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10.1 Introduction
A boiler is a water containing vessel which transfers heat from a fuel source (oil, gas, coal) into
steam at a predetermined temperature which is piped to a point where it can be used to run
The role of boilers in the industrial economy has been profound because boilers form the backbone
of power plants, cogeneration systems, and combined cycle plants. They form an inevitable part
of chemical plants, refineries, power plants, and process systems. (Ganapathy, 2003).
Waste heat boilers (WHBs) or Heat Recovery Steam Generators (HRSGs) as they are often called,
are used to recover energy from waste gas streams such as those encountered in sulphuric acid or
hydrogen plants, refineries, solid, liquid and gaseous incineration systems, power plants and in
cogeneration systems using gas turbines and reciprocating engines. (Ganapathy, 1991)
1. According to the contents in the tube; the steam boilers may be classified as;
(a) Fire tube boiler; In the fire tube steam boilers, the flames and hot gases produced
by the combustion of fuel, pass through the tubes (called multi-tubes) which are
surrounded by water. The heat is conducted through the walls of the tube from the
hot gases to surrounding water. Examples of fire tube boilers are Simple vertical
boiler, Cochran boiler, Lancashire boiler, Cornish boiler, Scotch marine boiler,
tubes) which are surrounded by flames and hot gases from outside. Examples of
water tube boilers are; Babcock and Wilcox boiler, Stirling boiler, La-Mont boiler,
2. According to the position of the furnace. The steam boilers, according to the position of
(a) Internally fired boiler; In internally fired steam boilers, the furnace is located inside
the boiler shell. Most of the fire tube steam boilers are internally fired.
(b) Externally fired boiler; In externally fired steam boilers, the furnace is arranged
underneath in a brick-work setting. Water tube steam boilers are always externally
fired.
3. According to the axis of the shell. The steam boilers, according to the axis of the shell,
(a) Vertical boilers; In vertical steam boilers, the axis of the shell is vertical. Simple
(b) Horizontal boilers; In horizontal steam boilers, the axis of the shell is horizontal.
Lancashire boiler, Locomotive boiler and Babcock and Wilcox boiler are horizontal
boilers.
(a) Single tube boilers; In single tube steam boilers, there is only one water tube or fire
tube. Simple vertical boiler and Cornish boiler are single tube boilers.
(b) Multi-tubular boilers; In multi-tubular steam boilers, there are two or more fire
5. According to the method of circulation of water and steam. The steam boilers according to
(a) Natural circulation boilers; In natural circulation steam boilers, the circulation of
water is by natural convection currents, which are set up during the heating of
(b) Forced circulation boilers; In forced circulation steam boilers, there is a forced
forced circulation is made in high pressure boilers such as La-Mont boiler, Benson
6. According to use. The steam boilers, according to their use, may be classified as
(a) Stationary boilers; The stationary boilers are used in power plants, and industrial
process work. These are called stationary because they do not move from one place
to another.
(b) Mobile boilers; The mobile steam boilers are those which move from one place to
7. According to the source of heat. The steam boilers may also be classified according to the
source of heat supplied for producing steam. These sources maybe the combustion of solid,
liquid or gaseous fuel, hot waste gases as by-products of other chemical processes,
used, whether the flue gas is used for process or mainly for energy recovery, cleanliness of the
Process waste heat boilers are used to cool waste gas streams from a given inlet temperature
to a desired exit temperature for further processing purposes. While energy recovery
applications, on the other hand, the gas is cooled as much as possible while avoiding low
temperature corrosion. The objective here is to maximize energy recovery. (Ganathapy, 2003).
Water tube and fire tube boilers are the widely used boilers in processing industries due to their
Fire tube or “fire in tube” boilers; contain long tubes through which the hot gasses from a
furnace pass and around which the water to be converted to steam circulates. They could be of
single or of multi-gas pass design. In single gas pass design, the hot gas stream enters at one
end and leaves at the other. If the boiler length is a concern due to lack of space, the tube length
could be reduced by going in for a two gas pass design. Fire tube boilers are generally less
expensive for low capacity-low pressure steam drop systems. The gas pressure drop with fire
tube boilers is, usually higher compared to water tube type for the same duty, which can be
water passing through the tubes and the hot gasses passing outside the tubes. These boilers can
be of single- or multiple-drum type. These boilers can be built to any steam capacities and
A comparative study between fire tube and water tube boiler is presented in the table 9.1 that
follows to understand relative the characteristics of fire tube and water tube boilers.
Table 10.1 A comparison between a water tube and a fire tube boiler
The water circulates inside the tubes which are The hot gases from the furnace pass through
surrounded by hot gases from the furnace. the tubes which are surrounded by water.
It generates steam at a higher pressure up to It can generate steam only up to 24.5 bar.
165 bar.
The rate of generation of steam is high i.e. up The rate of generation of steam is low i.e. up
For a given power, the floor area required for The floor area required is more, i.e. about 8m2
the generation of steam is less i.e. about per tonne per hour of steam generation.
90%.
It can be transported and erected easily as its The transportation and erection is difficult.
The direction of water circulation is well The water does not circulate in definite
defined. direction.
The bursting chances are more. The bursting chances are less.
The bursting does not produce any destruction The bursting produces greater risk to the
It is used for large power plants. It is not suitable for large plants.
Expandable joints are provided to take care of differential expansion as result of high
Triangular pitch pattern is chosen for this work due to its ability to give a higher heat transfer
coefficient or rate. It also more compact and provide a larger surface area per unit volume of heat
10.3.3 Baffle
Segmented baffle with 25% baffle cut is used because the segmented baffle is the most common
design and also give maximum heat transfer coefficient without exceeding the allowable pressure
Hemispherical head is chosen because of the pressure at which steam is going to be generated.
Water will be located at the tube side because of the tendency of forming scale and flue gas will
Raw water from a reservoir, river, lake, and borehole is fed to the steam system. However, it needs
to be treated before it can be used for steam generation to remove: suspended solids, dissolved
solids, dissolved salts, dissolved gases particularly oxygen and carbon dioxide. Raw water entering
may need to be first filtered to remove suspended solids and also dissolved salts need to be
removed principally calcium and magnesium ions that would otherwise cause over fouling on the
steam boiler.
to be exceeded. And as a result safety valves and pressure relief valves would be installed typically
for boiler overpressure protection and other applications such as downstream of pressure reducing
controls. A pressure relief valve is a valve which is design to relief excess pressure and to reclose
and prevent the flow of fluid after normal conditions have been restored.
Ensuring the right level of steam in the water-tube boiler contributes significantly to enhancing the
overall boiler efficiency hence level controls would be installed to ensure that the maximum and
minimum levels are not exceeded. Alarms for minimum and maximum water levels also would be
in place to ensure combustion of fuel ceases if the water level drops below the temperature required
and also the feed water is closed during higher water levels.
The purpose of this work is to design a waste heat boiler to reduce the temperature flue gas from
a temperature of 1482.2 ˚C to 732.2 ˚C and generating steam at a rate of 35956 kg/h with operating
For this design project which require the generation of steam, a water-tube boiler is chosen. The
Because water-tube boilers operate economically for capacities above 23000 kg/h, it
Water tube boilers can handle high steam pressure and temperature
It can use extended surfaces to make tube compact if the gas stream is clean
It has a lower flue gas pressure drop than equivalent fire tube boiler owing to the
Water tube can be smaller and weigh less particularly if the gas flow is large. (Ganapathy,
2003)
The design of water-tube boilers consists of a bundle of water tubes contained in a shell and the
evaporating process takes place inside the water tubes generating steam. Water-tube boilers are
often characterized by their number of passes, referring to the number of times that the water flows
along the length of the pressure vessel transferring heat to the flue gases. Each pass sends the water
through the tubes in the opposite direction. To make another pass, the water turns 180˚ and passes
Accessories Types
Coolant Water
Baffle Segmental
Figure 10.1
Where;
specified duty (rate of heat transfer), tube size, tube configuration and pressure drop.
The general equation for heat transfer across a water tube waste heat boiler surface area is given
by:
Q
A=
U∆TLM
Where;
Q = quantity of heat
But for one pass and one shell waste heat boiler (heat exchanger) with a co-current flow
(T1 − t1 ) − (T2 − t 2 )
∆TLM = , (Towler and Sinnott, 2008)
T1 − t1
In (T − t )
2 2
Where;
1 1 1 do do do 1 do 1
= + + ln ( ) + ( ) + ( )
Uo hi hod 2K m di di hod di hi
A
Nt =
πdo L
10.6.5 Pitch type
Triangular pitch chosen because they give higher heat transfer rate than square pitch arrangements.
(Sinnott, 1999)
where, 1.25 is a constant for triangular pitch arrangements in water tube waste heat boilers (Towler
1
Nt n 1
Db = do ( )
K1
l
Nb = − 1 (Kakac, 2002)
B
Where
l = length of tube
B = baffle spacing
And Nb + 1 is the number of times the shell fluid passes the tube bundle
hi is the inside tube fluid film coefficient (tube side coefficient) for water and is given as;
kf µ
hi = jh RePr 0.33 ( )0.14 (sinnott, 1999)
di µw
ρudi
Re =
µ
Cp µ
Pr =
kf
The shell side heat transfer coefficient, ho, for the water tube waste boiler is given by
kf 1
ho = jh RePr 3
de
Re = Reynolds number
Pr = prandtl number
de = equivalent diameter
Ds
Lb =
5
Ws
Gs =
As
Gs
us =
ρs
Where;
(Pt − do )
As = xDs xLb
Pt
Pt = tube pitch
Lb = baffle spacing
Gs de
Re =
µ
Cp µ
Pr =
k
k = thermal conductivity
µ = viscosity
Source: www.pipeflowcalculations.com
The pressure drop across the tube side of water tube waste heat boilers is determined by
L µ −m ρu2t
∆Pt = Np [8jf ( ) ( ) + 2.5] ( Sinnott, 1999)
di µw 2
Np = number of pass
L = tube length
μ
= viscosity collection factor
μw
ρ = density of water
The pressure drop across the shell side of water tube waste heat boiler
L D μ −m ρ u2
∆Ps = [8jf (L ) (d s ) (μ ) ] s2 s (Towler and Sinnott, 2008)
b e w
Ds = shell diameter
de =equivalent diameter
Lb = baffle spacing
The useful energy QU of a boiler (heat duty) is the energy required to produce steam and this is
given by;
QU = MS ( HS − hw )
Where;
= 111,959,792.8 kJ/h.
From Ganapathy (1991) heat loss of waste heat boiler is normally estimated at about 2 %.
QT = QU + 0.02QT
Q
U 111959792.8
QT = 0.98 = 0.98
= 97.231,628 kJ/h.
QT = 27008785.6 W.
Water Requirement
Blowdown is the term used to describe the purposeful discharge of a portion of the boiler water to
remove undesirable sludge and chemical concentrations. Blowdown is taken up to 10% of boiler
MF =MS + 0.1MF
M
MF = 0.9s = 39951.111 kg/h.
The overall heat transfer coefficient U0, ranges from 30 W/m2 ºC to 100 W/m2 ºC for heat
exchanger between flue gases and steam. Hence U0 = 85 W/m2 ºC is assumed. (Sinnott and Towler,
2008)
Uo = 85 W⁄m2 ℃
But,
(1482.2 − 187.96) − (732.2 − 525)
∆Tm = = 668.50 ℃
1482.2 − 187.96
In ( )
732.2 − 525
Therefore, area, A
27008785.6
A= = 475.32 m2
85x 668.50
Tube dimensions
Standard tube outer diameter (OD) of 50 mm with a corresponding tube wall thickness of 2 mm
and a tube length of 3.7 m was chosen for this design. (Sinnott, 1999) These tube dimensions were
Number of tubes
475
Nt = = 818 tubes
πx50x10−3 x3.70
1
818 2.207
Bundle diameter, Db = 0.05 (0.249) = 1.9604 m
Sinnott, 2003)
818
Tube per pass = = 409 tubes
2
πd2i
Tube cross sectional area =
4
πx(48x10−3 )2
= = 1.80x10−3 m2
4
= 15.074 kg⁄m2 s
15.074
linear velocity = = 0.3974 m⁄s
37.928
37.928 × 0.3974 × 0.05
Re = = 3.4 × 104
2.24 × 10−5
L 3.7
= = 77.1m
di 0.048
jh = 3.5 × 10−3
0.06485
hi = × (3.5 × 10−3 ) × (3.4 × 104 ) × 1.210.33
0.048
hi = 171.2 W⁄m2 ℃
2.0553
Lb = = 0.411 m
5
3.7
Nb = − 1 = 8 baffles
0.411
Therefore, the number times the shell fluid passes the baffles bundle are
8 + 1 = 9 times
Pt = 1.25x50x10−3 = 0.0625 m
(0.0625 − 0.05)x2.0553x0.411
As =
0.0625
= 0.169 m2
35956 2
Gs = = 59.1 kg⁄m s
3600 × 0.169
1.1
de = (0.06252 − 0.917(0.05)2 )
0.05
= 0.0355 m
59.1x0.0355
Re = = 4.0 × 104
5.087x10−5
1324.2x5.087x10−5
Pr = = 0.57
0.1182
Using the Re calculated, jh is read from chart with 25% baffle cut.
jh = 3x10−3
0.1182
ho = x3x10−3 x40000x(0.569)0.33
0.0355
= 331.7 W⁄m2 ℃
Overall coefficient
Uo = 96.2 W⁄m2 ℃
Uo calculated is well above assumed, so the design has adequate area for the duty required.
jf = 3.2x10−3
3.7 37.928x0.39742
∆Pt = 2x [8x3.5x10−3 ( ) + 2.5] ( )
0.048 2
= 27.90 Pa
jf = 4.0x10−2
59.1
us = = 231.04 m⁄s
0.2258
−2
3.70 2.0553 0.2558x231.042
∆Ps = 8x4.0x10 [( )( )] ( )
0.4111 0.0355 2
= 1138.4 kPa
Table 10.4 Summary of Chemical Engineering design
PARAMETER VALUE
When selecting engineering materials many factors are considered, but for a chemical process
Stainless steels are the most frequently used corrosion resistant materials in the chemical industry.
The uniform structure of Austenite (FCC, with the carbides in solution) is the structure desired for
corrosion resistance, and it is these grades that are widely used in the chemical industry. Type
304H (the so-called 18/8 stainless steels - Ti stabilised 321): the most generally used stainless steel
would be considered the best option for this design. It contains the minimum Cr and Ni that give
For steels and alloyed steels, a minimum corrosion allowance of 2.0 mm is used. Taking design
pressure to be 10% above the normal working pressure, to avoid spurious operation during minor
110
design pressure = x operating presure
100
For a cylindrical shell the minimum thickness required to resist internal pressure can be determined
from;
Pi Di
e= + C (Sinnott, 1999)
2fj − Pi
where;
Pi = internal pressure
Di = internal diameter
f = design stress
Thickness of the nozzle for the water inlet and steam outlet is given as
PR
th = +C (Sinnott, 1999)
SE − 0.6P
P = design presure
S = allowable stress
R= radius of nozzle
A hemispherical head was chosen because it is the strongest shape, capable of resisting about twice
the pressure of torispherical head of the same thickness. Hemispherical heads are also used for
high pressures.
PR
tn = (Sinnot, 1999)
4SE − 0.4P
The method used to support a vessel will depend on the size, shape, and weight of the vessel; the
design temperature and pressure; the vessel location and arrangement; and the internal and external
fittings and attachments. Horizontal vessels are usually mounted on two saddle supports hence for
the purpose of design the horizontal water-tube boiler would also be mounted on two saddle
Flanged joints are used for connecting pipes and instruments to vessels, for manhole covers, and
for removable vessel heads when ease of access is required. Flanges may also be used on the vessel
body, when it is necessary to divide the vessel into sections for transport or maintenance. Flanged
joints are also used to connect pipes to other equipment, such as pumps and valves. Flanges range
in size from a few millimetres diameter for small pipes, to several metres diameter for those used
as body or head flanges on vessels. Several different types of flange are used for various
3. Lap-joint flanges.
4. Screwed flanges.
For this of design, standard would be Lap-joint flanges would be used because they economical
(Sinnott, 1999)
The approximate weight of a cylindrical vessel made of stainless steel with hemispherical ends,
and uniform wall thickness, can be estimated from the following equation:
t = thickness of wall
CV = a factor to account for the weight of nozzles and internal supports which is taken as 1.08
g = acceleration due to gravity,
But
HV = Lv = 2(THi ) + Lt
THi = SF + DH
Lt = length of tubes
Weight of insulation Wi = ρi Vi g
πD2o L
WTU = ρTU x Number of tubes ( )
4
Pi R
σ2 = σL = (Moss, 2004)
2t
Where
Di
R=
2
t = thickness
Pi = design pressure
Pi R
σ1 = (Moss, 2004)
t
A vessel supported on two saddles can be considered as a simply supported beam, with an
essentially uniform load, and the distribution of longitudinal axial bending moment will be as
A R2 − H 2
1 − L + 2AL
QA [1 − 4H ]
1 + 3L
S1 = , (Megyesy, 2008)
K1 R2 t s
PR
Sp = , (Megyesy, 2008)
2t s
Where
R = radius of shell
H = depth of head
L = length of vessel
t s = shell thickness
The optimum the diameter for a viscous flow is steel pipes is given as
µ = viscosity of water
10.10 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING CALCULATION
The design stress for stainless steel at 525 ˚C = 60 N/mm2 (Sinnott, 1999)
For carbon steels and alloyed steels, a minimum corrosion allowance of 2.0 mm is used. (Sinnott,
1999)
Taking design pressure to be 10% above the normal working pressure, to avoid spurious operation
Therefore,
110
design pressure = x 90 bar = 99 bar = 9.9 N⁄mm2
100
Shell thickness
Pi = 9.9 N⁄mm2
C = 2 mm
Di = 2055.3 mm
j=1
9.9 × 2055.3
Shell thickness = + 2 = 153.5 mm
2x72.1 − 9.9
Head and closure
9.9 × 2055.3
th = = 71.5 mm
4 × 72.1 × 1 − 0.4 × 9.9
Thickness of nozzle
A radius of 25 mm is assumed.
9.9 × 25
tn = + 2 = 5.74 mm
72.1 × 1 − 0.6 × 9.9
Analysis of weight
SF = 3.5x153.5 = 537.25 mm
ρm = 8030 kg⁄m3
g = 9.81 m2 ⁄s
Wv = 240x1.08x 2.209x[5.49 + 0.8(2.209)]x153.5
= 637835 N
Weight of insulation
Asuming a thickness, t i = 40 mm
Vi = πx0.04x5.49x2.209 = 1.52 m3
g = 9.81 m2 ⁄s
Wi = 130x1.52x9.81 = 1938.5 N
Weight of tubes
(πx0.052 x3.7)
VTu = 818x = 5.94 m3
4
Longitudinal stress
9.9x2055.2
σL = = 33.14 N⁄mm2
4x153.5
Circumferential stress
9.9x2055.2
σh = = 66.28 N⁄mm2
2x153.5
1107692.5
σw = = 0.972 N⁄mm2
π(2209 + 153.5)x153.5
1107692.5
Q= = 553846.25 N
2
L = 5.49 m
Assuming H = 250 mm
2055.3
R= = 1027.65 mm
2
A = 0.4x1027.65 = 411.06 mm
t s = 153.5 mm
Stress at the saddle
[ ]
= 0.018 N⁄mm2
1.032 − 0.252
1 + 2 ( )
553846.25 × 5.49 5.492 4 × 0.411
( ) −
4 4 × 0.25 5.49
1+
3 × 5.49
𝑆1𝑚 = = 1048644.5 N⁄m2
𝜋 × 1.032 × 0.1535
= 1.05 N⁄mm2
9.9 × 1027.65
𝑆𝑝 = = 33.14 N⁄mm2
2 × 153.5
The resultant axial stress due to bending and pressure will be given by:
(𝑆1 + 𝑆1𝑚 ) = 1.068 N⁄mm2 , (𝑆1 + 𝑆𝑝 ) = 33.158 N⁄mm2 and ( 𝑆𝑝 + 𝑆1𝑚 ) = 34.19 N⁄mm2
For the saddle support to be stable and serve its purpose, the following conditions must be fulfilled.
The combined maximum axial stress and the stress due to internal pressure should not exceed the
Hence the given parameters can be considered for the design. The Shell-and-tube heat exchanger
Specification Dimension
V 1.28 m
Y 0.225 m
C 1.95 m
E 0.89 m
J 0.520 m
G 0.150 m
t2 16 mm
t1 12 mm
Bolt diameter 24 mm
Bolt hole 30 mm
SIZING OF NOZZLES
11.098
Volumetric flow rate, q w = = 0.01254 m3 ⁄s
884.768
35956
steam flow rate = = 9.987 kg⁄s
3600
9.987
Volumetric flow rate, q 𝑤 = = 0.383 m3 ⁄s
26.07
109487
flow rate of flue gas = = 30.41 kg/s
3600
30.41
Volumetric flow rate, q s = = 118.89 m3 ⁄s
0.2558
Parameter Value
Energy, Mines and Resource (2005). Energy Management Series 6 For Industrial
Commerce, Boiler Plant Systems. 580 Booth Street, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. pp. 3 – 18.
Ganapathy, V., (1991). Waste Heat Boiler Desk-Book. Fairmont Press, Inc. 700 Lilburn,
Ganapathy, V., (2003). Industrial Boilers and Heat Recovery Steam Generators: Design,
Applications, and Calculations. 508 Marcel Dekker, Inc. 270 Madison Avenue, New
March 20]
thermal design. 2nd Ed. CRC Press LLC, 2000 N.W. Corporate Blyd, Boca Raton,
Khurmi R.S., (2011) Gupta J.K., A textbook of thermal engineering. 4th Ed. S. Chand
Megyesy, E. F., (2008) Pressure Vessel Handbook 14th ed. PV Publishing Incorporated.
pp 72-75.
Moss, D., (2004) Pressure Vessel Design Manual. 3rd ed. EIsevier 200 Wheeler Road,
Sinnott, R. K. (1999). Coulson and Richardson’s Chemical Engineering Volume 6,3rd ed.,
practice and economics of plant and process design. p: 814-850. Elsevier Inc. U.S.A