A!

I) UEMSNV HIIM NOIIIOE

ruJoJ pue Suruearu
:reruuerD qsIIEuf, Sursn
a:odeBurg od.4o1 d.aup,,{g oluolol uoPuo-l )iro1 .llaN
IIPH a)rluard

Surqrea; aBen8uel qsrlSuE

liyrctaatup n$nuaj
uo7arnp7 aBan?ual 4sq7u7 nl a1n14su1 at11

poaTrIN '{ a1ortN

pue

llstaaruyl ta$aJua-I
uo4a)npj a?an?ual 1sq?u3 rcl a7n14su1 a41
i: ';t'q-l:!{^..;
-'r spooM 'D pre^/wpH

AiI) UITMSNV HIIM NOIIICIE

ruroJ pue tulueatu

:r€r,uruErD tISHtufl Sulsn
Il^

L'L r.uroJ :I leuorlrpuo] 'ge'z

6tl slsPl Mar^ar :01 sqra^ IPPohl 't€'z
9rr sruolpl Iepou :6 sqra^ IPpohtr '€€'z
zll slsanbar :g sqra^ lPPohtr 'z€'z
601 PInoM 'IIIM:l sqra^ IPpol,{ 'Ig'z
90r ol ll{3no 'plnor{s :9 sqra^ Iepohtr '0€'z
z0r lq8rw'.,{etu :g sqra^ Ieporu '62'Z
00I ol aneq /paau /]snru :t sqra^ Iepohtr '82'z
96 o1 alqe aq'plnol'uel :€ sqra^ IepotUlz'z
z6 Suruearu :Z sqra^ lepo1N 'gZ'Z
88 ruroJ :I sqra^ IPPoIAI '92'z
98 asn :z a ISsed 'tz'z
z8 LuroJ:I a^rssed '€z'z
08 ol pasn aq'ot pasn 'zz'z
8t snonurluo] ]raJrad arnlnl'tJaJrad arnlnc'Iz'z
9L snonurluoJ lJaJrad lsed '02'z
EL lra]rad lsPd .6I.2
OL snonurluo] lJaJrad luasard 8I'z
lJaJrad luasard
.lI.z
99
€9 lsed aq] ur arnln1 aql :g aJnlnC 9I Z
19 a^Illultur + o] aq :l arnlnc 9I z
6S a^rlrurjul + ol ]noqP aq :9 arnlnc iI Z
t9 uuoJ snonurluoJ luasard :g atnlnc '€I.z
vt uuoJ aloruls luasard :t arnlnc zl'z
09 a^rllulJul snonurluoJ + aq + IPt{s/lll./!1 :€ crnlnc 'II'z
9V alrlrur1ul + ol Suro8 aq :Z arnlnC '0I'Z
L' a^rlrulJur + Ileqs/llrM :I arnlnc 6'z
0, t1sr13uq ur arnlnC aql SurssardxE 8'Z
t€ snonurluoJ lsecl 'l'z
€€ 7 a1du15 $ed g'Z
0€ aldurg lsEd E.Z
1
LZ z snonurluo] luasard 't'z
EZ I snonurluoJ luasard '€'z
lz aldrurg luasard .Z.Z
8I a.r,r1e3or.ra1ur'aatle8au'a,trltsod :surrot qra6'I'Z
IL sqra^ :z uollJes

&T
YL aJualuas aql ur uorlrsod :.,{ruanbar; Jo sqla^pv '9'I
II a)ualuas aql ur uolllsod :saserqdlerqra^pP /sqra^pv '''I
L salctrJruect :sruJo, qra^ '€'I
t sarr€rlrxne lepour lsqran d-rer,urrd pue IeJIxal :sassel) qran 'Z'I
z alrsua+ur'alrlrsueJlur'alrlrsuell :sarro8alel qra1'I'I
I uoqesruB8ro aJualues :I uoqJaS
IX uorlf,nporlul
aEad

slualuo)
L:r:t{ Lrl:lr)t'. t, .l ll'L lll al f

P'lgc
C.r ll.i : : I ,r i'..1. l: '...rssible 1,25
(-..:-.tl::..:r:. .: inrf.ossible 128
I r:-.lt::.'i'.,1. J: unless 732
,-.,:t::::..:l:. :: rr'i,ching 135
t,' i :"-: :l -: ,: l .i rniinitive phrases 1 139
,- -. -i -,.i lntlnitive phrases 2 742
147
'riinitirre'' nhraces
,- -,-...- I -,. l ?
r"_.."-".-
li..:r::rng 1 St.ltementS 150
L\-- ,--,.--^-
n - 153
-..-r : - qr.lestlons, requests

5echon 3: f)eterminers 757

..I DiiPrDrrnerEaroups 15E

Cen::ai cieterminers 1: the use oi articles 159

Cc'.:r-.1. eleterminers 2: a and an 162
Ceitral tleterminers 3: the 165
Ce n:raL cleternriners 4: this, these, that, those 170
Lr :'::.1i rletermttrers 5: possessives 173
't77
C c':.tr.rl cleterminers 6: quanti fiers
Cr'ntral determt ners 7: wh-detenniners 160
J f.e,lprprminers. mrrltioliers: all, both, half; once, twice 182
Pcstcleterminers 1: cardinal and ordinal numbers, general ordinals 184
I'ostcleterminers ? : quantifiers 186

Secfion 4r \lodification 191

I I .\.1:ectives 1: position 't9?
-J - .\-i vtttr es 2: comparison 195
I i \l e.rrves 3: comparison 200
-1.-1. -\.1tr'ctives,l: -ing, -ed endings 203
l.r. 207
--\tiverbs
-1 r Prepositional phrases: place, time, manner 270
11 I
4. Intensiiiers; \'ery, too, enough ! t+

-l > Rt'lative Clauses 1: form; defining, non-defining 276

J' Rel.rtive Clauses 2: ob ject of clause 221
-1.1-r Rel;rtrve Clause-s 3: preposition + relative; whose 225
l. i 1 I(elative Clauses,l: adverbs as relative pronouns; special use of that 228
ial
I ll Reiative Clauses 5: reduced relative with -ing/-ed LJI

235
Secbion 3: Discourse
i.l . Plr.nouns 236
I l. IT .rs introduction word 211
244
5.-1. Sc.. neither nor
l.i. Cc-. -trrciin.rting conjunctions 248
252
r.5. Connectg;5 l; 6ontrast, result, difference
I o. Connecters l: order, summary, claritv, extra information 255
258
5 L SL:L.trrciin.ite cr)njunctions 1:place, time, manner
5.S. Sut orcltnatL..Lrnjunctions 2: Concession, contrast, cause and effect, result, purPose 262
266
J.9. Topic..rlisation
 XI

IT!'
xapul

982 ,(a4 ransuy

€82 suorlrsodard.{q parurolloy saarltalpe :g xrpuaddy
6lZ sqraa;eln8arrr:Txrpuaddy
LLZ sqra^ prom-rllnu :€ xrpuaddy
tlz sase.rqd unou lern1d qllM El{I :7 xrpuaddy
jLZ alf,rue oraz aql :I xlpuaddv
692 sarrpuaddv
aEud

slualuoJ
 'aJualuas e ur sqra^pP JoJ alqrssoo suorllsoo snorJe^ ar{l
: a)ualuas

aLIl ul sproM raqlo Jo rapro aql slJaJJe addl qrea .^^or{ pue 'sqra^ Jo sad.,{1 luara;;rp aql
:Eur.\ olloJ aql le )iool a,4^ I uorlJas uI
'Jlqpa^ou a;e 'saserqd lprqra^pp ro slprqra^pp se Ll)ns 'aruos lnq lsuorlrsod paxq
a^er{ sluauraia asaql;o ,{ue61 'qra^ srrl} Punore paurro] arp aJua}uas aqt ul sluauala laqlo aql
'(Surueau sr{arruor lpql qral e 'a'r) lerrxal pue ('r1a raqrunu 'asua1 Surrvroqs turoJ IIn, e
seq ler{l qro^ e 'a'r) alrurJ r{loq sr leql qJaA e ur€}uoJ lsnru a)ualuas V 'qran aql sr uorlesrue8ro
slql ot lprlua3 'aJualuas E ur rapro lq8rr aql ur sprom aL{l Surllnd suearu slq+ 'ia^al
Iprurot d-rarr e 1y 'dpadord sa8essaru ,{a.luol o1 Surdlaq uI lueuodur st reruruer8 Jo asn }JaJJoJ

uorlEsruutro aJualuas :I NoII)gs

 UNIT 1.1.
VERB CATEGORIES:
transi tiv e, intransitive,
intensive The agent collected the rent.
The older people left.
Thatcher became Prime Minister in 1979.

VerL.s can L.e fransitive, intransitive or intensive

Lt,f.,;::j: :L,'.ftl/llplCS:

Trans ibive Intransitive

The .reent collected the rent. james went to Rome.

f her ve ,.rr en the kevs to the owner He cried bitterly.
The olc.ler people left the street. The older people left

In the left-hand column of the chart above, the verbs are being used transitively. This means
that thev arr' all followed by a direct object, which answers the questron WHO? or WHAT?
after the 1's1b; in these cases, the rent, the keys and the street.
In the right-h.rnd column of the chart, the verbs have no obiect. There is nothing which
.rns\\'ers \\'l-JO? or WHAT? after the verbs as in the left-hand column. If anything follows
these verbs. it is an adverbial phrase which answers the questions WHERE? or HOW? and in
other cases \\'HEN? These verbs are being used intransitively.
Some verl.s.rre alrvays used transitively. You cannot sav, for erample:
'Tr:a ,i i', rtt collected.
-I';,.;; la (n'en.
These sentences are incomplete. Verbs such as collect and give alwavs need an obiect.
Some lerbs are always used intransitively, for example:
Jamesn'ent...
The book iell . . .

Vt'rL-s sucjr es go and fall are never followed by an otrject.

Some leri.,c can L.e used either transitively or intransitively, for example:
The rrldtr ;reopie left. (lntransitiae)
The trl.ler people left the street. (Trausitiae)
Ther-e i: .r qrouFr of verbs which are knolvt't as intensive or linking 'erbs (see Unit 1.2). They
.rre not tollo\\'ed bv a direct object, but by a complement. The complement tells you more
about the sublect and rs sometimes a description of the subject.
l-oLri:rit l;1r'-ir' r'.1,ti1i11/c-sl
Th.rtcher L.r'came Prime N{irrister in 1979.
Rcntv i. l tt.rcher.
Some intensrve vcrbs are. appear, be, become, feel, look, seem, smell, sound, taste,
Learner dictrcnaries indrcate whether verbs can be used transitively, intransitively or
intensrveil'.
)
 'a>lrp lsoruralno aqt 3uo1e (aa4tsua4ut) (>1) sn 1o uazop aaj-.
puplloH lo JIeq (aa4tsuatq)
(t) aruo t€ql aprs.,{_rlunor 1o p
e (aatl$ubtt) ' ' (q) ll Jlas]l uorleN aLIl se se {le.M e sr slr{t pup ipuplloH ur alp
q)lnq
'eas quoN ar{l ssorle
IIe^{ ol lnoq€ arp aM qlparq umo rno (aa4tsuutl) . . . . . (3) ueJ a^r '. -
pr* (aatsuayul) " (l) pulrur aqJ raqlpa.lr aql roJ alenbapeur (aarsualur). . . . (a) srr{f .){r:.1
-,,{ep pue lapef-urer'raleams'sprL{s's{)os'slaurerl dol-q8rq (aa4tsuatT). . .. .. (p) sn Jo q:-.
'u€a)o aqt 1o a8pa aqt Suolp (aa4tsua4ur) ' '' (r) aM 'eas qlroN aqi
JJo pur^l p'
aql urorJ :1'urd(aarsualu!) "" '(q) s8al a1rqr14 (aalllsuatyur)...'..(e) sn;o auofualg.u.\.,:_
stua a:
'sr'paralo)'Surra,rrqs sr'seslalerJ,3u111e.u are,Surdurerl arp,aas,Surlea.u sr,pauln; a.reu
'sl)I)atq ut paJDls itoSatu, .

sqtt 4cu.1m mopq sqraa at11 lo auo Swltaps rtq spnm Sutsstw ary ul ltlJ pua lxal Eumogoj atl] l1t:
o1vll ISPI

pe;o
P"^t'l
aArsualul a^rlrsuequl aAursuPJI

eulqf ol leoq Mols e se1e1 lpauua; lpuy l\

'sl€oqasnoq o,u1-.{1uam; uMo sraqlorq xrs aqf
'1ood aql ur paleu ruems uarplrq) aqI ( '.1
'slsrrnol aql roJ IIPM sleurrxrrJ Jo spur) IIV {.'
'sued pue siod eql uealJ uaruo,M aql 'ranrr aq] Jo slueq aql uO L:
'puauJ asoll € se,!r ueuaaH Ieurpre] (:
'proJXO ol lsrue aql palr^ur .{rry,q (f
'{eprloq rraqt roJ sa^l }S ol luam puarr1 raq pue er)rrled {--
',,i.auotu no.4. sales Jueualor lo paap V (.
'sJaploq .{rr1od uor; sarJanb snoraurnu alreJar aM {r
'(eruezuel rrtou) elrdue8uel ur parp pue panrl auols8ur^r'l pr^EC
:J
ILlut L) \ ..

'noli
toi uaJiltm uaaq sn4 aldruaxa uV alqol SutotolloJ a4J Lu uwt1l.
aqaudotdda a4l ut q)ao a4i Suqum rtq qtaa io Ato?alat at11 Ai7uay puu sa)uajuas SLuotollot a41 pl1,1 .

auo {sEf

sxsvl - serroSaler qra^ I.T llun

 UNIT 1..2 Nurse Lane continued with her knitting.
Romy and Alan became neighbours.
VERB CLASSES: lexical and
I don't do that any more.
primarl'verbs; modal |ohn has sent the application off.
auxiliaries He was arrested last night.
Payment must be received on or before
19 April1988.

\\'hat eir, ', erl-s DO? Some verbs tell us n'hat is happening or thev describe something; other
vt-rbs .ril ..ii supportels to main verbs ancl help to show the tense or n'hether the form is a
qLresi:(.rr,: '.r'rrjle trthers qualify what the n'rain t'erb does.

1. Verbs and meaning

-.-.-,.,: :':,'.t i,rntttp/es:
r, She applied for the senior post.
r.' \r-rrse Lane continued rvith her knitting.
c, Rom)' and Alan became neighbours.
,lr Churchill was Prime Minister in 1953.
Tire',rtrrtls in bold type are verbs. In exampies (a) and (b), thev are telling us what the
sui:,ject did. In (c) and (d), they form a link between the subject and information
.rL.r.r.rt ihc subject. The words that follow the verbs are descriptions of the subject.
\eighbours .rncl Prime Minister here are not the object of the verb, br.rt the complement.
T:rtv tltrn't tell us rvhat the subject is doing as in (a) anct (b). They tell us more about the
su bj ect.

l.'....,;: lltt.t exnntples:

She .rpplied for the senior post.
In this example, applied for the senior post answers the question, WI{AT did she do?
\-erbs like this are extensive. They go out from the subject.
SHE -- applied for the job.
\rr. lr.,k Ltt tltis exnmple:
Churchill r,vas Prime Minister in 1953.
In this er.rmple, was Prime Minister in 1953 answers the questiorr IVHAT happened to
Chulchill? or WHO was Chr-rrcl.rill? Verbs like this are intensive. Thev so back to the
sr:L.ic'ct.
vt
Clrurci.rill _--> was Prime Minister in 1953.

Botir rri these tvpes of verb (extensive and intensive) are called lexical verbs (see also Unit
1.1). Ther carrv the meaning of the action or description.

There nrust be a lexical verb in every sentence.

 'srelP] ur uaas uaaq seq aqs
'qo[ raltaq P ualrg Suraq sr aqg
:qran freurrrd e se slred o,ta'l ser{ aq ol qra^ aq} saurrlauos
'qsrueos sElll osseJrd
'uarplltl) aa.rql seq rhe7,q
.dn-8urqse.u ar{} op
ILI
:sa^lasuraql sqla^ Ielrxal s€ uorlJunJ osl€ -
aq ol pup a^Bq ol 'op ol - sqra,r.,{reunrd aql 'sqran Ief,rxal raq}o Suruoddns se 11a.u sy

XOS DNINUVM

.1OI € aAeq rPr ]eqJ

lsoJ lsnru
'qru fua,r aq IIIl\^ ruoJ
'srear{ :o; .,{ldua ueaq sPr{ asnoq aqJ
'uorlua]+€ ol pools rarplos aqf

IErIxe'I {reunr4 IEPOl\tr

',llolaq alqel aql uI u^roqs se 'lpJrxel 'rfterurrd 'r(.reryrxne Ipporu :rapro

3ur.no11o1aql ur uaql lnd no{ uaqJ sqra^ Jo sassel) aaJql IIe lrrel sarualuas sarullauJos
-ftt'Z-SZ'Z slrug aas) sarrerllxnp
leporu se unoul are,{aq1 'sqral IPJrxaI aql
d;r1enb pue ' Jla ',{+lllqe 'uorle8rlqo 1o saar8ap .uoqs dnor8 srql ul adfi ploq ur sqra^ aqI
'Suruana srql ralel ure; lradxa ueJ lsea-quou ar{I
'886I grdv 6l aroJaq ro uo palla)ar aq lsnru ]uaLuAed
:saldwaxa asa4l la 4oo-l
srarJrlEnb sE sqra^ 't
'arrrssed aql Sursn are a.ry\ uaq./\^
llnoqp 3ur11e1 arp arvr arull Jo lradse leqrvr
la,lrle8au aql ur Sulqlatuos Surdes ro uotlsanb e 3ur1se arp a.l,l taqlaqm
:3ur.v.o11o1 aql or{s o1 sn dlaq sqral drewlrd aql
^
G7Z'tZ'Z slrufl aas) aarssed aql urrol o1 (q)
(na'tZ'fr'Z'€'Z slrun aas) sluroJ snonurtuo) aql roJ (p) pasn sl aq
'(Zt'Z llun aas) sruroJ 1ra;rad aql roJ pasn sr aAPq
'(I'Z ttun aas) suorlsanb ro uorle8au ssa.rdxa ol pasn sI op
:sMolloJ se pasn arp pue sqra.r ,{:erurrd are .{ar11 'sqran
IpJrxaI aql lroddns lnq sa^lasuaql Surupaur ,(ue a.teq lou op araq ad.,{1 ploq ul sqra^ ar{I
'lq8ru 1se1 palsarre selr aH
';;o uorlelldde aql luas suq uqof
* * n::
)T:,?,o,1 ;i
"
i',"", ",
sralroddns sP sqra^ 'z
sassPlrqra^zIlrun
Unit 1,.2 verb classes - TASKS
Task one
Rr,t.i il:. f.r".i.')rJ saril ertcts arrd identiiy the clttsses of the t,erbs in bold type br/ placing them in the
!-irr' r.-'; irrlir'1lli lll tlte table. An exantple hns been utritten ior t1ou.
rllrll,
f ,,; "::'.,'
In';rr:t Berlin has n'ritten over 800 sor-lgs.
He rvas born rn Russia on 12 Mav 1888. His parents brought him and his six brothers and
si:tt'r s tr' .-\nreric..t in 189-1. 'Ihey lived rvith other immigrants in the Bronx in New York, When
ir.' nas l;fteen he left honre and worked as a waiter and singer. t{e became famous when he
rvrote'-'\lerander's Rag-Time Band'. Many people know the words of his songs, even when
thev don't know the name of the writer: 'l've never seen the sun looking so bright' and 'I
don't u'ant 1.r get up in the rnorning' trre just two. He has been married trvice. His first wife
died .l'.'r'tir'.rtter thev were married. Although he became very rich, the. father of his second
\\ ife rl asn't ha;.p1, that Berlin had grown up in a poor immigrant family with little education.
lie said iris clai-rghter mustn't marry Berlin. But the couple ignored him.

auxiliary Primary verb Lexical verb

Task two
Usi'r,{:...rr?s ironrthefolloiuinglist,conrTrletetheadrertisementltelou,.Eachiuordmaybeusedmore
tlrrru.rr;ir'. StLtttt the class of each uerb tts you use it.

should, take, rush, seems, consider, is, have, would, sugfiest, engineered
Nr) Lrne ia) ..., . that buying a Mercedes-Benz (b) ...... a decision you (c) ......
. .. . c)r lci) ... lightlv. Far fronr it. It (e) ...... only rvhen you (0 . .... the time to
consrderthe facts thata Mercedes-Benz (g) ...... suchanobviouschoice. (h) .. the300E
for er.rmple.
Likt'all \lercerles-Benz
c.rrs it (i) .. .. . . not (k) . .. . . to perform a few sprecifics superbly rvell
but to periorm everv function superblv well. Avoiding extremes in any single area in pursuit
of the ven' highest competence overall.
Feiv c.rt s tll the .rbilit)' to strike the same balance between comfort, handling
perfr)rnrance, safet\'. reli.rbiliiy and re-sale value.
 ']ualuLuo) ol pasnJar da;yyoaa rrs 'luaruaal8e ue lnoqe palsv
'lalreur aql ol juam aqs 'deaqr raqler Surqlauros 3uque14
:5Jld/ur.r,' .1:.1llJ JD )ool
arualuas aql Jo SuruurSaq aql le sasBrqd IudrrrlrPd ,z

'arur1 oql slragar qrrqm qre^ ,{rerurrd aLIl sl ll 'sasel asaql IJE ul
(paJt,t41su4) 'ssarc{ aql palJeltp peq raql+eL{I
(pafiarl luasat4) ssard aql pa))pllp seq raq)leqJ
(snonutluo3 7su4) 'luaprsard .lrau e Surlraya aram qJuarl aqJ
(snonu4tLoS luasat4)'luaprsard ,rtau e Surllala arp qJuarl aql
:;,tldtuuxa Jsarlt tu 40o-l
'sqJaA
l-rpur:d ;o lroddns aql qll^,\ srxJoJ ur pasn are daql araq,n saJualuas uI srr{l aas ueJ aM
'eruq alerrpur lou op .{aq1 'aldrrured lsed ro luasard paller are sruroJ a}IUIJ-uou qSnoqlly

'tr xrpuaddy aas lsrl IInJ P ro{

(1nd) 1n4
(pres) /.eg
(auo8) o3
:3urrnro11o; aq1
se q)ns 'sturo; relnSarrr iueu lng 'urroJ reln8ar aql sl slr11 'pa- + qJaA a].{}
are araq]
Jo ruals aql ruorJ pauroJ sr aldlJllrEd lsed aql leql pres aneq a.\,t 's3urql .{1r1dturs o1

XOS 9NINUVM
'pa- +, Ise laldnured lsed)
pa- + qra^ aql Jo urals aql
13ur- a 1rre,r.r (aldrorlred luasard)
Bu1- + qra^ ar{} jo ruals aq}

:s,\r.ollot se dn apeu ale PuP seldrrrlred sP uMou>l

.{11eraua8 are asaql 'pa- ro 8ur- ut pua r{)It{M suIIoJ allulJ-uou aAPLI osle sqlal Ie)IxaI IIV
'sr-uroj alrurJ se
uMoul are ,sqta^ l-reutrrd Jo ltoddns aLll tnoqlrM ' pi!\ srlll uI aruq alP)lput t{JttlM sluroC
(lsPd) rrr^pP :o; no.{ ol alorM aM
(1uasartr) alqnlosul sruaas ualqord aq1
:saldwaxa asaLll lD 1001
'arurl lsed ro luasard .\^or{s q)Iq^^ surroj a^Pq sqra^ IP)Ixal IiV
eruq alP)Ipur qJrqM sruroJ qre^ 'I

,{ar;; oa 3 r, r', " "*"i;"":Tfi t?:;:lltJ

'laIrPur aql ol
lua1vr aqs 'deaqr raqlPr SuIqlatuos 3ur1ue1q saldnrlred
:shtruo{ gugn
€.I IINN
Unit i.i \-erb forms
The first part of each sentence does not indicate whether we are talking about a present or
past event; it rs in the second part, where there is the finite verb, that we can find this
rnformation.
Lcok iit tltt exatrples in the following chart:

Participle phrase Finite clause

she went to the marker.

\\'antrng something rather cheap,
Robert is going to the charity shop.
Sir Ceoffrey refused to comment.
Asked about an agreement,
Sir Geoffrey will refer you to his report

In both cases we can see that the same participle phrase can appear with finite clauses
that retlect a different time. This will become clearer if we expand the participle phrases.
Lrot irf these examples:
Because she wanted something rather cheap, she went to the market.
As he wants something rather cheap, Robert is going to the charity shop.
lVhen he was asked about an agreement, Sir Geoffrey refused to comment.
If he is asked about an agreement, Sir Geoffrey will refer you to his report.
The expansion of these examples shows the following three things:
(a) the time eiement is reflected in the finite verb in the main ciause;
(b) the present participle phrase is an abbreviation of an active clause;
(c) the past participle phrase is an abbreviation of a passive clause.

3. Present participle versus infinitive after verbs of senses

After verbs, such as see, watch, hear, notice, feel, etc., we can use either the infinitive or
the nrpsent narficiple.
Look nt these examples:
Frankenstein watched his man-made person coming to life.
Frankenstein watched his man-made person come to life.
The difference is the sense of duration of the activity. In the first example, the writer is
focusing on the process itself as the creature became alive. In the second example, the
focus is on the result of the process. (Other uses of the non-finite form are discussed in
unit 4.12.)

WARNINC BOX

This use of the participles is formal and usually used only in writing. It is unusual,
therefore, for the participle phrase to be used with I or you.
A sentence must contain a finite form. When the form of the lexical verb is non-finite.
the primary verb or modal verb is in the finite form:
Dav-Lervis has appeared in many films.
This house was built in 1900.
We must receive an answer by Monday.
6

'rE) Jarl qllM luapl))e up perl aursg /flrslalrun aql 8u1,rea1 sp.\1 : *: -

3rq e auoraq plno.tr aqs lq8noql aqs ,ralnpord pooalfllog dol u ,(q uaas spm aqs ai - :- -
'll nq ol palueM lalerpauurr auuy,asnoq aql Alps aqs _:_
'qo[ slq dn a.tr8 ol paprrap r.ulorl€lN,azrrd dol aql papreMe sp,\{ aL{ _:_
'lradxa ue au€Jaq lqrrnb aqs,luasard E sE ralndruor e uanr8 sEM aus :;-_
'rll.o)sotrAl o1 padersa aq /lno punoJ spm ,{q1rq4 _.:_ "

'a1drual .,(q1reseql,re.1 aql slrsl^ ualJo aq 'sErpeI ur salrl up-::

I
'araql puarrJ srq,ol ua]+rrm s€q atl ,aJueJC ur,{eprloq e sluum rpqal\ as_-.:::
'olaq roJ auoqd l,uplnor aqs ,lleJ aql Aq lrnq sPllr eqs as:.:::
'asror{ al{l slotluo) aq 'surar eql sploq ,{apo[ aq] a .- .

'00t s,nu znlq e 6vy1,tpseil"4 u""s lsvl ua\M

'00I ,ueas
IpnV anlq e Sur,rrrp seM aq lspl sp.\l :

;11"1 id,ti1;ii,ta A i'",r1 fq fii;S

'ilal arl /ea4 aql uory 3un,us u::_:

'nort to1:..:.
aaa4 saldwaxa awos'altutl-uou saunaq adfu ppq ur yad aql lutlj os molaq saruajuas :: _

o-tr: s :

'sn IIeJ 'arud ra.uo1 e ro1 8ur1oo1 ar,nof lne 'd1r1en: :' - -
ur pelsaralu! ar,nod Jr os suaqJlrl arelduor.uuro) aroru 1o aorrd aql JIeLI lnoq€ lp ;. :,
ratJo ol aAer{ az\a leqM 'slEAIJ Ino Jo asor{l ueql ssal JPJ lsoJ suaqJlil Jno 'tuoo.I.4,\ous -'
par(eldsrp se 'la1 'lU paJrad E arnsua o] slalrerq lle.l,r pue s3a1 alqelsnfpe a^pq daql s . - ,
rallaq luoq llrnq ale suaqJlr{ rno'sl€nu rno qllm pereduo3'tuaql Suouie lou arE j-
uoslrg le a./v\ lng 'sl€ap ,o suos IIp no^,{ Surra;;o 'arar{l }no saruedruor uar{rlr) Jo lol e r:: . -

rrarto) aqt otut waql Bulltnd tiq adli' proq u! swroJ qtaa a41 /i/11uap1r#"1::,'llilrlrl,tr,"','
auo );:

a sxsvr - sruroJ qra^ €.I llul

 're) raq qllm luapr))E ue peq ausA',{lrsra^run aq} Sur,reey sp,vr eqs sV r\
.IPIS
3rq e auoraq plnom aqs lqSnoql aqs 'reJnpord pooira,{11o11 do1 e ,{q ueas sem aqs asneJag
')l ,{nq o} palue.4 .,(lalerpaurur auuv 'asnoq arll MEs aqs uaqM
'qof slr{ dn a.rrr8 o} paprJap ruloJlel{ 'azud, dol aql paprpme spm arl uaqM
'lradxa up aru€f,aq .,{qcrnb aqs 'luasard e se ralnduor B uarrr8 spm aqs raUV
',\lo)sonl ol padeJsa aq 'lno PunoJ sP^/vr Aqlrqd uaqM
'a1drua1 ,{ql.reseqpe; aql slrsl^ uago aq 'serpptr uI sa^ll ue1eg sV
l
araql puauJ srq o] urlluM spq aq'aJuer{ ur,{eprloq E slupM Ipqehl asne)ag
dlaq .ro1 auoqd g,uplno) aqs 'llpJ aql {q gnq sE,rr arls esnp)ag
'asror{ ar{l slor}uo) ar{ 'surar aql splorl {apo[ aql al1qM

'001 ,nu 2n,g v Fu1,t1,tpseN"r4 u""s levl vt?4M

'001 IpnV anlq e bunrrp sp.ln aLI 'uaas lsel spm aq uarll\

.llal uezaeL."e
l .rn nto,! fv16u6g
'ilal aq 'aa4 aq1 ruor;3unms upzrel s\
:5alawa1 .

'noh
tof ua4Jun ud;.
aaaq saldtuaxa auos'alrutl-uou sauoraq adly ploq ut Ttod atft laLfl os mopq sa)ualuas aLfl alumal
o1t4l {sEI

'sn IIer 'acud ra.rtol e ro1 3u1>1oo1 ar,nod lnq '.,Qr1enb raq8ru
ur palsaralul ar,nod Jr oS 'suaqJlrl arelduounuor aroru 1o arrrd aql ,ler{ lnoqe le ur sauro:
raJJo o1 aaEq a./tt leqM 'sle^rJ Jno Jo asoql ueql ssai r€J lsoJ suaqJll{ rno /urooJ,Mor.{s Ino u-
padeldslp se 'la1 'lU lcaJred € arnsua ol slaT)erq IIeM pue s8al alqelsn{pe alsq.,{aq1 'slerraleu;
rallaq uror1 llrnq arE suaqJlrT rno 'slplu rno qli^ pa,redruo3 'uaql Suoure lou arE i)llD T
uoslrM le a^{ lng 'sleap to suos Ile nod turra;;o 'arar{l lno sarueduror uaqJlII Jo }ol e arp araql

j)atto) aqt otut waql Butl,trrl frq adhl ppq,t suto! qtaa aqt filluapr r#'r:::r';li:r:;l;tr;it*;::,
auo {sPI

sxsvr - srur0J qra^ €.I

a +Iun
Unit 1.3 Verb forms - Tasks
Task three
\al Thinkoitentltinrsttouliketodoorutishu:ouldhappentoyou.Expressthemthroughtheuseof
otte ttf tht ttott-iinife frtrms. Some examples haae lseen zuritten fot you.
E.trt lr tt 1l-s:

Wa lking throygh Un9 ParR

i^ th7 ra!n,
Plaging football wibh his fviends.
Qiven a lot of mo^eJ.

(b) \..;r'ij;rrrl.rrf sotnctltingsomeltodqelsemiglttdoormighthnz:edone,u,hiledoittgthenboaeoras

.r lisr,lf rrt tr'/trtf hnd haTtpened to tltent. Some etamples hnz'e been it'trtten ior yott.

Fr,irrrrirs:
Walklyg throu.gh Vne711kiy th7 rlin, Xlne s1w a

Playing foobball wibh his fr;ends, ket hurb his knce.

Qiven a lob of rr,ol.eJ, kathl wou)d tnvel uound Ete
worid,-

10
 UNIT 1..4
The wedding is in May
ADVERBS, ADVERBIAL
Put the fish stock and the red chilli in the
PHRASES: position in the liquidizer.
sentence He shuggled on bravely.
The doctor sees only private patients on
Thursday.

The position for adverbs or adverbial phrases is usually at the end of the sentence. You may
:rave been told that r.r'hen there is more than one adverb or adverbial phrase, the correct order
,s manner (answering the question HOW?), place (answering the question WHERE?), then
fime (answering the question WHEN?).
For example, we can sav:
He works at home on Thursdays and Fridays.
He works hard at home.
He works hard on Thursdays and Fridays.
rut it is unlikely that we would say the following:
He works on Thursdaqs and Fridays at home.
He works at home hard.
He works on Thurstlays and Fridavs hard.
:Jowever, there are occasions when we can change the order (see Unit 5.9).
.t is often said that adverbs and adverbial phrases, especially those of time, can be put at the
:.eginning of the sentence. This is true. It is not true, however, that it is not important whether
:hey come at the beginning or the end of a sentence because the message will not be the same
see Unit 5.9). Furthermore, it is not alu'ays possible to move the adverbial phrase.

-ook at the examples irt the follozt,inq chart:

Column 1 Column 2

The wedding is in May. Lord St John retired from the House of

The wedding is in Keswick. Commons in 1987.
John has behaved badly. He struggleci on bravely.
Put the fish stock and the red chilli in the The doctor sees onlv private patients on
liquidizer. Thursday.

:r the chart above, rve can mo','e the adverbial phrases in the sentences in column 2, but we
.lnnot move those in column 1. Look nt the sentences in colttmn 7 acain.
We can say We can't say
The iredding is irt lvlnrt .
*ln Mttl the weddirrg is.
*Badly
John htts behozted badlll . Johtt has behnued.
Put the iish stock ilttd tlte *ln the liquitlizer put the fish
red chillt irt the liqtLidizer. stock and the red cltilli.
.\'iry can't rve change the adverb position in these sentences? Look what happens when we
::ke arvay the adverb. lVe can't sav the followirrg:

l1
Unit 1.1 Adverbs, arlverbial phrases
''lhe u,eddirrs is.
I It ll lI ll AS LtL: n AA L' 17.
-
Put the fish stock and the red chilli.
None of these sentences is complete. They have no meaning at all. The adverbial phrase is
necessary to make the form of the sentences grammatically acceptable and to give them some
meaning. Thus, it can't be moved from iis position at the end of the sentence because it is
essential to the sentence in both form and meaning.
Norr /ook at the sentences in column 2 again.
In these sentences we can put the adverb or adverbial phrase at the beginning of the sentence.
What happens when we take away the adverb or adverbial phrase at the end of the sentence?
Look at these examples:
Lord St fohn retired from the House of Commons.
He struggled on.
The doctor sees only private patients.
All these sentences are grammatically acceptable in form and in meaning. The adverbial
phrases that have been taken away are not necessary to make the sentences grammatically
complete (but, of course, they do affect the meaning). It is for this reason that in these
sentences we can move the adverbial phrase to the beginning of the sentence, as follows:
In L987 Lord St |ohn retired from the House of Commons.
Bravely he struggled on.
On Thursday the doctor sees only private patients.

12
 'MaLIl op ha4q ua4ot pua op Aary s8ul4l J4l'spurl)J rtuos Jnoqa /ito1s 1tot1s b aiuM (1,
'fla 'PruaurJ aLIl ol oB 'a1:,'{:rq aql
puau /asnoq aq1 lured'dessa aql alrrM /laqel4l lunv Jrsrl '3'a'op o7 s8ut4l ]o 1sr1 u a4DW (ql
'lla
'>laaM srr{l 'qluoru 1se1 'rea.,{ lxau '.,(epuo141 uo 'aunl 97 wo 'f,e1n ut '3'a 'sa1ap lo 1sq a a4aw e
aarr.Il {sEI
'roou aq] ol uo ralrrMad.{1 aql paddorp ap1 (-\.
'1aar15 a3e3 o1 doqs rno 8ur,lou ar,a14 i.
'ilPH lParS aLIl ur sP,M .,{].red aq1 (q
srnoq ro; ale8 aql le pools sarpel plo o.{rl aql rF
'errraurv ur paqsriqnd uaaq spq nryptlidg (l
'sa8ue3 aqt umop ,{1,lro1s pa11a,rer1 ^,{aq1 (a
'srea.,( aarql roj tqJele) o1 auo8 seq ,{oy (f.
'{n}nl gZ uo uopuo-I ur aq IIeLIS I (l
'roop dLll rrpqr dLl.l pJ)Pld JLIS (",
^q ^llnjarPJ
'6161" uI parp rurl aqJ (e

'paa]u aq louua) 'atolata\l'puu a)ualuas a41 lo uotlaldtua

pwtoJ aql n! p4uassa aru tlrtqll sasutqd ptq.Laapll aql au4.tapun pLta sa)LtaJuas 3utmo11oJ a4l pual
o1vll Isef
lnd uano rurem e olur alorasse) ar{} ()
arl+ors pa.{e1d iu:e aql ur .,(ylnyrlneaq a13nq aql lf
aq IIaJ pr)rrlpd ,{ll^ ra1e1 srea.{ o.Ml a^ol ur (Ll
srt{ u.+r.o a)ll aL{ Suraq 1,uprp uo (3
paureurar LupqIoo3 ut ;aruad5 s.'{ep .uay e :o; (l
l,usaop aAII aroq alrlv aroru ,{ue (a
s€Li sasnoq rolfe1 q]aqezrlg plro.ll aLIl yo slred iuer-u ur (p
J^pq pJlaLIlpB "rano6 lp uJulpJS fuqunor aql lJ^o lle Luor1 {r
3urppa.u. aql aun{ ur se,u (q
plos .{aq+ )aa,lt lsel asnoq ar{} (E
'tapio i)ailo) atll Ltl spton arll inLl purl sJuawaJUp Sunto11o1 a4i lirJaa
auo {sel
s)svl - saserqd IErqra^pP 'sqranpy
v'I lltln
 UNIT 1.5
ADVERBS OF
FREQUENCY: position in |ohn has seldom known the misery of
the sentence poverty.
Has Eddie Eagle ever skied before?
Peter took his driving test three times.

There are two groups of adverbs which answer the question HOW OFTEN?
Look at these examples:
John has seldom known the misery of poverty. (HOW OFTEN? general)
Peter took his driving test three times. (HOW OFTEN? specific)
These adverbs never affect the formal completion of a sentence. They will, of course, affect the
meaning. In the chart below, you can see the position they usually have in a sentence.

General Specific

|ohn has often known the misery of Peter took his driving test three times.
poverty.
The dog always woke them up with its
barking.
He must never go there again.

When a specific number of occasions is stated, the adverbial phrase goes at the end. In the
case of the more general frequency, the adverbs go immediately before the lexical verb (see
Unit 1.2). When there are primary verbs and modal auxiliaries, then the adverb goes between
them and the lexical verb.
Look at the exanrples in the following chart:

Modal Primary Adverb Lexical

The dog always woke them up with its barking

Iohn has often known the misery of poverty.
He must never 8o there again.

In the question form, when the frequencv is unknown, rve use the word ever.

t-i
9r

%0
.. . .. . '. ra^au
'' ' ,{larer
" ruoplas

"::
'" " ,{11ensn
%00t'"""" "" 'sfe.ule
:A1OiA.
tuer8erp al{l ur uaas aq uef, ,{cuanbary Jo sqralpe aql Suorue Surueatu 1o drqsuorgelar aq_

'arurl uo aq sr(eaale lsnru no^

''aroJaq alaq uaaq ra^au a^eq I
',{ddeq ranau se,n aue{
'alel sz(e,ra,1e sr oruoluv
:qra^ ar{l ra1;e sao8 qra^pp druanba.rl
leraua8 aql 'fuellrxne up lnoqlrM pue qra^ IeJrxal p se pasn sr eq ol qra^ ar{} uaqM
@uor64; 'lI ualua rana aleq 1 'satr* :y
2ope3-ope8 ualea rana no.{ a.r.e11 :}
:Suoraa sr ransue 3ur.,r.ro11o1 aqf 'ramsup arrrlrsod e ur pasn lou sr JaAS

XOS )NINUVAl

'qra.\
Ip)IxaI aql aroJaq sl rala pro.^ ar{l Jo uor}rsod aql '{luanbarJ Jo sqra^pp raq}o aql qllm s\
'lr ualea la^au aA,J 'oN
'll
ualPa lana l,ua^Pq I 'oN iy
iopeS-ope8 ualPa rala no.{ a^€H ;O
'euraurJ aql o1 saoS dllensn aqs lnq 'alleaql aql o1 sao8 sawrlauros aqs 'sa1
'sao8 ranau aLIs /oN
'Iaa,M P aruo saoS aqs 'sa1 iy
zarlear{l aql ol o3 ra^a aurlned saoq :f
:salatuuxd )sd4l lb \0c-.

{ruanbar; Jo sq.ra^pv g'I llun

Unit L.5 Adverbs of frequency * TASKS -4.,
iF)
Task one
Rend the follott,ittg sentences and state uhether the aduerbs nre in the right or urong positio t1. 1^n
exnmple has been uritten f or you.
Exanrple:
Spencet, woykecl usqally at. nighb. Wrorrg.
(a) As a child, I went never into the city alone.
(b) Wherever he went, she was always by his side.
(c) Jonathan has six times run the London Marathon.
(d) Four times I have visited Rabat.
(e) In Rome, Barry often ate at the'Vincula'.
(0 The newspaper is delivered always late in the holidays.
(g) He couldn't get there during the snow always.
(h) Joan attempted to swim the Channel four times.
(j) Once home, Wordsworth rarely went out in the evenings.
(k) Have you been ever to China?
Task two
Work round the circle in the diagram belou, ns ot'ten ns you like and see hotu many correctly f ormed
you can find. You must keep the phrases in the arder vou find them. Yott can start
setttences
anyuthere.

the film
'Othello'