UNIT.

V : FINISHINGS
Syllabus:Damp Proofing and water proofing materials and uses – Plastering
Pointing, white washing and distempering.
Paints: Constituents of a paint – Types of paints – Painting of new/old
wood- Varnish.Form Works and Scaffoldings.

1. Damp proofing
Damp proofing in construction is a type of moisture control applied to building walls and
floors to prevent moisture from passing into the interior spaces. Damp problems are one of the
most frequent problems encountered in homes.

 Dampness a common problem in buildings.

 It refers to access and penetration of moisture content into buildings through its

 walls, floors, roof etc.

 It is important to take measures to prevent dampness.

 Such measures is called damp proofing.

 Water proofing is a treatment of the surface or structure in a building to prevent leakage.

2. Causes of damp proofing:
 Moisture from ground:-The materials used for the foundation and floors absorb moisture
from the soil and it rises up the surface of the building,

 Splashing of rain:-When rain splashes on external walls dampness may enter the interior.

 Exposed top wall:-dampness enters from the top if the tops of parapet walls are not given
sufficient damp proofing course.

 Condensation: dampness is caused due to condensation of atmospheric moisture,

deposited on walls and ceilings.

 Construction defects:-

 Improper planning,
 lack of proper slope in roof,
 defective pipe fittings,
 improperly sealed construction joints

are constructive defects.

3. EFFECTS OF DAMPNESS:-

 Ugly patches on walls and ceilings.

 Plaster softens and crumbles.

 Materials used for wall decorations are damaged.

 Stones ,bricks and tiles disintegrate due to efflorescence.

 Floor finish may be damaged

 Woodworks decays due to dry rot.

 Metal components of building corrodes.

 Electrical fittings are damaged,

 Dampness leads to

 breeding of mosquitoes, growth of

 termites and germs carrying
diseases such as tuberculosis,
 it also aggravates asthma.
4. Materials for damp proofing:-
I. Requirements of ideal materials for damp proofing:-

They should be :-

 impervious.

 Durable

 Capable of bearing the load

 Dimensionally stable

 Flexible

 Free from sulphates, chlorides and nitrates.

 Inexpensive

II. Various materials used for damp proofing:

 Hot bitumen :-hot bitumen,3mm thick may be applied on bedding of mortar or
concrete.

 Mastic asphalt:-semi rigid material obtained by heating asphalt with sand and mineral
fillers. It is laid on mortar or concrete bed.

 Bituminous felt:-flexible material available in rolls. It is laid on flat mortar finished

surfaces.

 Metal sheets:-sheets of lead, copper and aluminum may be used membranes in damp
proofing. Lead is the most ideally suited material.

 Combination of sheets and felts:-economical and drable damp proofing sheet is

obtained by sandwiching a lead sheet and bituminous felt.

 plastic sheets:-a relatively cheap method of damp proofing is by laying 0.5-1.0mm thick
plastic sheets made of black polythene. This is not a permanent method.
  Bricks:-quality bricks absorbing water less than 4.5% of their weight may be used for
damp proofing. These bricks are laid in 2-4 courses in cement mortar.

 Cement concrete course:-a cement concrete course of proportion 1:2:4 and thickness
75-150mm is laid on masonry at plinth level.

III. Principles of damp proofing

 mortar bed prepared to receive damp-proof course should be leveled.

 The horizontal damp proofing course should cover the full width of wall excluding
rendering.

 If sheets or mastic asphalt are used, the gap should not be less than 100mm at any point.

 At joints and corners. Damp proof course should be continuous.

 Damp proofing course should not be kept exposed on the wall surface.

 At vertical and horizontal junctions, damp proof courses should be continuous and a
cement mortar fillet of about 75mm should cover joints.

TECHNIQUES AND METHODS OF DAMP PROOFING:-

The generallly adopted methods to prevent the defects of dampness are as follows:

i. Membrane Damp-Proofing or Damp-Proofing Courses(D.P.C)

ii. Integral Damp-Proofing Treatments.
iii. Waterproof or Damp-Proof Surface Treatments.
iv. Guniting Shot Concrete/Shotcrete.
v. Cavity Walls Construction or Hollow Walls.
vi. Cementation or Pressure Grouting.

Let us discuss these methods in detail

1. Membrane Damp-Proofing or Damp-Proofing Courses(D.P.C)

These are the membranes(layers) of water repellent materials, such as bituminous

felts, mastic asphalt, plastic sheets, cement concrete, mortar, metal sheets, states stones,
etc. which interposed in the building structures at all locations wherever water entry is
anticipated or suspected. These damp-proof courses of suitable materials should be
provided at appropriate locations for their effective use.These damp-proof courses may
be provided horizontally or vertically in floors,walls etc.
While providing damp-proof courses in buildings, the following generial principles should be
observed in practice.

a. The DPC shoud cover the full thickness of the walls excluding rendering, in order
to act as an effective barrier to moisture under all conditions.
b. The mortar lied upon which the DPC is laid should be level, even and free from
any projections.
c. The DPC course should be placed in correct relation with other DPC courses, so
as to provide a complete and continous carrier to the passage of moisture from
below, top or sides, therefore, the junctions and corners, formed by walls, or walls
and floors, should be laid continous.
d. Where a vertical DPC is to be laid continous with horinzontal DPC (i.e. forming
angle projection), a fillet 75mm is radious should be provided. The DPC should
not be exposed on wall surface, otherwise it is likely to be damaged by carpenters,
tile layers etc.

2. Integral Damp-Proofing:-
This consists of adding certain water proofing compounds of materials to th concrete mix,
so that it becomes impermeable. The water proofing compounds may be in three forms:
a. Compounds made from chalk, talc, fuller earth, which may fill the voids of
concrete under the mechanical action principle.
b. Compounds like alkaline silicates, aluminium sulphate, calcium chlorides, etc.
which react chemically with concrete to produce water proof concrete.
c. Compounds, like soap, petrolium, oils, fatty acid compounds such as stearates of
cv idcalcium, sodium, ammonia etc. work on water repulsion principle. When
these are mixed with concrete, the concrete becomes water repellent.
d. Commercially available compounds like publo, permo, silka etc.
3. Surface Treatment:-
The moisture finds its way through the pores of materials used in finishing. In order to
check the entry of the moisture in the pores, they must be filled up. Surface treatments
consists in filling up the pores of the surfaces subjected to dampness. The use of water
repellent metallic soaps such as calcium and aluminium oleates and stearates is much
effective in protecting the building against the ravages of heavy rain. Bituminous
solution, cement coating, transparent coatings, paints and varnishes fall under this
category. In addition to other surface treatments given to walls, the one commonly used is
lime cement plaster. The walls plastered with cement, lime and sand mixed in
proportioned of 1:1:6 is found to serve the purpose of preventing dampness in wall due to
rain effectively.

4. Guniting/Shot concrete/Shotcrete
This method comprises in forming an impervious layer of rich cement mortar. In this
method, first a mixture of cement and water is forced by cement gun on the surface to be
treated and later 1:3 or 1:4 cement mortar is applied with the help of compressed air
under pressure.

5. Cavity walls construction/Hollow walls

A cavity wall of two parallel walls or leaves or skins of masonry separated by a continous
air space or cavity. Cavity walls consists of three parts, namely
a. The outer wall or leaf(10cm thick) which is exterior part of the wall.
b. The cavity or air space of 5cm to 8cm.
c. The inner wall or leaf(min. 10cm in thickness) which is the interior part of the
wall

As there is no contact between outer and inner walls of cavity wall except at the wall ties,
which are of impervious material, so the possibility of the moisture penetration is reduced
to minimum.

6. Cementation or Pressure Grouting

This consists of forcing cement grout, under pressure, into cracks, voids, fissures etc.
present in the structural components of the buildings, or in the ground. Thus, the
structural components and the foundations which are liable to moisture penetration are
consolidated and are thus made water-penetration resistant. This method is quite effective
in checking the seepage of raised ground water throgh foundations and sub-structure of a
building.
Waterproofing of flat roofs:-
 Lime concrete terracing:-

The RCC roof is cleaned thoroughly and a bitumen primer is applied ,3 coats of hot blown
asphalt is then applied over which a specially prepared lime concrete bed of 100mmthickness is
provided. The surface of bedding is covered with flat tiles. a convex corner joint is made at the
junction with the parapet wall.

 Membrane water proofing:-

water proofing membrane may be prepared with mastic asphalt or plastic sheet. It is
provided in a number of layers from 2-7.in this method a layer of hot mastic asphalt is
applied on the clean roof surface. This is covered by jute cloth and another layer of
mastic asphalt is laid.

In case of plastic membranes, hot coating is applied with blown bitumen between each
layer. The top is usually finished with a course of flat tiles.

At the junction is properly sealed with the parapet. The membrane should extend up to
parapet or lead sheets should be inserted.
Using waterproofing compounds:-

Water proofing compounds may be grouped to 2:-

 Waterproofing admixtures:-these admixtures are in powder or liquid form. About 2%

of powders are mixed while making cement mortar. when the finishing coat of mortar is
provided, these compounds seal the pores in the slab and make them watertight.

 Waterproofing membrane system:-these materials are available in the form of paints,

they may epoxy or elastomeric and may be applied to roof slabs with rollers ,brush or
spray. a minimum of 2 coats are applied to get desired waterproofing.

 Sloped RCC roofs are provided with tiles for purpose of weather proofing. It is
preferable to use flat tiles fixed to roof.,If Mangalore tiles are used care should be taken.
continuous motor bands should not be provided as reapers because in case rainwater
entering through broken tiles stagnates on the mortar bands, leakage will occur. Hence
mortar bands supporting Mangalore tiles should be discontinuous. before laying the tiles,
the possible leakage points should be checked and identified.
Plastering
“Plastering is the process of covering rough walls and uneven surfaces in the
construction of houses and other structures with a plastic material, called plaster
or mortar.”

Objective of plastering :
 To provide an even, smooth, regular, clean and durable finished surface with improved
appearance.

 To preserve and protect the surface.

 To cover up the use of inferior quality and porous materials of the masonry work.

 To conceal defective workmanship

Requirement of the good plaster:

 It should be hard and durable.
 It should be possible to apply it during all weather conditions.
 It should adhere to the background and should remain adhered during all climatic
changes.
 It should be cheap and economical.
 It should offer good insulation against sound and high resistance against fire.
 It should effectively check the entry or penetration of moisture from the surfaces.

Types of plasters:
1. Lime plaster
 Lime plaster is a mixture of calcium hydroxide and sand (or other inert fillers) in 1: 1
ratio.
 Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere causes the plaster to set by transforming the
calcium hydroxide into calcium carbonate (limestone).
 In order to improve building properties of lime plaster , gugal (a kind of fragrant
gum) @ 1.6 kg/m3 of mortar , is added when the mortar is being ground.
  In order to improve adhesive and tensile properties of lime mortar, sometimes, small
quantities of chopped hemp (i.e., vegetable fibres) @ 1kg/m3 are added to the lime
mortar.
 The lime mortar thus prepared is usually kept for 2 days before use.
2. Cement plaster:

 Cement and sand in required proportions ( 1:3 or 4) are first thoroughly mixed in dry
conditions and then water is added to form a paste of required consistency.

 Generally it is mixture sand, portland cement and water mixed in a suitable

proportion.

 This prepared mortar for plastering should be consumed within 30 minutes after the
addition of water.

3. Mud plaster

 Mud to be used in plastering should be made from earth free from grass roots, gravel,
stone grit etc.
 Mud plaster is generally applied in two coats.
 The first coat being 18mm thick while the thickness of the second coat is kept 6mm.
 The plaster is dashed against the wall and worked with a straight edge and float.
 The second coat is applied only when the first coat has set(not dry).

4. Water proof plaster:

 This mortar consists of 1 part of cement, 2 parts of sand and pulverised alum @ 12
kg/m3 of sand. To this dry mix , the soap water containing about 75 g of soft soap/L
of water , is added to obtain the waterproof mortar.

5. Gypsum plaster (plaster of Paris)

 Gypsum plaster, or plaster of Paris, is produced by heating gypsum to about 300 °F

(150 °C).
 2CaSO4·H2O + Heat → 2CaSO4·½H2O + H2O (released as steam)
  When the dry plaster powder is mixed with water, it re-forms into gypsum. The
setting of unmodified plaster starts about 10 minutes after mixing and is complete in
about 45 minutes but not fully set for 72 hours

6. Heat resistant plasters

 It's purpose is to replace conventional gypsum plasters in cases where the temperature
can get too high for gypsum plaster to stay on the wall.

 Heat resistant plaster should be used in cases where the wall is likely to exceed
temperatures of 50°C .

 Heat resistant plaster is a building material used for coating walls and chimney

breasts .
Defects in plastering:-
The following defects may arise in the plaster work:
i. Blistering of plastered surface: This is the formation of small patches of plaster
swelling out beyond the plastered surface, arising out of late slaking of lime particles in
the plaster.
ii. Cracking: it is the formation of cracks in the plaster work due to the following reasons:
a. Structural defects in building
b. Movements in the background due to its thermal expansion or rapid drying
c. Movements in the plaster surface itself, either due to expansion or shrinkage.
iii. Efflorescence: It is the whitish crystalline substance which appears on the surface due to
presence of salts in plaster making materials. It affects the adhesion of paint with wall
surface. Efflorescence can be removed to some extent by dry brushing and washing the
surface repeatedly.
iv. Flaking: It is the formation of very loose mass of plastered surface, due to poor bond
between successive coats.
v. Peeling: It is the complete dislocation of some portion of plastered surface, resulting in
the formation of a patch. This also results from imperfect bond.
 vi. Popping: It is the formation of conical hole in the plastered surface due to presence of
some particles which expand on setting.

Method of plastering (general)

 The plaster may be applied in one or more coats, but the thickness of a single coat
should not exceed 12 mm.
 In the case of inferior or cheaper type of construction, the plaster may usually be one
coat. For ordinary type of construction, the plaster is usually applied in two coats,
whereas for superior type of works it is applied in three coats.
 The final setting coat should not be applied until the previous coat is almost dry.
 The previous surface should be scratched or roughened before applying the next coat
of plaster.
 In plastering, the plaster mix is either applied by throwing it with great force against
the walls or by pressing it on the surface.
Pointing
“It is the art of finishing the mortar joints in exposed brick or stone masonry with
suitable cement or lime mortar, in order to protect the joints from weather effects
and also to improve the appearance of building structure.”
Functions of pointing:
 Maintaining the joints of the structures.

 Pointing being cheap can be adopted in places of low rainfall.

 Where the natural beauty of materials, viz., stone blocks, bricks etc, is desired to be
exhibited.

 Gives resisting power to the bricks and stones used in construction towards weather
conditions.

Method of Pointing
 All the mortar joints (on the masonry face required to be pointed) are raked out by a
special pointing tool to a depth of 15 to 20 mm, so as to provide an adequate key for the
fresh mortar used for pointing.
 All the loose mortar and dust are removed by brushes
 The joints and wall surface are washed with clean water, and then kept wet for few hours.
 The joints so prepared, are filled with suitable mortar with a small trowel. The mortar is
well pressed into the joints to form a close contact with the old interior mortar joints. All
excess mortar sticking to the sides is scraped away.
 The finished pointing work is kept wet for about 3 days when lime mortar is used for

pointing and for 10 days when cement mortar is used for pointing .
TYPES OF POINTING:

 FLUSH POINTING
The mortar is pressed into the raked joints and finished off flush with the edges of the
bricks or stones, so as to give a smooth appearance. The edges are then neatly trimmed
with a trowel and straight edge.
 CUT/WEATHERED/STRUCK POINTING
The mortar is first pressed into the raked joints. While the mortar is still green, the top of
the horizontal joints is neatly pressed back by 3-6 mm with the pointing tool. Thus the
joint is finished sloping from top of the joint to its bottom.

 V GROOVED POINTING
This type of pointing is made similar to keyed or grooved pointing by suitably shaping
the end of the steel rod to be used for forming the grooving.
  KEYED/GROOVED POINTING
The mortar is pressed into the raked joints and finished off flush with the face of the wall.
a groove is formed by running the bent end of a small steel rod (6mm in diameter)
straight along the centre line of the joints. The vertical joints are also finished in the same
manner

 TUCK POINTING
The mortar is first pressed in the raked joints and there after it is finished flush with the face of
the wall. The top and bottom edges of the joints are cut parallel so as to have a uniformly raised
band about 6mm high and 10mm in width.
 BEADED POINTING
The mortar is pressed in the raked joints and finished off flush with the face of the wall.
A steel rod having its end suitably shaped is run straight along the centre line of joints to
form the beading.
PAINTING:
“The Paints are coatings of fluid materials and they are applied over the surfaces
of timber, metals, etc.”
Functions:
• Protect the surface of wood, metal and all structures from atmospheric influences.
• Prevent decay in wood
• Prevent corrosion in metal
• Provides clean ,smooth and colored surface
Ingredients of Paint:
 Base- solid matter
 Bases-White lead, red lead, oxides of zinc, antimony white
 Liquid vehicle
 Carries the solid matter
 Acts as binding material
 Vehicles- linseed oil, Tung oil, stand oil, nut oil
 Additives
 Pigments- coloring agent
 Thinning agents- reducing consistency of paint- turpentine oil
 Driers- property of quick drying- cobalt, lead, manganese
 Function of Driers- to absorb oxygen from the atmosphere and transfer it to
linseed oil for hardening.
 Inert filler/Adulterant- improving the durability ex:Barium sulphate

Characteristics of Good Paint

• Good spreading power
• Dry quickly
• Durable, tough, resistant to wear on drying
• Color should not fade or change
• Should work smoothly and freely
• Become dry within 9 hours
 • Not crack on drying
• Smooth and pleasing appearance.
Process of Painting a plastered surface
• For newly plastered wall, there is considerable amount of moisture.
• For applying paint wait for at least 3to 6 months.
• Defects in plastered surfaces are to be removed.
• Coats of alkali resistant primer paint should then be applied on the surface.
• Usual paints:- cement paint, silicate paint, emulsion paint

CLASSIFICATION OF PAINTS
On the basis of their applications, Paints can be classified as
1. Exterior house Paints
Generally have constituents such as pigment (ZnO, TiO2, white lead etc.), extenders
(talc, barytes, clay etc), vehicle (e.g. boiled linseed oil) and thinners (e.g. mineral
spirit, naphtha etc.) Coloured pigments for light tint are also added in varying amount.
2. Interior wall Paints
It is prepared by mixing pigments (e.g. white and colored pigments), vehicle (e.g.
varnish or bodied linseed oil) and resins (e.g. emulsified phenol formaldehyde resins
and casein)
3. Marine Paints
Also known as antifouling paint and can be prepared by mixing various ingredients
such as pigments (ZnO and venetian red), resin (shellac), driers (manganese
lineolate), vehicle (coal tar), diluents (pine oil), toxic components(cuprous oxide and
mercuric oxide) and small amount of bees wax.
4. Emulsion Paints
These paints are highly durable, impermeable to dirt, resistant to washing, rapidly
drying, contain water as thinner and can be easily cleaned. It contain an emulsion of
alkyds, phenol formaldehyde etc.(vehicle) in water pigments and extenders are also
added to get other desirable properties.
5. Chemical resistant Paints
Consist of baked oleo resinous varnishes, chlorinated rubber compositions,
bituminous varnishes and phenolic dispersion as chemical resistant materials in paint
formulations.
6. Fire resistant Paints
These paints impart a protective action on the article being coated through easy
fusion of the pigments and other paint ingredients giving off fume on heating, they
do not support combustion. It consist of borax, zinc borate, ammonium phosphate
synthetic resins etc as anti-fire chemicals.
7. Luminous Paints
Consist of phosphorescent paint compositions such as pigment (sulfides of Ca, Cd
and Zn dispersed in spirit varnish), vehicle (chlorinated rubber, styrol etc.) and
sensitizer for activation in UV region.
8. Latex Paints
These paints usually contain
 Protein dispersion : Prepared by soyabean proteins or casein in aqueous
ammonia solution for about an hour at room temperature
 Pigments: ZnS,TiO2 etc dispersed in water
 Extenders: clay, talc, MgSiO3, BaSO4 etc.
 Preservatives: Penta chlorophenol
 Antifoaming agent: Pine oil
 Plasticizer: Tributylphosphate
 Latex: Prepared from a butadiene styrene copolymer in water
All these ingredients well stirred in water, screened, again stirred and packed.

9. Aluminum Paints
Used as heat reflecting paints and consist of pigment (aluminum powder) and vehicle
(spirit varnishes) and cellulose nitrate lacquers.
10.Metal Paints
Applied on the metal surfaces or bodies for protection and decoration and are of two
types.
Painting on new wood work:
o Moisture content of timber must be less than 15% of their dryweight.
o Four coats of paints are required.
o Before Prime coat,Wood work to be cleaned thoroughly, Nail holes and cracks to be
filled with putty, Rub the surface with water proof abrasive paper.

Painting on old wood work:

 Old paint should be completely removed
 Removing old paint
 Equal parts of washing soda and quick lime- mixture is brought to a paste
form by adding water
 It is applied on the surface and kept for one hour, then washed off with water
 After, wood surface is painted as that for new wood work.

Distempering
The main object of applying distemper to the plastered surface is to create a smooth surface.
The distempers are available in the market under different trade names. They are cheaper than
paints and varnishes and they present a neat appearance. They are available in a variety of colors.

Properties of Distempers
o On drying, the film of distemper shrinks. Hence it leads to cracking and flaking, if the
surface to receive distemper is weak.
o The coatings of distemper are usually thick and they are more brittle than other types of
water paints.
o The film developed by distemper is porous in character and it allows water vapour to pass
through it. Hence it permits new walls to dry out without damaging the distemper film.
o They are generally light in color and they provide a good reflective coating.
o They are less durable than oil paints.
o They can be applied on brickwork, cement plastered surface, lime plastered surface,
insulating boards, etc.
o They exhibit poor workability.
o They prove to be unsatisfactory in damp locations such as kitchen, bathroom etc.
Ingradients of a distemper:
A distemper is composed of base, carrier, colouring pigments and size. For base, the
whiting or chalk is used and for carrier, the water is used. Thus it is more or less a paint in which
whiting or chalk is used as base instead of white lead and the water is used as carrier instead of
linseed oil.

Process of distempering:
The application of distemper is carried out in the following way:
I. Preparation of surface: The surface to receive the distemper is thoroughly rubbed
and cleaned. The important facts to be kept in mind are:
a. The new plastered surfaces should be kept exposed for a period of two
months or so to dry out before distemper is appplied on them. The presence
of dampness on the surface results in failure of distemper coating.
b. The surface to receive distemper should be free from any efflorescence
patches. These are to be wiped out by clean cloth.
c. If distemper is to be applied on the existing distempered surface, the old
distemper should be removed by profuse watering.
II. Prime coat: After preparing the surface to receive the coats of distemper, a
priming coat is applied and it is allowed to become dry. For ready made
distempers, the priming coat should be composed of materials as recommended
by the makers of distempers. For local made distempers, the milk is used for
priming coat. One litre of milk will cover about 10m2 of the surface.
III. Coats of distemper: The first coat of distemper is then applied on the surface. It
should be of a light tint and applied with great care. The second coat of distemper
is applied after the first coat has dried and become hard. Following facts are to be
remembered:
a. The distempering should be done in dry weather to achieve better results.
b. The oil-bound distemper or washable distemper adheres well to oil-
painted applied before distempering is done on such surfaces.
c. The application of distemper by a spraying pistol is superior to that by
brushes. The spraying affords smooth and durable film of distemper.
Varnishing
The term varnish is used to indicate the solution of resins or resinous substances prepared
either in alcohol, oil or turpentine.
The following are main objects of applying varnish on a wooden surface:
i. It brightens the appearance of the grain in wood.
ii. It renders brilliancy to the painted surface.
iii. It protects the painted surface from atmospheric actions.
iv. It protects the unpainted wooden surfaces of door, windows, roof trusses, floors, etc.
form the actions of atmoshperic agencies.

Ingradients of a Varnish:
Following are the ingradients of a varnish:
a) Resins or resinous substances
b) Driers
c) Solvents

a) Resins or resinous substances: The commonly used resins are copal, lac or shellac and rosin.
The copal is a hard substance and is available from the earth at shellac is obtained by exudation
of some types of variety of forms. The lac or shellac is obtained by exudation of some types of
insects in india. The rosin is obtained from pine trees. Other resins are amber, mastic, gum
dammar etc.
b) Driers: The function of adrier in varnish is to accelerate the process of drying. The common
driers used in varnishes are litharge, white copper and lead acetate.
c) Solvents: Depending upon the nature of resin, the type of solvent is decided.

No. Solvent Resins

1. Boiled linseed oil Amber, Copal
2. Methylated spirits of wine Lac or shellac
3. Turpentine Mastic, Gum dammar, Rosin
4. Wood naphtha Cheap varieties of resins
TYPES OF VARNISHES
Depending upon the solvent, the varnishes are classified into the following four categories:
1) Oil varnishes 2) Spirit varnishes
3) Turpentine varnishes 4) Water varnishes.

1) Oil varnishes: The linseed oil is used as solvent in this type of varnish. The hard
resins such as amber and copal are dissolved in linseed oil and if the varnish is not workable, a
small quantity of turpentine is added. The oil varnishes dry slowly, but they form hard and
durable surface. In fact, these are the hardest and the most suitable varnishes. They are specially
adopted for exposed works which require frequent cleaning. They are used on coaches and
fittings in houses.
2) Spirit varnishes: The methylated spirits of wine are used as solvent in this type of
varnish. The resins are of soft variety such as lac or shellac. The spirit varnishes dry quickly. But
they are not durable and are easily affected by weathering actions. They are generally used for
furniture. The french polish is a variety of this class of varnish and the desired colouring tinge
can be obtained by addition of suitable colouring pigment. The french polish is one of the finest
finish for ornamental furniture prepared from superior quality of wood.
3) Turpentie varnishes: The turpentine is used as solvent in this type of varnish. The
resins adopted are of soft variety such as gum dammer, mastic and rosin. These varnishes dry
quickly and posses light colors. They are not durable and tough as oil varnishes.
4) Water varnishes: The shellac is dissolved in hot water and enough quantity of either
ammonia or borax or potash or soda is added such that shellac is dissolved. These varnishes are
used for varnishing maps, pictures, etc. They are also used for delicate internal work and as a
covering for wall paper.

PROCESS OF VARNISHING
The application of varnish on the wood work is carried out in the following way:

i. Preparation of surface: The woodwork is thoroughly rubbed down by means of sand paper
or pumice stone. The surface is then made smooth and clean.
ii. Knotting: The process of knotting is then carried out as in case of painting.
 iii. Stopping: The surface of woodwork is then stopped. This is done by means of hot weak
glue size. It will fill up the pores on the surface. One N of glue will form about one litre of
glue size. Alternatively, the boiled linseed oil can be applied in two coats. When the surface
becomes dry, it should be once again rubbed down with sand paper.
iv. Coats of varnish: The varnish is then applied on the surface in thin coats. The next coat is
applied after the previous one has thoroughly dried up. The varnishing should not be done
with ordinary paint brushes. But fine haired varnishing brushes should be used.

WHITEWHASHING
The fresh lime is slaked at site of work and mixed thoroughly with sufficient quantity of
water in a tub. It is then screened through a clean cloth. The clean gum dissolved in hot water is
then added at the rate of 20N per m3 of lime. The rice may be used in place of gum.
The surface to be whitewashed should be cleaned before the work is started. For
whitewashing walls which are whitewashed before, the old loose whitewash is to be first
removed and repairing to the plaster is carried out, if necessary.
The whitewash is applied with jute brush and the brush is so worked that a surface with
uniform colour is obtained. The three coats are generally applied, each after the previous coat has
completely dried.
The lime is toxic for germs. It reflects light and thus it increases the brightness of the surface.
The whitewashing therefore is extensively used for interior wall surfaces and ceilings of houses.
The process of whitewashing is sometimes used for exterior wall surfaces also. A satisfactory
work gives an opaque smooth surface with uniform white color and does not readily come off on
the hand, when rubbed.

COLOURWASHING
This is prepared by adding the colouring pigment to the screened whitewash. It should be
seen that the colouring pigment is not affected by the presence of lime. Ordinarily, the yellow
earth is popular for colourwashing. Generally, the walls are colourwashed and ceilings are
whitewashed. The mixture is to be kept constantly stirred during use.
The process of colouwashing imparts cleanliness and pleasant appearance of the surfaces
which are treated.
FORM WORKS AND SCAFFOLDINGS.

FORM WORKS
 Its is an artificial support provided below and around the precast or cast insitue concrete
work.

 Formwork is commonly made of

o Steel
o wood
 Formwork construction & casting is of prime importance in concrete industry. It share a
significant amount of concrete cost.

Qualities of a form work

 It should be water tight

 It should be strong

 It can be reusable

 Its contact surface should be uniform

 It should be according to the size of member

Some important things about form work

 Due to continuous use wooden planks & steel plates surfaces become uneven and require
maintenance.
 For wooden formwork use cardboard or plastic fiber board. Bolt hole places must also be
repaired.
 For steel formwork plates must be leveled by mallet and loose corners must be welded.

Types of form works

 Formwork are mainly of two types

 Steel formwork
  Wooden formwork

 Steel formwork is made of

 steel sheets

 Angle Iron

 Tee Iron

 Wooden formwork consists of

 Props

 Planks battens

 Ledgers

 Sheeting

Formwork detail for different structural members:

In concrete construction formwork is commonly provided for the following structural
members.

 Foundations

 Wall

 Column

 Slabs & beams

 Stairs

Advantages of steel form work

 It can be used for a no. of times.

 It is non absorbent.
 Smooth finish surface obtained.
 No shrinkage of formwork occurs.
 Easy to use.
 Its volume is less
 Its strength is more.
Scaffolding
It’s a temporary structure to provide a platform at different levels of a building for workers
and Materials.

Following are the types of scaffolds

1. Single Scaffolds

2. Double Scaffolds

3. Ladder Scaffolds

4. Cantilever Scaffolds

5. Suspended Scaffolds

6. Steel or Tubular Scaffolds

Single scaffolding

 It consists of
 Standards (v posts)(10 cm)
 Putlogs (7.5 x 7.5)
 Ledgers
 Wooden boards
 Braces
 Used for ordinary buildings
 Double scaffolding

 It consists of

 Two rows of standards.

 15 cm, 1.5 m

 Shores are provided.

 Used for superior works

Ladder scaffoldings

It consists of Brackets for Plate form.

 Cantilever scaffolding

 It consists of
 Cantilever
 Struts
 Standards
 Putlogs
 Plate forms
 It is used above ground level
Suspended scaffoldings

 It consists of
 Ropes
 Working platforms
 Ropes can be raised Manually or mechanically
 Used for light construction and finishing works of multistory buildings
Steel or tube scaffoldings

It consists of

 Steel tubes (1-1/2” – 2-1/2” diameter)

 Coupler or Clamps (to hold pipes in different positions)
 Prop nuts (to hold single pipes)
 Bolts, Nuts & washers
 Wedge & Clip

Previous Year Questions

1. Explain in detail about Damp proofing and water proofing materials?
2. What are the different types of painting?
3. Write about vanishes, Formworks?
4. Differentate between the plastering and pointing?
5. Explain about distempering, color washing and painting?
6. Explain the different types of painting?
7. Write short notes on the following:
a. Plastering
b. White washing
c. Distempering
8. What is pointing? How is it carried out? What are its different types?
9. What are “breathing” and “non-breathing” types of paints?
10.What are the considerations in application of these paints to the ceiling
under the wet areas and wall surfaces?
11.Mention the important guidelines for the use of plastic emulsion paints.
12.Give a breif description of the process of painting on different surfaces.
13.Give the various specifications for cement plaster and describe how it is
carried out on brick masanry
14.Explain methods of curing lime plaster and cement plaster.
15.Explain Pointing and plastering.
16.How do you classify various types of paints. Explain in detail each type.
17.Explain white washing and color washing.