Apltcl013 SGD L-01

Power Train
Fundamentals
Student Guide
Caterpillar Service Technician Module
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POWER TRAIN FUNDAMENTALS
Published by Asia Pacific Learning

1 Caterpillar Drive
Tullamarine Victoria Australia 3043
Version 3.2, 2003
Copyright © 2003 Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd Melbourne, Australia.
All rights reserved. Reproduction of any part of this work without the permission of the copy-
right owner is unlawful. Requests for permission or further information must be addressed to
the Manager, Asia Pacific Learning, Australia.
This subject materials is issued by Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd on the understanding that:
1. Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd, its officials, author(s), or any other persons involved
in the preparation of this publication expressly disclaim all or any contractual,
tortious, or other form of liability to any person (purchaser of this publication or not)
in respect of the publication and any consequence arising from its use, including
any omission made by any person in reliance upon the whole or any part of the
contents of this publication.
2. Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd expressly disclaims all and any liability to any person
in respect of anything and of the consequences of anything done or omitted to be
done by any such person in reliance, whether whole or partial, upon the whole or
any part of the contents of this subject material.
Acknowledgements
A special thanks to the Caterpillar Family for their contribution in reviewing the curricula for this
program, in particular:
Caterpillar engineers and instructors
Dealer engineers and instructors
Caterpillar Institutes.
KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS ASSESSMENT
Learning Outcome 1: Explain the purpose of a Power Train and explain the basic
equations which apply to a Power Train.
Assessment Criteria
1.1. Explain the meaning of expressions which relate to Power
Train
1.1.1 Work
1.1.2 Force
1.1.3 Power
1.1.4 Torque
1.1.5 Efficiency.
1.2. Explain the purpose of a Power Train and include the four key
functions.
Learning Outcome 2: Describe general principles of gears, different types of gears, gear
terminology and calculate simple gear ratios.
Assessment Criteria
2.1. Explain the general principles relating to gears
2.1.1 Rotating gears
2.1.2 Idler gears
2.1.3 Gear train
2.1.4 Pinion gears
2.1.5 Gear splines
2.1.6 Gear keys.
2.2. Identify, describe and state the application of gears used in a
power train
2.2.1 Straight cut or spur gears
2.2.2 Helical gears
2.2.3 Herringbone gears
2.2.4 Plain bevel gears
2.2.5 Spiral bevel gears
2.2.6 Hypoid gears
2.2.7 Worm gears
2.2.8 Rack and pinion set
2.2.9 Gears with external and internal teeth.
2.3. Explain gear terminology, including:
2.3.1 Gear face width
2.3.2 Involute curve
2.3.3 Pressure angle
2.3.4 Gear tooth clearance.
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POWER TRAIN FUNDAMENTALS K NOWLEDGE AND SKILLS ASSESSMENT
2.4. Calculate gear ratios using simple and compound gear sets
2.4.1 Reduction
2.4.2 Direct
2.4.3 Overdrive
2.4.4 Idler gears and ratios
2.4.5 Mechanical advantage.
Learning Outcome 3: Identify components and explain the operation on a single

planetary gear set.
Assessment Criteria
3.1. Identify the components of a planetary gear set
3.1.1 The ring gear (annulus)
3.1.2 Planetary gears (pinions
3.1.3 Planetary carrier
3.1.4 The sun gear
3.1.5 Understand the planetary gear operation
3.1.6 Non – planetary action
3.1.7 Planetary action
3.1.8 Planetary gear operation.
3.2. Calculate the direction of planetary gear rotation
3.2.1 Ring gear held, sun gear driving
3.2.2 Ring gear held, planetary driving
3.2.3 Sun gear held, ring gear driving
3.2.4 Sun gear held, planetary driving
3.2.5 Planetary carrier held, ring gear driving
3.2.6 Planetary carrier held, sun gear driving
3.2.7 Two gears held
3.2.8 No gears held.
3.3. Understand planetary gear conditions
3.3.1 Reduction
3.3.2 Maximum reduction
3.3.3 Overdrive
3.3.4 Maximum overdrive
3.3.5 Reverse overdrive
3.3.6 Reverse reduction
3.3.7 Locked
3.3.8 Neutral.
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Learning Outcome 4: Identify types of Power Trains used and describe the operation of
mechanical drives.
4.1. Describe the basic operation of a mechanical Power Train
4.1.1 Engine
4.1.2 Coupling
4.1.3 Transmission
4.1.4 Differential
4.1.5 Final drive
4.1.6 Wheel/tracks.
4.2. Explain the operation of different mechanical drives
4.2.1 Gear drives
4.2.2 Chains and sprockets
4.2.3 Friction drives
4.2.4 Belt drives.
4.3. Have a basic understanding of hydrostatic and electric drives.
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TABLE OF C ONTENTS
Topic 1: Power Train Principles

Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 9
Work Done Energy and Power .......................................................................................... 10
Topic 2: Gears
Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 13
General Principles ............................................................................................................ 14
Gear Terminology ............................................................................................................. 21
Topic 3: Planetary Gears

Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 27
Design Advantage ............................................................................................................ 28
Topic 4: Types of Power Trains

Mechanical Drive .............................................................................................................. 35
Hydrostatic Drives ............................................................................................................. 48
Electric Drive .................................................................................................................... 49
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POWER TRAIN FUNDAMENTALS TABLE OF CONTENTS
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TOPIC 1
Power Train Principles
INTRODUCTION
Figure 1 - View of General Machine
A power train is a group of components that work together to transfer power from a
source, where it is produced to a point where it is used to perform work. This definition
might be compared to a “freight train.” A freight train is a group of components, a
locomotive and cars, that transfers freight from where it is produced to where it is
needed. The term power train is not new. It has been used since the earliest times to
describe the components that transfer power from one place to another.
Figure 2 - Water Wheel
For example, in early water-powered mills used in colonial times (Figure 2), the term
power train was used to describe the machinery that carried power from the water
wheel to perform work such as milling flour, weaving cloth or sawing lumber.
In automotive terms, the power train provides a means of disconnecting and

controlling engine power.
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The primary functions of a Power Train are to:

Connect and Disconnect Power from the Engine
Modify Speed and Torque
Provide a Means for Reverse
Equalize Power Distribution to the Drive Wheels.
In a typical mechanically driven earthmoving or agricultural machine, the power train

transfers power from the rotating flywheel of an engine to the road wheels or tracks
that do the work of propelling the machine. The power train does more than just
transfer power, it also provides a means of modifying engine output to suit the various
load conditions which are experienced by the machine. If an engine were coupled
directly to the drive wheels of a vehicle, the vehicle would run constantly at engine
speed. This would not be a practical arrangement.
WORK DONE ENERGY AND POWER
Work and Force

When a constant force overcomes the resistance of a body and moves that body,
work is said to have been done on the body.
The units of work done are newton – metres (Nm) also called Joules (J).
Work is equal to the force applied to move an object multiplied by the distance the
object travels. Force is therefore a measure of the pushing power exerted by one
object against another. The formula is shown.
W=FxD
Power
Power is a term used to describe the relationship between work and time. Power is
defined as the rate of performing work or transferring energy. In other words, power
measures how quickly work is done. Power is equal to the work done divided by the
amount of time it takes to do the work, ie:
P = W/T
Substituting the definition of work into the definition of power shows that power is
equal to the force applied to move an object multiplied by the speed that the object
travels. Speed is equal to distance moved divided by time. Therefore:
Power = Force applied x Distance moved / Time taken

W is work done
F is Force
D is Distance.
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Torque
Torque is a twisting effort applied to an object that tends to make the object turn about
its axis of rotation. The amount of torque is equal to the magnitude of the applied
force multiplied by the distance between the objects axis of rotation and the point
where the force is applied. Just as a force applied to an object tends to change the
linear rate of motion of the object, a torque applied to an object tends to change the
object’s rate of rotational motion.
Torque = Force x Distance
Unit of measurements are Newton for force and metres for distance.
The amount of torque available from a source of power is proportional to the distance
from the centre at which it is applied. In figure 3, the lever has more torque as the
fulcrum gets closer to the object of power application (right diagram). But the lever
must also be rotated farther to get this torque.
Efficiency
In all practical machines, some power is lost in overcoming friction or is dissipated as
heat. The efficiency of a machine is the ratio of output power to input power or the
actual output power compared with the theoretical output power.
The value of efficiency is always less than 100% in a calculation.
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TOPIC 2
Gears
INTRODUCTION
The toothed gear has long been a familiar element in mechanical engineering and its
importance seems likely to increase as development proceeds. Early examples of
gears were cumbersome, noisy and inefficient, owing to the lack of suitable materials,
design technique and manufacturing facilities. Improvements in these respects have
more than kept pace with advancing demands and toothed gearing is now confidently
employed at speeds and power outputs that could not have been attempted a few
decades ago.
Gears are used to transmit power between rotating shafts which are not in the same
straight line and have, in general, different speeds. Other means are possible in some
circumstances, but where a compact drive is necessary, or where “timing” of the shafts
is essential, the toothed gear usually surpasses all competitors in simplicity, reliability
and efficiency.
Gears do several important jobs but primarily they provide a gear reduction in
motorized equipment. This is important because, often, a small motor spinning very
fast can provide enough power for a device, but not enough torque. For instance, an
electric screwdriver has a very large gear reduction because it needs lots of torque to
turn screws, but the motor only produces a small amount of torque at a high speed.
With a gear reduction, the output speed can be reduced while the torque is increased.
Gears also change the direction of rotation. For instance, in differential between the
rear wheels of your car, the power is transmitted by a shaft that runs down the centre
of the car, and the differential has to turn that power 90o to apply it to the wheels.
Because most power train systems use gears to achieve drive, it is important to learn
gear terminology, some of the engineering principles which apply to gear drives and
the different types of gears which are available.
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GENERAL PRINCIPLES
Rotating Gears
Figure 3 - Two Rotating Gears
Gear teeth in mesh act as multiple levers that transfer torque from a driven gear to the
other gears in the power train. When only two gears are used, the drive and driven
shafts rotate in opposite directions, as depicted in Figure 3. Two gears in mesh are
called a gear set.
Idler Gear
Figure 4 - Idler Gear
A third gear or idler gear (Figure 4) is sometimes used between the drive gear and the
driven gear. The idler gear changes the direction of the driven gear so it turns in the
same direction as the drive gear. Idler gears do not affect gear ratios or mechanical
advantage.
Gear Train
Figure 5 - Gear Train
Three or more gears in mesh together are called a gear train (Figure 5).
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Pinion Gear
Figure 6 - Pinion Gear
When one gear is considerably smaller than another, the smaller gear is called a
pinion (Figure 6).
Gear Splines
Figure 7 - Splines
Gears are usually mounted on shafts. Power is transferred to and from gears by
shafts, and gears must be firmly fastened to shafts. Various methods are used to
fasten gears to the shafts. Grooves known as splines (Figure 7) may be machined on
the surface of the shaft and in the gear hub. When the gear is pushed into the shaft,
the splines hold the gear so that it turns the shaft without slipping. Sometimes, splines
are engineered so that the gear can slide sideways on the shaft. This sliding gear
feature is often used in transmissions.
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Gear Keys
Figure 8 - Keys
Keys are another method used to prevent gears from slipping on their shafts. In a
simple key arrangement, a single slot, or keyway, (Figure 8) is machined in the shaft
and another in the hub of the gear. When the key, a square piece of metal, is inserted,
it locks the gear and shaft together. A more elaborate variation of the key is a
semicircular type known as a Woodruff key, named for the inventor.
Gear Types
Since the work of a gear is done by the teeth, gears are usually named according to
the way the teeth are cut. Over the years many different gear patterns were devised
for specific tasks. For proper operation, meshing gears must have teeth of the same
size and design. Also, at least one pair of teeth must be engaged at all times,
although gear tooth patterns allow for more than one pair of teeth to be engaged. The
following are the most common gears found in modern industrial machines.
Straight Cut or Spur Gears
Figure 9 - Spur Gears
On straightcut or spur gears (Figure 9) the teeth are cut straight and parallel with the
axis of the gear rotation. These gears are prone to produce vibration, tend to be noisy
and are generally used in slower speed applications.
Straight spur gears are often used in transmissions because the teeth easily mesh,
allowing easier shifting.
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Helical Gears
Figure 10 - Helical Gears
Helical gears (Figure 10) have teeth that are not parallel to the axis of the shaft but are
spiraled around the shaft in the form of a helix. Helical gears are suitable for heavy
loads because the gear teeth come together at an acute angle rather than at 90o as in
spur gearing. Engagement of the gears begins and rolls down to the trailing edge
allowing a smoother transfer of power than on a straight cut. This also permits quieter
operation and the ability to handle more thrust. So helical gears are more durable than
straight gears.
A disadvantage of simple helical gears is that they produce a sideways thrust that
tends to push the gears along shafts. This produces additional load on the shaft
bearings.
Herringbone Gears
Figure 11 - Herringbone Gears
The thrust produced by helical gears can be balanced by using double helical, or
herringbone gears (Figure 11). Herringbone gears have ‘V’ shaped teeth composed of
half a right-handed helical tooth and half a left-handed helical tooth. The thrust
produced by one side is counterbalanced by the thrust on the other side. Usually a
small channel is machined between the two rows of teeth. This is to allow for easier
alignment and to prevent oil being trapped in the apex of the ‘V’.
Herringbone gears have the same advantages as helical gears, but are expensive.
They are used in large turbines and generators.
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Plain Bevel Gears
Figure 12 - Plain Bevel Gears
Bevel gears (Figure 12) permit the power flow in a gear train to be transmitted at right
angles. The gear teeth are cut straight on a line with the shaft but are beveled at an
angle to the horizontal axis of the shaft. Bevel gear teeth are tapered in thickness and
in height. The smaller driving gear is called the pinion while the larger driven gear is
known as the crown wheel.
Plain bevel gears are used in applications where speed is slower and there is no high
impact present. For example, hand wheel type controls often use plain bevel gears.
Spiral Bevel Gears
Figure 13 - Spiral Bevel Gears
Spiral bevel gears (Figure 13) are designed for applications where more strength is
needed than a plain bevel gear can provide. Spiral gear teeth are cut obliquely on the
angular faces of the gears. The teeth overlap considerably, so they can carry greater
loads. Spiral bevel gears reduce speed and increase force.
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Hypoid Gears
Figure 14 - Hypoid Gears
Hypoid gears (Figure 14) are variations of helical bevel gears that are used when the
axis of the two shafts are perpendicular but do not intersect. The smaller pinion is
located above the centre of the crown wheel gear it drives. One of the most common
uses of hypoid gearing is to connect the drive shaft and the rear axle in automobiles.
Helical gearing used to transmit rotation between shafts that are not parallel is often
incorrectly called spiral gearing.
Worm Gear
Figure 15 - Worm Gear
Another variation of helical gearing is provided by the worm gear (Figure 15), also
called the screw gear. A worm gear is a long, thin cylinder that has one or more
continuous helical teeth that mesh with a helical gear. Worm gears differ from helical
gears in that the teeth of the worm slide across the teeth of the driven gear instead of
exerting a direct rolling pressure. Worm gears are used chiefly to transmit rotation,
with a large reduction in speed, from one shaft to another at a 90o angle.
The figure above is an example of a worm gear application.
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Rack and Pinion Gear Set
Figure 16 - Rack and Pinion Gears
Rack and pinion gears (Figure 16) can be used to convert straight-line motion into
rotary motion or rotary motion into straight-line motion depending whether the rack or
the pinion is driven. The teeth on the rack are straight cut while those on the pinion
are curved. A common use of a rack and pinion gear set is in automotive steering
systems.
External and Internal Gear Teeth
Figure 17 - Internal Versus External
A gear with teeth around the outside circumference is called an external tooth gear. A
gear with teeth machined around the inside diameter is called an internal or ring gear
(Figure 17).
Figure 18 - Larger Internal Gear/Smaller External Gear
In Figure 18, the larger gear is an example of an internal gear and the smaller gear is
an external gear.
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GEAR TERMINOLOGY
A few terms relating to gears need to be covered.
Gear Face Width
Figure 19 - Measuring Gear Width
The width of a gear across the teeth is called the face width (Figure 19). Wider gears
have more contact area and can transmit more power.
Involute Curve
Figure 20 - Involute Curve
For a power train to operate properly, all gears in a gear train must have teeth that are
compatible with one another in size and shape. The sides of gear teeth are not
straight. Instead, gear teeth are machined with a profile that is designed to obtain
maximum power transfer efficiency from the gear as it meshes with other gears. The
sides of each tooth follow the shape of what is known as an involute curve (Figure 20).
The curved shape provides a rolling contact as opposed to sliding against other teeth
in mesh.
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Pressure Angle
Figure 21 - Pressure Angle
Gears teeth are cut with a profile so that when teeth mesh they produce a pressure
angle that is calculated to allow smooth, fulldepth engagement (Figure 21).
Gear Tooth Clearance
Figure 22 - Tooth Clearance
Smooth gear mesh is critical to proper gear operation. If gears mesh too tightly,
binding occurs producing excessive friction, power loss and accelerated wear. If the
mesh is too loose, gears will be noisy and inefficient. A small amount of clearance is
required between teeth to allow for lubrication and smooth, efficient operation
(Figure 22). The clearance allows a slight backward movement of the gears that is
called backlash.
Excessive backlash is usually an indication of wear in the gear teeth or the bearings
that support the gears. Excessive backlash can result in broken gear teeth or gears
bouncing under load. During equipment service operations it is often necessary to
measure and adjust backlash to proper specification, using shims designed for that
purpose.
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Mechanical Advantage
Figure 23 - Speed and Torque Advantage
Gears in machinery are frequently used to provide a speed advantage or a torque

advantage. Gears cannot provide a power advantage (Figure 23). The actual power of
a machine is determined by the capacity of the engine. However, the use of different
size gears permits engine power and speed to be used most efficiently to operate a
machine under various load conditions. When gears are used to increase torque,
output speed is reduced. When output speed is increased through gearing, torque is
reduced. The mechanical advantage gained is the same principle as that used for
levers. Mechanical advantage and gear ratios will be the same.
2:1 Gear Ratio
Figure 24 - Torque Advantage
The two gears in Figure 24 shows a small drive (input) gear, with 24 teeth, driving a
larger driven (output) gear with 48 teeth. Since the driving gear is smaller than the
larger driven gear, the speed of the driven gear will be slower than that of the input.
Because the gear speed of the output is reduced, this type of ratio (drive gear is
smaller than the driven gear) is referred to as gear ‘reduction’.
If, however, the driving gear is larger (more teeth) than the driven gear, the speed of
the driven (output) gear will increase. When output speed is greater than input speed,
it is referred to as ‘overdrive’.
The gear ratio is calculated by dividing the number of teeth on the driven gear by the
number of teeth on the driving gear or:
Driven
Gear Ratio = -------------------
Driver
In Figure 24 above, the driving gear is the smaller gear with 24 teeth. Using the
formula, then:
48
Gear Ratio = ------ = 2
24
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The gear ratio is depicted as 2:1, meaning that it is a reduction. In gear ratios, the
last number as always one. If the number on the left of the equation is greater than
one (1), then it is indicating a reduction. If the number on the left of the equation is
less than one (1), e.g. .5:1, then the ratio is indicating an overdrive.
To confirm this and using the gears in Figure 24, take the larger gear (48 teeth) as the
driver and the smaller gear (24 teeth) as the driven, then:
Driven 24 1
Gear Ratio: ------------------- = ------ = --- = .5
Driver 48 2
To put in another term, the number one (1) on the right hand side of the equation is
indicating one revolution of the driven gear. The number on the left hand side is
indicating how many revolutions, or part of a revolution, it is travelling to make the
driven gear rotate one revolution.
Gear ratios are directly related to Mechanical Advantage. If the gear ratio is 2:1
(indicating a reduction) then the mechanical advantage of the gear set is 2:1 also. If
the gear ratio is indicting .5:1 (indicating an overdrive), then the mechanical
advantage is .5:1. Mechanical advantage is also directly related to torque and speed.
If there is and increase in speed of the driven gear (overdrive) then there will be a
reduction in torque. Conversely, if there is a decrease in speed of the driven gear
(reduction) then there will be an increase in torque.
Idler Gear Ratios
Figure 25 - Idler Gear Relationship
A single idler gear used to change the direction of rotation does not change the gear
ratio. The idler gear can have any number of teeth. So if a small idler wheel with
12 teeth is used between two gears with 48 teeth (See Figure 25) the ratio remains
1:1. The same is true if the idler gear has 48 teeth. To calculate gear ratio, when an
idler is present, use the same formula indicated previously.
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Figure 26
Compound Gears are gears that are meshed together. The countershaft gears (or
cluster gears) in a transmission are compound gears that have three or more gears
combined into one gear. A compound gear, when meshed with other gears, provides a
double gear ratio, usually a double reduction. Figure 26 above, shows a compound set
comprising of two gear sets; 12 teeth are meshed with 24 teeth and 10 teeth are
meshed with 30 teeth. The gears with 24 teeth and 10 teeth are compounded. In this
configuration there are two gears that are drivers (12 teeth and 10 teeth) and two
gears that are driven (24 teeth and 30 teeth).
To calculate the overall gear ratio:

driven × driven
Gear ratio = ------------------------------------------
driver × driver
24 × 30
Gear ratio = -------------------
12 × 10
= 6:1
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TOPIC 3
Planetary Gears
INTRODUCTION
Figure 27 - Typical simple planetary gear set
The simple planetary gear set (Figure 27) provides overdrive, reverse, forward
reduction, neutral, and direct drive. The gear set can also supply fast and slow speeds
for each operating range, with the exception of neutral and direct drive.
Planetary Gear Set Components

A simple planetary gear set consists of three components:
a sun gear
a carrier with planetary pinions mounted to it
and an internally toothed ring gear or annulus.
Figure 28 - Planetary gear configuration is similar to the solar system, with the sun gear
surrounded by the planetary pinion gears. The ring gear surrounds the complete gear set
The sun gear is located in the center of the assembly (Figure 28). It is the smallest
gear in the assembly and is located at the center of the axis. The sun gear can be
either a spur or helical gear design.
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It meshes with the teeth of the planetary pinion gears. Planetary pinion gears are
small gears fitted into a framework called the planetary carrier. The planetary carrier
can be made of cast iron, aluminium, or steel plate and is designed with a shaft for
each of the planetary pinion gears. (For simplicity, planetary pinion gears will be
simply called planetary pinions.) Planetary pinions rotate on needle bearings
positioned between the planetary carrier shaft and the planetary pinions. The number
of planetary pinions in a carrier depends on the load the gear set is required to carry.
Passenger vehicle automatic transmissions might have three planetary pinions in the
planetary carrier. Heavy-duty highway trucks can have as many as five planetary
pinions in a planetary carrier. The carrier and its pinions are considered one unit - the
maximum size gear member.
The planetary pinions surround the sun gear's center axis and they themselves are
led by the annulus or ring gear, which in terms of the number of teeth, is the mid-size
gear member of the simple gear set. The ring gear acts like a band to hold the entire
gear set together and provide great strength to the unit. The ring gear is located the
greatest distance from the center of the axis and therefore exerts the most leverage
on the center of the axis. To help remember the design of a simple planetary gear set,
use the solar system as an example. The sun is the center of the solar system with
the planets rotating around it. Hence the name planetary gear set.
In terms of the numbr of teeth in a planetary set of gears, the sun gear is the smallest,
the ring gear or annulus is the mid range gear and the planetary carrier is the largest.
In real terms, and regardless of the number of gears on the planetary carrier, to
estimate the number of teeth on the planetary carrier, add the number of teeth of the
sun gear to the number of teeth on the ring gear (annulus).
i.e. If the sun gear has 24 teeth and the ring gear has 48 teeth, then regardless of the
number of gears in the planetary carrier, the planetary carrier will be representative of
72 teeth.
DESIGN ADVANTAGES
Some advantages of the simple planetary gear set include:
Constantly meshed gears. With the gears constantly in mesh there is little chance
of damage to the teeth. There is no grinding or missed shifts. The gear forces are
divided equally
Planetary gear sets are very compact
Extreme versatility. Seven combinations of speed and direction can be obtained
from a single set of planetary gears
Additional variations of both speed and direction can be added through the use of
compound planetary gears.
How Planetary Gears Work

Each member of a planetary gear set, the sun gear, pinion gear carrier, and ring gear
can revolve or be held, a Power transmission through a planetary gear set is only
possible when one of the members is held, or if two of the members are locked
together.
Any one of the three members-sun gear, pinion gear carrier, or ring gear can be used
as the driving or input member. At the same time, another member might be kept from
rotating and thus becomes the held or stationary member. The third member then
becomes the driven or output member. Depending on which member is the driver,
which is held, and which is driven, either a torque increase or a speed increase is
produced by the planetary gear set. Output direction can also be reversed through
various combinations.
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Sun Gear Carrier Ring Gear Speed Torque Direction
1. Input Output Held Maximum reduction Increase Same as input
2. Held Output Input Minimum reduction Increase Same as input
3. Output Input Held Maximum increase Reduction Same as input
4. Held Input Held Maximum increase Reduction Same as input
5. Input Held Output Reduction Increase Reverse of output
6. Output Held Input Increase Reduction Reverse of input
7. When any two members are held together, speed and direction are the same as input. Direct 1:1 drive occurs
8. When no member is held or locked together, output cannot occur. The result is a neutral condition
Table 1 - Laws of Simple Planetary Gear Operation
Summarises the basic laws of simple planetary gears. It indicates the output speed,
torque, and direction of the various combinations available. It is also helpful to
remember the following two points with regard to direction of rotation:
Figure 29
1. When an external-to-external gear tooth set is in mesh, there will be a change in

the direction of rotation at the output (Figure 29)
Figure 30
2. When an external gear tooth is in mesh with an internal gear, the output rotation
for both gears will be the same (Figure 30).
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Figure 31
Combination 1: Maximum Forward Reduction (Figure 31). With the ring gear
stationary and the sun gear turning clockwise, the external toothed sun gear will
rotate the planetary pinions anticlockwise on their shafts. The inside diameter of each
planetary pinion pushes against its shaft, moving the planetary carrier clockwise. The
small sun gear (driving) will rotate several times, driving the planetary carrier one
complete revolution, resulting in a reduction. This combination represents the most
gear reduction or the maximum torque multiplication that can be achieved in one
planetary gear set. Input speed will be high, but output speed will be low.
Figure 32
Combination 2: Minimum Forward Reduction (Figure 32). In this combination, the

sun gear is stationary and the ring gear rotates clockwise. The ring gear drives the
planetary pinions clockwise and walks around the stationary sun gear. The planetary
pinions drive the planetary carrier in the same direction as the ring gear. This results
in more than one turn of the input as compared to one complete revolution of the
output. The result is torque multiplication. The amount of reduction is not as great as
in combination 1. The planetary gear set is operating in a forward reduction with the
mid range ring gear driving the large planetary carrier. Therefore, the combination
produces minimum forward reduction.
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Figure 33
Combination 3: Maximum Overdrive (Figure 33). With the ring gear stationary and
the planetary carrier rotating clockwise, the three planetary pinion shafts push against
the inside diameter of the planetary pinions. The pinions are forced to walk around the
inside of the ring gear, driving the sun gear clockwise. The carrier is rotating less than
one turn input compared to one turn output, resulting in an overdrive condition. In this
combination, the large size planetary carrier is rotating less than one turn and driving
the smaller sun gear at a speed greater than the input speed. The result is a fast
overdrive with maximum speed increase.
Figure 34
Combination 4: Slow Overdrive (Figure 34). In this combination, the sun gear is
stationary and the carrier rotates clockwise. As the carrier rotates, the pinion shafts
push against the inside diameter of the pinions and they are forced to walk around the
held sun gear. This drives the ring gear faster and the speed increases. The carrier
turning less than one turn causes the pinions to drive the ring gear one complete
revolution in the same direction as the planetary carrier. As in combination 3, an
overdrive condition exists, but the large size carrier is now driving the mid size ring
gear.
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Figure 35
Combination 5: Slow Reverse (Figure 35). Here the small sun gear is driving the
ring gear with the planetary carrier held stationary. The planetary pinions, gears
driven by the external sun gear, rotate anticlockwise on their shafts. The planetary
pinions drive the internal ring gear. While the sun gear is driving, the planetary
pinions are used as idler gears to drive the ring gear anticlockwise. This means the
input and output shafts are operating in the opposite or reverse direction to provide a
reverse power flow. Since the driving sun gear is the smallest and the driven ring gear
is mid-range the result is slow reverse (reduction).
Figure 36
Combination 6: Fast Reverse (Figure 36). For fast reverse, the carrier is still held
but the sun gear and ring gear reverse roles, with the ring gear now being the driving
member and the sun gear driven. As the ring gear rotates anticlockwise, the pinions
rotate anticlockwise as well, while the sun gear turns clockwise. In this combination,
the input ring gear uses the planetary pinions to drive the output sun gear. The sun
gear rotates in reverse to the input gear. In this operation combination, the mid-range
gear rotating anticlockwise drives the small sun ear clockwise, providing fast reverse
(overdrive).
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Figure 37
Combination 7: Direct Drive (Figure 37). In the direct drive combination, both the
ring gear and the sun gear are input members. They turn clockwise at the same
speed. The internal teeth of the clockwise turning ring gear will try to rotate the
planetary pinions clockwise as well. But the sun gear, an external gear rotating
clockwise, will try to drive the planetary pinions anticlockwise. These opposing forces
lock the planetary pinions against rotation that the entire planetary gear set rotates as
one complete unit. This ties together the input and output members and provides a
direct drive. For direct drive, both input members must rotate at the same speed.
Figure 38
Combination 8: Neutral Operation (Figure 38). Combinations 1 through 7 all

produce an output drive of various speeds, torques, and direction. In each case one
member of the planetary gear set is held or two members are locked for the output to
take place. When no member is held stationary or locked there will be input into the
gear set, but no output The result is a neutral condition.
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Summary Of Simple Planetary Gear Set Operation

When the planetary carrier is the drive (input) member, the gear set produces an
overdrive condition. Speed increases, torque decreases.
When the planetary carrier is the driven (output) member, the gear set produces
a forward reduction. Speed decreases, torque increases.
When the planetary carrier is held, the gear set will produce reverse.
To determine if the speed produced is fast or slow, remember the rules regarding
large and small gears.
A large gear driving a small gear increases speed and reduces torque of the
driven gear.
A small gear driving a large gear decreases speed and increase torque of the
driven gear.
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TOPIC 4
Types of Power Trains
Identify the types of power trains used and describe the operation of mechanical
drives used in earthmoving, on-highway truck and agricultural machinery.
Power trains used will normally fit under three general classifications. These are:
Mechanical Drive
Hydrostatic Drive
Electric Drive.
Mechanical drive power trains can be further classified into:

those which generally use gears to achieve drive and speed modification
those which use chains and sprockets
those which use friction to provide drive
those which use belts to provide drive.
A mechanical power train could have a combination of all of these power transmission
methods.
MECHANICAL DRIVE
Figure 39 - Caterpillar DI IR Tractor with Mechanical Power Train Components
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Final Drive
Torque
Engine Converter or Transmission Differential
Clutch
Final Drive
Figure 40 - Schematic Representation
In a mechanical power train(Figure 40), power from the engine is transferred through
a coupling (clutch or torque converter) to the transmission. From the transmission
power is transferred to the differential for wheeled machines, (or a bevel gear and
pinion for a tracked machine), final drive and to the wheels or tracks.
The major components of a typical mechanical power train are as follows:

Engine
Provides the power to operate the vehicle and the coupling device.
Coupling
Connects the engine power to the rest of the power train. Flywheel clutch
couplings may disconnect the engine power from the rest of the power train. This
allows the engine to run while the machine is not moving. Torque converters and
torque dividers may be attached to provide a fluid coupling to connect the engine
to the remainder of the power train. The connection can be direct if the machine
is equipped with a lockup clutch for increased ground speed.
Transmission
Controls the output speed, direction and torque of the power delivered to the
remainder of the power train.
Differential
Transmits power to the final drive and wheels while allowing each wheel to rotate
at a different speed.
Final drive
Connects power to the wheels or tracks.
Wheels/Tracks
The final link that transmits driveline power to the ground to propel the machine.
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Gear Driven Power Trains
Figure 41 - Selection of Gears
A gear is a toothed wheel or cylinder used to transmit rotary or reciprocating motion

from one part of a machine to another. Gears are the most common elements used in
modern power trains. This is because gears represent one of the most efficient and
cost-effective means of transferring engine power to the drive wheels of a machine. By
varying the size and number of gears it is also possible to modify the power produced
by an engine to suit the work being performed.
Gear Drive Benefits

No slippage and the ability to handle very high loads are the major benefits of gear
drives. However, they are heavier than other types of drives and the distance between
the input and output shafts is fixed by the diameter of the gears.
Gear Drive in an Axle
Figure 42 - Axle Assembly
The axle, in Figure 42 above, is an example of gear drive. In this particular application,
the gears are able to handle very high torque loads at the final drive.
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Planetary Gear Drives
Figure 43 - Planetary Gear Set
Benefits of the Planetary Gear Set

Benefits of the planetary gear set (Figure 43) include a compact design with many
variations in a small assembly. More teeth are in mesh for smoother power transfer
and the load on the gears is balanced. They are, however, heavier and more
expensive than other drive systems.
Planetary Gear Sets have several advantages over other geared systems. They are
compact in design, have numerous teeth in mesh for smooth transfer of power, the
load on the gears is balanced and they provide unlimited gear ratio selections.
Planetary Transmission and Planetary Final Drive
Figure 44 - Planetary Transmission
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Figure 45 - Final Drive
The planetary transmission (Figure 44), left and the planetary final drive in Figure 45
are two examples of the planetary gear set used in the power train.
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Countershaft Gear Sets
Figure 46 - Countershaft Gear Sets
Countershaft gears (Figure 46) are used mainly in manual and power shift
transmissions. Countershaft gear sets allow one set of gears to be shifted without
disturbing the other gear ratios. The gears are mounted on parallel shafts. The
direction of power cannot be changed unless an idler gear is added to the
countershaft gear set.
One gear on a shaft drives another gear on a second shaft. A countershaft gear set
can be equipped with several gears and shafts to achieve different speeds.
Advantages of the countershaft gear set include fewer parts and less weight. A
countershaft gear set is generally less expensive than a planetary gear set.
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Bull Gear Final Drive
Figure 47 - Bull Gear Final Drive
The bull gear and pinion (Figure 47) is a simple gear set arrangement used in older
track type tractors as a final drive. The ratio between the numbers of teeth on the
gears set the required multiplication of torque and reduction of speed.
Bevel and Pinion Gear Set
Figure 48 - Bevel and Pinion Set
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The bevel and pinion gear set (Figure 48) consists of a bevel gear and a pinion gear.
The gear shafts are at right angles to each other. The bevel and pinion gear set is
used for changing the direction of power. The pinion gear drives the bevel gear. Each
gear is tapered for correct meshing of the gear teeth. The bevel gear set allows the
power flow to be directed at right angles.
Bevel Gear Set in Wheel Machines
Figure 49 - Matched Bevel and Pinion Gears
The bevel and pinion gears are a matched set. The bevel gear set in the centre of the
Figure 49 above is used to transfer power from the transmission to the final drive. The
bevel gear and pinion in wheel machines is part of the differential assembly.
Chain Drive
Figure 50 - Chain Drive
A chain drive (Figure 50) is a variation of a gear drive that is also used to transmit
power from one rotating shaft to another. The gears, usually called sprockets, are not
in mesh but instead are connected by a linked chain. The links of the chain mesh with
the teeth of the sprockets so that the driven sprocket maintains a constant speed ratio
with the drive sprocket. Track drives operate under the same principles as a chain
drive.
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Like gears, chains drives virtually eliminate slippage. Sprockets connected to the
same side of the chain rotate in the same direction. Sprockets connected on different
sides of the chain move in opposite directions. To avoid excessive wear, sprockets for
roller chain drives should have 10 or more teeth. If a chain has an even number of
spaces between links the sprockets should have an odd number of teeth.
Roller Chain Components
Figure 51 - Chain Components
Roller chains are the types most commonly seen on heavy machinery (Figure 51).
They provide an efficient means of carrying heavy loads at low speeds between shafts
that are far apart. The roller chain is made up of alternate roller links and pin links.
Roller links have two roller link side plates, two bushings and two rollers. Pin links
consist of two pin link plates and two pins. The side plates of the roller chain
determine the pitch of the chain. This is directly related to the distance between
sprocket teeth, measured from tip to tip.
Chain Tensioning
Figure 52 - Chain Adjustment
Like gears, chain sprockets are often mounted on shafts with splines and keys. The
slack side of a chain should be on the bottom, whenever possible. On longer chain
drives, an idler wheel or sprocket is often used on the slack side to maintain proper
tension between the driving sprocket and the driven sprocket. Chains do stretch in use
so chain tension must sometimes be adjusted (Figure 52 above). This may be
accomplished by moving one of the main sprockets or adjusting the idler sprocket, if
equipped.
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The advantages of chain drives are:

Little or no slippage
Relatively inexpensive
Can maintain fixed ratio between rotating shafts
Resist heat, dirt and bad weather
More powerful than belt drives.
The Disadvantages of Chain Drives are:

Chain sprockets and shafts must be very carefully aligned to ensure full service life
and correct tracking.
Chains drives must be lubricated regularly to reduce wear, protect against
corrosion and prevent the link pins or roller bushings from galling or seizing.
Examples of chain drive in machines
Figure 53 - Track Type Tractor
Large machines use different types of chain drives. The track-type tractor pictured in
the figure above uses a version of a chain (called a track) to propel the machine. A
sprocket drives the track.
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Figure 54 - Skid Steer Loader
Smaller machines, such as the Skid Steer Loader shown in the Figure 54, use a chain
to transfer power to the final drive and drive wheels. The chain is driven by a hydraulic
motor through a sprocket.
Friction Drive
Figure 55 - Friction
Friction occurs when the surfaces of two objects rub together. This friction can be
used to transmit motion and power from one object to another (Figure 55). The
amount of friction depends on the surface materials, the force with which the objects
touch and the temperature of the surfaces. Unlike gears and chains, friction drives
allow some slippage to occur between components. This slippage is useful when a
more gradual transfer of power is desirable.
One of the most common uses of friction is in a wheel. The friction between a driven
wheel and the ground propels the wheel and, consequently, the machine attached to it
in the same direction the wheel is turning.
Figure 56 - Friction Between Two Wheels
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Using this same friction, power can be transmitted by bringing a driven wheel into
contact with the surface circumference a second wheel (Figure 56). The second wheel
will rotate in the opposite direction. Wheels used to transmit power in this manner are
sometimes referred to as friction gears even though the wheels have no teeth.
The speed and torque of friction wheel drives depends on the size of each wheel. The
same speed and torque principle explained earlier regarding gears also applies to
friction wheel drives. A small wheel driving a large wheel results in less speed and
more torque. A large wheel driving a small wheel results in less torque and more
speed. To determine the mechanical advantage, the circumference of the driven wheel
is divided by the circumference of the driving wheel. When determining mechanical
advantage of friction gears, slippage should be taken into consideration.
Disc or Clutch Drive
Figure 57 - Disc or Friction Drive CLutch
A flywheel clutch is an example of friction drive and this unit connects and disconnects
power from the engine flywheel to the transmission (Figure 57).
It is used mostly with manual shift transmissions and is also referred to as a friction
clutch. The friction between driving and driven members actually absorbs some of the
shock, permitting a more gradual engagement. Therefore, with the use of a friction
clutch, engaging power causes less strain and wear on the power train components
than a direct connection would.
The two main types of flywheel clutches are the dry clutch and the wet clutch. Dry
clutches are air-cooled and are generally suitable for lower horsepower machines
where there is less initial torque during engagement.
Dry clutches are used principally in small tractors and automobiles. The advantage of
a dry clutch is that it offers a larger contact area. Dry clutches are not recommended
for applications where frequent disengaging or slipping is required because the dry
clutch material is more prone to heat build up. Therefore, dry clutches are not used in
most heavy machine applications.
Clutches are used in planetary transmissions to change the speed ratio between the
input shaft and the output shaft. Clutches are also used in torque converters with
lockup clutches to provide a direct connection between the input shaft and the output
shaft.
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Disc Drive
Figure 58 - Clutch Disc Components
The clutch discs and plates shown in Figure 58 above use friction to engage the clutch
pack that transfers power within a transmission, or other applications using compound
planetary gears.
Belt Drive
Figure 59 - Belt Drive
Belts are a common means of transferring power from one wheel to another
(Figure 59). In a belt drive, the wheels are referred to as pulleys. Unlike wheels driven
by direct friction contact, pulleys rotate in the same direction. Also belts provide a
more efficient power transfer than friction wheels because the belt contacts more of
the pulley surface.
The speed and torque of belt drives depends on the size of each pulley. The same
speed and torque principle explained earlier regarding friction wheel drives also
applies to belt drives.
A small pulley driving a large pulley results in less speed and more torque. A large
pulley driving a small pulley results in less torque and more speed.
The benefits of friction drives include the ability to intentionally build slippage into the
machine and a wide range of different materials can be used. The ideal contact area
should be a minimum of 180 o on the driver. Friction drives are expensive and
excessive slippage can cause accelerated wear and premature failure.
Belt drive is not used often in earthmoving machines, but are used extensively in
agricultural harvesters.
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Figure 60 - Challenger Agricultural Tractor
The belt driven tractor uses friction to transfer power from the final drive to the ground
(Figure 60).
HYDROSTATIC DRIVES
(A)
Figure 61 - Machines with Hydrostatic Drives
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Fluid drives have been in use since the earliest developments in machinery. One of
the most basic forms of fluid drive is the water wheel. Many of the mills and factories
around the world were powered very efficiently by water wheels.
Fluid drives are now used in the some of the most sophisticated modern machinery
such as hydrostatic drives.
In hydrostatic drives, as the name implies, fluid is used to transmit engine power to the
machine’s final drive. Power from the engine is transferred to a hydraulic pump. The
hydraulic pump provides oil flow to a drive motor and the drive motor transfers power
to the transmission or directly to the final drive.
ELECTRIC DRIVE
In electric drive, electricity is used to transmit engine power to the machine final drive.
The technology was developed for locomotives and applied to off road vehicles.
In an electric drive system, the engine is coupled to an AC alternator and engine

power is converted to electrical energy. The electrical energy from the AC generator is
used to power the wheel motors, which are mounted to the final drive.
The wheel motors of most vehicles operate on DC until recently where AC driven
wheel motors are being used.
In the DC drive system, the AC power developed by the alternator is converted to DC

using rectifiers.
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Power Train

Published by Asia Pacific Learning

Version 3.2, 2003

Copyright © 2003 Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd Melbourne, Australia.

KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS ASSESSMENT

© Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd 135

Learning Outcome 3: Identify components and explain the operation on a single

136 © Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd

© Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd 137

138 © Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd

Topic 1: Power Train Principles

Topic 3: Planetary Gears

Topic 4: Types of Power Trains

© Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd 7

8 © Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd

Figure 1 - View of General Machine

Figure 2 - Water Wheel

In automotive terms, the power train provides a means of disconnecting and

© Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd 9

The primary functions of a Power Train are to:

In a typical mechanically driven earthmoving or agricultural machine, the power train

WORK DONE ENERGY AND POWER

Work and Force

Power = Force applied x Distance moved / Time taken

10 © Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd

Torque = Force x Distance

The value of efficiency is always less than 100% in a calculation.

© Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd 11

12 © Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd

© Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd 13

Figure 3 - Two Rotating Gears

Figure 4 - Idler Gear

Figure 5 - Gear Train

14 © Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd

Figure 6 - Pinion Gear

© Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd 15

Straight Cut or Spur Gears

Figure 9 - Spur Gears

16 © Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd

Figure 10 - Helical Gears

Figure 11 - Herringbone Gears

© Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd 17

Plain Bevel Gears

Figure 12 - Plain Bevel Gears

Spiral Bevel Gears

Figure 13 - Spiral Bevel Gears

18 © Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd

Figure 14 - Hypoid Gears

Figure 15 - Worm Gear

The figure above is an example of a worm gear application.

© Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd 19

Rack and Pinion Gear Set

Figure 16 - Rack and Pinion Gears

External and Internal Gear Teeth

Figure 17 - Internal Versus External

Figure 18 - Larger Internal Gear/Smaller External Gear

20 © Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd

Gear Face Width

Figure 19 - Measuring Gear Width

Figure 20 - Involute Curve

© Caterpillar of Australia Pty Ltd 21

Figure 21 - Pressure Angle

Gear Tooth Clearance