Catena 77 (2009) 165–174

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Catena
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / c a t e n a

Soil evolution over the Quaternary period in a semiarid climate

(Segre river terraces, northeast Spain)
David Badía a,⁎, Clara Martí a, Elena Palacio a, Carlos Sancho b, Rosa M. Poch c
a
High School of Agricultural Engineering, University of Zaragoza, Crtra. Cuarte s/n 22071HUESCA, Spain
b
Faculty of Geology, University of Zaragoza c/Pedro Cerbuna 12, 50009 ZARAGOZA, Spain
c
Higher Technical School of Agrarian Engineering, University of Lleida, Av. Alcalde Rovira Roure, 191. 25198 LLEIDA, Spain

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: A macro- and micromorphologic study was done on the soils from a stepped sequence of seven dated fluvial
Received 21 April 2008 terraces in the lower Segre river valley (Lleida, northeast Spain) under a present-day semiarid Mediterranean
Received in revised form 26 November 2008 climate. The soils have evolved from the Holocene through the early Pleistocene, providing an excellent
Accepted 12 December 2008
morphostratigraphic framework for evaluating time-dependent factors influencing soil formation in a dry
and calcareous environment. Throughout the chronosequence, some properties are regularly age-related
Keywords:
Soil chronosequence
specially carbonatation in subsurface horizons. The carbonates occur mainly as micrite, and although
Carbonates microsparite and sparite also appear in the oldest soils, they are replaced by fine-grained calcite by
Pendents dissolution–reprecipitation processes (micritization process), which is active at present. Some pedological
Micromorphology paleofeatures as the presence of sparite and recarbonated argillans in oldest terrace can be interpreted as the
Soil classification reflex of climatic changes during the Quaternary. In spite of this climate variability, the soils display
Cinca-Segre confluence progressive and systematic patterns of carbonate accumulation: on the lowest terraces, the soils do not yet
have secondary carbonates but in the beginning Late Pleistocene calcic horizons, with carbonate pendents,
are developed; these pendents increase its thickness with age although pendent growth rates decreases from
Late Pleistocene to Middle Pleistocene. In the middle of the Late Pleistocene, calcic horizons evolved to
petrocalcic horizons, which increase its thickness in the Middle and specially in Early Pleistocene. The
presence of calcic and petrocalcic horizons is the primary basis for soil classification. This criterion is
applicable not only to the soils of the lower Segre river basin, but also to many soils throughout the semiarid
Mediterranean region.
© 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Pleistocene). Consequently, stepped alluvial terraces in the lower

Soil chronosequences are powerful tools for testing the rate and
direction of soil evolution (Hugget, 1998). They are the only way to
establish how pedogenesis operates over centuries and longer
periods. Moreover, it can be a valuable tool for dating or correlating
a range of Quaternary landform successions (Birkeland, 1990). Rivers
can produce surfaces where soils evolved due to comparable factors of
formation except the age of the deposit. The Segre river, near the
confluence with the Cinca river tributary (Fig. 1), has wide and
unpaired strath terraces that occur at different altitudinal levels (Peña
and Sancho, 1988). As the Segre river downcut to new base levels, the
old floodplains were suspended above the channel, resulting in
terraces of varying ages, separates by abrupt scarps. The soils of theses
terraces form a chronosequence, with young soils at the lowest
altitude (Holocene), intermediate soils in the middle (Late Pleisto-
cene), and the oldest soils in higher terraces (from Middle to Early
Segre region provide an excellent morphostratigraphic framework for
evaluating time-dependent soil-forming factors.
Soils with accumulations of secondary calcium carbonates are
found in more than half of Spain (Gómez-Miguel, 2005) and about
one-third of the earth's land area, mainly in arid climates (Nettleton
et al., 1991). Moreover, soils are the largest carbon sink in the world,
storing 1500 gigatonnes, mainly as carbonates in arid lands (EU, 2006).
The objectives of this study were: (1) to analyze the physical and
chemical properties of the soils developed on a stepped terrace system
and their evolution during the Pleistocene; (2) to establish relation-
ships between time of development and the form of the carbonates at
the micro- and macroscopic scale using quantitative measurements
of carbonate accumulations and micromorphological observations,
(3) and to analyze the influence of carbonate accumulation on soil
classification.
2. Site description

⁎ Corresponding author. Fax: +34 974 239 302. The study area is at the confluence of Segre and Cinca rivers (Ebro
E-mail address: badia@unizar.es (D. Badía). Basin, northeastern Spain). The bedrock is composed of Oligocene

0341-8162/$ – see front matter © 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.catena.2008.12.012
166 D. Badía et al. / Catena 77 (2009) 165–174

Fig. 1. Geomorphological sketch map of the study area (after ITGE, 1997 modified) (A) and schematic cross-section of the terraces (B).

limestones and clays (Muñoz et al., 2002). The Segre-Cinca confluence
sector preserves an excellent sequence of Quaternary strath terraces,
representing stepped isochronous stratigraphic surfaces. This
sequence was established and mapped from previous data (ITGE,
1997), aerial photographs, and field reconnaissance. In general, the
terraces are well preserved, occupying a few km2 of surface area,
sometimes dissected by watercourses of surface runoff (Fig. 1).
This region has a semiarid Mediterranean climate, with an average
annual rainfall of about 350 mm and a mean annual temperature of
15 °C. The soil temperature regime is thermic, and the soil moisture
ranges from aridic to xeric. The major land use in the study area is
agricultural, with orchards in irrigated lands and barley in rainfed
lands. More information about the soils and the surrounding
landscape has been previously reported (Porta and Julià, 1983; Escuer,
1998; Argilés et al., 2004; Badía et al., 2008).
3. Materials and methods
3.1. Fluvial terrace system
The evolution of the soils with age (chronosequence) on the seven
Segre river terraces (oldest to youngest: Qt1, Qt2, Qt3, Qt4, Qt5, Qt6,
and Qt7) was studied by selecting characteristic soil profiles on each
terrace after soil mapping (Badía et al., 2008). The terraces consist of
unconsolidated deposits 4 to 8 m in thickness. They contain mainly
coarse and very coarse clasts embedded in a predominantly calcareous
sandy matrix. Within the clasts, limestones and quartzites predomi-
nate. The clasts also contain granite and small amounts of slate cobbles,
conglomerates, and sandstones with ellipsoidal, rounded, and sub-
rounded forms. Quartz and calcite are the main components of the fine
fraction (∅b2 mm). Quartz ranges from 28.4 to 47.6% and calcite
 D. Badía et al. / Catena 77 (2009) 165–174 167

ranges from 21.4 to 45.0%. The other components are mica (11.8– Table 2
18.9%), chlorite (6.2–13.3%), feldspars (3.2–14.4%), and dolomite (0.1– Macromorphologic properties of the selected soils

5.1%). The soils are located in the lower Segre district, near the villages Stratigraphic Horizon Basal depth Color Color Structure Dry
of Aitona, La Granja d'Escarp, Massalcoreig, and Seròs (UTM coordi- position (FAO, 2006) (cm) (dry) (moist) (grade, kind) consistence
nates: 31 T BF 0279-0289/4590-4596 of National Grid Map 415-II). Qt7 Ah 10 2.5Y 6/2 2.5Y 4/2 w, G LO
More detailed information is given in Table 1. C1 70 2.5Y 7/2 2.5Y 5/3 sg LO
C2 120 2.5Y 6/2 2.5Y 5/2 sg LO
2A 150 2.5Y 5/3 2.5Y 4/3 w, Pl SO
3.2. Terrace surface ages 3C 180 2.5Y 6/2 2.5Y 4.5/2 sg LO
Qt6 Ap 30 2.5Y 5.5/3 2.5Y 3/3 m, Sbk SO
Although no chronologic data are available for the Segre terrace C 70 2.5Y 6/2.5 2.5Y 3.5/3 w, Pl SO
sequence with which to infer the ages of the soil surfaces, geomorphologic 2C 120 2.5Y 6/2 2.5Y 3/2 sg SO
3C 160 2.5Y 5.5/3 2.5Y 3/3 sg SO
mapping of terraces in the confluence of the Segre and Cinca rivers shows 4C 200 2.5Y 6/3 2.5Y 4/3 sg HA
a clear spatial correlation between related fluvial units (Peña and Sancho, Qt5 Ap 20 10YR 6/2 10YR 4/2 m, Sbk SO
1988). This was validated using altitudinal data (GPS). Once spatial Bwk 45 10YR 6/3 10YR 5/4 m, Sbk SO
correlations have been established, it will be possible to assign ages to the Bwkc 80 10YR 6.5/3 10YR 5/4 w, Sbk SO
2Bk1 120 10YR 6/2.5 10YR 5/3.5 sg SO
units by using previous available dating. A preliminary fluvial sequence
2Bk2 180 10YR 7/2 10YR 5/3.5 sg SO
has recently been assigned ages in the Cinca river valley (the main 3C 210 Heterogeneous Heterogeneous sg LO
tributary of the Segre river) based on paleomagnetic analysis and optically Qt4 Ap 20 10YR 5/4 10YR 4/3 s, Sbk HA
stimulated luminescence dating (Sancho et al., 2007; Lewis et al., in Bw 50 7.5YR 6/4 7.5YR 4.5/4 m, Sbk HA
press). A similar chronological evaluation of the Segre river terrace Ck1 75 2.5Y 7/3 2.5Y 5/3 sg LO
Ck2 180 2.5Y 7/2.5 2.5Y 4/3 sg LO
system, in its confluence with Cinca river, is proposed (Table 1).
Qt3 Ap 35 10YR 5.5/3 10YR 4/2.5 s, G HA
Bk 50 10YR 7/2 10YR 6/3 w, Sbk SO
3.3. Soil morphology and analysis Ck 65 Heterogeneous Heterogeneous sg LO
2Ckm 90 2.5Y 8/1 2.5Y 7/2 ms EHA
3Ck 130 10YR 7/2 10YR 6/3 sg LO
After terrace mapping, and taking into account the ages inferred
4Ckm 180 10YR 7/2 10YR 5.5/3 ms EHA
from altitudinal correlation, pits were excavated to describe and Qt2 Ah 20 7.5YR 5/5 7.5YR 3/4 s, Sbk HA
sample the soils. The morphologies of the soils were described by Bwk 35 7.5YR 5.5/4 7.5YR 4/4 s, Abk HA
conventional methods (FAO, 2006). All samples were air-dried and Bkm 75 10YR 8/3 10YR 7/3 ms EHA
sieved to 2 mm, and the percentages of gravel (N2 mm) and fine Ck 180 10YR 7/2 10YR 6/3 ms HA
Qt1 Ah 20 7.5YR 5/4 7.5YR 4/3 s, G HA
material (b2 mm) were determined. Ten horizontally oriented,
Bwkc 45 7.5YR 7/3 7.5YR 5.5/3 m, Sbk SO
ellipsoidal clasts were collected from each horizon to measure their Bkm1 85 10YR 8/1 10YR 8/2.5 ms EHA
pendent thickness. Rind measurements were made on limestone and Bkm2 165 10YR 8/1 10YR 8/2.5 ms EHA
quartzite pebbles. Pebbles and coatings were cut across the direction 2Ck 210 10YR 8/2 10YR 6/4 ms HA
of maximum thickness using a rock saw. Pendent thickness was then Structure grade: w, weak; m, medium; s, strong.
examined with a 10× magnifier and measured using a graduated Structure kind: G, granular; Sbk, Subangular blocky; Abk, angular blocky; Pl, platy; sg,
reticule to a precision of 0.05 mm (Amoroso, 2006). single grain; ms, massive.
Dry consistence: LO, loose or non-coherent; SO, soft; HA, hard; EHA, extremely hard.
Laboratory analyses were performed on the fine fraction. Soil pH was
determined potentiometrically using a 1:2.5 ratio with H2O and KCl
(McLean, 1982). Total carbonate content was measured volumetrically organic matter with H2O2 and dispersing the soil with sodium
(calcimeter) after treating the sample with HCl (Nelson, 1982). Soil hexamethaphosphate (Gee and Bauder, 1986). Water available at the
organic matter was determined by wet oxidation (Nelson and Sommers, permanent wilting point (−1.5 MPa) and field capacity (−0.033 MPa)
1982). Cation exchange capacity (CEC) was determined by NH+ 4 were measured by volumetric pressure plate extractor (Richards, 1947).
retention after leaching with a solution (pH 7) of 1 N NH4OAc (Rhoades, Vertical thin sections (13 cm long, 5.5 cm wide) were made from
1982a). Effective cationic exchange capacity (ECEC) was determined as air-dried undisturbed soil blocks according to the methods described
the sum of bases extracted with the same solution. Soil salinity was by Murphy (1986). They where studied by petrographic microscope
evaluated by measuring the electrolytic conductivity (ECe) of the following the guidelines of Stoops (2003). The soils were classified
saturation paste extract at 25 °C (Rhoades, 1982b). Particle size according the World Reference Base (WRB) system (IUSS Working
distribution was determined by the pipette method after eliminating group WRB, 2007) and the USDA Soil Taxonomy system (Soil Survey
Staff, 2006).
Table 1
Elevation, age and some properties of selected profiles by stratigraphic unit 4. Results
Stratigraphic Elevation Age of land Ageb Soil sequum PDIc
unit (m)a surface (ky B.P.) (FAO, 2006) 4.1. Soil properties
Qt7 2 Holocene ca 0.025 Ah-C1-C2-2A-3C 1.0
Qt6 3 Holocene ca 1 Ap-C-2C-3C-4C 7.0 Descriptions of representative soils for each terrace level are
Qt5 9 Late Pleistocene 11 ± 0.8 Ap-Bwk-Bwkc- 31.1 presented in Table 2. The soils have a hue of 2.5Y in the youngest units
2Bk1-2Bk2-3C
and have a progressively redder hue with age (10YR or 7,5Y). Soil
Qt4 17 Late Pleistocene 49 ± 4 Ap-Bw-Ck1-Ck2-2C 33.5
Qt3 30 Late Pleistocene 64 ± 4 Ap-Bk-Ck-2Ckm- 36.0 structures are granular to subangular blocky at the surface. At depth,
3Ck-4Ckm they are structureless (by sand texture) or massive (by carbonate
Qt2 55 Middle Pleistocene 176 ± 14 Ap-Bwk-Bkm-Ck 47.5 accumulation). The dry consistency is softer in the younger soils than
Qt1 93 Early Pleistocene N780 Ah-Bwkc-Bkm1- 70.7
in the older units (Table 2).
Bkm2-2Ck
The soil pH was basic, increasing with depth for each profile.
a

b
Elevation: meters above the present-day riverbed. The electrical conductivity (ECe) was lower than 2 dS/m− 1 for all
Age of Pleistocene soils based on data of paleomagnetism, cosmogenics and
luminescence and correlations with tributary river (Sancho et al., 2007; Lewis et al.,
soil horizons or layers. The cation exchange capacity (CEC) increased
in press). with terrace age in the surface horizons, as did the percent water
c
Profile Development Index (Harden, 1982). retained at field capacity and permanent wilting point. Organic matter
168 D. Badía et al. / Catena 77 (2009) 165–174

Table 3
Chemical properties of the selected soils

Profile Horizon Basal depth (cm) pH water pH KCl CaCO3(%) ECe (dS/m) Org mat. (%) CEC (cmol/kg) ECEC (cmol/kg)
Qt7 Ah 10 8.5 7.8 24.7 0.52 1.56 3.15 6.74
C1 70 8.6 8.3 21.5 0.36 0.34 1.16 4.30
C2 120 8.8 8.5 21.1 0.21 0.23 0.88 4.06
2A 150 8.4 7.5 28.3 0.37 2.13 8.64 7.02
3C 180 9.0 8.4 19.9 0.29 0.27 0.92 4.41
Qt6 Ap 30 8.4 7.7 34.8 0.54 1.57 6.56 10.82
C 70 8.6 7.9 37.7 0.53 0.62 4.54 8.42
2C 120 8.5 8.0 37.5 1.18 0.47 3.47 7.52
3C 160 8.6 8.1 37.6 1.23 0.49 3.32 6.93
4C 200 8.5 7.9 39.1 1.63 0.94 5.88 9.21
Qt5 Ap 20 8.5 7.6 31.9 0.85 3.23 7.65 12.09
Bwk 45 8.8 8.1 39.6 0.53 0.52 3.49 7.80
Bwkc 80 8.7 7.9 37.7 0.53 0.33 5.23 9.55
2Bk1 120 8.8 8.1 29.1 0.57 0.29 3.17 6.81
2Bk2 180 8.7 8.2 26.3 0.60 0.21 2.34 5.87
3C 210 8.9 8.5 22.3 0.42 0.08 0.83 4.18
Qt4 Ap 20 8.5 7.9 17.6 1.16 2.35 8.69 13.15
Bw 50 8.5 7.8 18.8 0.87 1.30 8.26 13.89
Ck1 75 8.7 8.3 21.7 0.78 0.28 2.28 5.69
Ck2 150 9.0 8.3 20.7 0.33 0.18 2.56 6.05
Qt3 Ap 35 8.4 7.8 22.1 0.55 3.75 9.30 14.92
Bk 50 8.8 8.3 22.8 0.24 0.49 1.13 4.62
Ck 65 9.1 8.5 10.5 0.33 0.12 2.09 6.05
2Ckm 90 9.1 8.4 34.8 0.73 0.24 nd nd
3Ck 130 9.2 8.6 18.2 0.60 0.21 nd nd
Qt2 Ah 20 8.2 8.0 27.2 0.61 2.31 9.89 14.56
Bwk 35 8.4 8.0 34.5 0.85 1.50 6.99 12.35
Bkm 75 8.7 8.1 61.1 0.58 nd nd nd
Ck 180 9.0 8.2 26.3 0.41 nd nd nd
Qt1 Ah 20 8.4 7.7 25.5 0.44 3.01 11.04 16.80
Bwkc 45 8.5 7.9 66.6 0.50 2.80 8.74 14.13
Bkm1 85 8.6 8.0 91.8 0.55 nd nd nd
Bkm2 165 8.7 8.1 92.7 0.46 nd nd nd
Ck 210 9.2 8.3 62.8 0.40 nd nd nd

content decreased regularly with depth except for in the youngest soils
(Qt6 and Qt7), which displayed fluvic properties (Table 3).
The soils generally have a high gravel content with a sandy loam
matrix. The texture is coarser in the younger soils than in the oldest
units (Table 4). There was a significant correlation between sand
fraction and quartz content (r = 0.694; p b 0.01), and between clay
size fraction and calcite (r = 0.565; p b 0.05).
Soil texture becomes finer-grained as particles break down and
small grains form in the developing soil. A significant coefficient of
regression (p b 0.05) was obtained between clay and age for both A

Table 4
Physical properties of the selected soils

Code profile Horizon Basal depth (cm) Sand (%) Silt (%) Clay (%) Textural class (USDA) Gravels (%) FC (%) 0.033 MPa PWP (%) 1.5 MPa
Qt7 Ah 10 89.7 9.1 1.2 Sandy 78 8.5 3.1
C1 70 94.2 4.5 1.3 Sandy 71 3.2 1.1
C2 120 97.6 2.3 0.1 Sandy 76 2.6 0.9
2A 150 59.8 29.9 10.3 Sandy loam 28 18.6 5.9
3C 180 92.9 5.6 1.5 Sandy 76 4.2 1.4
Qt6 Ap 30 59.7 32.6 7.7 Sandy loam 0 19.1 6.5
C 70 54.9 40.6 5.3 Sandy loam 0 15.6 4.3
2C 120 76.7 21.5 1.8 Loamy sand 0 9.7 2.9
3C 160 79.4 15.2 4.4 Loamy sand 0 10.2 2.9
4C 200 38.5 52.6 8.9 Silty loam 0 24.1 6.6
Qt5 Ap 20 64.6 24.2 11.2 Sandy loam 14 18.2 7.0
ABk 45 68.6 18.4 13.0 Sandy loam 13 13.3 5.5
Bwkc 80 63.4 20.1 16.6 Sandy loam 28 14.3 7.0
2Bk1 120 81.3 14.1 4.7 Loamy sand 85 7.8 3.2
2Bk2 180 83.4 14.1 2.5 Loamy sand 82 8.0 2.4
3C 210 98.6 1.3 0.1 Sandy 12 2.9 1.2
Qt4 Ap 20 48.6 39.3 12.2 Loam 19 19.3 8.7
Bw 50 51.1 29.8 19.0 Loam 72 19.4 10.1
Ck1 75 84.6 12.0 3.4 Sandy 88 8.9 2.5
Ck2 150 88.1 10.2 1.8 Sandy 88 6.7 1.9
Qt3 Ap 35 54.8 30.2 15.0 Sandy loam 56 21.3 9.4
Bk 50 83.6 14.0 2.4 Loamy sand 83 9.3 3.0
Ck 65 94.3 5.2 0.5 Sandy 10 3.9 1.3
2Ckm 90 87.9 9.9 2.2 Sandy 88 nd nd
3Ck 130 89.6 9.9 0.5 Sandy 85 nd nd
Qt2 Ah 20 44.6 42.2 13.2 Loam 23 18.7 8.3
Bwkc 40 46.3 33.7 20.0 Loam 92 25.8 9.0
Qt1 Ah 20 45.5 34.1 20.4 Loam 41 21.9 11.0
Bwk 45 38.6 34.8 26.6 Loam 71 30.4 16.1
 D. Badía et al. / Catena 77 (2009) 165–174 169

(r = 0.754) and B horizons (r = 0.741). There was also significant
correlation between age and cation exchange capacity (r = 0.755),
field capacity (r = 0.774), and permanent wilting point (r = 0.854).
This was especially true for the B-horizons.
Water availability (mm/1.5 m) ranged from very low to moderate
(Soil Conservation Service,1980). Young profiles, both stony and sandy,
had very low values (e.g., about 50 mm/1.5 m for Qt7). Water
availability augmented with age because of the increase in fine
particles (e.g., about 95 mm/1.5 m in Qt5), but when a petrocalcic
horizon has developed, water availability decreased again (b30 mm/
1.5 m for Qt3, Qt2 and Qt1) showing a bell-shaped relationship
between soil water availability and profile age.
4.2. The carbonates in the soil profile
Pedogenic carbonates were widely distributed in these soils, e.g.,
from 18 to 35% in A horizons and from 63 to 93% in B-horizons with
calcic or petrocalcic endopedons (Table 3). Similar characteristics have
been observed in neighboring areas (Porta et al., 1989). The carbonates
appeared in varied forms, both macro- and microscopic, and were
either isolated or massive. They appeared in the field as pseudomy-
celia, coatings, hypo-coatings, nodules, and laminar or conglomeratic
massive cemented accumulations (Petrocalcic horizons) (Table 5). In
the oldest soils, the coatings of neighboring pores fused and filled in
entire pores (infillings), cementing the sand and aggregates.
In thin section, pseudomycelia corresponded to coatings and
infillings of fine needle-fiber calcite. The coatings and hypo-coatings
covered the surfaces of the aggregates, the walls of the pores, and the
gravels. Macroscopically, coatings frequently covered the undersides of
the gravel pebbles, becoming quite thick and forming rinds or pendents.
4.2.1. Pendent thickness
Thick pendents are present on most pebbles in the soil profiles of
Qt5, Qt4, Qt3, and Qt2. Carbonate coats the bottoms and sides of the
pebbles, but the tops are rarely coated. In the absence of significant
fine-grained matrix, it may take much longer to form coats on the
upper surfaces of the pebbles (Treadwell-Steitz and MacFadden,
2000). A large fraction of coarse material permits water to infiltrate

Table 5
Characteristics of the carbonate accumulations and other associated features

Stratigraphic Horizon Basal depth Gravel CaCO3 Carbonate accumulation features: Stagesa
position (FAO, 2006) (cm) (%) (%) Crystal type Pedofeatures (Machette, 1985)
Qt7 Ah 10 78 24.7 Stage 0
C1 70 71 21.5
C2 120 76 21.1
2A 150 12 28.3
3C 180 76 19.9
Qt6 Ap 30 0 34.8 Stage 0 to 1
C 70 0 37.7
2C 120 0 37.5
3C 160 0 37.6
4C 200 0 39.1 M(++) Few carbonate filaments.
Qt5 Ap 20 14 31.9 Pendents
Bwk 45 13 39.6 M(++) Pendents and hypocoatings of micrite around the walls of Stage 1 to 2
faunal pores (Fig. 3A)
Bwkc 80 28 37.7 M(++) Pendents and Individual nodules of micrite, rounded, soft (Fig. 3A)
2Bk1 120 85 29.1 M(++) mS (+) Pendents
2Bk2 180 82 26.3 Pendents
3C 210 12 22.3
Qt4 Ap 20 19 17.6 Pendents
Bw 50 72 18.8 Pendents around pebbles and quartz sand, in laminae (Fig. 3B) Stage 2
Ck1 75 88 21.7 M(++) mS (+) Pendents
Ck2 150 88 20.7 M(++) mS (+) Pendents. Heterogeneous accumulation between clasts
Qt3 Ap 35 56 22.1 Pendents Stage 2 to 3
Bk 50 83 22.8 Pendents around pebbles and quartz sand, in laminaes
Ck 65 10 10.5 Pendents
2Ckm 90 88 34.8 M(++) mS (++) Matrix partially cemented, especially by microsparite.
hypocoatings of micrite around biopores
3Ck 130 85 18.2 Coatings around gravels and coarse sand (Fig. 3C)
4Ckm 180 84 29.8 M(+) mS (++) S (++) Matrix very firmly cemented by sparite and microsparite
cementing gravel and coarse sand.
Mica fragmentation by micrite crystallization in lamellae
planes (Fig. 3D)
Qt2 Ah 20 23 27.3 Pendents
Bwk 40 92 34.5 Pendents
Bkm 80 80 61.1 M(+) mS (++) S (++) Very abundant pendents of alterning laminaes of micrite
and microsparite (Fig. 3E)
Ck 140 81 26.3 Coatings of micrite in gravels Stage 3 to 4
Recrystallization of sparite in gravel cracks
Qt1 Ah 20 60 25.5 Scarce pendents and nodules of micrite, rounded, hard
Bwkc 45 83 66.6 Frequent pendents and nodules of micrite, rounded, hard
Bkm1 85 nd 91.8 M(++) mS (++) Massive accumulation of alternating undulate laminae of micrite
and microsparite
Bkm2 165 nd 92.7 Hypocoatings (impregnative) of micrite in pore walls Stage 5
2Ck 210 5 62.8 Coatings and infillings of micrite cementing aggregates and
coarse elements (Fig. 3F)
"Scarce clayskins" around aggregates (0.2 mm thick) with weak
orientation and recarbonated (in Bkm1 horizon)

M, micrite ∂ b 10 µ; mS, microsparite; S, sparite ∂ N 80 µ.

a
Stages of development of pedogenic calcretes (Machette, 1985).
170 D. Badía et al. / Catena 77 (2009) 165–174
and move as unsaturated flow more quickly than it would as saturated
flow in fine soils. Below the surface, mean pendent thickness increases
with depth in each soil profile (Fig. 2).
Growth rates of the carbonate coatings have been calculated taking
into account only coatings from the “bulge” (the area with maximum
thickness) (Vincent et al., 1994; Treadwell-Steitz and MacFadden,
2000; Pustovoytov, 2003). In the oldest terrace (N780 ky), the
pendents of the clasts were not measured because they were included
within the petrocalcic endopedon, which is evidence that the soil is in
stage V carbonate accumulation (Machette, 1985).
Measured coat thicknesses from bulges in this study were as
follows: about 1.6 mm in soil from 11 ky old terraces, about 3.1 mm in
soil from 45 ky old terraces, 5.1 mm in soil from 64 ky old terraces, and
6.2 mm in 176 ky old terraces. Although the thickness of the carbonate
coatings increased with the age of the terrace, the growth rates of the
coatings decreased with soil age, ranging from 0.066 (11 to 64 ky) to
0.010 (64 to 176 ky) mm per ky.
4.3. Micromorphology
Subsurface horizons in terrace Qt5 show calcite accumulation as
impregnative micritic pedofeatures, mainly nodules and hypocoat-
ings, increasing with depth. In terraces Qt4 and Qt3, calcite has also
accumulated as coatings and pendents under gravels. The degree of
accumulation is evidenced by the breakdown of micas by displacive
crystallization of calcite along cleavage planes. In the Bwk horizon in
terrace Qt2, layers of micrite alternate with microsparite. That horizon
also has a higher proportion of pendents than Qt3. The cemented
petrocalcic horizon appears in Qt3, Qt2, and Qt1 terraces, increasing
its thickness with age. Additionally, in Qt1 there is old clay
accumulations that are completely recarbonated (Fig. 3).
4.4. Soil classification
The soils in the Holocene terraces (Qt7, Qt1) are Haplic Fluvisols
(IUSS Working Group WRB, 2007), both with calcaric suffix qualifiers.
The Pleistocene soils are Calcisols; the youngest are Haplic or
Hypocalcic Calcisols, and the oldest are Petric Calciso. The Hypocalcic
suffix is based on carbonate content in fine soil fraction although if
carbonate content of pendents will considered, the Haplic suffic should
be used. The oldest soil from the Early Pleistocene has hypercalcic
horizons above the petrocalcic horizon; the appropriate suffix is
Hypercalcic (Table 6).
Classification using the USDA taxonomy follows a similar pattern
(Soil Survey Staff, 2006). The soils evolved from Torrifluvents to
Haplocalcids, and finally to Petrocalcids. Thus, pedon Qt7 is classified
as sandy-skeletal, mixed (calcareous), thermic Oxyaquic Torrifluvent,
Fig. 2. Pendent thickness versus depth in soils from the Late Pleistocene (Qt3, Qt4, Qt5)
to Middle Pleistocene (Qt2). Error bars indicate standard deviation (n = 10).
and pedon Qt6 is classified as Loamy over sandy, mixed (calcareous),
thermic Xeric Torrifluvent. Pedons Qt4 and Qt5 are well developed
Haplocalcids; Qt5 is classified as coarse loamy, mixed (calcareous),
thermic Xeric Haplocalcid, and Qt4 is a loamy-skeletal over sandy-
skeletal, mixed (calcareous), thermic Xeric Haplocalcid. Qt2 and Qt1
are well developed loamy-skeletal, carbonatic, thermic, shallow Calcic
Petrocalcids. Qt3 is intermediate between Qt2 and Qt4.
5. Discussion
5.1. Soil properties
In surface horizons, it can be observed as Hue change from 2.5Y to
10YR and finally to 7.5YR becoming redder with age (rubification),
which it is due to increases in iron oxides with age (Torrent et al.,1980).
Although without the same regularity, surface horizons become darker
with age due to the increase of organic matter (melanization). The soil
structure in the study area evolved with time from single grain to
granular or subangular and blocky. In the upper soil horizons, there
was an increase in the relative abundance of silt and clay sized
particles, which is also other age-related trend (Bockheim et al., 1996).
The dry consistency of a soil tends to become harder with time as soil
aggregates are bound more strongly by clays and organic compounds
forming in the soil and by calcium carbonate accumulates in the
subsurface horizons (Harden and Taylor, 1983). In this study, the
profile development index (Harden et al., 1991), which quantifies and
integrates the described morphological, physical, and chemical
properties increased logarithmically with age of the soil surface:
2
PDI = 6:322 lnðkyÞ + 15:616 R = 0:879 Pb0:01
Preferred models for age curves over long time intervals are those
in which the logarithm of soil development increases linearly with the
logarithm of time. Harden et al. (1991) found this model of soil
development in the semi-arid southern Great Basin and Central
California when it was examined over a long time span (1000 ky). The
rate of soil development generally declines with age due to the rapid
alteration of less stable components followed by the inability of the
arid climate to continue the weathering process. Moreover, not all soil
properties showed unidirectional development; for instance argillans
appears in oldest terrace but recarbonated. This can be interpreted as
reflecting climate variability, So, there is a general correlation between
these alluvial periods (178 ± 21 ka, 64 ± 4 ka, 49 ± 4 ka, and 11 ± 1 ka)
and cold global Marine Istope Stages 6, 4 and transition 2-1 (Younger
Dryas) (Schackleton and Opdyke, 1973).
Throughout the chronosequence, some properties are not regularly
age-related (surface horizon thickness, EC, water retention,… ) but
other properties increase with age as rubification, melanization,
structure grade, dry consistence, clay content and CEC in surface
horizons, and specially carbonatation in subsurface horizons.
5.2. The carbonates in the soil profile
The pedogenic carbonate accumulation increases with the age of
the soil (Fig. 4). Only youngest soil, rejuvenetes by flooding, has not
secondary carbonates within the profile (Table 5). Secondary
carbonate precipitation occurred from the beginning of the Late
Pleistocene (11 ky ago) with calcic horizon development (nodules or
pendents). By the middle of the Late Pleistocene (64 ky ago), the
petrocalcic horizon was partly developed, having increased in
thickness during the Middle and Early Pleistocene. Soils developed
in the oldest terraces (N780 ky ago) have highest carbonate content,
which is present as continuous and very hard petrocalcic horizons
with laminar and conglomeratic forms. This sequence of secondary
carbonate accumulation from Qt5 to Qt1 (from Late to Early
Pleistocene, respectively) can be interpreted as the transition from
 D. Badía et al. / Catena 77 (2009) 165–174 171

Fig. 3. Photomicrographs of selected soil horizons by crossed polarized light (XPL). The image length is indicated for each image. (A) Impregnative rounded nodules (center of image)
and hypocoatings of micrite around pore walls (right of image) (Qt5) 6.1 mm. (B) Laminar coatings of micrite around polygenic gravels, consisting of thin, dense dark layers of
micrite; and coarser, porous and lighter layers of quartz grains cemented by micrite and microsparite. (Qt4) 6.1 mm. (C) Coatings of microsparite cementing coarse sand. The
orientation of calcite crystals is perpendicular to the surface of the sand grains. (Qt3). 3 mm. (D) Mica fragmentation by micrite crystallization in cleavage planes, indicating a
displacive growth due to the carbonatation process. (Qt3). 3 mm. (E) Pendents under coarse fragments, consisting of alternating layers of micrite (darker) and microsparite (lighter).
(Qt2) 6.1 mm. (F) Coatings and infillings of micrite, cementing aggregates and coarse elements. Cementation progresses from the surface of coarse elements and aggregates to the
inner part of pores. (Qt1). 3 mm.

stage I of carbonate development to stage V (Machette, 1985); this
author found stage V morphologies in New Mexico on a 600 ky old
surface, as well as in 800 ky old surfaces in the Upper La Mesa
(Machette, 1985).
5.2.1. Pendent thickness
In this study, the carbonate coat thickness from bulges increases
from 1.6 to 6.2 mm with rates decreasing with age from 0.066 (11–
64 ky) to 0.010 mm/ky (64 to 176 ky). Similarly, Treadwell-Steitz and
MacFadden (2000) measured carbonate coating thickness in terrace
surfaces in arid Palo Duro Wash (NM, USA). They documented coating
thicknesses of about 1 mm on terrace surfaces about 8–15 ky old,
about 4 mm for terraces about 75–120 ky old, and 10 mm in 120–
240 ky old terraces. These authors found that the rate of carbonate
coating growth ranged from 0.09 to 0.05 mm/ky, from Late to Middle
Pleistocene, respectively. In deserts from southwest U.S.A., Amoroso
(2006) reported a mean rind thickness increase about 0.008 mm/ky
in deserts from southwest U.S.A for Pleistocene age. For the same age,
172 D. Badía et al. / Catena 77 (2009) 165–174

Table 6
Soil classification by the Soil Taxonomy System (Soil Survey Staff, 2006) and the World Reference Base (IUSS Working Group WRB, 2007)

Stratigraphic position Age of land surface USDA Soil Taxonomy System World Reference Base
(Soil Survey Staff, 2006) (IUSS Working Group WRB, 2007)
Qt7 Young Oxyaquic Torrifluvent, sandy-skeletal, mixed (calcareous), thermic Haplic Fluvisol (calcaric, oxyaquic, skeletic, arenic)
Qt6 Holocene Xeric Torrifluvent, loamy over sandy, mixed (calcareous), thermic Haplic Fluvisol (calcaric, endoarenic)
Qt5 Late Pleistocene Xeric Haplocalcid, coarse loamy, mixed (calcareous), thermic Haplic Calcisol (endoskeletic, endoarenic)
Qt4 Late Pleistocene Xeric Haplocalcid, loamy-skeletal over sandy-skeletal, mixed (calcareous), thermic Hypocalcic Calcisol (skeletic, endoarenic)
Qt3 Late Pleistocene Calcic Petrocalcid, sandy-skeletal, mixed (calcareous), thermic Petric Calcisol (skeletic, arenic)
Qt2 Middle Pleistocene Calcic Petrocalcid, loamy-skeletal, carbonatic, thermic, shallow Petric Calcisol (skeletic)
Qt1 Early Pleistocene Calcic Petrocalcid, loamy-skeletal, carbonatic, thermic, shallow Petric hypercalcic Calcisol (skeletic)

Vincent et al. (1994) measured a thickening rate in the cold deserts of
Idaho of 0.06 mm/ky. Pustovoytov (2003) found growth rates of
Holocene pedogenic carbonate coatings on clasts higher than 0.2 mm/
ky under semi-arid conditions of Syria and higher than 1 mm/ky under
the semi-humid climatic conditions of west Germany.
In conclusion, in spite of irregularity of the climate during the
Quaternary, the thickness of pedogenic carbonate coatings is time
dependent. Moreover, Late Pleistocene rates reported are higher than
Middle Pleistocene. It is suggested that coating growth rates decreases
with soil age because carbonate precipitation fill macropores and
delay the infiltration of bicarbonate soil solution until calcrete (Bkm
horizon) formation (Treadwell-Steitz and MacFadden, 2000).
5.3. Carbonate pedofeatures
5.3.1. Recrystallization
The most recent recrystallization takes place as micritization
(impregnative nodules or hypocoatings) and is related to the present-
day pore system. In addition, needle-shaped calcite about 0.2 mm in
length forms coatings around pores, which correspond to the
pseudomycelia observed in the field.
The carbonates in the youngest soils are mainly micrite, whereas
microsparite and sparite are more abundant in the oldest soils from
the Early Pleistocene (Qt1), appearing as alternating layers of
pendents. Micrite formation is considered the first step of recrystalli-
zation, and in a subsequent step these masses recrystallized with age
to microsparite and sparite crystals by a mechanism of neomorphic
aggradation (Alonso et al., 2004). But no evidence of present
recrystallization to sparite was observed in the terraces of this
study. Instead, the present-day dissolution–reprecipitation processes
have given rise to fine-grained calcite. Hence, sparitic pedofeatures are
indicators of previous recarbonatation episodes corresponding to dry
and warm periods during the Quaternary.
Alternating laminae of calcite of different sizes can be observed as
pendents in recent carbonate formation and also in petrocalcic
horizons (conglomeratic and laminar) in the oldest terrace (Qt1).
They provide evidence of strong climatic changes during its formation
from Early Pleistocene to present time. The formation of this sequence
of terraces is attributed to climatic changes during the Pleistocene,
where cyclic alluviation stages are linked to periods of glacial
aggradation (Sancho et al., 2007).
5.3.2. Mica alteration
Weathering via physical opening along cleavage planes must be
considered as the first stage of mica replacement. The fragments
remained separated, but retained the orientation of the original
crystal (Fig. 3). Alonso et al. (2004) observed replacement of mica by
calcite in Middle Pleistocene (with maximum around 300 ky) on soils
of Tormes river basin with xeric soil moisture.
5.3.3. Recarbonatation
Occasional coatings composed of alternating layers of carbonates and
illuvial clay were observed. These provide unequivocal evidence of the
various phases of successive secondary carbonate precipitation. These
processes took place only in the soil from the highest terrace (Early
Pleistocene) and are proof of the various climatic conditions that this soil
has undergone. In the first stage, carbonate dissolution and clay
illuviation took place under wet conditions. Subsequently, the illuvial
clay coatings were covered by carbonates. Previous research has
documented that the wettest periods in this region were around
200 ky and 500 ky B.P. (Alonso et al., 2004), with arid conditions
dominating from at least the Late Pleistocene (González-Sampériz,
2004). Recarbonatation of illuvial clay coatings (in Qt1) is an example
that environmental variability and non-linear behavior in soil landscapes
lead to soil evolution rather than to soil development (Hugget, 1998).
5.4. Soil classification
The presence of calcic and petrocalcic horizons is the primary basis
for soil classification. The soils in this study evolved from Oxyaquic
and Xeric Torrifluvents (Haplic Fluvisols) in young Holocene surfaces
to Xeric Haplocalcids (Haplic Calcisols) until the middle Late

Fig. 4. Scheme of carbonate accumulation with age in the studied soil profiles.
 D. Badía et al. / Catena 77 (2009) 165–174
Pleistocene. At about the middle of the Late Pleistocene (64 ky ago),
there were calcic changes to the petrocalcic horizons. With petrocalcic
endopedons, the soils are classified as Calcic Petrocalcids of carbonatic
families (Petric Calcisols) from the Middle to Early Pleistocene. This
criterion can be useful for mapping soils in the study region as well as
for mapping other soils developed on fluvial terraces in the semiarid
Mediterranean region.
6. Conclusions
Throughout the chronosequence, some properties increase reg-
ularly with age (although at different rates) as rubification, melaniza-
tion, structure grade, dry consistence, clay content and CEC in surface
horizons, and specially carbonatation in subsurface horizons. But
other properties are not regularly age-related (surface horizon
thickness, EC, water retention,… ). The profile development index
(which quantifies and integrates morphological, physical, and
chemical properties) increased logarithmically with age of the soil
surface, reflect of rapid alteration of less stable components followed
by the inability of the arid climate to continue the weathering process.
Also some properties cannot regularly age-related because the
variability of the climate along the Quaternary, or as evidence for
multidirectional changes (evolutionary view of pedogenesis) over
unidirectional changes (development view).
Pedogenic carbonates appeared in the field as pseudomycelia,
coatings, hypo-coatings, pendents, nodules, and laminar or conglom-
eratic massive cemented accumulations. The secondary carbonate
accumulation occurred from the beginning of the Late Pleistocene
(11 ky ago) with calcic horizon thickness increasing with the age of
the soil. By the middle of the Late Pleistocene (64 ky ago) the soil
profiles shows massive cemented accumulations of carbonates
(Petrocalcic horizons), which also increase in thickness during the
Middle and Early Pleistocene. Also growth rates of pedogenic
carbonate coatings on clasts are time dependent. There is an optimal
depth of carbonate coating growth in soil profile or bulges. Measured
coat thicknesses from bulges for soils from Late to Middle Pleistocene
ranges from 0.066 (11 to 64 ky) to 0.010 (64 to 176 ky) mm per ky.
These values are within the range reported previously in North
America and Asia lands with a warm, semiarid climate.
In thin section, the carbonates occur mainly as micrite, and
although microsparite and sparite also appear in the oldest soils, they
are actually replaced by fine-grained calcite by dissolution–repreci-
pitation processes (micritization process). Recarbonatation of illuvial
clay coatings took place only in the oldest soil (Early Pleistocene) and is
a proof of the various climatic conditions that this soil has undergone.
The progressive and systematic patterns of carbonate accumula-
tion with age determine soil classification. Soils from lowest terraces
(from Holocene) are classified as Xeric Torrifluvents evolving to Xeric
Haplocalcids in Late Pleistocene and to Calcic Petrocalcids from the
middle Late Pleistocene to the Early Pleistocene. This criterion is
applicable not only to the soils of the lower Segre river basin, but also
to many soils throughout dry and calcareous environments.
Acknowledgements
The authors express their gratitude to Montse Antúnez, who made
soil thin sections, and to Anchel Belmonte, who collaborated in the soil
sampling. Also authors wish to express its thanks to the reviewers.
This research was part of a project of PALEOQ group titled “Mapping of
soils in the confluence of Cinca-Segre-Ebro rivers”, supported by the
University of Zaragoza and the IEA-DPH Institutions.
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