FUNDAMENTALS OF

THERMAL ENERGY
Lecture 2
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 need to register with your partner online by 30th aug
Essay due end of week 12

Principle of Thermal Power Station: Conversion

of heat energy in to Electrical Energy

Thermal Energy Mechanical Energy

we deal with thermal energy a lot in our daily
lives, happening around us all the time

burn coal -> turn turbine (mechanical

energy) —> convert to electrical energy Electrical Energy

To understand the underlying process: Background

information is needed need a carrier (matter
which can push your
1. Thermal Energy: Modes of heat transfer turbine) — the carrier
can be as simple as
2. The first and second law of thermodynamics (butwater, gas or solid
water is the best
option). the carrier
3. The analysis of a thermal power cycle must be able to store
heat, be transferred
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 Heat and Temperature
we need some substance to store heat,

If any substance of mass m absorbs heat (Q)

heat absorbtion happens everywhere, and with
that the temperature of the object will increase.
with the change in temp, you can calculate the
amount of heat absorbed It changes state at constant
Its temperature, T temperature(solid to liquid
rises Q = HEAT ENERGY
at the melting point, liquid
Q=mc T (1) to gas at the boiling point)
when water is at its boiling point/melting point, the
c=Specific heat of the substance amount of heat used would be used to change the state
of water and not to cause a temperature increase

T=Rise in temperature
mass (m) kg
specific heat (c) — J/kg.degrees
water
1kg
Alcohol
1kg
Q=mL (2)
change in temperature (rise in which would you need more energy for
temperature— degree celsius or a temperature change of 5 degrees?
kelvin) water, because you water has a high specific L=Latent heat
heat capacity and thus we need more heat to
obtain the same temperature change

Modes of Heat transfer: conduction, convection or

so which is better? water or alcohol? the one that can
radiation store more heat would be better for us to use. WATER!
3 water is a good carrier of heat, which later would be used to convert into
electrical energy. need to consider the cost of the liquid also. water is cheap.
Tom wants to boil 0.25 kg of water, initially at 25 0C, by putting it in a pan over hot plate.
How much heat should he provide so that the final temperature will be 1000C with all the
water transformed into water vapours. (Specific heat of water=4190J/kg.0C , Specific heat of
ice= 2.1× 103 J/kg.0C and latent heat of fusion of water = 3.34×105J/kg, latent heat of
vaporizaion of water = 2.256×106J/kg). WHAT IS THIS?
change in temperature —> 25 degrees to 100 degrees

Q(25 - 100) = mc (change in temp)

= 0.25 x 4190 x (100-25)
Q(water 100 - stream
100) = mL
= 0.25 x 2.256 x 10^6

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Because main ingredient of cola
is water, we assume that the
specific heat of cola is equal to
the specific heat of water

Tom wants to cool 0.25 kg of Diet Cola (mostly water), initially at 25 0C, by adding ice
initially at -20 0C. How much ice should he add so that the final temperature will be 00C with
all the ice melted if the heat capacity of the container may be neglected. (Specific heat of
water=4190J/kg.0C , Specific heat of ice= 2.1× 103 J/kg.0C and latent heat of fusion of water
change from solid to liquid?
= 3.34×105J/kg). latent heat from melting

Heat lost by Diet cola (water)=mdiet cola × specific heatwater × (Tdiet cola –Tf)

Heat gained by ice= mice × specific heatice × (Tf -Tice ) + mice × L

Heat lost by Diet Cola=Heat gained by ice

0.25×4190 × (25 –0) = mice [2.1× 103 × (0 – (-20 ) )+ 3.34×105]

 26187.5= mice × 376 × 103
 mice =0.069 kg
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 heating element at the bottom is the most efficient — because of convection of heat

Example 2: Efficiency assumption that 100% of the

thermostat (something that can regulate temperature) energy goes into heating
Two similar battery operated kettles with thermostats, one with a perfectly insulated jacket
and the other one with a jacket with poor insulation, are used for heating water. 75% of the
chemical energy in the battery was converted into electrical energy. Mass of the water in
each kettle is 0.5 kg. Assuming that the water is initially at 200C, I want to warm it to 700C
and I intend to keep it warm for 5 hrs. Compare the chemical energy needed by either
kettle, if the one with poor insulation looses heat to the surroundings at a rate of 500 J/hr.

Case 1: Kettle with perfectly insulated Jacket

Heat needed to warm the water from 200C to 700C=Q1=

= mwater × specific heatwater × (Tf -Ti )=0.5 ×4190 ×(70-20)=104750 J

Chemical energy needed= Q1/energy conversion efficiency of kettle

= 104750/0.75=139.7 kJ
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efficiency = output energy/input energy

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 Case 2: Kettle with poorly insulated Jacket
Heat needed to warm the water from 200C to 700C=Q1=
= mwater × specific heatwater × (Tf -Ti )=0.5 ×4190 ×(70-20)=104750 J

Due to poor insulation 500 J of heat is lost by the water every hr.

In 5 h, total heat lost = 5005=2500J

Thus total heat energy needed to keep the warm at 700C for 5 h
Q2 =104750 + 2500=107250J

Chemical energy needed= Q2/energy conversion efficiency of kettle

= 107250/0.75=143 kJ

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 Modes of heat transfer energy from one molecule
affects the other molecule
next to each other

Conduction
happens in solids — when molecules are closely packed
Molecules in solids
(tightly/closely packed)
High potential energy
Low kinetic energy (1/2.m.v2)
happens very minute in liquids (because other modes of heat
transfer predominates) — can ignore conduction in liquid

Convection Molecules in liquid

(loosely packed)
Change in temperature
(change in potential energy)

Molecules in gas High kinetic energy

(very loosely packed) Low potential energy

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 Conduction of Heat
Conduction is the transfer of heat energy within a body due to
random motion of molecules.
Conduction takes place in all forms of matter, viz. solids,
liquids and gases.
It does not require any bulk motion of matter particles.
In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of the
molecules thereby transporting heat energy from one molecule to
the other.
In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions and diffusion
of the molecules during their random motion.
Example: Metal spoon in a hot cup of coffee gets heated up.
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 Convection
Heat transfer due to bulk motion of a fluid (liquid or gas) is known
as convection. E.g water and air
check online to see which liquid y cant we use air to transfer heat energy? because of the specific
has her specific heat capacity heat capacity of air(not good), even tho it is as cheap as air
than water

It cannot take place in solids since the molecules in a solid are

not free to move in the body of the solid. hotter water molecules which has been heated would have
absorbed energy and moves to the top, while the colder
molecules with less energy moves down and get heated

Example 1: Heating water in an electric

kettle.
Example 2: Atmospheric Circulation:
Flow of air i.e., formation of winds and
distribution of thermal energy in the
due to unequal heating of the earth by the sun, and the
atmosphere. rotation of earth, it results in this atmospheric circulation
equator gets heated the most, results in the trade winds

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 everything emits and absorb
radiation (both living and non-
living)

Radiative heat transfer is the transport of heat energy by

electromagnetic waves. Unlike conduction and convection which
needs a medium, heat can be transferred by radiation through
vacuum.
Energy radiated per second per unit area( Power per unit area), Pe is
given by Stefan’s Boltzmann’s Law. black - best emitter and best absorber of radiation
white - worst emitter and absorber

Power emitted
Pe  T 4 (3)
K = Degrees celcius + 273

higher temperature, higher the energy radiated from the object

T=Surface Temperature of radiation emitting body
MUST ALWAYS CONVERT TEMPERATURE TO KELVIN!!!

=emissivity of the surface, its value lies between 0 and 1

depending on the nature of the surface
=Stefan’s Boltzmann’s constant=5.6710-8 Wm-2K-4
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Opaque surfaces absorb radiation from the environment.
Absorptivity is same as emissivity
Energy absorbed per second per unit area( Power per unit
area), Pa is given by Stefan’s Boltzmann’s Law
Power absorbed
Pa  T
0
4
(4)
T0= Temperature of the environment
Net rate of emission per unit area per second is
P  Pe  Pa   (T  T ) 4
0
4
(5)
A surface that absorbs all radiations falling on it is known as black
body.
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 First Law of Thermodynamics
It is the law of conservation of energy applied to a
thermodynamic system. The difference between the heat input
Q and the work done W is equal to the change in internal
energy (U) of the thermodynamic system. Thermal energy —> Mechanical energy
focusing on this for this law

change in Q = W + change in U
Q-W=U (6) work can be converted to heat 100%, but heat
cannot be converted to work done 100%

W
Q Change in internal Work done by
Energy, U
Heat Input the system

Convention: Heat flowing into the system is taken as positive.

Work done by the system is taken as positive

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 Conventional Power Plants
Underlying Principles
1. Upon absorption of heat: Rise in temperature of the fluid and
change of state.
2. Laws of thermodynamics
3. Heat exchange with the environment due to the temperature
difference.
Types of Power Plants
1. Steam Power Plants: Uses steam as the fuel. Operating temperature
is low.
2. Gas Power Plant: Uses gas (natural gas) as the fuel. Operating
temperature is high.
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 Key stages for Steam Power Plant And
Its efficiency
Principle of Steam Power Plant: The working fluid (water) undergoes
a phase change at different stages in a closed cycle and is reused in
subsequent cycles.
Key stages in the cycle are:
Compression: Work done (Wcom ) on the system to compress cold
water to high pressure.
Boiling: Heat Q1 added to the system to convert cold water into steam.
Turbine Rotation: Work Wt done by the system (steam) on the turbine
blades.
Condensation: Hear Q2 lost from the system to the environment in
converting steam back to cold water.
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 Lay out of steam based thermal
power plant
Q1
Turbine
Wt

Boiler

Wcom

Condenser
Compressor
Q2

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After each complete cycle the working fluid has the same
energy U as it had in the beginning of the cycle. Hence, U=0.
Net work done by the system=Wt - Wcom
Net heat absorbed=Q1-Q2
By first Law of Thermodynamics
Q1-Q2-(Wt-Wcom)=0

The efficiency of the cycle,  is given by,

Net output work Wt  Wcom Q1  Q2 Q2

    1 (7)
heat input Q1 Q 1 Q1
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A steam turbine takes in 10,000J of heat and does overall mechanical
work of 2000J in each cycle. Find:
(a) How much heat is discarded in each cycle.
(b) What is the overall thermal efficiency

(a) Q1  W  Q2
Q2  10000  2000  8000 J
Q2
(b)   1
Q1
8000 2000
  1   0.2    20%
10000 10000
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A perfect system 

1. No heat loss in the condenser and the heat input in the boiler.

2. Entire heat supplied to the system will be used to do useful work

(not possible).

This heat increases the disorder (ENTROPY) of the steam.

As a result, working substance rejects some heat to the environment

to reduce the disorder of the fluid back to the original value.

Amount of heat rejected depends on the temperature of the condenser.

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 Since Q2 is always positive  <1 (8)

Above Eqn is the statement of second law of thermodynamics.

There is always an upper limit to the efficiency of a thermal power

plant and the wasted thermal energy heats the external environment.

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 Thermal Properties of water and steam
In a conventional thermal power plant: Working fluid is water
At various stages of cycle: Water changes its phase from water to a two
phase mixture of water and steam to dry steam to water.
A convenient representation for describing operation of thermal power
plant: T-S diagram
Critical
Important regions:
point
I: Water
I
Temperature

Water III II: Two phase mixture of Water + Steam

II Dry
Water/Steam Steam
III: Dry Steam
Bell Shaped curve represent phase
boundary between I, II and III regions.
Entropy
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 Rankine Cycle for Steam Power Plant
Rankine cycle: Name given in the honour of great scientist, Thomas
Rankine
Salient features of Rankine Cycle without reheat
Compressor increases the pressure of the
c
water adiabatically before entering the boiler
(ef).
a Boiler has three sections
b Economizer (fa): Water is heated at high
f pressure until it starts boiling.
d
e Evaporator (ab): Two phase mixture of
water and steam is heated at constant
pressure until all the water is converted in to
dry steam.
Superheater (bc): Dry steam is then heated at constant pressure
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in superheater.
Rankine Cycle for Steam Power Plant
c Dry steam enters the turbine at high pressure
and rotates the turbine, thereby doing work
(cd).
a
b On leaving the turbine, wet steam enters the
f condenser. Here, all the steam is converted
d into water (de) before entering the
e
compressor.
Practical Limitations:
A pressure drop through the boiler due to frictional losses.
Unable to completely eliminate the formation of water droplets in
stage (cd). The droplets hit the turbine with high momentum and
damage its blades.
Modification to overcome this: Rankine Cycle with reheat.
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 Rankine Cycle with reheat
This steam power plant has two-three turbines: High pressure (HP),
Intermediate pressure(IP) and low pressure (LP) turbines.
Steam is reheated several times before
entering the condenser.
After the steam leaves the (HP), it is reheated
and goes to (IP), followed by second reheating
and turning (LP).
Advantages
Overall efficiency is increased. Higher the
operating temperature of super heater, higher
will be the efficiency.
Problem of water droplets formation is decreased.
Practically achieved efficiency: 40-45%.
Practical Limitation
Highest temperature of the super heater is 6500C.
Metal fatigue puts a limitation beyond this.
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 Rankine Cycle with reheat
Advantages

Overall efficiency is increased. Higher the

operating temperature of super heater,
higher will be the efficiency.

Problem of water droplets formation is

decreased.

Practically achieved efficiency:

40-45%.
Practical Limitation
Highest temperature of the super heater is 6500C.
Metal fatigue puts a limitation beyond this.

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 Gas turbines and Brayton cycle
Modification over Rankine’s cycle: Uses gas.
Fuel
b
Combustion Chamber c

Wcom Wt
Turbine
a
Compressor d
Air Exhaust Gases

Achievable temperature: 13000C

Turbine blades are covered with ceramic coating of low thermal
conductivity to avoid metallurgical damage of blades.
The blade assembly is water cooled, to keep their temperature low.
Condenser is not needed: Direct impact is cost reduction.
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Working substance is replenished with successive cycles.
Gas turbines and Brayton cycle
Fuel .
COMPRESSION: (a) Air enters the
compressor at atmospheric pressure and it
b
Combustion c is compressed to 10-20 bar (b).
Chamber
Wcom Wt
COMBUSTION: Air is mixed with fuel
Turbine
and produces hot gases(c).
a
Compressor
Air Exhaust d
Gases
TURBINE: These hot gases rotate the
turbine leading to electricity production.
The exhaust gases are vented to
atmosphere.

Simple gas turbines, =40%

Advantage: Low capital cost devices, can be set up quickly.

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 Combined Cycle GAS TURBINE CCGT
Brayton Cycle + Rankine Cycle

Exhaust Gases
Steam
Turbine
Net effect is a single cycle
Boiler operating between the upper
Condenser temperature of Brayton cycle
Pump and the lower temperature of
Gas Rankine cycle.
Air Turbine

Compressor
>60% is also achievable
Fuel
Combustion
Chamber

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 Combined Cycle GAS TURBINE CCGT
Exhaust Gases
Steam
Turbine
Boiler Waste heat from the
Condenser condenser may be used for
Pump district heating in local
community.
Gas
Air Turbine
Compressor
New, =80%

Fuel
Combustion
Chamber
The cost involved is high: Finds application in industrial complexes
or densely populated urban areas.
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