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SPE 81057

Deriving Capillary Pressure and Water Saturation from NMR Transversal


Relaxation Times
Juan Carlos Glorioso, Omar Aguirre, Gabriel Piotti (Repsol YPF) and Jean-François Mengual (Schlumberger)

Copyright 2003, Society of Petroleum Engineers Inc.


carboniferous rocks with intergranular porosity are found
This paper was prepared for presentation at the SPE Latin American and Caribbean Petroleum within several sedimentary basins.
Engineering Conference held in Port-of-Spain, Trinidad, West Indies, 27–30 April 2003.

This paper was selected for presentation by an SPE Program Committee following review of
information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper, as
Introduction
presented, have not been reviewed by the Society of Petroleum Engineers and are subject to When the conventional methods for the calculation of the
correction by the author(s). The material, as presented, does not necessarily reflect any
position of the Society of Petroleum Engineers, its officers, or members. Papers presented at water saturation (Sw) profile in the reservoir are not reliable
SPE meetings are subject to publication review by Editorial Committees of the Society of
Petroleum Engineers. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper
for different reasons, a viable alternative is the calculation
for commercial purposes without the written consent of the Society of Petroleum Engineers is based on capillary pressure (Pc) curves. Using the Pc curve,
prohibited. Permission to reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300
words; illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous the water saturation (Sw) in the reservoir can be calculated
acknowledgment of where and by whom the paper was presented. Write Librarian, SPE, P.O.
Box 833836, Richardson, TX 75083-3836 U.S.A., fax 01-972-952-9435.
for any height above the free water level (FWL). By
knowing the capillary pressure in a point, Sw can be easily
calculated without the need of any standard resistivity model,
Abstract whenever FWL and the fluid density of hydrocarbon can be
Determination of water saturation (Sw) from conventional determined with certain precision.
resistivity and porosity logs has proved difficult in several gas As the capillary pressure is measured directly from cores
fields within Bolivia. To address this challenge, a method was or samples taken from the formation, normally it is difficult to
developed to determine Sw profiles based on pseudo-capillary find continuous information of Pc that allows creating a
pressure curves (Pc) derived from transversal relaxation times calculation throughout the whole formation thickness. In such
(T2 distribution) measured by nuclear magnetic resonance sense, if it is realistic to acquire the value of Pc indirectly, for
(NMR) logging tools. example by means of electrical logs, then one could virtually
Some of the Bolivian sand reservoirs, producing gas and compute a continuous Sw.
condensate with a high gas/oil ratio, are characterized by a Some authors, Volokitin1 et al., have studied the option of
lack of resistivity contrast above and below the oil-water obtaining a continuous curve of Pc from the T2 distribution of
contact. This problem is attributed to complex mineralogy, transverse relaxation times of a Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
including thin shale laminations within sand bodies of variable (NMR) tool. In our case, we have experimented with the
petrophysical quality, and mostly to very fresh formation processing of the data acquired from a CMRi tool that includes
waters that average a salinity of 5000 ppm of total dissolved an application to calculate a continuous curve of Pseudo-
solids. Also, the lack of lateral extension of each reservoir Capillary Pressure (P-Pc) and the Sw, from the T2 distribution
makes cross-well correlation very difficult. of transverse relaxation times, the density difference between
The core hypothesis of this original method is to assume water and hydrocarbon enclosed in the reservoir and the FWL.
that the relation between capillary pressure and pore throat The method is essentially based on that the size of the
sizes is similar to that between T2 values and pore-size poral throat has a relation with the size of the pore itself. Then
distribution. A consistent scaling factor is used to derive a as the capillary pressure, by means of calibration, can be
pseudo-capillary pressure from an NMR T2 distribution. After derived from the size of the poral throat and likewise from the
the pseudo-pressure is calibrated with capillary pressure T2 time distribution of the CMR, we are subsequently able to
measurements from laboratory-derived core data, it is get the pore size distribution. In conclusion, from a T2 time
combined with density (difference between the produced distribution curve one can, by means of calibration, obtain a
hydrocarbon and the formation water) and free-water level Pseudo-Pc curve so that it is used in the calculation of water
(FWL) information to compute Sw along the saturation Sw with the knowledge of the free water
wellbore trajectory. level FWL.
Even so, in general terms, resistivity-based models are still
the most consistent and documented foundation in order to Statement of Theory and Basic Definitions
compute water saturation; Examples demonstrate the success NMR measurements consist of a series of manipulations of
of this new standalone method of uncovering unforeseen hydrogen protons in fluid molecules. Protons have a magnetic
hydrocarbon in place and obtaining accurate Sw as an
alternative to the standard, but dubious or inadequate,
resistivity method in Bolivia where cretaceous and i
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2 SPE 81057

moment and behave like small bar magnets, so that their


orientations may be controlled by magnetic fields. They also
spin, which makes them act like gyroscopes. A measurement
sequence starts with proton alignment followed by spin
tipping, precession, and repeated dephasing and refocusing.
Transverse relaxation and longitudinal relaxation limit how
long a measurement must last. Only after completion of all
these steps —which can take a few seconds— will the
measurement be repeated.

Proton alignment
Hydrogen protons are aligned by application of a large
constant magnetic field, Bo. Alignment takes a few seconds
and the protons will remain aligned unless disturbed. The Precession and dephasing
latest logging tools, like the CMR, use elongated permanent When protons are tipped 90° from the Bo direction, they
magnets of about 550 gauss in the measurement region — precess in the plane perpendicular to Bo. In this respect they
about 1000 times larger than the Earth’s magnetic field. These act like gyroscopes in a gravitation field. At first all the
are applied to the formation during the entire measurement protons precess in unison. While doing so they generate a
cycle (Fig A-1). small magnetic field at the Larmor frequency which is
detected by the antenna and forms the basis of the NMR
measurements. However, the magnetic field Bo is not
perfectly homogeneous, causing the protons to precess at
slightly different frequencies. Gradually, they will lose
synchronization —they dephase— causing the antenna signal
to decay at an exponential constant rate called T2, or
transversal relaxation time (Fig A-3).

Figure A-1: The first step in an NMR measurement is to align


the spinning protons using powerful permanent magnets. The
protons precess about an axis parallel to the Bo direction —the
net magnetization being the sum of all the precessing protons.
In logging applications Bo is perpendicular to the
borehole axis.

Spin tipping Figure A-3: As the protons precess about the static field, they
The next step is to tip the aligned protons by transmitting an gradually lose synchronization. This causes the magnetic field
oscillating magnetic field B1, perpendicular to the direction of produced in the transverse plane, and measured by the
Bo (Fig A-2). For effective spin tipping f = γ . Bo where “f” is antenna, to decay. Dephasing is caused by inhomogeneities in
the frequency of B1 —called Larmor frequency— and γ is a the static magnetic field and by molecular interactions.
constant called the gyromagnetic ratio of the nucleus. For
example, the Larmor frequency for hydrogen nuclei in a field Refocusing spin echoes
of 550 gauss is about 2.3 MHz. The hydrogen protons —precessing at slightly different
The angle through which nuclear spins are tipped is controlled Larmor frequencies due to inhomogeneity of Bo— can be
by the strength of transverse oscillating magnetic field B1 and refocused when a 180° pulse is transmitted. The 180° pulse
the length of time it is switched on. has the same strength as a 90° pulse, but switched on for twice
Figure A-2: Aligned protons are tipped 90° by a magnetic as long. As the protons rephase, they generate another
pulse from a transmissing antenna oscillating at the hydrogen constructive signal in the antenna —a spin echo. Of course,
proton resonance, or Larmor frequency. the spin echo quickly decays again. However, the 180° pulses
can be applied repeatedly —typically several hundred times in
a single NMR measurement. The usual procedure is to apply
180° pulses in an evenly spaced train, as close together as
possible (200 µs for the CMR tool). The entire pulse sequence,
a 90° pulse followed by a long series of 180° pulses, is called
SPE 81057 3

a CPMG sequence after its inventors, Carr, Purcell, Meiboom porosity and 204.7 mD permeability, using mercury as the
and Gill2. non-wetting fluid.

Transverse relaxation T2 Capillary Pressure (Purcell)


120
The CPMG pulse sequence compensates for dephasing caused
by Bo field imperfections. However, molecular processes also
100
cause dephasing, but this is irreversible. These processes are
related to petrophysical properties such as movable fluid 80
porosity, pore-size distribution and permeability. Irreversible
dephasing is monitored by measuring the decaying amplitude 60
of the spin echoes in the CPMG echo train (Fig A-4). The
characteristic echo amplitude decay time is called the 40
transverse relaxation time T2, because dephasing occurs in the
plane transverse to the static field Bo. After a period of several 20

times T2, the protons completely lose coherence, and no


further refocusing is possible. After the CPMG pulse sequence 0
0 20 40 60 80 100
is delivered the protons return to their equilibrium direction
parallel to Bo. This process occurs with a different time Wetting Phase Saturation Sw (%)
constant —longitudinal relaxation T1. The next spin-tipping Saturation (Drainage) Desaturation (Imbibition)
measurement is not started until the protons have returned to
their equilibrium position in the constant Bo field. T1 and T2
both arise from molecular processes. From the distribution of the capillary pressure we can derive
in an approximated form, Robert P. Monicard3, a distribution
of the size of the pore throats (Fig B-2), by means of the
following equation:

D =  Pc × Vp   ×  dSw 

A = c . e (-t/T2)   r    dPc 
D – Distribution of the size of the pore throats
Pc – Capillary pressure
Vp – Poral volume (the volume of the interconnected pores
associated with the effective porosity)
r – Radius of the pore
d – Differential operator
Figure A-4: Typical decaying spin echo amplitude plot for a
rock, a CPMG pulse sequence measurement. Each dot Distribution of the size of the pore throats
represents the amplitude of a spin echo. 100

Description and Application of the Methodology and 80


the Processes Involved
Relation between T2 and Capillary Pressure
60
A curve of capillary pressure (Fig B-1) describes the injection
of a non-wetting fluid into a porous media. The pressure to
which a non-wetting fluid penetrates the porous media is 40

determined by the surface tension at the interface of the fluids


and the radius of the pore throat, expressed by the relation:

Pc = (2σ cosθ )/ Rg
20

0
0.01 0.1 1. 10. 100. 1000.
Pc – Capillary pressure Pore Radius (microns)
σ – Surface tension Figure B-2: Same core sample as figure B-1 (22.1% porosity
θ – Contact angle and 204.7 mD permeability), where we have derived the size
Rg – Radius of the pore throat distribution of the pore throats as per the above mentioned
Figure B-1: Example of a standard laboratory capillary equation from R. P. Monicard.
pressure measurement completed on a core sample, of 22.1% Because the size of the pore throat is correlated to the pore
structure or pore size itself for rocks of inter-granular porosity
4 SPE 81057

type, it can be inferred that Pc also has a somehow direct will be mainly governed by the surface relaxation mechanism,
relation with the size of the pore, which is similar to what we and that it will be directly proportional to the pore volume to
observe for the T2 distribution of transverse relaxation times surface ratio, and hence to the pore radius4:
(Fig B-3) in NMR logs.

NMR-T2 distribution of
transverse relaxation times
T2 ∝V / S ∝ r
S and V – respective Surface and Volume of the pore
Signal amplitude (a)

Rock pore size r – Radius of the pore


distribution
T2 distribution of transverse relaxation times that appears
Scaling factor
in NMR logs, represents the distribution of the pore sizes,
(or calibration)
thus, if in the volume of formation that the tool investigates
coexists different sizes of pore, this will be translated in a bi-
modal or more complex type of distribution in formations
saturated with water. When the water saturation of the rock
diminishes due to the hydrocarbon presence distortions to the
previously enunciated rule can take place, reason why in such
cases, the above assumption is not valid anymore. It is well
0 .1 1 10 100 1000 10000
known and documented5,6, that the viscous oils and the gas are
Pore radius (µ m) / Time T2 (ms) the fluids that introduce the greatest alteration to the T2
distribution. However and except for the particular case of
Figure B-3: Conversion of a regular NMR-T2 distribution of very viscous oil having short T2 when the described method
transverse relaxation times to a typical rock pore size will not work properly, it has also been experienced and it is
distribution using a scaling factor. now widely accepted that the previous statement can still be
applied, with nevertheless a large variety of hydrocarbons
In water-bearing porous formations, for a single size of pores, present in the reservoir.
T2 depends on the properties of the fluid, the matrix, the poral
structure and a diffusion effect, as per equation: Conversion of T2 to Pseudo-Capillary Pressure
It is possible to convert an NMR-T2 distribution of transverse
1/ T 2 = (1/ T 2bulk) + ρ (S / V ) + (1/ T 2D) relaxation times into a curve of Pseudo-Capillary7, using an
application kit included in the NMR processing module within
GeoFrameii software, as shown in the figure C-1 below.
T2bulk – Time constant of transverse relaxation of the fluid
(bulk contribution)
ρ – Surface relaxivity of the rock contributing to the surface
relaxation mechanism
S and V – respective Surface and Volume of the pore
T2D – Relaxation by molecular diffusion in internal magnetic
field gradients

According to the equation mentioned above and in specific


conditions (water based mud drilled wells, no or little gas
present in the invaded zone, intergranular porosity type rocks),
we can make the following two assumptions:
• When there are gradients in the static magnetic field,
molecular motion can cause proton dephasing and
hence T2 diffusion relaxation. But the gradient 1/T2D
term can usually be neglected, except in the presence of
gas or very light oil;
• Also, when hydrogen protons rarely contact the surface,
such as water in very large pores, the bulk fluid
relaxation mechanism is important. It is also important
when hydrocarbons are present, as the non-wetting
phase does not contact the pore surface. Otherwise, the
bulk fluid relaxation mechanism T2bulk can often be Figure C-1: An example of a capillary pressure distribution.
neglected; The green curve is the original T2 distribution rotated so that
Therefore and granting the above criteria, we can assume the T2 increases in the downward direction and the amplitude
that the NMR-T2 distribution of transverse relaxation times
ii
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SPE 81057 5

increases toward the right (i.e., the T2 distribution has been Figure C-2: Laboratory experiment completed on a core-plug
laid on its side). The red curve is the integrated / summation of (depth @ 2887.9 meters) to derive the capillary pressure curve
the T2 distribution also rotated so that the capillary pressure Pc, in psi, versus saturation Sw (1 kgf/cm2 = 14.223 psi).
increases in the upward direction and the water saturation Sw
increases to the right. The red curve has units of 1/ms along Laboratory (Pc-Sw) measurement
the Pc axis until it is transformed into pressures using the 2000

Pc_A Scale Factor parameter.

The key of the method consists of the determination of a 1500

scale factor (Pc_A) that fits and transforms the times of


transverse relaxation T2 into Injection Pressure (drainage). For
1000
that, two ways exist in which to calibrate the Pc_A Scale
Factor parameter so that the capillary pressure distribution is
properly transformed into pressure information Pc. The first
500
one uses the core entry pressure point. The second one uses
the core pressure at or near irreducible water saturation. Each
method8,9 along with its advantages and disadvantages are
0
described below:
20 40 60 80 100
• With the core entry pressure method, the Pc_A Scale Water Saturation (Sw)
Factor parameter is simply adjusted until the capillary
pressure distribution matches the core entry pressure Figure C-3: NMR derived capillary pressure curve Pc versus
point (point 4 in previous figure C-1). This "test and saturation Sw (depth @ 2887.6 meters) from processing of a
error" method works only if the pores are CMR log after calibrating the scale factor Pc_A and using the
predominately filled with water (i.e., very little gas or following parameters (scale factor Pc_A = 650 psi.ms, fluid
oil exists in the pores). It is not valid when the T2 density difference = 0,85 gr/cc as gas is the producing fluid,
distribution contains a strong oil signal at late T2’s T2_cutoff = 25 msec and FWL @ 2903 meters).
(either from oil or oil-based mud in the pores). The
strong oil signal distorts the capillary pressure curve 2000
NMR-T2 Pseudo-Capillary pressure
(i.e., flattens it) causing the calibration to compute
capillary pressures that are too small.
• With the core pressure method, the Pc_A Scale Factor 1500
parameter is adjusted until the capillary pressure
distribution matches the core pressure points at or near
irreducible water saturation (points 1, 2, and 3 in 1000
previous figure C-1). This method is always valid even
if the pores are filled with oil or oil-based mud.
However, this method can be more tedious in that each 500
core point may need to be calibrated separately. To
avoid extensive zoning of the Pc_A Scale Factor
parameter, a compromise between the core points may 0
be required. For this last method, one can decide on 0 20 40 60 80 100
Saturation Unit (s.u.)
calibrating to the inlet pressure (entry pressure) or it is
also possible to calibrate at the point of irreducible
saturation (Swi). Furthermore, as the heterogeneity / variety of hydrocarbons
is usually superior to the one of the formation water or of the
We highly recommend using the first alternative (entry mud filtrate, the T2 distribution of transverse relaxation times
pressure calibration) when the conditions are close to Sw = can exhibit T2 peaks falling within low (viscous oil) or high
100%, as shown in figures C-2 & C-3; on the contrary, the (light oil to gas) times, independently of the actual pore size
second choice (Swi calibration) is better suited for zones with distribution. These effects can be strongly diminished using
Sw << 100%. As already mentioned, this is mainly due to the the best suited parameters of acquisition for the NMR log,
fact that hydrocarbons can introduce distortions / artifacts in particularly the smaller inter-echo spacing (TE) possible in
the T2 distribution, up to the point where the T2 distribution order to reduce diffusion effect and, an adapted waiting-time
no longer represents faithfully the distribution of pore sizes. (WT) constant depending on the type of fluid and formation
This strong hydrocarbon effect is mostly originated because found, as we did so in practice for the examples presented
hydrogen protons of the non-wetting phase are not anymore hereafter where a TE of 200 µs and a WT of 4 seconds were
affected by the surface relaxation mechanism created at the commonly used as acquisition parameters.
pore / fluid interface, but these hydrogen protons tend now to Obtaining Sw from the free water level (FWL)
relax with their own bulk-fluid mechanism and time constant In order for this method to work accurately, it is important to
(T2bulk of the hydrocarbon present in the pore system). be able to locate the hydrocarbon – water contact, since if this
6 SPE 81057

data is not available or cannot be determined precisely from density between the present fluids in the reservoir and the
logs, it is impossible to obtain a calculation of Sw with some / depth of the free water level (FWL), for the estimation of an
enough degree of precision. At this point, it is important to apparent T2 cutoff named T2PC, a volume of apparent bound
quote that if a clear FWL cannot be perceived in any electrical water and the subsequent calculation of Sw, for each level
logs available (usually a resistivity measurement), we greatly (depth) above the FWL (figures D-2 & D-3 at the end):
recommend to acquire in-situ reservoir pressure points and/or
even to take representative formation fluid samples by means
Pc _ A
of a wireline dynamic formation tester tool. For our study, it T 2 PC =
was almost always possible to proceed with the water
saturation Sw computation process as the FWL information
ρ f _ diff × ( FWL − Depth ) / 2.3
was directly obtained from electrical logs and production
test’s results. T2PC – Apparent T2 cutoff in ms
Pc_A – Scaling (or calibration) factor in psi.ms
Tiab and Donaldson10 have presented an equation for the Depth and FWL (free water level) are in foot
calculation of “h”, height above the FWL in foot, based on ρf_diff – Difference of density between the present fluids in
laboratory data of Pc versus saturation and as ilustrated in the pore volume in gr/cc
figure D-1: In the previous equation the depths are in foot and you should
notice that, in fact, the scale factor Pc_A replaces the P-Pc
h = (0.102 × Pc) /( ρwater − ρhydrocarbon ) term (pseudo-capillary pressure).

With this value of T2PC, a volume of apparent irreducible


Pc – Capillary pressure in KPa
water is computed, named VWPc. Note that it is denominated
ρ – Densities of the hydrocarbon and the water in gr/cc
apparent irreducible fluid volume, because it represents the
integration of the pore volumes taken from the different values
It is understood that “h” is equal to zero at the free water
that T2PC adopts, as it is computed and varied along the
level, because Pc should be in zero too. The petrophysicist
borehole from the FWL (figures D-2 & D-3). Finally, the
community, in general, has made numerous studies about this
water saturation Sw is calculated as followed:
transformation and in the literature precise references can be
found about this widely applied technique.
Sw = VWPc / PhiT
PhiT – Total porosity of the CMR tool

The importance of the calibration with full-diameter core-


plugs is now evident, because in the above processing step the
scale factor Pc_A (and hence T2PC) is defined to fit the
distribution of T2 transverse relaxation times with the model
of distribution of capillary pressure versus water saturation
obtained from laboratory measurements. Therefore, a scale
factor that does not represent the petrophysical reality of the
reservoir will lead to an incorrect estimation of Sw. As
intermediate result of this processing step, a distribution of
pseudo-capillary pressure (or P-Pc curve), derived from the
continuous NMR-T2 log, is also obtained which, if everything
fits properly, can represent the distribution of the capillary
pressure for each depth along the borehole.

Presentation of Data and Results


The results that came across in our study have been
satisfactory and very useful, mainly because the low salinity
of the formation water found in these reservoirs can bias any
calculations of Sw based on a common porosity-resistivity
model (Archie type equations). Nevertheless, it is well
Figure D-1: Graphical estimation of “h”, the height above recognized that these resistivity models represent the most
FWL, derived from a capillary pressure curve measurement, proven technique and are widely referenced by the oil
as of Tiab and Donaldson. industry; The objective or purpose of this paper is not to
In our case, we used the application created in the replace them, but just to define an alternative method which in
GeoFrame that handles the scale factor Pc_A, determined in doubtful or unfavorable cases, can enlighten the overall
the calibration stage mentioned previously, the difference of interpretation process and provide us with an accurate Sw.
SPE 81057 7

Furthermore, this work attempts to encompass a new The overall processing of this set of NMR data reveals an
application / technique for Nuclear Magnetic Resonance acceptable gradient for the water saturation Sw from 2903
NMR, as standalone logs, with obvious additional added meters (FWL) and up to 2887 m, further in agreement with the
values. In figure E-1, we exhibit an interpretation based on early production information available. Also we can notice a
the method described earlier. In order to validate the results, strong gas effect on the distribution of transverse relaxation
we present both Sw curve computed from a conventional times (late T2), which affects directly the water saturation
resistivity model and the Sw curve derived from the P-Pc calculation by increasing the values of Sw-Pc (green curve in
computation. At hand, one can appraise the fairly fine track 1). It is worthily to state here the benefits and advantages
matching of the method. Henceforth, some real cases, all of of such standalone evaluation (pseudo-capillary pressure
them in clastic sediments, are presented. curve, and hence Sw, derived from continuous NMR data) for
a more complete and accurate interpretation process.
Case history 1
In these two units, from two different exploratory wells, of the Quality Control, Validation and Limitations of the
inferior Cretaceous mainly composed of sand, siltstone and Utilized Methodology
shale sequences, we are experiencing some difficulties T2 cutoff computed versus T2 cutoff used in the log
throughout a conventional petrophysical evaluation with If the T2 cutoff that was used in the field log is correct,
resistivity – porosity logs. In both cases, the salinity of the particularly if it has been calibrated with NMR laboratory
formation water does not surpass the 5,000 ppm of T.D.S. measurements on core-plugs, the T2PC computed from the
(total of dissolved solids) and, it is thought to be the major FWL upwards (always represented by a blue curve on track 5
tiresome and inconvenient for resistivity based Sw calculation. of all figures E) with the mentioned algorithm moves about an
The inferior level (figure E-2) is very sandy, clean and asymptotic value very close to the fix T2cutoff used. If at the
thick, and culminates with a diagenetic variable thickness of end / up T2PC crosses the value of the fix T2cutoff used, this
poor reservoir characteristics for a reservoir. Notice as the is indicative of a calibration issue or some other processing
early production data coincide satisfactorily with the parameters are out of tolerance.
petrophysical evaluation from NMR log.
The upper sequence is very laminated, with meager lateral Result of production tests
correlation with nearby sand bodies of irregular geometry to The results of the production tests presented in almost all
each other. The results of the application builder previously examples can be used as validation of this petrophysical
decipher and used for this case is presented in figure E-3. Sw_Pc evaluation. In details, it is interesting to remark that the
Again, production data agreed properly with the interpretation volume of producible water calculated with this standalone
even so, the complexity of this reservoir is significant as interpretation of NMR log, PhiE*Sw_Pc, is nearby zero in the
shown per the very poor contrast in resistivity readings and the zones that produce with low percentage of water.
extremely laminated condition of the interval.
Hydrocarbon effects
Case history 2 The very viscous hydrocarbons and the gas can cause
In this sandy package of the Carboniferous from a important distortions in the distribution of transverse
development well, within a deposit that produces from several relaxation times, moving the T2 towards very low or very high
intervals, the conventional calculation of Sw has not been very values, or even attenuating the amplitude of the signal.
conclusive to locate the best zones with producible Everything which affects the T2 distribution directly inducing
hydrocarbons. Hopefully, a sufficient degree of knowledge that the T2 value is not anymore proportional to the pore
was available, like the depth of FWL from neighbor wells, in volume to surface ratio, and hence to the pore radius, will
order to evaluate the reserves by means of pseudo-capillary greatly weaken the validity of this method.
pressure curve derived from NMR.
Since in the lower non-producing zone (2677/99 meters) Conclusions
where the resistivity and density-neutron logs describe the A) An alternative methodology for the calculation of
initial conditions of water saturation Sw satisfactorily, we Sw, supported by proven petrophysical foundations11, has
were able to calibrate the answer of the NMR log in this been experienced whish is worthwhile and straightforward to
interval; and then, we have extrapolated the results to a most employ in those cases where the resistivity models give
conflicting zone with no resistivity contrast (upper producing contradictory or unsatisfactory results.
interval 2638/68 meters). The results of the application for this B) Although this method works in an optimal way for
development well are presented in figure E-4. thick and continuous layers, it has also been proved to be valid
in a zone formed by individual sand-clay sequences, whenever
Case history 3 the contact water-hydrocarbons does not exist within each
Again, for this sandy package of the Carboniferous which unique permeable body.
produces gas and condensed with high GOR, the water C) The presence of gas or viscous oils can introduce
saturation calculated with the regular resistivity models is too errors in the Sw_Pc calculation, due to the effect that these
high for the lower interval (below 2900 meters) and exhibits fluids have on the distribution of transverse relaxation times.
little or no contrast in general for the whole section logged But as presented in all the above cases, by using adapted and
(see Figure E-5). customized acquisition parameters for each data set (i.e.
smaller possible inter-echo spacing and a long enough wait-
8 SPE 81057

time constant depending on T1 of the formation fluids), the determination of the surface relaxivity parameter ρ”, from
pseudo-capillary pressure application of NMR data has given Magnetic Resonance Imaging (Elsevier), Vol. 14 – No.
reliable and accurate results for Sw_Pc computation. 7/8 (1996), pages 761-767.
D) The calibration of the T2cutoff of the formation
performed on the basis of laboratory NMR measurements on 8. R. Ramamoorthy, P.J. Boult and T. Neville: “A Novel
core-plugs is a must in order to obtain a correct and precise Application Of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance And
value of saturation water Sw. Last but not least, the calibration Formation Tester Data For The Determination Of Gas
of the scale factor Pc_A to turn the T2 distribution into a Saturation In Pretty Hill Sandstone Reservoirs, Onshore
pseudo-capillary pressure curve P-Pc will grant an additional Otway Basin”, SPWLA 41st annual logging symposium
amount of exactitude to the method. Anyway, this (Dallas, June 4-7, 2000), paper J.
methodology can still be applied without having the latest
capillary pressure information, if the other processing 9. Dr. P. N. Theologou, R. D. East, Dr. A. A. Curtis, Dr. P.
parameters (i.e. density difference and FWL) are well known / J. Boult and A. M. Drake: “Effective Integration of the
determined within the area of interest. Core Analysis and Wireline Datasets - Using a New Core
Analysis Data Suite and New Software”, SPE Latin
Nomenclature notes American and Caribbean Petroleum Engineering
T2PC is just a calibration term used to partition the NMR-T2 Conference in Caracas (Venezuela, 21–23 April 1999)
distribution and derived an apparent irreducible water volume SPE-53887.
VWPc, which will provide us with the water saturation Sw.
T2PC, that varies with depth, has no physical relation with the 10. Djebbar Tiab and Erle C. Donaldson: "Theory and
conventional T2cutoff applied to split the NMR-T2 Practice of Measuring Reservoir Rock and Fluid
distribution into Bound Fluid Volume (BFV) and Free Fluid. Transport Properties", from Gulf Publishing Company
As per VWPc, called in this paper apparent irreducible water (Student Edition, September 1996).
and calculated by means of the above mention T2PC partition,
it is not a bound fluid volume at all since it also includes free 11. Benjamin D. Lowden, Matthew J. Porter and Linda S.
water depending on the values that T2PC adopts. Powrie: “T2 Relaxation Time Versus Mercury Injection
Capillary Pressure: Implications for NMR Logging and
References Resewoir Characterisation”, from SPE European
1. Yakov Volotikin, Wim J. Looyestijn, Walter F.J. Petroleum Conference held in The Hague (Netherlands,
Slijkerman and Jan P. Hofman: “A practical approach to 20-22 October 1998), SPE-50607.
obtain primary drainage capillary pressure curves from
NMR core and log data”, PETROPHYSICS Vol. 42 No. 4 Acknowledgements
(July-August 2001), pages 334-343. The authors want to thank REPSOL YPF (Bolivia) for its
permission to publish this article, and we also sincerely
2. Carr H.Y. and Purcell E.M.: “Effects of Diffusion on Free express our gratitude to the SCHLUMBERGER organization
Precession in Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Experiments”, for its involvement and direct help during the elaboration of
Physical Review 94 No. 3 (1954), pages 630-638. this technical paper.
In addition, we would like to specifically acknowledge the
3. Robert P. Monicard: "Properties of Reservoir Rocks - support of Ph.D. Robert L. Kleinberg for his expertise and
Core Analysis", Publisher Technip - Institut Français du valuable inputs.
Pétrole (January 1980), pages 96-97.
4. Howard J.J., Kenyon W.E. and Straley C.: “Proton
magnetic resonance and pore-size variations in reservoir
sandstones”, in SPE annual technical conference
exhibition proceedings (1990), SPE-20600, pages 733-
742 (later published in 1993: SPE Formation Evaluation,
v. 8, no. 3, p. 194-200).

5. Olesen J-R., Liu C., Zeng W., Mao K. and Zhang Z.:
“Evaluation of viscous oil-bearing, water flooded
reservoirs”, paper T in 3rd well logging symposium of
Japan proceedings (SPWLA, Japan Chapter - 1997).

6. Flaum C., Kleinberg R. and Hurlimann M.:


“Identification of gas with the Combinable Magnetic
Resonance Tool (CMR)”, paper L in 37th annual logging
symposium transactions (SPWLA, 1996).
7. Kleinberg R.L.: “Utility of NMR-T2 distributions,
connection with capillary pressure, clay effect, and
SPE 81057 9

Figure D-2 (on the right): Determination /


Pc Scaling Factor that “ fits”
computation of an apparent T2 cutoff (T2PC) the P c curve and P -P c
as per the equation below: (pseudo-capillary presssure)
Pc-A
Pc _ A h3
1
ρ f _ diff × ( FWL − Depth ) / 2.3
2 h T2PC
P-Pc
3

h2

Pc-core
h1
Figure D-3 (below): Estimation (graphical
representation) of the water saturation Sw
using the volume of apparent irreducible water FWL
VWPc (calculated by means of T2PC values) 0 Sw
and the total NMR porosity PhiT. 1

Fix T2
cutoff
1 h3

T2PC

h2

h1

3
-5 1 10 100 1000 10000
T2 Dist
10 SPE 81057

Figure E-1 (on the right): This NMR log


was processed with the following
parameters (scaling factor Pc_A = 1200
psi.ms, fluid density difference = 0,85
gr/cc as gas is the producing fluid,
T2_cutoff = 25 msec and FWL @
2815 meters).
In this particular case, note the fairly good
matching between the water saturation Sw
determined from an Archie type formula
(black curve in track 1), and Sw derived
from continuous NMR-T2 log once
calibrated with capillary pressure Pc
measurement (green curve in track 1).

In track 4, color coding is as followed:

Irreducible Water
Free Water
Hydrocarbon
Gas

Figure E-2 (case 1 from the inferior Cretaceous and lower


sequence): The NMR processing parameters used were a
scaling factor Pc_A = 1000 psi.ms, fluid density difference =
0,60 gr/cc, T2_cutoff = 33 msec and FWL @ 3718 meters.

815 bopd
5007 Mscf/d
Water 1.8%

230 bopd
1396 Mscf/d
Water 1.5%

Only Water
138 bwpd
SPE 81057 11

Figure E-3 (case history 1 from the inferior Cretaceous and


upper sequence): The NMR processing parameters used were
a scaling factor Pc_A = 1850 psi.ms, fluid density difference =
0,30 gr/cc (mainly oil), T2_cutoff = 33 msec and FWL @
3612 meters.
Observe as the water saturation Sw determined from a
resistivity based algorithm (black curve in track 1) is showing
very few oil in place (too “pessimistic” evaluation meaning
unforeseen oil); and how on the other hand, Sw_Pc derived
from continuous NMR-T2 log (green curve in track 1) better
fits with the production data of each individual interval tested.

840 bopd
2103 Mscf/d
Water 1%

160 bopd
446 Mscf/d
Water 12%

41 bopd
197 Mscf/d
Water 20%
12 SPE 81057

Figure E-4 (case history 2, development well from the


Carboniferous): The NMR processing parameters used were a
scaling factor Pc_A = 1200 psi.ms, fluid density difference =
0,85 gr/cc (mainly gas), T2_cutoff = 25 msec and FWL @
2677 meters.
Note how in the interval 2669 / 2677 meters, Sw_Pc (green
curve on track 1) is only displaying 100% water where
Sw_Archie (black curve on track 1) is around 70% water
saturation. Additionally, compare the excellent match between
both curves for the top producer interval.
SPE 81057 13

Figure E-5 (case history 3): The main NMR processing


parameters used for this example were a scaling factor Pc_A =
650 psi.ms, fluid density difference = 0,85 gr/cc (mainly gas),
T2_cutoff = 25 msec and FWL @ 2903 meters.

98 bopd
4595 Mscf/d
0 bwpd

76 bopd
4308 Mscf/d
Water 38%
46 bwpd

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