“WPAN technologies enable users to establish ad hoc, wireless

communications for devices(such as PDAs, cellular phones, or laptops) that are

used within a personal operating space(POS). A POS is the space surrounding a
person, up to a distance of 10 meters. Currently, thetwo key WPAN technologies
are Bluetooth and infrared light. Bluetooth is a cable replacementtechnology that
uses radio waves to transmit data to a distance of up to 30 feet. Bluetooth
datacan be transferred through walls, pockets, and briefcases. Technology
development for Bluetoothis driven by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group
(SIG), which published the Bluetooth version 1.0specification in 1999.
Alternatively, to connect devices at a very close range (1 meter or less),users
can create infrared links.
To standardize the development of WPAN technologies, IEEE has
established the 802.15working group for WPANs. This working group is
developing a WPAN standard, based on theBluetooth version 1.0 specification.
Key goals for this draft standard are low complexity, lowpower consumption,
interoperability, and coexistence with 802.11 networks.”5
WLAN
At this point in time, wireless connectivity solutions can be grouped into three
main categories.All three use Radio Frequency (RF) technology to transmit data
through the air. The first category,wireless local area networking (WLAN),
transmits data between a wired network and a mobileuser or users (Types,
2005). Its origins lie in the encrypted radio signals sent by allied operativesacross
enemy lines during World War II. Referred to as “spread spectrum technology,”
thewartime messages paved the way for the first computational wireless network,
which was createdin 1971 at the University of Hawaii. The project, called
ALOHNET, had seven computers set up onfour islands communicating with one
central computer on Oahu, none of them using phone lines(Bautts, 2005). In a
modern-day example of WLAN technology, businesses commonly issuenetwork-
connected laptops with wireless cards to their employees to replace desktop
computers.This allows their employees to be productive anywhere within the
bounds of the corporatenetwork. It also encourages collaboration by giving them
the ability to form ad hoc work groups. Incertain situations, it can provide
employees with incentives to use their computers at home or incoffee shops,
where they may do work outside of traditional work hours. In this case, because
theemployees’ work time seeps into their leisure time, a perceived benefit for the
employee (the useof a computer with wireless capabilities) becomes a very real
benefit for the employer.
 Wireless LANs operate using a transceiver device to send and receive
data. This device, alsoreferred to as an “access point,” connects the computers
on the wireless network to a wirednetwork. The computers are equipped with
wireless networking devices, which come standard onmany laptop and handheld
computers now. Each access point ensures connection to the networkwithin a
radius of anywhere from 100 to several hundred feet. Access points are
strategicallyplaced across a network area so that connection areas overlap and
users can travel betweenthem without interruption of service, a process called
“roaming.” (Proxim, 1998) Several differentprotocols exist for wireless local area
networking; all approved by the Institute of Electrical andElectronics Engineers
(IEEE). Together, LAN protocols have been assigned the numericalgrouping 802.
They are then broken down into further groupings. 802.11b (Wireless Fidelity
-commonly referred to as “WiFi”) is the standard used by most WLANs today. A
new standard802.16 (WiMax) is currently being developed to provide connectivity
with a 30-mile radius aroundeach access point.”
WMAN
WMAN technologies enable users to establish wireless connections
between multiplelocations within a metropolitan area (for example, between
multiple office buildings in a city or ona university campus), without the high cost
of laying fiber or copper cabling and leasing lines. Inaddition, WMANs can serve
as backups for wired networks, should the primary leased lines forwired networks
become unavailable. WMANs use either radio waves or infrared light to
transmitdata. Broadband wireless access networks, which provide users with
high-speed access to theInternet, are in increasing demand. Although different
technologies, such as the multichannelmultipoint distribution service (MMDS) and
the local multipoint distribution services (LMDS), arebeing used, the IEEE 802.16
working group for broadband wireless access standards is stilldeveloping
specifications to standardize development of these technologies.
WWAN
WWAN technologies enable users to establish wireless connections over
remote public orprivate networks. These connections can be maintained over
large geographical areas, such ascities or countries, through the use of multiple
antenna sites or satellite systems maintained bywireless service providers.
Current WWAN technologies are known as second-generation (2G)systems. Key
2G systems include Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM),
CellularDigital Packet Data (CDPD), and Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA).
Efforts are under way totransition from 2G networks, some of which have limited
roaming capabilities and areincompatible with each other, to third-generation
(3G) technologies that would follow a globalstandard and provide worldwide
roaming capabilities. The ITU is actively promoting thedevelopment of a global
standard for 3G.
Below is a table indicating the range that wireless data networks can handle:
Meters
Network
0-10
Personal Area Network
0-100
Local Area Network
0-10000
Wide Area Network
Wireless Mesh Network
“In a mesh network, the wireless connection extends not only to client
computers, such aswireless laptops, but between other network nodes. This is in
contrast with a typical wireless localarea network, where the client computers
connect wirelessly to an access point but that device is

in turn plugged into the wired corporate network. The connection between the
local area network
and a larger corporate network or the Internet is known as the "backhaul."“6
Connectivity and Bandwidth
In 1985, the FCC made segments of the bandwidth spectrum available for
use by certaintelecommunications devices without a license. The unregulated
spectrum was known as the ISM(Industrial, Scientific and Medical) bands, and
the FCC recently added to the unregulated aspectrum 300 MHz of additional
bandwidth. This dedicated free bandwidth ensures that anyoneadhering to pre-
set standards of power and technologies applied can reap the benefits of
wirelessconnectivity without having to obtain a license or pay fees.
Future WLAN Applications
Wireless connectivity has to a great extent changed the way we live, and it
promises to do soincreasingly. Currently, WLANs allow employees in
organizations to carry out their duties andremain constantly connected to a
network, where they can retrieve, and exchange and storeinformation. Doctors
and nurses in hospitals frequently carry handheld devices connected to
thehospital’s WLAN to record and download vital patient information to and from
the network.(Proxim, 1998) Students on college campuses tote laptop computers
from class to class,remaining constantly connected to the Internet, and
supplementing their classroom educations.WLANs are also increasingly
employed to establish voice connections between users with Voice-over Internet
Protocol (VoIP), which transmits voice data across the Internet in data packets.
Theappeal of VoIP is that since most providers charge a flat monthly rate, calls
can be connectedwithout incurring long-distance fees. This can provide a very
cost-effective solution to users whoroutinely make international calls. Voice-over
WiFi (VoWiFi) combines VoIP with wirelessnetworking technology. Using a PDA
or a laptop computer equipped with a wireless card andInternet telephony
software, a user can make a telephone call over a wireless network.
Oneadvantage of this technology over traditional cellular phone technology is
improved connectionquality indoors or underground. Some cellular phone
companies have developed hybridtelephones that operate using VoWiFi most of
the time but can switch to a regular cellularconnection if the user happens to
move out of the LAN area. (Beal, 2005)
Future WPAN Applications
The possibilities of WPAN extend beyond the ability to sync one’s Palm Pilot
to a desktopwithout wires. Currently, the Bluetooth protocol is being applied in
the development of pervasivecomputing solutions for the home. In the very near
future, the majority of people may use aBluetooth-enabled wireless connection
and a personal controller to access or remotely controlmany “intelligent” devices,
such as handheld computers, mobile telephones, cars, kitchenappliances, home
lighting systems, etc., which can detect users’ changing locations and respondto
their needs accordingly (WPAN, 2005)
Developers are working on a generation of wearable devices that will perform
functions suchas allowing the wearer to input data without using a keyboard or
mouse, or monitoring thewearer’s vital statistics. These applications, together
with home and office pervasive computing,could save time and be of tremendous
help to people with illnesses or disabilities.
Wireless Standards
The developing generations of wireless technology we believe that will have
soon access toan unprecedented breadth of wireless standards. Those should
increase the range, speed, andquality of wireless connectivity. A specific topic
deals about those standards in general, and themost known of them.
6http://www.baselinemag.com/print_article2/0,1217,a=159982,00.a sp

Device TypesPC Cards

Cell Phones
Embedded Radio Modules
PC Cards
Cell Phones
Driver Model
NDIS using custom OIDs
 Modem Emulation
WWAN NDIS Interface
Features
Custom configuration software
Complicated OOB configuration
No integration with WLAN
Difficult to get Windows logo
No test tools provided
Extensible Native WWAN UI
Easy OOB configuration
Enables WLAN-WWAN Roaming
Easy to get Windows logo
Test tool included with beta
Table 2.WWAN today and tomorrow
With wireless WAN, customer satisfaction is up and support costs are down.
WWAN broughtmany benefits to many companies and satisfaction to the
employers as we see from the quotation.
“The wireless WAN has dramaticallyimproved the way weservice our customers. HP
provides on-sitetechnical support faster than ever before — and atless cost. “
Bob Floyd23
Vice president-Service Delivery
Operations America Technology Services
Comparing Wireless LAN with Wireless
WAN
Now that we know the basic concepts for Wireless LAN and Wireless WAN
we can make acomparison between them. A wireless wide area network
(Wireless WAN), covers a much moreextensive area than wireless LANs.
Coverage is generally offered on a nationwide level withwireless network
infrastructure provided by a wireless service carrier.
While wireless LANs are used to allow network users to be mobile within a
small fixed area,wireless WANs are used to give Internet connectivity over a
much broader coverage area, formobile users such as business travelers or field
service technicians.
We can compare them in these fields:
1) Speed
 802.11b wireless LAN standard transfers data at speeds of up to 11 Mbps,
with typical
rates of
between 1–4 Mbps, decreasing as more users share the same
wirelessLAN connection. The next version, 802.11a, is supposed to transfer data
at speeds of upto 54 Mbps24.
-
Wireless WAN speeds differ depending on the technology used. GPRS networks
offer a
maximum user data rate of over 115 kbps if all eight timeslots in a cell are
allocated for
data transmission, (one timeslot can provide between 9 and 21 kbps25)
2) Data security
Security is one of the most important features when using a wireless network.
Security isone of the biggest strengths for cellular wireless networks (WWANs)
and one of thebiggest weaknesses in 802.11 networks (WLANs). Security can be
increased on wirelessLANs by using shared key authentication. This shared key
must be delivered through asecure method other than the 802.11 connection.
3) Hotspots
Hotspots are wireless LANs available to the public in a location, like an airport,
coffeeshop, or city neighborhood. These (hotspots) enable users to access the
network eitherfree of charge, or for a fee paid to the network operator.
4) Costs
Since wireless LANs operate in the unlicensed frequency range, there is no
service costfor using a private wireless LAN. There will be a monthly Internet
service provider cost foraccessing the Internet through your wireless LAN access
point
For cellular wireless WANs, the wireless network is acting as your Internet
serviceprovider by providing access to the Internet over their wireless network.
The wirelessprovider therefore charges a monthly subscription rate to their
network, similar to awireless phone subscription.
As a greatSOLUTION is to WLAN and WWAN work together.
Used together, a user would have the best of both technologies, offering high-
speed wirelessaccess in a campus area, and access to all their data and
applications with high-speed cellularaccess from anywhere with wireless WAN
network coverage

Q :- second

Ans:- Wireless communication is the transfer of information over a distance without the use of
enhanced electrical conductors or "wires".[1] The distances involved may be short (a few meters
as in television remote control) or long (thousands or millions of kilometers for radio
 communications). When the context is clear, the term is often shortened to "wireless". Wireless
communication is generally considered to be a branch of telecommunications.

It encompasses various types of fixed, mobile, and portable two-way radios, cellular
telephones, personal digital assistants (PDAs), andwireless networking. Other examples
of wireless technology include GPS units, garage door openers and or garage doors,
wireless computer mice, keyboards and headsets, satellite television and cordless telephones.
•
Introduction

Handheld wireless radios such as this Maritime VHF radio transceiver use electromagnetic waves to implement a
form of wireless communications technology.

Wireless operations permits services, such as long range communications, that are impossible
or impractical to implement with the use of wires. The term is commonly used in the
telecommunications industry to refer to telecommunications systems (e.g. radio transmitters and
receivers, remote controls, computer networks, network terminals, etc.) which use some form of
energy (e.g. radio frequency (RF), infrared light, laser light, visible light, acoustic energy, etc.) to
transfer information without the use of wires.[2] Information is transferred in this manner over both
short and long distances. .jnd,vjsvnssbvlsvb xb x xvdbdbbxvx

[edit]Wireless communication

he term "wireless" has become a generic and all-encompassing word used to describe
communications in which electromagnetic waves or RF (rather than some form of wire) carry a
signal over part or the entire communication path. Common examples of wireless equipment in
use today include:

 Professional LMR (Land Mobile Radio) and SMR (Specialized Mobile Radio) typically
used by business, industrial and Public Safety entities.
 Consumer Two Way Radio including FRS (Family Radio Service), GMRS (General
Mobile Radio Service) and Citizens band ("CB") radios.
 The Amateur Radio Service (Ham radio).
 Consumer and professional Marine VHF radios.
 Cellular telephones and pagers: provide connectivity for portable and mobile applications,
both personal and business.
  Global Positioning System (GPS): allows drivers of cars and trucks, captains of boats and
ships, and pilots of aircraft to ascertain their location anywhere on earth.
 Cordless computer peripherals: the cordless mouse is a common example; keyboards
and printers can also be linked to a computer via wireless.
 Cordless telephone sets: these are limited-range devices, not to be confused with cell
phones.
 Satellite television: allows viewers in almost any location to select from hundreds of
channels.
 Wireless gaming: new gaming consoles allow players to interact and play in the same
game regardless of whether they are playing on different consoles. Players can chat, send
text messages as well as record sound and send it to their friends. Controllers also use
wireless technology. They do not have any cords but they can send the information from what
is being pressed on the controller to the main console which then processes this information
and makes it happen in the game. All of these steps are completed in milliseconds.

[edit]Situations Justifying Use of Wireless Technology

Wireless networking (i.e. the various types of unlicensed 2.4 GHz WiFi devices) is used to meet
many needs. Perhaps the most common use is to connect laptop users who travel from location
to location. Another common use is for mobile networks that connect via satellite. A wireless
transmission method is a logical choice to network a LAN segment that must frequently change
locations. The following situations justify the use of wireless technology:

 To span a distance beyond the capabilities of typical cabling,

 To provide a backup communications link in case of normal network failure,
 To link portable or temporary workstations,
 To overcome situations where normal cabling is difficult or financially impractical, or
 To remotely connect mobile users or networks.

[edit]Modes of Wireless Communication

Wireless communication can be via:

 radio frequency communication,

 microwave communication, for example long-range line-of-sight via highly directional
antennas, or short-range communication, or
  infrared (IR) short-range communication, for example from remote controls or via Infrared
Data Association (IrDA).

Applications may involve point-to-point communication, point-to-multipoint

communication, broadcasting, cellular networks and other wireless networks.

[edit]Difference between Wireless and Cordless

The term "wireless" should not be confused with the term "cordless", which is generally used to
refer to powered electrical or electronic devices that are able to operate from a portable power
source (e.g. a battery pack) without any cable or cord to limit the mobility of the cordless device
through a connection to the mains power supply. Some cordless devices, such as cordless
telephones, are also wireless in the sense that information is transferred from the cordless
telephone to the telephone's base unit via some type of wireless communications link. This has
caused some disparity in the usage of the term "cordless", for example in Digital Enhanced
Cordless Telecommunications.

In the last fifty years, wireless communications industry experienced drastic changes driven by
many technology innovations.

[edit]History

[edit]Photophone
Main article: Photophone

The world's first, wireless telephone conversation occurred in 1880, when Alexander Graham
Bell and Charles Sumner Tainter invented and patented the photophone, a telephone that
conducted audio conversations wirelessly over modulated light beams (which are narrow
projections of electromagnetic waves). In that distant era when utilities did not yet exist to
provide electricity, and lasers had not even been conceived of in science fiction, there were no
practical applications for their invention, which was highly limited by the availability of both
sunlight and good weather. Similar to free space optical communication, the photophone also
required a clear line of sight between its transmitter and its receiver. It would be several decades
before the photophone's principles found their first practical applications in military
communications and later in fiber-optic communications.

[edit]Radio
Main article: History of radio

The term "wireless" came into public use to refer to a radio receiver or transceiver (a dual
purpose receiver and transmitter device), establishing its usage in the field of wireless telegraphy
early on; now the term is used to describe modern wireless connections such as in cellular
networks and wireless broadband Internet. It is also used in a general sense to refer to any type
of operation that is implemented without the use of wires, such as "wireless remote control" or
"wireless energy transfer", regardless of the specific technology (e.g. radio,infrared, ultrasonic)
that is used to accomplish the operation. While Guglielmo Marconi and Karl Ferdinand
Braun were awarded the 1909Nobel Prize for Physics for their contribution to wireless telegraphy.

[edit]Early wireless work

David E. Hughes, eight years before Hertz's experiments, transmitted radio signals over a few
hundred yards by means of a clockwork keyed transmitter. As this was before Maxwell's work
was understood, Hughes' contemporaries dismissed his achievement as mere "Induction". In
1885, T. A. Edison used a vibrator magnet for induction transmission. In 1888, Edison deployed a
system of signaling on the Lehigh Valley Railroad. In 1891, Edison obtained the wireless patent
for this method using inductance (U.S. Patent 465,971).

In the history of wireless technology, the demonstration of the theory of electromagnetic

waves by Heinrich Hertz in 1888 was important.[3][4]The theory of electromagnetic waves was
predicted from the research of James Clerk Maxwell and Michael Faraday. Hertz demonstrated
that electromagnetic waves could be transmitted and caused to travel through space at straight
lines and that they were able to be received by an experimental apparatus.[3][4] The experiments
were not followed up by Hertz. Jagadish Chandra Bose around this time developed an early
wireless detection device and help increase the knowledge of millimeter length electromagnetic
waves.[5]. Practical applications of wireless radio communication and radio remote control
technology were implemented by later inventors, such as Nikola Tesla.

Further information: Invention of radio

[edit]The electromagnetic spectrum
Light, colors, AM and FM radio, and electronic devices make use of the electromagnetic
spectrum. In the US, the frequencies that are available for use for communication are treated as a
public resource and are regulated by the Federal Communications Commission. This determines
which frequency ranges can be used for what purpose and by whom. In the absence of such
control or alternative arrangements such as a privatized electromagnetic spectrum, chaos might
result if, for example, airlines didn't have specific frequencies to work under and an amateur
radio operator were interfering with the pilot's ability to land an airplane. Wireless communication
spans the spectrum from 9 kHz to 300 GHz. (Also see Spectrum management)

[edit]Applications of wireless technology

[edit]Security systems
Wireless technology may supplement or replace hard wired implementations in security systems
for homes or office buildings.

[edit]Television remote control

Modern televisions use wireless (generally infrared) remote control units. Now radio waves are
also used.

[edit]Cellular telephone (phones and modems)

Perhaps the best known example of wireless technology is the cellular telephone and modems.
These instruments use radio waves to enable the operator to make phone calls from many
locations worldwide. They can be used anywhere that there is a cellular telephone site to house
the equipment that is required to transmit and receive the signal that is used to transfer both voice
and data to and from these instruments.

[edit]Wi-Fi
Main article: Wi-Fi

Wi-Fi is a wireless local area network that enables portable computing devices to connect easily
to the Internet. Standardized as IEEE 802.11 a,b,g,n, Wi-Fi approaches speeds of some types of
wired Ethernet. Wi-Fi hot spots have been popular over the past few years. Some businesses
charge customers a monthly fee for service, while others have begun offering it for free in an
effort to increase the sales of their goods.[6]

[edit]Wireless energy transfer

Main article: Wireless energy transfer

Wireless energy transfer is a process whereby electrical energy is transmitted from a power
source to an electrical load that does not have a built-in power source, without the use of
interconnecting wires.

[edit]Computer Interface Devices

Answering the call of customers frustrated with cord clutter, many manufactures of computer
peripherals turned to wireless technology to satisfy their consumer base. Originally these units
used bulky, highly limited transceivers to mediate between a computer and a keyboard and
mouse, however more recent generations have used small, high quality devices, some even
incorporating Bluetooth. These systems have become so ubiquitous that some users have begun
complaining about a lack of wired peripherals.[who?] Wireless devices tend to have a slightly slower
response time than their wired counterparts, however the gap is decreasing. Initial concerns
about the security of wireless keyboards have also been addressed with the maturation of the
technology.
Many scientists have complained that wireless technology interferes with their experiments,
forcing them to use less optimal peripherals because the optimum one is not available in a wired
version.[who?] This has become especially prevalent among scientists who use trackballsas the
number of models in production steadily decreases.

Q:- 3

Ans:- Layer 2: Data Link Layer

The Data Link Layer provides the functional and procedural means to transfer data between
network entities and to detect and possibly correct errors that may occur in the Physical Layer.
Originally, this layer was intended for point-to-point and point-to-multipoint media, characteristic of
wide area media in the telephone system. Local area network architecture, which included
broadcast-capable multiaccess media, was developed independently of the ISO work in IEEE
Project 802. IEEE work assumed sublayering and management functions not required for WAN
use. In modern practice, only error detection, not flow control using sliding window, is present in
data link protocols such asPoint-to-Point Protocol (PPP), and, on local area networks, the IEEE
802.2 LLC layer is not used for most protocols on the Ethernet, and on other local area networks,
its flow control and acknowledgment mechanisms are rarely used. Sliding window flow control
and acknowledgment is used at the Transport Layer by protocols such as TCP, but is still used in
niches where X.25 offers performance advantages.

The ITU-T G.hn standard, which provides high-speed local area networking over existing wires
(power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables), includes a complete Data Link Layer which
provides both error correction and flow control by means of a selective repeat Sliding Window
Protocol.

Both WAN and LAN service arrange bits, from the Physical Layer, into logical sequences called
frames. Not all Physical Layer bits necessarily go into frames, as some of these bits are purely
intended for Physical Layer functions. For example, every fifth bit of the FDDI bit stream is not
used by the Layer.
[edit]WAN Protocol architecture

Connection-oriented WAN data link protocols, in addition to framing, detect and may correct
errors. They are also capable of controlling the rate of transmission. A WAN Data Link Layer
might implement a sliding window flow control and acknowledgment mechanism to provide
reliable delivery of frames; that is the case for SDLC and HDLC, and derivatives of HDLC such
as LAPB and LAPD.
[edit]IEEE 802 LAN architecture

Practical, connectionless LANs began with the pre-IEEE Ethernet specification, which is the
ancestor of IEEE 802.3. This layer manages the interaction of devices with a shared medium,
which is the function of a Media Access Control sublayer. Above this MAC sublayer is the media-
independent IEEE 802.2 Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer, which deals with addressing and
multiplexing on multiaccess media.

While IEEE 802.3 is the dominant wired LAN protocol and IEEE 802.11 the wireless LAN
protocol, obsolescent MAC layers include Token Ring and FDDI. The MAC sublayer detects but
does not correct errors.

2nd opetion Answer :- The Data Link Layer is Layer 2 of the seven-layer OSI
model of computer networking. It corresponds to, or is part of the link layer of the TCP/IP
reference model.

The Data Link Layer is the protocol layer which transfers data between adjacent network nodes in
a wide area network or between nodes on the same local area network segment[1]. The Data Link
Layer provides the functional and procedural means to transfer data between network entities
and might provide the means to detect and possibly correct errors that may occur in the Physical
Layer. Examples of data link protocols are Ethernet for local area networks (multi-node),
the Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP), HDLC and ADCCP for point-to-point (dual-node) connections.

The Data Link Layer is concerned with local delivery of frames between devices on the same
LAN. Data Link frames, as these protocol data units are called, do not cross the boundaries of a
local network. Inter-network routing and global addressing are higher layer functions, allowing
Data Link protocols to focus on local delivery, addressing, and media arbitration. In this way, the
Data Link layer is analogous to a neighborhood traffic cop; it endeavors to arbitrate between
parties contending for access to a medium.

When devices attempt to use a medium simultaneously, frame collisions occur. Data Link
protocols specify how devices detect and recover from such collisions, and may provide
mechanisms to reduce or prevent them.

Delivery of frames by layer 2 devices is affected through the use of unambiguous hardware
addresses. A frame's header contains source and destination addresses that indicate which
device originated the frame and which device is expected to receive and process it. In contrast to
the hierarchical and routable addresses of the network layer, layer 2 addresses are flat, meaning
that no part of the address can be used to identify the logical or physical group to which the
address belongs.

The data link thus provides data transfer across the physical link. That transfer can be reliable or
unreliable; many data link protocols do not have acknowledgments of successful frame reception
and acceptance, and some data link protocols might not even have any form of checksum to
check for transmission errors. In those cases, higher-level protocols must provide flow control,
error checking, and acknowledgments and retransmission.

In some networks, such as IEEE 802 local area networks, the Data Link Layer is described in
more detail with Media Access Control (MAC) and Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayers; this
means that the IEEE 802.2 LLC protocol can be used with all of the IEEE 802 MAC layers, such
as Ethernet, token ring, IEEE 802.11, etc., as well as with some non-802 MAC layers such
as FDDI. Other Data Link Layer protocols, such as HDLC, are specified to include both sublayers,
although some other protocols, such as Cisco HDLC, use HDLC's low-level framing as a MAC
layer in combination with a different LLC layer. In the ITU-T G.hn standard, which provides a way
to create a high-speed (up to 1 Gigabit/s) Local area network using existing home wiring (power
lines, phone lines and coaxial cables), the Data Link Layer is divided into three sub-layers
(Application Protocol Convergence, Logical Link Control and Medium Access Control).

Within the semantics of the OSI network architecture, the Data Link Layer protocols respond to
service requests from the Network Layer and they perform their function by issuing service
requests to the Physical Layer.

Models of communication
[edit]Connection-oriented communication
Main article: Connection-oriented
[edit]Connectionless communication
Main article: Connectionless mode transmission
[edit]Sublayers of the Data Link Layer
[edit]Logical Link Control sublayer
The uppermost sublayer is Logical Link Control (LLC). This sublayer multiplexes protocols
running atop the Data Link Layer, and optionally provides flow control, acknowledgment, and
error notification. The LLC provides addressing and control of the data link. It specifies which
mechanisms are to be used for addressing stations over the transmission medium and for
controlling the data exchanged between the originator and recipient machines.

[edit]Media Access Control sublayer

The sublayer below it is Media Access Control (MAC). Sometimes this refers to the sublayer that
determines who is allowed to access the media at any one time (usually CSMA/CD). Other times
it refers to a frame structure with MAC addresses inside.

There are generally two forms of media access control: distributed and centralized. Both of these
may be compared to communication between people. In a network made up of people speaking,
i.e. a conversation, we look for clues from our fellow talkers to see if any of them appear to be
about to speak. If two people speak at the same time, they will back off and begin a long and
elaborate game of saying "no, you first".

The Media Access Control sublayer also determines where one frame of data ends and the next
one starts -- frame synchronization. There are four means of frame synchronization: time based,
character counting, byte stuffing and bit stuffing.

 The time based approach simply puts a specified amount of time between frames. The
major drawback of this is that new gaps can be introduced or old gaps can be lost due to
external influences.
 Character counting simply notes the count of remaining characters in the frame's header.
This method, however, is easily disturbed if this field gets faulty in some way, thus making it
hard to keep up synchronization.
 Byte stuffing precedes the frame with a special byte sequence such as DLE STX and
succeeds it with DLE ETX. Appearances of DLE(byte value 0x10) has to be escaped with
another DLE. The start and stop marks are detected at the receiver and removed as well as
the inserted DLE characters.
  Similarly, bit stuffing replaces these start and end marks with flag consisting of a special
bit pattern (e.g. a 0, six 1 bits and a 0). Occurrences of this bit pattern in the data to be
transmitted is avoided by inserting a bit. To use the example where the flag is 01111110, a 0
is inserted after 5 consecutive 1's in the data stream. The flags and the inserted 0's are
removed at the receiving end. This makes for arbitrary long frames and easy synchronization
for the recipient. Note that this stuffed bit is added even if the following data bit is 0, which
could not be mistaken for a sync sequence, so that the receiver can unambiguously
distinguish stuffed bits from normal bits.

[edit]List of Data Link Layer services

 Encapsulation of network layer data packets into frames

 Frame synchronization
 Logical link control (LLC) sublayer:
 Error control (automatic repeat request,ARQ), in addition to ARQ provided by
some Transport layer protocols, to forward error correction (FEC) techniques provided on
the Physical Layer, and to error-detection and packet canceling provided at all layers,
including the network layer. Data link layer error control (i.e. retransmission of erroneous
packets) is provided in wireless networks andV.42 telephone network modems, but not in
LAN protocols such as Ethernet, since bit errors are so uncommon in short wires. In that
case, only error detection and canceling of erroneous packets are provided.
 Flow control, in addition to the one provided on the Transport layer. Data link
layer error control is not used in LAN protocols such as Ethernet, but in modems and
wireless networks.

 Media access control (MAC) sublayer:

 Multiple access protocols for channel-access control, for
example CSMA/CD protocols for collision detection and retransmission inEthernet bus
networks and hub networks, or the CSMA/CA protocol for collision avoidance in wireless
networks.
 Physical addressing (MAC addressing)
 LAN switching (packet switching) including MAC filtering and spanning tree
protocol
 Data packet queueing or scheduling
 Store-and-forward switching or cut-through switching
  Quality of Service (QoS)

Q4. What approach will be followed if packet is lost or NIC detect an error
during the transmission of data.

Even a small amount of network error / packet loss can have a dramatic impact on the user
experience during an IP video call. For this reason, the ability to host successful video calls over
“lossy” IP networks has been a challenge since the emergence of IP videoconferencing in the
mid- to late-1990s. In recent years, the increased use of low-cost, shared, and over-subscribed
network lines (e.g. DSL, cable, satellite, high congestion LANs and WANs, general Internet, etc.)
and the use of higher call speeds (often required to support higher video resolutions) have made
this problem even more critical.
In Q4 2007, Polycom asked Wainhouse Research (WR) to evaluate the performance of its newly
released LPR (or Lost Packet Recovery) feature; an algorithm available on Polycom’s HDX
video systems. LPR protects IP video calls from the impact of packet loss by temporarily
allocating a small portion of the call bandwidth to be used for forward error correction (FEC).
The theory behind LPR’s operation is that it’s better to provide a solid video call at a slightly
lower call speed than a video call plagued by video and audio issues (blocking, freezing, hiccups,
etc.).
As a part of this effort, WR researched and analyzed the methods used by currently available
videoconferencing systems to conceal the effect of network errors. In addition, WR set up a
number of video systems in our Atlanta test lab, placed a series of test calls including varying
levels of packet loss, and observed the results. This allowed WR to assess each system’s ability to
protect video calls from packet loss in a variety of conditions.
After placing several hundred test calls between various systems, WR concluded that LPR’s
ability to protect the video call experience from the effects of packet loss – especially random /
bursty packet loss - is exceptional. Although LPR is only available on Polycom HDX systems at
this time, Polycom expects to add LPR to its VSX, RMX, and RSS product lines in the near
future.
Particularly notable aspects of LPR include:
1) LPR’s performance is especially strong when tackling packet loss of 5% or less, making
LPR well suited to address the vast majority of network situations.
2) While most of the video systems on the market today include some form of packet loss /
error concealment capability, Polycom LPR is one of only two error protection schemes
available today that uses forward error correction (FEC) to recover lost data.
3) One of LPR’s differentiators and strengths is that it protects all parts of the video call,
including the audio, video, and content / H.239 channels, from packet loss.
Q5. List out and explain various infrastructure of Wireless Network.

Introduction

The utility of wireless networking in the home and small business has obvious benefits. With
wireless networking, you do not have to install cabling to connect the separate computers together
and portable computers, such as laptops or notebook computers, can roam around the house or
small business office and maintain their connection to the network.

Although there are multiple wireless networking technologies available to create wireless networks,
this article describes the use of the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) 802.11
standards.

IEEE 802.11 Overview

IEEE 802.11 is a set of industry standards for shared wireless local area network (WLAN)
technologies, the most prevalent of which is IEEE 802.11b, also known as Wi-Fi. IEEE 802.11b
transmits data at 1, 2, 5.5 or 11 Megabits per second (Mbps) using the 2.4-2.5 gigahertz (GHz) S-
Band Industrial, Scientific, and Medical (ISM) frequency range. Other wireless devices such as
microwave ovens, cordless phones, wireless video cameras, and devices using another wireless
technology known as Bluetooth also use the S-Band ISM.

For ideal conditions, close proximity, and no sources of attenuation or interference, IEEE 802.11b
operates at 11 Mbps, a higher bit rate than 10 Mbps wired Ethernet. In less-than-ideal conditions,
the slower speeds of 5.5 Mbps, 2 Mbps, and 1 Mbps are used.

The IEEE 802.11a standard has a maximum bit rate of 54 Mbps and uses frequencies in the 5 GHz
range, including the 5.725-5.875 GHz C-Band ISM frequency band. This higher speed technology
allows wireless LAN networking to perform better for video and conferencing applications. Because
they are not on the same frequencies as Bluetooth or microwave ovens, IEEE 802.11a provides both
a higher data rate and a cleaner signal.

The IEEE 802.11g standard has a maximum bit rate of 54 Mbps and uses the S-Band ISM. All of the
instructions in this article for configuring the wireless nodes apply to IEEE 802.11b, 802.11a, and
802.11g-based wireless networks.

Infrastructure Mode
The IEEE 802.11 standards specify two operating modes: infrastructure mode and ad hoc mode.

Infrastructure mode is used to connect computers with wireless network adapters, also known as
wireless clients, to an existing wired network. For example, a home or small business office might
have an existing Ethernet network. With infrastructure mode, laptop computers or other desktop
computers that do not have an Ethernet wired connection can be seamlessly connected to the
existing network. A networking node known as a wireless access point (AP) is used to bridge the
wired and wireless networks. Figure 1 shows an infrastructure mode wireless network.
Figure 1 Infrastructure mode wireless network
In infrastructure mode, data sent between a wireless client and other wireless clients and nodes on
the wired network segment is first sent to the wireless AP. The wireless AP then forwards the data
to the appropriate destination.

Ad Hoc Mode
Ad hoc mode is used to connect wireless clients directly together, without the need for a wireless AP
or a connection to an existing wired network. An ad hoc network consists of up to 9 wireless clients,
which send their data directly to each other. Figure 2 shows an ad hoc mode wireless network.

Figure 2 Ad hoc mode wireless network

Naming Wireless Networks

Wireless networks, whether operating in either infrastructure mode or ad hoc mode, use a name
known as a Service Set Identifier (SSID) to identify a specific wireless network. When wireless
clients first start up, they scan the wireless frequency band for special beacon frames sent by
wireless APs or wireless clients in ad hoc mode. The beacon frames contain the SSID, also known as
the wireless network name. From the accumulated list of wireless network names collected during
the scanning process, the wireless client can determine the wireless network to which a connection
is attempted. One of the elements of configuring a wireless network is to select a name for your
wireless network. If you are creating a new wireless network, the name you choose should be
different than the names of all other wireless networks with scanning range. For example, if you are
creating a wireless network in your home and your neighbor has already created a wireless network
called HOME that is visible from the locations in your home, you must choose a name other than
HOME.

After you have selected a wireless network name and configured it for your wireless AP
(infrastructure mode) or a wireless client (ad hoc mode), that name will be visible from any IEEE
wireless node. War driving is the practice of driving around business or residential neighborhoods
scanning for wireless network names. Someone driving around the vicinity of your wireless network
might be able to see your wireless network name, but whether they will be able to do anything
beyond viewing your wireless network name is determined by your use of wireless security.
With wireless security enabled and properly configured, war drivers will see your network name and
join your network, but will be unable to send data, interpret the data sent on your wireless network,
access the resources of your wireless or wired network (shared files, private Web sites), or use your
Internet connection.

Without wireless security enabled and properly configured, war drivers will be able to send data,
interpret the data sent on your wireless network, access the shared resources of your wireless or
wired network (shared files, private Web sites), install viruses, modify or destroy confidential data,
and use your Internet connection without your knowledge or consent. For example, a malicious user
might use your Internet connection to send email or launch attacks against other computers. The
malicious traffic can be traced back to your home or small business.

It is for these reasons that Microsoft strongly urges you to enable and properly configure wireless
security.

Wireless Security
Security for IEEE 802.11 consists of encryption and authentication. Encryption is used to encrypt, or
scramble, the data in wireless frames before they are sent on the wireless network. Authentication
requires wireless clients to authenticate themselves before they are allowed to join the wireless
network.

Encryption
The following types of encryption are available for use with 802.11 networks:

• WEP

• WPA

• WPA2

WEP Encryption
For the encryption of wireless data, the original 802.11 standard defined Wired Equivalent Privacy
(WEP). Due to the nature of wireless LAN networks, securing physical access to the network is
difficult. Unlike a wired network where a direct physical connection is required, anyone within range
of a wireless AP or a wireless client can conceivably send and receive frames as well as listen for
other frames being sent, making eavesdropping and remote sniffing of wireless network frames
very easy.

WEP uses a shared, secret key to encrypt the data of the sending node. The receiving node uses the
same WEP key to decrypt the data. For infrastructure mode, the WEP key must be configured on the
wireless AP and all the wireless clients. For ad hoc mode, the WEP key must be configured on all the
wireless clients.

As specified in the IEEE 802.11 standards, WEP uses a 40-bit secret key. Most wireless hardware for
IEEE 802.11 also supports the use of a 104-bit WEP key. If your hardware supports both, use a
104-bit key.

Note Some wireless vendors advertise the use of a 128-bit wireless encryption key. This is the
addition of a 104-bit WEP key with another number used during the encryption process known as
the initialization vector (a 24-bit number). Also, some recent wireless APs support the use of a 152-
bit wireless encryption key. This is a 128-bit WEP key added to the 24-bit initialization vector. The
Windows XP configuration dialog boxes do not support 128-bit WEP keys. If you must use 152-bit
wireless encryption keys, disable Wireless Auto Configuration by clearing the Use Windows to
configure my wireless network settings check box on the Wireless Networks tab of the
properties of the wireless connection in Network Connections, and use the configuration utility
provided with your wireless network adapter.

Choosing a WEP key

The WEP key should be a random sequence of either keyboard characters (upper and lowercase
letters, numbers, and punctuation) or hexadecimal digits (numbers 0-9 and letters A-F). The more
random your WEP key, the safer it is to use.
A WEP key based on a word (such as a company name for a small business or your last name for a
home) or an easily remembered phrase is subject to easy determination. Once a malicious user has
determined the WEP key, they can decrypt WEP-encrypted frames, properly encrypt WEP frames,
and begin attacking your network.

Even if your WEP key is random, it is still subject to determination if a large amount of data
encrypted with the same key is collected and analyzed. Therefore, it is recommended that you
change your WEP key to a new random sequence periodically, for example, every three months.

WPA Encryption
IEEE 802.11i is a new standard that specifies improvements to wireless LAN networking security.
The 802.11i standard addresses many of the security issues of the original 802.11 standard. While
the new IEEE 802.11i standard was being ratified, wireless vendors agreed on an interoperable
interim standard known as Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA™).

With WPA, encryption is done using the Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP), which replaces WEP
with a stronger encryption algorithm. Unlike WEP, TKIP provides for the determination of a unique
starting unicast encryption key for each authentication and the synchronized changing of the unicast
encryption key for each frame. Because TKIP keys are determined automatically, there is no need to
configure an encryption key for WPA.

Microsoft provides WPA support for computers running Windows XP with Service Pack 2 (SP2). For
computers running Windows XP with Service Pack 1 (SP1), you must obtain and install the Wireless
update rollup package for Windows XP—a free download from Microsoft.

For more information, see Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) Overview.

WPA2 Encryption
WPA2™ is a product certification available through the Wi-Fi Alliance that certifies wireless
equipment as being compatible with the 802.11i standard. WPA2 supports the additional mandatory
security features of the 802.11i standard that are not already included for products that support
WPA. With WPA2, encryption is done using the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), which also
replaces WEP with a much stronger encryption algorithm. Like TKIP for WPA, AES provides for the
determination of a unique starting unicast encryption key for each authentication and the
synchronized changing of the unicast encryption key for each frame. Because AES keys are
determined automatically, there is no need to configure an encryption key for WPA2. WPA2 is the
strongest form of wireless security.

Microsoft provides WPA2 support for computers running Windows XP with Service Pack 2 (SP2) with
the Wi-Fi Protected Access 2 (WPA2)/Wireless Provisioning Services Information Element (WPS IE)
update for Windows XP with Service Pack 2—a free download from Microsoft.

For more information, see Wi-Fi Protected Access 2 (WPA2) Overview.

Authentication
The following types of authentication are available for use with 802.11 networks:

• Open System

• Shared Key

• IEEE 802.1X

• WPA or WPA2 with preshared key

Open System
Open system authentication is not really authentication, because all it does is identify a wireless
node using its wireless adapter hardware address. A hardware address is an address assigned to the
network adapter during its manufacture and is used to identify the source and destination address
of wireless frames.

For infrastructure mode, although some wireless APs allow you to configure a list of allowed
hardware addresses for open system authentication, it is a fairly simple matter for a malicious user
to capture frames sent on your wireless network to determine the hardware address of allowed
wireless nodes and then use that hardware address to perform open system authentication and join
your wireless network.

For ad hoc mode, there is no equivalent to configuring the list of allowed hardware addresses in
Windows XP. Therefore, any hardware address can be used to perform open system authentication
and join your ad hoc mode-based wireless network.

Shared Key
Shared key authentication verifies that the wireless client joining the wireless network has
knowledge of a secret key. During the authentication process, the wireless client proves it has
knowledge of the secret key without actually sending the secret key. For infrastructure mode, all the
wireless clients and the wireless AP use the same shared key. For ad hoc mode, all the wireless
clients of the ad hoc wireless network use the same shared key.

IEEE 802.1X
The IEEE 802.1X standard enforces authentication of a network node before it can begin to
exchange data with the network. Exchanging frames with the network is denied if the authentication
process fails. Although this standard was designed for wired Ethernet networks, it has been adapted
for use by 802.11. IEEE 802.1X uses the Extensible Authentication Protocol (EAP) and specific
authentication methods known as EAP types to authenticate the network node.

IEEE 802.1X provides much stronger authentication than open system or shared key and the
recommended solution for Windows XP wireless authentication is the use of EAP-Transport Layer
Security (TLS) and digital certificates for authentication. To use EAP-TLS authentication for wireless
connections, you must create an authentication infrastructure consisting of an Active Directory
domain, Remote Authentication Dial-In User Service (RADIUS) servers, and certification authorities
(CAs) to issue certificates to your RADIUS servers and wireless clients. This authentication
infrastructure is appropriate for large businesses and enterprise organizations, but is not practical
for the home or small business office.

The solution to the use of IEEE 802.1X and EAP-TLS for the medium and small business is Protected
EAP (PEAP) and the Microsoft Challenge-Handshake Authentication Protocol, version 2 (MS-CHAP
v2) EAP type. With PEAP-MS-CHAP v2, secure wireless access can be achieved by installing a
purchased certificate on a RADIUS server and using name and password credentials for
authentication. Windows XP with SP2, Windows XP with SP1, Windows Server 2003, and Windows
2000 with Service Pack 4 (SP4) support PEAP-MS-CHAP v2.

WPA or WPA2 with Preshared Key

For a home or small business that cannot do 802.1X authentication, WPA and WPA2 provide a
preshared key authentication method for infrastructure mode wireless networks. The preshared key
is configured on the wireless AP and each wireless client. The initial WPA or WPA2 encryption key is
derived from the authentication process, which verifies that both the wireless client and the wireless
AP are configured with the same preshared key. Each initial WPA or WPA2 encryption key is unique.

The WPA or WPA2 preshared key should be a random sequence of either keyboard characters
(upper and lowercase letters, numbers, and punctuation) at least 20 characters long or hexadecimal
digits (numbers 0-9 and letters A-F) at least 24 hexadecimal digits long. The more random your
WPA or WPA2 preshared key, the safer it is to use. Unlike the WEP key, the WPA or WPA2 preshared
key is not subject to determination by collecting a large amount of encrypted data. Therefore, you
do not need to change your WPA or WPA2 preshared key as often.

Recommended Security Configurations

The following are the recommended security configurations, in order of most to least secure:

• For the home or small business network that contains a domain controller and a RADIUS
server and supports WPA2, use WPA2 and PEAP-MS-CHAP v2 authentication. For more
information, see Step-by-Step Guide for Secure Wireless Deployment for Small Office/Home
Office or Small Organization Networks.
 • For the home or small business network that contains a domain controller and a RADIUS
server and supports WPA, use WPA and PEAP-MS-CHAP v2 authentication. For more
information, see Step-by-Step Guide for Secure Wireless Deployment for Small Office/Home
Office or Small Organization Networks.

• For the home or small business network that does not contain a domain controller and a
RADIUS server and supports WPA2, use WPA2 and preshared key authentication.

• For the home or small business network that does not contain a domain controller and a
RADIUS server and supports WPA, use WPA and preshared key authentication.

For the home or small business network that does not contain a domain controller and a RADIUS
server and does not support either WPA or WPA2, use open system authentication and WEP.
However, this is not a recommended security configuration and should only be used temporarily
when transitioning to a WPA or WPA2-based wireless network.

On the surface, the choice of open system over shared key authentication might seem contradictory
because open system authentication is not really authentication and shared key authentication
requires knowledge of a shared secret key. Shared key authentication might be a stronger
authentication method than open system, but the use of shared key authentication makes wireless
communication less secure.

For most implementations, including Windows XP, the shared key authentication secret key is the
same as the WEP encryption key. The shared key authentication process consists of two messages:
a challenge message sent by the authenticator and a challenge response message sent by the
authenticating wireless client. A malicious user that captures both messages can use cryptanalysis
methods to determine the shared key authentication secret key, and therefore the WEP encryption
key. Once the WEP encryption key is determined, the malicious user has full access to your
network, as if WEP encryption was not enabled. Therefore, although shared key authentication is
stronger than open system for authentication, it weakens WEP encryption.

The tradeoff with using open system authentication is that anyone can easily join your network. By
joining the network, the malicious user uses up one of the available wireless connections. However,
without the WEP encryption key, they cannot send or interpret receive wireless frames that are
encrypted.

Wireless APs and Windows XP support open system authentication. One advantage to using open
system authentication is that it is always enabled for Windows XP wireless clients. No additional
authentication configuration is needed.

Q6. What is the maximum range used for each wireless network?
Wireless PAN
Wireless LANs
Wireless MANs
 Wireless WANs

Wireless network refers to any type of computer network that is wireless, and is commonly
associated with a telecommunications networkwhose interconnections between nodes are
implemented without the use of wires.[1] Wireless telecommunications networks are generally
implemented with some type of remote information transmission system that
uses electromagnetic waves, such as radio waves, for thecarrier and this implementation usually
takes place at the physical level or "layer" of the network.[2]

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Types of wireless connections

o 1.1 Wireless PAN

o 1.2 Wireless LAN

o 1.3 Wireless MAN

o 1.4 Wireless WAN

o 1.5 Mobile devices networks

• 2 Uses

• 3 Environmental concerns and health

hazard

• 4 See also

• 5 References

• 6 Further reading

• 7 External links

[edit]Types of wireless connections

[edit]Wireless PAN
Wireless Personal Area Networks (WPANs) interconnect devices within a relatively small area,
generally within reach of a person. For example, Bluetooth provides a WPAN for interconnecting
a headset to a laptop. ZigBee also supports WPAN applications.[3] Wi-Fi PANs are also getting
popular as vendors have started integrating Wi-Fi in variety of consumer electronic devices. Intel
My WiFi and Windows 7 virtual Wi-Fi capabilities have made Wi-Fi PANs simpler and easier to
set up and configure.[4]

[edit]Wireless LAN
Main article: Wireless LAN

A wireless local area network (WLAN) links two or more devices using a wireless distribution
method (typically spread-spectrum or OFDM radio), and usually providing a connection through
an access point to the wider internet. This gives users the mobility to move around within a local
coverage area and still be connected to the network.

 Wi-Fi: Wi-Fi is increasingly used as a synonym for 802.11 WLANs, although it is

technically a certification of interoperability between 802.11 devices.
 Fixed Wireless Data: This implements point to point links between computers or networks
at two locations, often using dedicatedmicrowave or laser beams over line of sight paths. It is
often used in cities to connect networks in two or more buildings without physically wiring the
buildings together.

[edit]Wireless MAN
Wireless Metropolitan area networks are a type of wireless network that connects several
Wireless LANs.

 WiMAX is the term used to refer to wireless MANs and is covered in IEEE
802.16d/802.16e.

[edit]Wireless WAN
wireless wide area networks are wireless networks that typically cover large outdoor areas. These
networks can be used to connect branch offices of business or as a public internet access
system. They are usually deployed on the 2.4 GHz band. A typical system contains base station
gateways, access points and wireless bridging relays. Other configurations are mesh systems
where each access point acts as a relay also. When combined with renewable energy systems
such as photo-voltaic solar panels or wind systems they can be stand alone systems.

[edit]Mobile devices networks

Further information: mobile telecommunications

With the development of smart phones, cellular telephone networks routinely carry data in
addition to telephone conversations:
  Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM): The GSM network is divided into
three major systems: the switching system, the base station system, and the operation and
support system. The cell phone connects to the base system station which then connects to
the operation and support station; it then connects to the switching station where the call is
transferred to where it needs to go. GSM is the most common standard and is used for a
majority of cell phones.[5]
 Personal Communications Service (PCS): PCS is a radio band that can be used by
mobile phones in North America and South Asia. Sprint happened to be the first service to set
up a PCS.
 D-AMPS: Digital Advanced Mobile Phone Service, an upgraded version of AMPS, is
being phased out due to advancement in technology. The newer GSM networks are replacing
the older system.

[edit]Uses

This section is written like a personal reflection or essay and may

require cleanup. Pleasehelp improve it by rewriting it in an encyclopedic
style. (September 2010)

An embedded RouterBoard 112 withU.FL-RSMA pigtail and R52 mini PCI Wi-Ficard widely used
by wireless Internetservice providers (WISPs) in the Czech Republic.

Wireless networks have continued to develop and their uses have grown significantly. Cellular
phonesare part of huge wireless network systems. People use these phones daily to
communicate with one another. Sending information overseas is possible through wireless
network systems using satellites and other signals to communicate across the world. Emergency
services such as the police department utilize wireless networks to communicate important
information quickly. People and businesses use wireless networks to send and share data quickly
whether it be in a small office building or across the world.

Another important use for wireless networks is as an inexpensive and rapid way to be connected
to the Internet in countries and regions where the telecom infrastructure is poor or there is a lack
of resources, as in most developing countries.
Compatibility issues also arise when dealing with wireless networks. Different components not
made by the same company may not work together, or might require extra work to fix these
issues. Wireless networks are typically slower than those that are directly connected through
an Ethernet cable.

A wireless network is more vulnerable, because anyone can try to break into a network
broadcasting a signal.[citation needed] Many networks offer WEP - Wired Equivalent Privacy - security
systems which have been found to be vulnerable to intrusion. Though WEP does block some
intruders, the security problems have caused some businesses to stick with wired networks until
security can be improved. Another type of security for wireless networks is WPA - Wi-Fi Protected
Access. WPA provides more security to wireless networks than a WEP security set up. The use
of firewalls will help with security breaches which can help to fix security problems in some
wireless networks that are more vulnerable.