
leading to formation of monomers which could be sub-
sequently polymerized to form polyesters. This has been
illustrated as a case study in Section 3.
Case study: circular plastics economy via
food waste biorefinery
As discussed in Section 2.1, the fundamental aspects of
a circular economy are the use of abundantly available,
non-food resources including biological waste resources
and adoption of green and sustainable transformation
routes for production of high-value products, and ensure
their safe after-use. In this review, the case of circular
plastics economy is presented and discussed via food
waste biorefinery approach.
One of the examples of important high-value added
constituent from food waste is fructose. Fructose is a
Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry 2018, 9:30–39
36 Selected Papers from the 2nd Green and Sustainable Chemistry conference
monosaccharide which serves as a precursor for pro-
duction of hydroxymethyfurfural (HMF). HMF is not
only an intermediate for the synthesis of biofuel dime-
thylfuran (DMF), levulinic acid, 2,5-furandicarboxylic
acid (FDCA), 2,5-diformylfuran (DFF), dihydrox-
ymethylfuran and 5-hydroxy-4-keto-2-pentenoic acid,
but also as a precursor for the synthesis of widely used
polyesters such as PET and PEF, both of which are used
in plastic bottles manufacturing [25e27]. Fructose is
advantageous for synthesis of HMF since its dehydra-
tion to HMF has higher reaction rates and selectivity
when compared to the use of other sugars such as
glucose. Also, higher HMF yields (i.e. over 90%) were
obtained from fructose in high boiling mixtures of
polyethylene glycol and water, while average yields
around w40% were obtained when glucose was used
under such reaction conditions [27]. The synthesis re-
actions for PET/PEF using fructose-derived HMF are
shown in Figure 2. Fructose can also serve as a carbon
source for lactic acid fermentation, which is then poly-
merised to PLA, a biodegradable bioplastic for packaging
usage [28].
In recent years, such thematic projects have been un-
dertaken by researchers which aim at synthesis of bio-
based polyesters obtained from sugar-derived HMF and
other furan derivatives [29e32]. In one of these projects,
researchers at Industrial Technology Research Institute
in Taiwan developed a 200-L scale production process of
HMF via transformation of glucose and starch followed
Figure 2
A schematic representation of bio-based production of plastics by synthesizing PEF/PET through fructose-derived HMF.
Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry 2018, 9:30–39
by large scale oxidation of HMF to produce FDCA as an
intermediate. The group further demonstrated melt
polymerization to obtain highly transparent biaxial ori-
ented PEF from FDCA and chemically derived ethylene
glycol [29]. In another report, preparation of a dicar-
boxylic acid monomer 5,5’-[oxybis(methylene)]bis[2-
furancarboxylic acid] from biomass-derived fructose
and its applicability in high yield synthesis of polyesters
with diols has been demonstrated [30]. Another example
of such renewable polyester production for bioplastic
bottles manufacturing from the process developed by a
Dutch-based company Avantium involves the produc-
tion of PEF from plant-based sugars [31]. A similar
ongoing project in our laboratory is focused on the
transformation of expired food and beverage waste into
bioplastics (Innovation and Technology Commission in
Hong Kong ITS/087/15 TP, http://www.itf.gov.hk/l-eng/
prj_search_index.asp) [47].
The above examples illustrate that inexpensive and
renewable sugars as bio-based resource for production of
high-value added polyesters. The resultant polyesters
could be completely or partially bio-based depending on
the nature of other constituents used in their syntheses.
For example, bio-based PET derived from bioethanol-
derived bio-ethylene is only w30% bio-based. In order
to produce 100% bio-based PET, it is necessary to use bio-
based p-xylene as raw material for p-terephthalic acid.
This has been done by Gevo (http://www.gevo.com/)
which starts from bio-isobutanol, which is then further
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Recent Trends in Green and Sustainable Chemistry & Waste Valorisation: Rethinking Plastics in a Circular Economy Kaur et al.
converted to bio-based p-xylene using existing technol-
ogy on Prins reaction [33]. From a circular economy
perspective, the manufacturing process also holds
importance and should necessarily be accounted for. For
example, the green chemistry metrics such as E-factor,
atom economy should be calculated for reaction steps
and/or overall synthesis. Unfortunately, such details are
seldomly included in the bio-based conversion schemes.
Other important factors of circular plastics economy are
product functionality, recyclability and/or biodegrad-
ability. The first one could be explained by taking the
production of PEF as an example, which is considered as
an alternative to PET. In this case where a new
monomer-derived polymer is produced, new product
properties and functionalities are obtained, and there-
fore the introduction of product in the market would be
needed. PEF bottles reportedly have superior properties
to PET bottles for example, better barrier properties
with regard to gas permeability to oxygen, carbon diox-
ide and water, thus providing for longer-lasting carbon-
ated drinks. They also offer other superior properties
such as better ability to withstand heat and to be
processed at lower temperatures [31].
Waste management of bio-based plastics will be one of
the most important issues in terms of circular economy.
Similar to PET, PEF has poor biodegradability. However,
some bio-based polymers such as PLA, PHA, succinic
acid and 1,3-propanediol polymers are biodegradable. At
last, PLA shows impressive production capacities with
further growth projections in coming years [34]. As
explained previously, recyclability offers more advan-
tages while retaining the material in the recirculation
loop of resource. The ability to substitute virgin plastic
by recycled plastic generally depends on the quality (i.e.
purity) of recovered plastic and property requirements
of future product. In an ideal 2020 city scenario, it is
expected that plastics will be efficiently collected using
sophisticated sorting standards and techniques [35].
This would greatly enhance the quality of recycled
plastic which is mainly deteriorated due to mixing with
other types of monomers/polymers during the recycling
process.
Conclusions
The innovative concept of circular economy is an op-
portunity to scale up both biobased economy and green
chemistry approaches. Undoubtedly, the transition to a
circular economy would involve an understanding of
sustainable development within the scope of effective
chemo- and biocatalytic processes, and waste utiliza-
tion methodologies. Appreciable progress in this di-
rection has already been witnessed with respect to the
use of non-food and/or waste-based resources, benign
reaction chemistry, novel catalysts and satisfactory
production efficiency. However, demonstration of
www.sciencedirect.com
37
benefits in terms of efficient recovery and re-use after
the first usage, decreased energy consumption, green-
house gas emission and reduced waste generation are
some important yet pending issues. Consortium of co-
ordinated efforts from Governments, industrial experts,
academics and waste management companies are
needed in order to realise the circular economy concept
in practice.
Abbreviations
DFF, 2,5-diformylfuran; DMF, dimethylfuran; FDCA,
2,5-furandicarboxylic acid; HMF, hydroxymethyfurfural;
ISPR, in-situ product removal; PEF, polyethylene fura-
noate; PET, polyethylene terephthalate; PLA, polylactic
acid; PHA, polyhydroxyalkanoate; SoC, subjects of
concern.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the Innovation and Technology Funding (ITP/
087/15FP) from Innovation and Technology Commission in Hong Kong.
This paper is specially dedicated to Prof. James H. Clark on the occasion of
his 66th anniversary.
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