JH REYNER P J REYNERRadio Communication J. H. Reyner BSC, ACCL, DLO, CNG, FLU. LIFE SOMBER 1R.E, and P. J. Reyner M.A, (CANTAB,), C.RNG., MT... Third Edition SI Units > | Pitman Publishinghird edition 1972 ‘The paperback odition of this book may not bbe lent, resold, hired out or othorwise disposed of by way of trade in any form of binding or ‘cover other than that in which it is published ‘without the prior consent of the publishers. Pitman House, Parker Stroct, Kingsway, London, WC2B 5PB P.O. Box 46038, Portal Strost, Nairobi, Kenya, Stk ISAAc PrrMaN (auSr.) Pry. ETD. Pitman House, 158 Bouverie Street, Carlton, Victoria 3053, Australia P.O. Box 11281, Johannesburg, South Africa ” 6 East Ard Street, New York, N.Y. 10017, U.S.A. sim Isaac PITMAN (CANADA) LID. 495 Wellington Street West, Toronto, 185, Canada, 517 Wellington Strect West, Toronto, 185, Canada © J. HL. Royner and P. J. Reynor 1072 Cased edition: ISBN 0 278 36184 3 Paperback edition: I8BN 0 278 36165 1 ‘Text set in 10/11 pt. Monotype Modern printed by letterpress, ‘and bound in Groat Britain at the Pitman Press, Bath ‘G2—(T.5426/1352:74Preface to Third Edition ‘Tre nusroNss to the carlior editions has encouraged us to enlarge the scope by the inclusion of a treatment of logic circuitry and similar developments of interest to the practising electronics engineer. ‘The basic coverage remains that required for the City and Guilds Telecommunications Technicians’ Course, with a slight change of emphasis. Despite the almost universal use of solid-state techniques in many fields, thermionic devices still play an important: role in certain applications, and will continue to do so for many years. ‘The treatment of valves in Part I has therefore been maintained, though certain obsolete matter has been omitted and the space devoted to an extended discussion of semiconductor usage, including field-effect transistors. ‘The chapters in Part II, dealing with practical applications, treat valve and transistor circuitry separately, as before, but the dis- cussions of transistor usage have been appropriately extended, while Chapter 16 has been enlarged to cover colour television. ‘Two new chapters have been added. The first of these deals with solid-state switching devices, including logic circuitry and the use of integrated-cirenit techniques, while the second discusses briefly some of the specializod developments in space communications. ‘We have retained the wide selection of examples from examination papers which we believe to be of value. A study of recent papers shows that they do not, in the main, include any material not already covered in previous years. ‘The fundamental basis of tho art is in fact stable; hence although some 1970 examples are included, extensive updating appears neither necessary nor desirable. Finally, Appendix 2 has been modified to cover the recently agreed SI units, which have boen used throughout the book in place of the former MKS units, while a new Appendix 4 has been added summarizing the principal techniques of transistor construction. ‘Larrie MisseNpEn J.H.R. March, 1972 P.JI.R.L 5 Contents Preface . . Part |. Basic Principles Fundamentals... LL. Basic Concepts . 1.2. Ohmic Conduction; Resistance 1.8. Blectrostaties; Capacitance . 1.4, Blectromagnetism; Inductance 1.5. Alternating Currents . 1.8. Conduction in Gases and Liquids | 1.7. Vibrations and Waves 1.8, Sources of EMF. . Circuit Theory. 2.1. Vectors. ‘i 2.2, Network Theory. | 2.8. Tuned Circuits. 2.4, Transformers; Coupled Circuits - Principles of Radio Communication 8.1. Production of Radio Waves 8.2. Modulation . 8.8. Reception. =. |. Practical Components. . 4.1. Resistors. 4.2. Capacitors... 4.3. Aircored Inductors. 44. Inon-cored Inductors and ‘Transformers | 4.5. Generators, Motors and Meters 4.6, Batteries. 4.7. Microphones 5 4.8. Loudspeakers 5 ‘Thermionic Valves. 6.1. Electron Emission 5.2. Practical Forms of Valve 5.8. Basic Valve Usage. 5.4. Gas-filled Tubes. | 5.5. Photocella. =» PAGE 18 24 58. 58 a 1 80 10s 47 47 183 48 152 152 2 60 am +178 204 2218 222, 224, 230 230 1 232 243, 251 255vit 10. nn. 12. 13. |. The Radio Receiver . CONTENTS . Semiconductors . ener eee Tee See a 2) Gl. Semiconductor Physics =| ||. 280 6.2, Semiconductor Diodes «ss ss 288 6.3. The Transistor. - + + eee 287 6.4, Transistor Performance = +) ss 277 6.5. Transistor Parameters. =. 9. sss = 288 6.8. Practical Transistor Cireuits =. 5 sss 208 GT, Field-effect Transistors. ss ss 807 6.8. Photosensitive Semiconductors . 0. 9. 0. BID Part Il, Practical Applications ‘The Radio Transmitter =. 7.1. Valve Transmitter Circuits. 7.2. Brequeney Stability. . 7.8. Modulation — eee TA. Terminal Arrangement. > se 7.5, WM. Transmitters. 5 7 7.6, Transistor Transmitters oe 5 Aerials and Feeders . 8.1, The Transmitting Aerial 8.2. Tho Receiving Aerial , 8.8, Feeders and Transmission Lines 8.4. Dixectional Aerials. 9.1. Radio-frequency Amplification - 9.2. RF. Valve Amplifiers. ss 9.3. RF. Transistor Ampliflors ©. ss 9.4, The Superheterodyno Receiver» : 9.5. The Detector Stage.) ee 9.8. FM. Receivers. 5 6 + et Audio-frequency Technique. 10.1. Feedback. : AF. Valve Amplifers |) AF. Transistor Amplifiers. 5) ss 104. Sound Recording =. +) est Power Supply Circuits Oscillator Circuits oreer Short-wave Technique =. 5s Propagation se eee Shortwave Aerials... ee . Ultra-short-wave Aerials ©. se Waveguides =. . 7 ee Short-wave Receivers 7 Short-wave Transmitting Valves Semiconductor Techniques. 9.4. 18. 16. a7. 18, 19, CONTENTS Filters and Attenuators 6. ss 141. Passive Filtere. 9. 0. se 14.2. Active Filters . oa 14:3. Attenuators and Equalizers | ‘Measurements . fone 16.1. Voltage and Current. 15.2. Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance 15.5. Froqueney and Wavelength 15.4. B.F. Measurementa . 5 15.5. Performance Tests. 16.8. The Cathode-ray Oscilloscope 15.7. Ballistic Technique 5 Picture Transmission and Television . 16.1. Principle of Scanning 16.2. Television Cameras. 16.8. Television Receivers . ' 16.4. Colour Television» 9. se ‘Wave Shaping and Pulse Techniques - 17.1. Wave Shaping : ; 17.2. Pulse Generation; the Multivibrator | 17.8. Operational Circuitry =. se 17.3. Sawtooth Generation. 9. Switching and Control Circuitry 18.1. Switching Devices 18.2. Logic Cireuitry. 18.3. Monolithie Cireuits 18.4, Bistable Circuits - 18.5. Core Stores : Specialized Communication Toca, : 10.1, Radar 6 0 10.2. Weak-signal Ampliters 19.8. Telemetry. ae 10.4, Opto-lectronics 95 5s Appendix 1. Avomo Sraucrurn . Appendie 2. Usrrs axp Ditenstons Appendix 3, Ta Brvary Scace Appendiz: 4, Transistor ConstRuctioNs Example. 6 we Inte 6 Ix - 610 + 610 + 27 634 - 640 * 640 2 651 658 + 062 068, + oro 680 680 2 685 + 692 605 = 698 2 698 701 : 710 : TL 726 2736 + 148 2 154 : 61 + 163 763 766 : 710 m™ 113 7118 . 184 795, 791 . 887Plates mal FACING PAGE 46, Tyrican FrxmpCaracrrors ©... 162 46(a).AVantasteCaracron . ses 162 4.7, TypwoanRecevmcComs . . . .. 163 48, ‘Tyrrcar Consravorions Ustva Frrnrre Marerran . 163 13.23. Srempasue Dmeorionan AzRiaL av GoonHMLy Downs Rapro Staton. =. see TD 13.24, AmpraL ARRay aT BALDOCK Rapio Srarioxn . —. 573Part | Basic PrinciplesFundamentals 14. Basic Concepts ‘TeLEcommuwroations enginooring is concerned with the trans. mission of information by utilizing the effects produced when an electric current is varied. The variations may be transmitted by means of wires, as is done with telegraph and telephone systems, or by means of electromagnetic waves as used in radio communication. It is this second category with which this book is primarily concerned, though some discussion of the simpler aspects of telegraph and telephone techniques will necessarily be required. ‘The fundamental requirement for a proper study of the subject is a clear understanding of the nature of electricity, which is no longer regarded as a mysterious invisible fluid pumped through wires by a battery, but rather as the movement or displacement of funda- mental particles called electrons in the atoms of the materials them- selves. Honce tho study and utilization of electrical phenomena constitute the twin sciences known as electronics and electronic engineering. Atomic Structure All matter is believed to be composed of atoms which are like miniature solar systems containing @ central positively-charged nucleus surrounded by negatively-charged electrons revolving in definite orbits. These atoms do not normally exist alone but associate themselves with other atoms, either of their own kind or of some other element, to form molecules in which » number of atoms group together to provide an equilibrium between the various internal forees, under conditions of minimum energy. Tn gases these molecules remain as independent entitics moving at random through the space in which they are confined. If two molecules happen to oollide they bounce apart like elastic balls. In 34 RADIO COMMUNICATION solid materials, however, the molecules have much less freedom, and generally associate themselves with other molecules to form sym- metrical assemblies of either crystalline or chain-like formation. Tt should be realized that all matter is very largely open space. The diameter of an atomic nucleus is of the order of 10-" mm, while the electrons, which are of similar size, revolve in orbits of the order of 10-7 mm diameter, i.e. some 10,000 times the size of the nucleus. Tt is the powerful internal forces resulting from the relatively compact grouping of the molecules in a solid which cause it to appear impervious and reflect light waves 80 that it looks solid. Liquids occupy a position between solids and gases. ‘The internal foroes are weaker 80 that the molecules have less restraint and the substance will behave in some ways like a solid and in others more like a gas. Free Space Since the structure of the atom involves the interplay of internal forces, there must be a medium through which they operate. Tt is clearly non-physical since the forces are found to exist in a complete vacttum, and I9th-century physics postulated the existence of what was called the ether to fulfil this function. ‘This has been re- placed today by the concept of free space, which is said to possess certain specific electrical properties, as is discussed later. One can then regard the sub-atomic particles as local distortions or condensations of free space, which create a sphere of influence in their immediate environment. They are said to carry an electric charge, which may be of two kinds. A particle carrying a negative charge is called an electron, while a positively charged particle is called proton*. The nature of the force is such that similarly- charged particles will repel one another, while dissimilar charges ‘will be mutually attracted. ‘The nucleus of an atom thus contains an appropriate number of protons surrounded (normally) by an equal number of electrons rotating in orbits at distances and speeds which produce a centri- fagal force sufficient to counteract the electrical attraction between ‘the two opposite charges, and hence maintain a state of equilibrium. (The nucleus may also contain some additional particles called neutrons, which carry no charge but merely add to the mass, as discussed in Appendix 1.) * ‘Tho electron is astigned a negative charge because in the classic early exporimenta with minuto oil-drops oarrying an accumulation of electrons it ‘was found that the force exhibited was in opposition to that of gravity.FUNDAMENTALS 5 Electric Charge Basically, it is disturbances of this state of equilibrium which give rise to the whole range of electrical (and magnetic) pheno- mena. The electrons in the outermost orbits of many atoms can be detached by the application of a suitable force and thereby become free, One of the simplest examples of this is the behaviour of certain insulating materials under the influence of friction. If ‘a glass rod is rubbed smartly with a silken cloth some of the electrons in the material are transferred to the cloth leaving the rod with deficiency. ‘Tho rod is then said to be positively charged and it will actually exercise appreciable mechanical forces. If, for example, it is brought near some small pieces of tissue paper it will attract thom like a magnet. The word electricity, in fact, is derived from the Greek word mAexrpoy (electron), meaning amber, because it had been observed that amber had this property of becoming “electrified.” ‘Tho mechanism of this attraction is itself based on disturbance of tho equilibrium. The atoms on the surface of the rod, being deficient in electrons, exhibit an invisible force seeking to attract electrons from any neighbouring material to restore the equilibrium. ‘This force acts on the atoms in the paper attracting electrons to the surface and if the pieces of paper are light enough the mechanical attraction between these electrons and the positively-charged (deficient) atoms on the surface of the rod is sufficient to lift the paper to the rod. Electromotive Force ‘This displacement of electrons constituting an electrio charge can be produced by other means than surface friction. In fact, except for certain specialized types of equipment, frictional methods are rarely used. ‘There are, in fact, several ways of producing a force which will cause an electron displacement. Ono is the familiar electric battery in which chemical interaction between two different materials produces an electromotive force, or em.f. Alternatively an e.m. may be produced by mechanical means, as in a dynamo, which converts mechanical foreos into electrical energy. ‘Then, finally, thore are arrangements which will convert heat or light into electrical energy. ‘The mechanism of these various prooosses is discussed later. All that need be noted at the moment is that, by suitable techniques, it is possible to produce an e.m.f, which will cause the displacement of electrons which constitutes an electric charge or current.6 RADIO COMMUNICATION Electric Current; Conductors and Insulators The movement of electrons produced by an e.méf. is called an electric current. In the effects so far desoribed the movement has only been momentary becauso the freedom of the electrons is limited. Materials of this type are known as insulators or dielectrics, ‘There are, however, materials, mostly metallic in nature, in which the internal forces are appreciably less strong so that clectrons are continually escaping from their parent atom and drift at random. They are soon captured by another atom which is deficient of an electron but thore is always a quantity of stray electrons in transit, If an em. can be introduced into the system, however, these random electrons will all be subjected to a force tending to move them in the same direction, producing a continuous flow of electrons through the material. In’ this case the current is sustained, and materials of this type are called conductors. ‘Hence it will be seen that there are two possible kinds of current: 1. Conduction current which is a continuous movement of electrons through the material. 2. Displacement current which is a momentary movement of electrons within the material. This might appear to be of limited importance but, as will be seen later, if the direction of the exm.f. is continually reversed the electrons can be caused to surge to and fro in the material so that a sustained oscillating current is obtained. In either case the intensity or strength of the current depends on the rate of flow of electrons; the more electrons passing a given point in a given time, the greater the current; and since an accumulation of electrons at rest constitutes an electric charge we can define the intonsity of an electric current, whether momentary or sustained, as the rate of change of charge. Gases normally behave as insulators but can under certain conditions behave as conductors. Liquids are usually (but not necessarily) insulators exoopt for aqueous solutions (salts dissolved in water) which conduct in a special way, to be discussed later. There are also certain materials known as semiconductors which occupy an intermediate position, behaving partly like insulators and partly like conductors. An understanding of their behaviour re- quires a more detailed discussion of the mechanism of conduction than is necessary at this juncture, It will suffice to note that developments in the use of these semiconductors have produced an entirely new range of techniques which are discussed in detail in Chapter 6.FUNDAMENTALS ? Units Wo may conveniently conclude this section with a brief reference to the units adopted for the measurement of the various quantities so far discussed. It might appear that the unit of charge could be the charge on a single electron but apart from the fact that this is far too small for practical purposes it is not commensurate with the units normally adopted. All engineering quantities can be expressed in terms of the three fundamental measurements of length, mass, and time and for many years the centimetre, the gramme, and the second were used as primary units (the CGS system). From these a series of derived units can be obtained but unfortunately there were two schools of thought, one based on electrostatic phenomena and tho other on olectromagnetio effects. In 1950 it was agroed to bring into use a common system of units known as the MKS system. ‘This was based on the metre, kilogramme, and second as the funda- ‘mental units, which did not, in itself, make a significant change; but by assigning certain specific values to the characteristics of free space, as explained in Appendix 2, a simplified and uniform system was developed. This is, in the main, still in use but its scope has been widened to include othor than electrical quantities to form what is known as tho International System of Units, and theso SI units have been adopted in the present text. In the International System the fundamental electrical quantity is not the charge but the current, which can be more conveniently measured in ferms of the physical forces developed. The unit of current: is the ampere, which is defined as the value of a constant current which, when maintained in two straight, parallel conductors of infinite length and negligible circular cross-section, separated by a distance of one metre in vacuo, would produce between the con- ductors a force of 2 x 10-7 newton per metre length. ‘The unit of charge is the coulomb which is the quantity of electri- city which results when a current of one ampere flows for one second. This is actually 6-24 x 10* times the charge on an electron, but this figure is not of importance in engineering, though it is of significance in electron physics. ‘The unit of e.m.f. is the volt which is derived from the relationship between current and resistance as explained in the next section, 1.2. Ohmic Conduction; Resistance We have seen that a movement of electrons constitutes an electric current, but this can take many forms. ‘The simplest form is that which occurs in those materials in which there is a proportion of8 RADIO COMMUNICATION relatively free electrons which ean be caused to move through the material by the application of a suitable om.f. Such materials are known as conductors and are, in the main, metallic in nature. The atomio structure of metals (as explained in Appendix 1) is such that the outermost orbit only contains one or two electrons which in oonse- quence are relatively loosely held. From time to timo an electron may leave ita parent atom, but in the absence of any directing force any such free electrons will circulate at random through the material. In the presence of an e.m-f., however, this movement will be co-ordinated into a steady drift towards any point or points of positive potential, which may be the result of a battery or other source external to the material, or may be the result of potentials actually produoed Battery within the material itself eS Consider the effect of a battery connected to a length of wire, as in Fig. 1.1. Tho Fio, 1d, Smaniw Faworarg eloetrons in the wire next to the positive ” Scere terminal will be drawn out of the wire, leaving behind them deficiency which will be filled by some of the random free electrons and so in tun along the wire, the doficieney at the negative end being mado up by elec- trons supplied (by chemical action) by the battery itself. There will thus be a continuous flow of current which will persist as long as the battery maintains its ¢.m.f. (Note that this current is an electron flow towards the point of positive potential. ‘The accepted convention of current as flowing from positive to negative originated before the mechanism of current flow was understood.) Resistance Tho magnitude of the current depends on the material of the conductor. If an atom loses one of its outer electrons it becomes positively charged or ionized, and any freo electrons are soon recaptured by an ionized atom. The pressure of an e.m.f., however, increases the velocity (and hence the energy) of the free electrons, some of which may thereby overcome the attraction of the ionized atoms and continue on their journey. The number of electrons which successfully evade recapture (and hence the current) is determined by (a) Tho applied o.m.£., and (®) The strength of the internal forces. ‘The second factor is clearly dependent on the internal structuro of the material. It is, in fact, a definite and measurable physicalFUNDAMENTALS, 9 property of the material, which is called tho resistivity, and a particular length of conductor or circuit is said to possess a certain resistance. ‘The actual resistance of a pieco of material depends upon its length, for obviously the greater the distance which the electrons have to travel the more the chance of their recapture and hence the Jess the ourrent produced by a given emf. It is also inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area since the larger the area the greater the number of free electrons available. This is expressed mathematically by saying that R = pl/A where I and A are the length and cross-sectional area and p is the resistivity, which is the resistance of a cube of the material of unit dimensions. ‘Typical values of p are given in Table 4.1, p. 153. ‘Tho reciprocal of resistivity is called the conductivity, for clearly the less the resistance the more easily will the material conduct. ‘Tho resistivity is dependent upon the temperature. Th atoms of the material are in a state of vibration which increases with tempera- ture so that the chances of recapture are increased. Hence the resistivity normally increases slightly as the temperature is raised, though there are some materials, notably carbon, in which the resistivity decreases with temperature.* Conversely, if the tempera- turo is reduced, tho resistance normally decreases and in fact with certain metals a point is reached, near to absolute zero (—273°C) at which the resistance almost disappears and a current, once started, will continue after the removal of the e.m.f. for several days. This is known as superconductivity, and is utilized in certain special applications. Ohm’s Law In normal circumstances the current, as we have seen, is directly proportional to the emf. and inversely proportional to the resis- tance. This relationship is known as Ohm's Law, which states that I = kB|R, where I is the current, His the e.m.., Ris the resistance, and kis a constant. In practice tho units of e.m.f. and resistance are 80 chosen as to make & = I, so that J = E/R. ‘Tho unit of resistance is the ohm, named after the scientist who first formulated tho relationship. It is a practical unit, being that resistance in which a steady current of one ampere generates heat energy at the rate of one joule per second (1 watt). (See page 12.) Negative temperature coefficients are frequently found in materials of tho semiconductor elas, wherein the mechanism of conduction is somewhat different, as explained in Chapter 6; and although carbon is not normally regarded as a omiconductor, ita atomio stractuze is of tho same form.10 RADIO COMMUNICATION The unit of e.m.., the volt, is thus tho e.m.f. which will produce current of one ampere in a resistance of one ohm. ‘The metals used for conductors all obey this striot proportionality and are therefore said to be ohmic conductors. There aro certain materials and alloys which do not behave in this way and theso are known as non-linear or non-ohmie conductors. Kirchhoff’s Laws; Concept of Back E.M.F. In the circuit of Fig. 1.1, I = E/R. This may bo rewritten in the form E — IR =0, indicating that the applied eam. is exactly offset by the voltage drop produced by the passage of the current Z through the resistance R. The relationship, however, may be expressed slightly differently by suggesting that the passage of the current through the resistance has developed back e.m.f., —IR, so that the tofal e.m.f. in the circuit is zero. Tho advantage of expressing the relationship in this way is that, as will be soen shortly, there are other forms of circuit element in which the passage of current develops @ voltage drop, particularly when the current is varying; moreover there are certain forms of “active” cireuit element which contain or generate e.mfs of their own. If any voltage drop is regarded as producing a back em-f., we have a consistent form of relationship which applies to any form of circuit. Tho relationship is known as Kirchhoff's Second Law, which states that the total e.m.f. in a circuit at any instant is zero Kirchhoff’s First Law relates to the current distribution in a cireuit. Circuits are rarely as simple as that of Fig. 1.1. ‘There is often more than one path for the current, as for example in Fig. 1.3. In such cases Kirchhofi’s First Law states that at any point in a circuit the eum of the currents flowing at any instant is zero. Thus at the point A in Fig. 1.3 thero will be a current I flowing towards A and two currents J, and J, flowing away from it. Kirchhoff’s First Law says that I-h-h=0 90 that I = I, + Iy. In this simple example this may appear self-evident but with more complex circuits the answer may not be so readily apparent. It should be noted that in circuits where the current is varying it is the instantaneous values of current or e.m.f. which must be used. Series and Parallel Connection Practical circuits nearly always contain more than one element, and it is necessary to know how the effects of the various parts mayFUNDAMENTALS 1 be added together. Hig. 1.2 is a circuit containing two resistances connected end to end, i.e. in series. Since there is only one path for the current, it must be the same throughout the cirouit. If this current is I, the back e.mf. on the resistances will be —JR, and —IR, respectively s0 that B — IR, — IR, = 0, Hence B = I(R, ++ R,), which means that R, and Ry in series are equivalent to a single resistance of value equal to the sum of R, and Ry. Moreover this same reasoning applies to any number of resistances. In Fig. 1.2 the resistances have been shown as separate units. It is often required in practice to provide units having a given value of resistance. Such an arrangement is called a resistor and the construction of typical forms of resistor is discussed in Section 4.1. A +I —=T os R 4 Fra. 1.2, Resweraxces 1 Pio, 1.3. Resisraxces mv Suares ‘PARALLEL In any circuit, however, the connecting wires possess some resistance which will normally have to be taken into account. In Fig. 1.2, for example, R, might be a resistor while Ry might represent the resistance of the wiring, assumed to be concentrated for convenience. The emf. will, in fact, be expended in overcoming the total circuit resistance and will be divided across the circuit in proportion to the resistance of the various portions. This is sometimes expressed by referring to the voltage drop across the circuit. Thus if R,=9Qohms and R,=1ohm then an emf. of 10 volts will produce a current of 1 ampere and there will be a voltage drop of 9 volts across R, and 1 volt acroas Fy. Fig. 1.3 shows two resistors in parallel. Hore it is the emf. across the circuit which is the same, so that J, E/R, ond I, = B/Ry. But we have seen that J = I, + I, 80 that if Ris the effective resistance of the two resistors R, and 2, together, I= B]R = BIR, + B[R,. Hence 1/R = 1/By + By. ‘This again may be applied to any number of resistors. Tho reciprocal of the resistance, 1/R, is called the conductance; hence for any number of resistors in parallel the total conductance is