Low Pass Filter

A low-pass filter is a filter that passes signals with a frequency lower than a certain cutoff
frequency and attenuates signals with frequencies higher than the cutoff frequency. The exact frequency
response of the filter depends on the filter design. A low-pass filter is the complement of a high-pass filter.

Ideal and real filter: An ideal low-pass filter eliminates completely all frequencies above the cutoff
frequency while pass those below cutoff frequency. Its frequency response is a rectangular function .The
transition region present in practical filters does not exist in an ideal filter. An ideal low-pass filter can be
realized mathematically (theoretically) by multiplying a signal by the rectangular function in the frequency
domain.
The frequency response of a filter is generally represented using a Bode plot, and the filter is
characterized by its cutoff frequency and rate of frequency roll off. In all cases, at the cutoff
frequency, the filter attenuates the input power by half or 3 dB. So the order of the filter determines
the amount of additional attenuation for frequencies higher than the cutoff frequency.
Passive RC, LR Filter
One simple low-pass filter circuit consists of a resistor in series with a load, and a capacitor in parallel
with the load. The capacitor exhibits reactance, and blocks low-frequency signals, forcing them through
the load instead. At higher frequencies the reactance drops, and the capacitor effectively functions as a
short circuit.

Passive, first order low-pass RC, LR filter

Circuit analysis for RC low pass filter : The transfer function is given below.

V0 XC 1 / j C  j /C 1 1 1
      . Where V0 
V Iin R  X C R  1 / j C R  j /  C 1  j CR 1  j /  C 1  j f / f C

output voltage and V I  Input voltage, capacitive reactance = X C 

1
jC

1
j  2f  C
,

1 1
  2f ,  C  2f C . Let Z   Z  . Voltage gain
1  jCR 1   2C 2 R 2
V0 1 1 1
AV    AV    0.707 ; If CR  1 . Since power gain is
VI 1   CR  11
2
2

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proportional to the square of the voltage gain, this is half of power gain (or a fall of 3 dB) compared with
the gain at high frequencies. The cut-off frequency of the circuit is the frequency at which the power gain
 Out   Out 
falls to half of the maximum value. AV  dB   20 log10 ;  3 dB  20 log 10  0.707   .
 In   in 

The combination of resistance and capacitance gives the time constant of the filter,   R C . The cutoff
1 1
frequency (in hertz), is determined by the time constant: f C   or equivalently
2 2 RC
1
(in radians per second):  C  .
RC
This circuit may be understood by considering the way of charging or discharging through the resistor.
The concept of reactance at a particular frequency: Since direct current (DC) cannot flow through the
capacitor, DC input must flow out the path marked  Out (analogous to removing the capacitor).
RL filter
This circuit is composed of resistors and inductors and it is driven by a voltage in series or current
source in parallel. A first order RL circuit is composed of one resistor and one inductor and is the simplest
type of RL circuit. The mathematical analysis of the CKT is given below:
V0 R R 1
  
V I R  X L R  j L 1  j L / R
. Where V0  output voltage and V I  Input voltage,
V 1
  2 f ,  L  2 f L . It can be shown that, the voltage gain is = AV  V  
0

1   L / R 
2
I

1 1 L
AV    0.707 ; If  1 , Since power gain is proportional to the square of the voltage
11 2 R
gain, this is half of power gain (or a fall of 3 dB) compared with the gain at high frequencies. The cut-off
frequency of the circuit is the frequency at which the power gain falls to half of the maximum value.
 Out   Out  L
AV  dB   20 log10 ;  3 dB  20 log10  0.707   . Time constant of the circuit :   ; The
 In   in  R
1 R
cut of frequency of LR low pass filter : f C   .
2L / R 2L

RLC low pass circuit: The RLC part of the name is due to those letters being
the usual electrical symbols for resistance, inductance and capacitance
respectively. The circuit forms a harmonic oscillator and resonate in a
similar way as an LC circuit . The main difference is due to the presence of
the resistor makes oscillation induced in the circuit dies away over time if
source is absent. This effect of the resistor is called damping. The presence
of the resistance also reduces the peak resonant frequency somewhat.
Some resistance is unavoidable in real circuits, even if a resistor is not
specifically included as a component. An ideal, pure LC circuit is an abstraction for the purpose of theory.

Active low pass filter : Its principle of operation and

frequency response is exactly the same as those for

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the previously seen passive filter. The only differences lie in the opportunity of controlling action of
amplification and gain of the input signal besides filtering action. It is the simplest form of a active low
pass active filter in non-inverting amplifier mode. It has high input impedance and high frequency
response, high noise immunity.

The frequency response of the circuit will be the same as that for the passive RC filter, except
that the amplitude of the output is increased by the pass band gain, AF of the amplifier. The magnitude
 R 
of the DC gains for a non-inverting amplifier circuit  AF  1   . Therefore, Voltage gain =
2

 R1 
VO AF
AV   f = the frequency of the input signal, f C = the cut-off frequency
2 . Where:
VI 1   f / fC 
1
 .Thus, the operation of a low pass active filter can be verified from the frequency gain
2R3 C1
equation above as: At very low frequencies, f  f C , AV  AF .At the cut off frequency, f  f C ,
AV  AF / 2  0.707 AF . At very high frequencies, f  f C , AV  AF .Thus, the Active Low Pass
Filter has a constant gain AF from DC to the high frequency cut-off point  f C  . At  fC  the gain

is 0.707 AF , and after f C it decreases at a constant rate as the frequency increases. That is, when the

frequency is increased tenfold (one decade), the voltage gain is divided by 10.

It is another active low pass filter of unity gain and used

in non-inverting mode. DC gain  AF  1 . But voltage
gain of this ckt. is greater than that of passive filter.

This
active low-pass filter ckt is used as in inverting mode and shown in the figure. The cutoff frequency is
1 1 1 R2
defined as: f C   . C  .The DC gain in the passband is = AF   , and
2 2 R2 C R2 C R1
the stopband drops off at −6 dB per octave (that is −20 dB per decade) as it is a first-order filter. The gain
of the filter or any filter for that matter is generally expressed in Decibels and is a function of the output
value divided by its corresponding input value and is given as:

 Out   Out 
AV  dB   20 log10 ,   3 dB  20 log 10  0.707   .
 In   in 

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Example No1
Design a non-inverting active low pass filter circuit that has a gain of ten at low frequencies, a high
frequency cut-off or corner frequency of 159Hz and an input impedance of 10KΩ.

R2
The voltage gain of a non-inverting operational amplifier is given as: AF  1   10 .Let value for
R1
resistor R1  1K , find the value for R 2 : R2  10  1  R1  9  1K  9 K .

As 9 K resistor does not exist, so the next preferred value of 9.1K is used instead. The voltage
1 1 1
gain in dB  20 log 10  20 dB. f C  or C   F  100nF
2R3 C 2R3 f C 2  159  10  10 3

Then the final circuit along with its frequency response is given below as:

Example No2
If the external impedance connected to the input of the circuit changes, this change will also affect the
corner frequency of the filter (components connected in series or parallel). One way of avoiding this is to
place the capacitor in parallel with the feedback resistor R2

The value of the capacitor will change slightly from being 100nF to 110nF to take account of
the 9k1Ω resistor and the formula used to calculate the cut-off corner frequency is the same as that used
1
for the RC passive low pass filter. f C  .
2RC

An example of the new Active Low Pass Filter circuit is given below.

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http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/filter/filter_5.html
Applications of Active Low Pass Filters

A standard application of low pass filters is to eliminate high frequency noise on signals like ECG. If the
time constant is too short, there will not be enough filtering, but if it is too long, you will start to
distort the shape of the ECG you are trying to preserve.

Applications of low pass filters are in audio amplifiers and speaker systems to direct the lower
frequency bass signals to the larger bass speakers or to reduce any high frequency noise or
“hiss” type distortion.

These are also used in equalisers, analog to digital conversion, anti-aliasing filters to control signals.
In digital filters these are used in blurring of images, smoothing sets of data signals. In radio
transmitters it is used to block harmonic emissions.

In acoustics these filters are used to filter the high frequency signals from the transmitting sound which
will cause echo at higher sound frequencies.

Problems :

1. Find out cut off frequency of the low pass filter : (a). C  10 nF , R  1 K . (b).
R  10 0 , L  2  H .

A High Pass Filter

A high-pass filter is an electronic filter that passes signals with a frequency higher than a certain cutoff
frequency and attenuates signals with frequencies lower than the cutoff frequency. The amount
of attenuation for each frequency depends on the filter design. . High-pass filters have many uses, such
as blocking DC from circuitry sensitive to non-zero average voltages or radio frequency devices. They can
also be used in conjunction with a low-pass filter to produce a bandpass filter.

A passive first-order high-pass filter, realized by an CR and RL circuit

The simple first-order electronic high-pass filter shown in Figure 1 is implemented by placing an input
voltage across the series combination of a capacitor and a resistor and using the voltage across the
resistor as an output. The product of the resistance and capacitance (R×C) is the time constant (  ); it is
1 1
inversely proportional to the cutoff frequency f C , that is, f C   where f C is in hertz,  is
2 2 RC
in seconds, R is in ohms, and C is in farads.

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An active high-pass filter
Figure 2 shows an active electronic implementation of a first-order high-pass filter using an operational
R2
amplifier. In this case, the filter has a passband gain of and has a cutoff frequency of
R1
1 1
fC   . Because this filter is active, it may have non-unity passband gain. That is, high-
2 2 R1C
R2
frequency signals are inverted and amplified by .
R1
Applications:
High-pass filters have many uses, such as blocking DC from circuitry sensitive to non-zero average
voltages or radio frequency devices. They can also be used in conjunction with a low-pass filter to
produce a bandpass filter.
They are used as part of an audio crossover circuit and Rumble filters to remove unwanted sounds near
to the lower end of the audible range or below. For example, noises (e.g., footsteps, or motor noises
from record players and tape decks) may be removed because that are undesired or unwanted.
High-pass filters are also used for AC coupling at the inputs of many audio power amplifiers, for
preventing the amplification of DC currents which may harm the amplifier, rob the amplifier.
High-pass and low-pass filters are also used in digital image processing to perform image modifications,
enhancements, noise reduction, etc., using designs done in either the spatial domain or the frequency
domain.
.RC Band Pass filter :

A Band Pass Filters passes signals within a certain “band” of frequencies or unattenuated over a
specified band of frequencies without distorting the input signal or introducing extra noise. This band of
frequencies can be any width and is commonly known as the filters Bandwidth.
This band of frequencies is set between two cut-off frequency points, labeled the “lower cut off frequency
   
f L and the “higher cut off frequency” f H while attenuating any signals outside of these two points.
A band pass filter is composed of single Low Pass Filter circuit with a High Pass Filter circuit. It is CR-RC
combination. Bandwidth is commonly defined as the frequency range that exists between two specified
frequency cut-off points that is 3dB below the maximum gain or resonant peak while attenuating or

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weakening the others outside of these two points. BW is the difference between the lower cut-off
 
frequency f L and the higher cut-off frequency.

 fH  points. In other words,    f H  f H .

LC band pass filter

This particular design is called a T filter because of the way the components are drawn in a schematic
diagram. The T filter consists of three elements, two series−connected LC circuits between input and
output, which form a low impedance path to signals of the required frequency, but have a high impedance
to all other frequencies. Additionally, a parallel LC circuit is connected between the signal path (at the
junction of the two series circuits) and ground to form a high impedance at the required frequency, and a
low impedance at all others. Because this basic design forms only one stage of filtering it is also called a
´first order´ filter. Although it can have a reasonably narrow pass band, if sharper cut off is required, a
second filter may be added at the output of the first filter, to form a second order filter.

Simple Active Band Pass Filter can be easily made by cascading together a single Low Pass Filter with
a single High Pass Filter as shown.

This CKT is a cascading of low and high pass passive filters with OPAM amplifier. It produces a low “Q-
factor” type filter circuit which has a wide pass band. The first stage of the filter will be the high pass stage
that uses the capacitor to block any DC biasing from the source. This design has the advantage of
producing a relatively flat asymmetrical pass band frequency response with one half representing the low
pass response and the other half representing high pass response as shown.
The higher corner point ( ƒH ) as well as the lower corner frequency cut-off point ( ƒL ) are calculated the
same as before in the standard first-order low and high pass filter circuits. Obviously, a reasonable
separation is required between the two cut-off points to prevent any interaction between the low pass and

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high pass stages. The amplifier also provides isolation between the two stages and defines the overall
voltage gain of the circuit.
The bandwidth of the filter is therefore the difference between these upper and lower -3dB points. For
example, suppose we have a band pass filter whose -3dB cut-off points are set at 200Hz and 600Hz.
Then the bandwidth of the filter would be given as: Bandwidth (BW) = 600 – 200 = 400Hz.
Active Band Pass Frequency Response

While the above passive tuned filter circuit will work as a band pass filter, the pass band (bandwidth) can
be quite wide and this may be a problem if we want to isolate a small band of frequencies. Active band
pass filter can also be made using inverting operational amplifier.
So by rearranging the positions of the resistors and capacitors within the filter we can produce a much
better filter circuit as shown below. For an active band pass filter, the lower cut-off -3dB point is given
by ƒC1 while the upper cut-off -3dB point is given by ƒC2.

Examples: 1. Construct a second order RC band pass filter to pass 1KHz to 30 KHz frequency. Assume
both the resistors are 10 K  . Calculate the values of C1 , C 2 and f r .

For high pass filter circuit, the passing frequency f L is 1KHz . So,
1 1
C1   F  15.9  10 9 F  15.9nF . For low pass filter circuit, the passing
2  f L R1 2  10  10
3 4

1 1
frequency f H is 10KHz , So, C 2   F  530  10 12 F .  530 pF . Center
2  f H R2 2  3  10 4  10 4
frequency f r  f L  f H  10 3  30  10 3  5.48KHz.

Inverting Band Pass Filter Circuit

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 R2 1 1
Voltage Gain ( AV )   , fC  , fC 
R1 1
2 R1 C1 2 R2 C 2
2

This type of band pass filter is designed to have a much narrower pass band. The centre frequency and
bandwidth of the filter is related to the values of R1, R2, C1 and C2. The output of the filter is again taken
from the output of the op-amp.
Resonant Frequency Point
The actual shape of the frequency response curve for any passive or active band pass filter will depend
upon the characteristics of the filter circuit with the curve above being defined as an “ideal” band pass
response. An active band pass filter is a 2nd Order type filter because it has “two” reactive components
(two capacitors) within its circuit design.
As a result of these two reactive components, the filter will have a peak response or Resonant
Frequency ( f r ) at its “center frequency”( f C ) . The center frequency is generally calculated as being
the geometric mean of the two -3dB frequencies between the upper and the lower cut-off points with the
resonant frequency (point of oscillation) being given as:

fr   f L  f H  , where f r is the resonant or Center Frequency, f L is the lower -3dB cut-off frequency
point, f H is the upper -3db cut-off frequency point and in our simple example in the text above of a filters
lower and upper -3dB cut-off points being at 200Hz and 800Hz respectively, then the resonant center
frequency of the active band pass filter would be:

fr   200  800  160,000  400 Hz.

The “Q” or Quality Factor

In a Band Pass Filter circuit, the overall width of the actual pass band between the upper and lower -3dB
corner points of the filter determines the Quality Factor or Q-point of the circuit. This Q Factor is a
measure of the selectivity of the band pass filter. The lower the value of the Q factor is the wider the
bandwidth and the filter is less selective, the higher the value of the Q factor is the narrower the
bandwidth and the filter is more “selective” is the filter.

The “Q” of a band pass filter is the ratio of the Resonant Frequency, ( f r ) to the Bandwidth, (  f
BW ) between the upper and lower -3dB frequencies and is given as:

fr fr 400
Q .In accordance with the above example Q    0.67
 f f 600

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Bandpass filters are used in all kinds of instrumentation, as well, in Seismology, Sonar, even medical
applications...for example electrocardiograms, EEGs and such. They are also widely used in optics, such
as with lasers, LIDARS, etc. Color filtering is actually a bandpass function. Don't limit your thinking to
strictly electronics! There are mechanical equivalents of bandpass filters, as well. In fact a quartz crystal is
both a mechanical and an electrical device.

Band stop filters.

Band stop filters.

It is formed by the combination of low pass and high pass filters with a parallel connection instead of
cascading connection. The R-C band stop filter is similar to a band pass filter in which the shunt arm is
replaced by the series arm and the series arm is replaced by the shunt one. As it eliminates frequencies,
so it is also called as band elimination filter or band reject filter or notch filter.

The stop band is represented by the group of

frequencies that lies between fL and fH where response is below -60 dB.
1 1
The cutoff frequencies are given as : f L  and f H 
2 R1 C1 2 R2 C 2

In LC type band stop or reject filter circuit ,there are two parallel LC circuits in the signal path to form a
high impedance at the unwanted signal frequency, and a series circuit forming a low impedance path to
ground at the same frequency, to add to the rejection.

Band stop filters may be found (often in combination with band pass filters) in the intermediate frequency
(IF) amplifiers of older radio and TV receivers, needed for the correct reception of both sound and picture
signals. Combinations of band stop and band pass filters, as well as tuned transformers in these circuits,
require careful frequency adjustment.

Band Stop Filters have many uses in electronics and communication circuits and as we have seen here,
they can be used to remove a band of unwanted frequencies from a system, allowing other frequencies to

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pass with minimum loss. Notch filters can be highly selective and can be designed to reject or attenuate a
specific frequency or harmonic content generating electrical noise, such as mains hum within a circuit.

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