CHAPTER 3

NOISE IN ANALOG COMMUNICATION

SYSTEMS

3.1 Introduction

Noise is present in varying degrees in all communication systems. In some parts of a

communication system where the noise level is low compared to the signal the effects
of noise can be ignored. However, there are a number of points in a communication
system where the signal level is often low and the presence of even low level noise at
these points can seriously degrade the performance of the system. Examples of this
include the input stages of an AM or FM receiver tuned to a distant station, and the
input stages of a long–range radar.
The effects of noise can be minimized by the use of modulation and appropriate
filtering. In this chapter, we investigate the performance of baseband and CW ana-
log communication systems in the presence of noise. The average signal–to–noise
power ratio at the receiver output or the destination point, (S/N )d will be used as
the measure of performance for comparing analog signal transmission schemes.

Communication Engineering II, First Edition. 41

By Osama A. Alkishriwo Copyright c 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
42 NOISE IN ANALOG COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

3.2 Noise in Baseband Systems

3.2.1 System Model and Parameters

Consider the baseband communication system shown in Fig. 3.1. The baseband
message signal X(t) is to be transmitted over a baseband channel.

Figure 3.1 Model of a baseband communication system.

The channel has a transfer function Hc (f ), and the linear distortion introduced by
the channel is removed by an equalizer with a transfer function

Heq (f ) = K [Hc (f )]−1 exp(−j2πf td ) (3.1)

so that the signal component at the destination point is distortionless. That is,

Xo (t) = K X(t − td ) (3.2)

The channel also corrupts the signal with additive noise ni (t) that produces an addi-
tive noise component no (t) at the destination point.
We will assume that the signal X(t) and the front end noise ni (t) are random
processes with the following properties:

1. X(t) is a stationary zero mean lowpass random process bandlimited to fx with

a power spectral density function Gx (f ).

2. ni (t) is a stationary, zero mean Gaussian random process with a power spectral
density function Gni (f ).

3. X(t) and ni (t) are independent.

With these assumptions, we can now proceed to analyze the effects of noise in base-
band communication systems.

3.2.2 Signal–to–Noise Ratio at the Output of a Baseband System

The signal quality at the output of analog communication systems is usually mea-
sured by the average signal power to noise power ratio defined as

E{Xo2 (t)}
 
S
= (3.3)
N d E{n2o (t)}
 NOISE IN BASEBAND SYSTEMS 43

In systems designed for transmitting audio signals, this ratio ranges from 10 dB for
barely intelligible voice signals to 30 dB for telephone quality voice signals, and
60 dB for high fidelity audio signals.
For the system shown in Fig. 3.1, if we assume
(
K exp(−j2πf td ), for |f | < fx
Heq (f ) Hc (f ) = (3.4)
0, elsewhere

then we have

Xo (t) = K X(t − td ) (3.5)

and
Z fx
E{Xo2 (t)} = K 2 E{X 2 (t − td )} = K 2 Gx (f ) df (3.6)
−fx

The average noise power at the output is computed as

Z ∞
E{n2o (t)} = Gno (f ) df (3.7)
−∞
Z fx
= Gni (f ) |Heq (f )|2 df (3.8)
−fx
Z fx
Gni (f )
= K2 df (3.9)
−fx |Hc (f )|2

The output signal-to-noise ratio is given by

R fx
Gx (f ) df
 
S −fx
= R fx (3.10)
N d Gni (f ) [|Hc (f )|2 ]−1 df
−fx

3.2.3 Special Case: Ideal Channel and Additive White Noise

In the special case when we have an ideal channel with additive white noise,
(
K exp(−j2πf td ), for |f | < fx
Hc (f ) = (3.11)
0, elsewhere

and
η
Gni (f ) = (3.12)
2
the output signal–to–noise ratio is given by
Rf
K 2 −fx x Gx (f ) df
 
S Sr
= = (3.13)
N d η fx η fx
44 NOISE IN ANALOG COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

where Sr is the average received signal power. Now, the average transmitted signal
power in this case is given by
Z fx
2
ST = E{X (t)} = Gx (f ) df (3.14)
−fx

Substituting ST in Eq. (3.13), we obtain

K 2 ST
   
S ST
= = K2 (3.15)
N d η fx η fx
The denominator in Eq. (3.15) is often called the inband noise power and it rep-
resents the noise power in the message bandwidth. The ratio given in Eq. (3.15)
is generally (but not always) an upper bound for analog baseband performance that
may or may not be achieved in practical systems due to the nonideal nature of the
channel itself and other elements in the system such as nonideal filters. Nevertheless,
we will use the ratio given in Eq. (3.15) as a basis for comparing the performance of
other systems.

3.2.4 Signal–to–Noise Ratio Improvement through Preemphasis/Deemphasis

Filtering
When the channel noise is nonwhite and/or the channel frequency response changes
considerably in the message bandwidth, then it is possible to improve the output
signal–to–noise ratio by using specially designed filters at the transmitting and re-
ceiving ends of the channel (Fig. 3.2). These filters are known as the preempha-
sis/deemphasis filters or the transmitting and receiving filters, respectively. The
transfer functions for these filters are chosen such that (S/N )d is maximized.
The preemphasis/deemphasis filters serve two purposes, eliminating any linear
distortion produced by the channel and maximizing the output signal–to–noise ratio.
As far as distortionless transmission is concerned, HT (f ) and HR (f ) should be
chosen to satisfy

HT (f ) × HR (f ) × Hc (f ) = K exp(−j2πf td ), for |f | < fx (3.16)

Now, if HR (f ) is chosen to minimize the output noise and HT (f ), HR (f ) satisfy Eq.

(3.16), then we have maximized (S/N )d and the output signal is undistorted. That is,
we have chosen optimum terminal filters. The optimization has an additional subtle
constraint is that the transmitted power ST must be kept at a specified (bounded)
level. Accordingly, we seek to maximize (S/N )d /ST or minimize ST /(S/N )d .
Starting with Eq. (3.16) (with K = 1 to simplify the algebra) we have

Xo (t) = X(t − td ) (3.17)

E{Xo2 (t)} = E{X 2 (t)} = So (3.18)

 NOISE IN BASEBAND SYSTEMS 45

Figure 3.2 Preemphasis/deemphasis filtering.

Z ∞
E{n2o (t)} = Gni (f ) |HR (f )|2 df (3.19)
−∞

and
Z ∞
ST = E{XT2 (t)} = Gx (f ) |HT (f )|2 df (3.20)
−∞

substituting for |HT (f )|2 is from Eq. (3.16), we have the following expression

R∞ R∞
ST E{n2o (t)} −∞
[Gx (f )/|HC (f )HR (f )|2 ]df −∞ Gni (f )|HR (f )|2 df
= R∞ (3.21)
E{Xo2 (t)} −∞ x
G (f ) df

which is to be minimized. Observe that the minimizing has to be done by appropriate

selection of HR (f ), and that the denominator does not involve HR (f ).
The minimizing of the expression in the numerator of Eq. (3.21) can be done
using the Schwarz’s inequality, which is stated as
Z ∞ 2 Z ∞ Z ∞
∗ 2
|W 2 (f )| df
 

 V (f )W (f ) df  ≤ |V (f )| df (3.22)
−∞ −∞ −∞

where V (f ) and W (f ) are complex functions of f . In Eq. (3.22) the equality

holds when V (f ) = c W (f ). where c is an arbitrary positive constant. Applying
Schwarz’s inequality to the numerator of Eq. (3.21) with
p
p Gx (f )
V = |HR (f )| Gni (f ) and W = (3.23)
|Hc (f )HR (f )|

we see that ST /(S/N )d is minimized when

p
2 c Gx (f )
|HR (f )| = p , for |f | < fx (3.24)
|Hc (f )| Gni (f )

Substituting Eq. (3.24) in Eq. (3.16) with K = 1, we have

p
2 Gni (f )
|HT (f )| = p , for |f | < fx (3.25)
c |Hc (f )| Gx (f )
46 NOISE IN ANALOG COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Finally, from Eq. (3.21) we obtain the maximum value for the output signal–to–noise
ratio as

R∞
ST
G (f ) df
 
S −∞ x
= R 2 (3.26)
N dmax  ∞ p
 −∞ Gni (f )Gx (f )/|Hc (f )| df 


The limits on the integrals may be changed to ±fx , since Gx (f ) = 0 for |f | > fx .

EXAMPLE 3.1

Consider a baseband system with the following characteristics:

Gx (f ) = 10−8 watt/Hz, |f | ≤ 10 kHz
−14
Gni (f ) = 10 watt/Hz
(a) Assume that the channel is ideal and compute the signal–to–noise ratio at the
destination point.
(b) Assume that
(
1
1+(f /fc )4 , for |f | ≤ 10 kHz, fc = 5 kHz
|Hc (f )| =
0, for |f | > 10 kHz
and compute the signal–to–noise ratio at the destination point for a system that
uses an equalizing filter at the receiver with a transfer function
(
1
, for |f | ≤ 10 kHz
|Heq (f )| = Hc (f )
0, for |f | > 10 kHz

(c) Assume the channel characteristics specified in part (b) and compute (S/N )dmax
for the system that uses optimum preemphasis/deemphasis filters.

SOLUTION

(a) The only filter needed for this case is an ideal lowpass filter at receiving end to
limit the out of band noise. The filter cutoff frequency should be 10 kHz, and
Z 104
E{Xo2 (t)} = (10−8 ) df = 2 × 10−4 watt
−104
Z 104
E{n2o (t)} = (10−14 ) df = 2 × 10−10 watt
−104
 
S
= 106 = 60 dB
N d
ST = E{Xo2 (t)} = −7 dBm
 NOISE IN BASEBAND SYSTEMS 47

(b) For this case (S/N )d is given by Eq. (3.10). With K=1

E{Xo2 (t)} = E{X 2 (t)} = 2 × 10−4 watt

Z 104
2
E{no (t)} = [10−14 ] [1 + (f /fc )4 ]2 df = 71.7 × 10−10
−104

Hence,
 
S
= 44.5 dB
N d
ST = E{X 2 (t)} = 2 × 10−4 watt = −7 dBm

(c) With optimum filters, (S/N )d is given by Eq. (3.26). The transfer function of
the optimum terminal filters are (with c = 1)
p p
2 Gx (f ) 2 Gni (f )
|HR (f )| = p , |HT (f )| = p
|Hc (f )| Gni (f ) |Hc (f )| Gx (f )
and
fx
Z p
Gx (f ) Gni (f )
ST = df
−fx |Hc (f )|

Substituting for ST in Eq. (3.26), we have

"Z #−1
fx
  p
S 2 Gx Gni
= E{X (t)} df
N dmax −fx |Hc |

and
104
" 4 #
fx
p 
Gx Gni
Z Z
−11 f
df = 10 1+ df
−fx |Hc | −104 fc
= 8.4 × 10−7

Hence,
2 × 10−4
 
S
= = 23.8 dB
N dmax 8.4 × 10−7

and

ST = 8.4 × 10−7 = −30.8 dBm

Now, if ST is raised to 2 × 10−4 , as in case (a) and (b), then (S/N )dmax will
be raised by a factor of 2 × 10−4 /8.4 × 10−7 or by a factor of 23.8 dB. Thus,
for the same transmitter power we have:
 48 NOISE IN ANALOG COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

(a) (S/N )d for an ideal channel = 60 dB.

(b) (S/N )d for a nonideal channel with equalizer = 44.5 dB.

(c) (S/N )d for a nonideal channel with optimum filters = 47.6 dB.

Thus the optimum filter yields approximately a 3 dB power advantage over

the scheme using a simple equalizer arrangement. The 3 dB advantage in power
requirement is significant and hence preemphasis/deemphasis filters should be
considered.

3.3 Noise in Linear CW Modulation Systems

We are now ready to analyze the performance of linear modulation schemes (DSB,
SSB, AM, and VSB) in the presence of additive noise. In linear modulation schemes,
we have bandpass transmission as opposed to baseband transmission. Models of
narrowband (bandpass) noise developed in the previous chapter will prove to be quite
useful in analyzing the noise performance of CW modulation schemes.

3.3.1 System Model and Parameters

An idealized model of CW communication system is shown in Fig. 3.3. The sig-

nal X(t) is modeled as a zero mean stationary, lowpass random process with a psd
Gx (f ) that is bandlimited to fx . The peak value of |X(t)| is assumed to be unity.
The transmitter is assumed to be ideal, and the transmitter output is assumed to have
the form

Xc (t) = A(t) cos[ωc t + φ(t)] (3.27)

Xc (t) is the modulated signal with a bandwidth BT .

The channel is assumed to give distortionless transmission over the transmission
bandwidth BT . At the output of the channel, the signal is accompanied by additive
noise that is modeled as a zero mean, stationary Gaussian random process with a
power spectral density of Gni (f ).
The receiver front–end is modeled as an ideal bandpass filter with a bandwidth
BT , which is the same as the bandwidth of Xc (t). Thus the front–end filter, also
known as a predetection filter, passes X(t) without distortion, but limits the amount
of out of band noise that reaches the detector (demodulator).
The input to the detector consists of a signal component K Xc (t) plus a noise
component n(t) that is the filtered version of ni (t). The bandpass noise n(t) can be
represented in the form

n(t) = nc (t) cos(ωc t) − ns (t) sin(ωc t) (3.28)

 NOISE IN LINEAR CW MODULATION SYSTEMS 49

Figure 3.3 Model of a CW communication system.

and hence we can express the input to the detector as

Y (t) = K Xc (t) + n(t) (3.29)

= RY (t) cos[ωc t + θY (t)] (3.30)
= Yc (t) cos(ωc t) − Ys (t) sin(ωc t) (3.31)

The detector (demodulator) responds to Y (t) and its response is modeled by the
following idealized characteristics:



 k1 Yc (t), synchronous detector

k R (t),
2 Y envelope detector
Z(t) = (3.32)


 k3 θY (t), phase detector
k dθY (t) ,

frequency detector
4 dt

In Eq. (3.32), k1 , k2 , k3 , and k4 are the detector gains that are often assumed to be
unity.
The detector output is lowpass filtered to remove out of band noise and harmonic
signal terms. The lowpass filter, also referred to as a baseband or post–detection
filter, has a bandwidth of fx Hz.
The analysis we present below for computing the output signal–to–noise ratio is
valid for any given form of Gni (f ). In most practical systems the front–end noise
can be assumed to be white with a psd of
η
Gni (f ) = watt/Hz (3.33)
2
White noise assumption simplifies the calculations considerably and allows us to
look at the conceptually important aspects of analysis.
With additive noise at the input to the detector, it is reasonable to anticipate that
the output of the system will consist of a signal component Xo (t) and an additive
noise component no (t). While this is not the case in general, it is true in most cases
and the output signal–to–noise ratio is obtained by computing the ratio of E{Xo2 (t)}
and E{n2o (t)}.
The output signal quality will depend on the quality of the signal at the detector
input. The input signal quality is measured by the signal–to–noise power ratio at the
detector input, which is defined as
50 NOISE IN ANALOG COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

K 2 E{Xc2 (t)}
 
S
= (3.34)
N i BT η
The numerator in the preceding equation is the average signal power at the receiver
input and is denoted by Sr .

3.3.2 Noise in Double–Side Band (DSB) Systems

In a DSB system, the transmitted signal Xc (t) has the form

Xc (t) = Ac X(t) cos(ωc t) (3.35)

and the average value of the transmitted power is

1 2
ST = E{Xc2 (t)} = A Sx (3.36)
2 c
where
Z fx
Sx = E{X 2 (t)} = Gx (f ) df (3.37)
−fx

and the average value of the received power is Sr = K 2 E{Xc2 (t)}.

The demodulator portion of the DSB system is shown in Fig. 3.4. The predetec-
tion filter has a center frequency fc and bandwidth BT = 2fx . The output of the
filter is

Y (t) = K Xc (t) + n(t) = ac X(t) cos(ωc t) + n(t) (3.38)

where n(t) is narrowband Gaussian noise with a psd Gn (f ) given by

(
η/2, for |f − fc | < fx
Gn (f ) = (3.39)
0, elsewhere

and ac = K Ac .

Figure 3.4 DSB modulator.

We can write n(t) as

n(t) = nc (t) cos(ωc t) − ns (t) sin(ωc t) (3.40)

 NOISE IN LINEAR CW MODULATION SYSTEMS 51

where nc (t) and ns (t) are lowpass Gaussian random processes with power spectral
densities (see Fig. 3.5).
(
η, for |f | < fx
Gnc (f ) = Gns (f ) = (3.41)
0, elsewhere

Figure 3.5 Spectral densities of n(t), nc (t), and ns (t).

Substituting Eq. (3.40) in (3.38), we have

Y (t) = [ac X(t) + nc (t)] cos(ωc t) − ns (t) sin(ωc t) (3.42)

and

2Y (t) cos(ωc t) = [ac X(t) + nc (t)] + [ac X(t) + nc (t)] cos(2ωc t) − ns (t) sin(2ωc t)(3.43)

Since the cutoff frequency of the post-detection filter is fx and fx << fc , the double
frequency terms are removed by the filter and the output is given by

Xo (t) + no (t) = ac X(t) + nc (t) (3.44)

The output signal component is

Xo (t) = ac X(t) and E{Xo2 (t)} = a2c Sx

The output noise component is

no (t) = nc (t) and E{n2c (t)} = 2ηfx

The signal–to–noise ratio at the output is easily computed as

E{Xo2 (t)} a2c Sx
 
S
= = (3.45)
N d E{n2o (t)} 2ηfx

Substituting a2c Sx/2 = Sr where Sr , is the average power at the receiver input we
have
 
S Sr
= (3.46)
N d ηfx
52 NOISE IN ANALOG COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

The reader can verify that the signal–to–noise ratio at the input of the detector is
 
S Sr
= (3.47)
N i 2ηfx

and
(S/N )d
= αd = 2 (3.48)
(S/N )i

The ratio αd is known as the detection gain.

3.3.3 Noise in Single Side Band (SSB) Systems

A SSB coherent demodulation system is shown in Fig. 3.6. In this case the modu-
lated signal can be expressed as

Figure 3.6 SSB System.

Xc (t) = Ac m(t) cos(2πfc t) + Ac m̂(t) sin(2πfc t) (3.49)

where m̂(t) is the Hilbert transform of the message signal m(t). Therefore, the input
to the demodulator is

Xc (t) = Ac m(t) cos(2πfc t) + Ac m̂(t) sin(2πfc t) + n(t) (3.50)

Expressing the channel bandpass noise in terms of quadrature components, the signal
at the detector input, Y (t), is

Y (t) = [Ac m(t) + nc (t)] cos(2πfc t) + [Ac m̂(t) + ns (t)] sin(2πfc t) (3.51)

This signal is multiplied by 2 cos(2πfc t) (synchronous demodulation) and then low-

pass filtered to yield the demodulator output

Yo (t) = Ac m(t) + nc (t) (3.52)

Hence,

Xo (t) = Ac m(t) and E{Xo2 (t)} = A2c Sm (3.53)

 NOISE IN LINEAR CW MODULATION SYSTEMS 53

The output noise component is

no (t) = nc (t) and E{n2c (t)} = η fx (3.54)

The signal–to–noise ratio at the output is easily computed as

E{Xo2 (t)} A2c Sm

 
S Sr
= = = (3.55)
N d E{n2o (t)} ηfx ηfx

and, therefor
(S/N )d
=1 (3.56)
(S/N )i

3.3.4 Noise in AM Systems

AM signals can be demodulated synchronously or by envelope detection. The for-
mer is of theoretical interest only. It is useful, however, for comparing the noise
performance of the envelope detector. For this reason, we shall consider both of
these methods.

Coherent Demodulation of AM
In AM system, the modulated signal is

Xc (t) = Ac [1 + m x(t)] cos(2πfc t) (3.57)

Therefore, the received signal at the input to the demodulator is

Y (t) = {Ac [1 + m x(t)] + nc (t)} cos(2πfc t) − ns (t) sin(2πfc t) (3.58)

where m is the modulation index and x(t) is normalized so that its minimum
value is −1. If a coherent demodulator is employed, the situation is basically
similar to the DSB case, except that we have 1 + m x(t) instead of x(t). There-
fore, in this case, after mixing and lowpass filtering, we have
1
Ỹo (t) = {Ac [1 + m x(t)] + nc (t)} (3.59)
2
However, in this case, the desired signal is x(t), not 1 + m x(t). The dc com-
ponent in the demodulated waveform is removed by a dc blocking device and,
hence, the lowpass filter output is
1 1
Yo (t) = Ac m x(t) + nc (t) (3.60)
2 2
In this case, the received signal power Sr is

A2c
Sr = [1 + m2 Sx ] (3.61)
2
54 NOISE IN ANALOG COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

where we have assumed that the message signal is zero mean. Now we can
derive the output SNR for the coherent demodulator as
0.25 A2c m2 Sx
 
S
=
N d 0.5 η fx
A2c m2 Sx
=
2 η fx
m2 Sx A2c /2(1 + m2 Sx )
=
1 + m2 Sx η fx
m2 Sx Sr
=
1 + m2 Sx η fx
2 × m2 Sx
 
S
=
1 + m2 Sx N i
 
S
= 2η̂ (3.62)
N i
where η̂ denotes the modulation efficiency.
Envelope Demodulation and Threshold Effect
The input to the detector is then

Y (t) = {Ac [1 + m X(t)] + nc (t)} cos(2πfc t) − ns (t) sin(2πfc t) (3.63)

We can express Y (t) in the form

Y (t) = RY (t) cos(2πfc t + θY (t)) (3.64)

where
p
RY (t) = {Ac [1 + m X(t)] + nc (t)}2 + [ns (t)]2 (3.65)

and
 
ns (t)
θY (t) = tan−1 (3.66)
Ac [1 + m X(t)] + nc (t)
The output of the envelope detector will be proportional to RY (t). The expres-
sion for RY (t) given in Eq. (3.65) can be considerably simplified if we assume
that the signal power is either very large or very small compared to the noise
power.
Now, we assume that the signal component in Y (t) is much stronger than the
noise component. With this assumption, we have

RY (t) ≈ Ac [1 + m X(t)] + nc (t) (3.67)

After removing the dc component, we obtain

Yo (t) ≈ Ac m X(t)] + nc (t) (3.68)

 NOISE IN LINEAR CW MODULATION SYSTEMS 55

which is basically the same as Yo (t) for the coherent demodulation without the
1/2 coefficient. This coefficient, of course, has no effect on the final SNR, and
therefore we conclude that, under the assumption of high SNR at the receiver
input, the performance of coherent and envelope demodulators is the same.
Now, let us assume that at the receiver input the noise power is much stronger
than the signal power. This means that
p
RY (t) = {Ac [1 + m X(t)] + nc (t)}2 + [ns (t)]2
p
= A2 [1 + m X(t)]2 + n2c (t) + n2s (t) + 2Ac nc (t)[1 + m X(t)]
s c  
2 2
2Ac nc (t)
≈ [nc (t) + ns (t)] 1 + 2 [1 + m X(t)]
nc (t) + n2s (t)
 
Ac nc (t)
≈ Rn (t) 1 + [1 + m X(t)]
Rn2 (t)
Ac nc (t)
= Rn (t) + [1 + m X(t)] (3.69)
Rn (t)

where we have used the fact that [1p + m X(t)]2 is small compared to the other
components and we have denoted n2c (t) + n2s (t)√by Rn (t), the envelope of
the noise process, and have used the approximation 1 +  ≈ 1+/2, for small
, where
2Ac nc (t)
= [1 + m X(t)] (3.70)
nc (t) + n2s (t)
2

From Eq. (3.69), it is observed that at the demodulator output, the signal and
the noise components are no longer additive and, in fact, the signal component
is multiplied by noise and is no longer distinguishable. In this case, no mean-
ingful SNR can be defined. It is said that this system is operating below the
threshold. The name comes from the fact that there is some value of (SNR)i
above which signal distortion due to noise is negligible and below which the
system performance deteriorates rapidly. The threshold effect does not occur
when coherent demodulation is used.
The threshold value of (SNR)i is usually defined as that value of (SNR)i which
Rn < Ac with probability 0.99. We know that

r2
 
rn
fRn (rn ) = exp − n , for rn > 0 (3.71)
No 2No

where No = E{n2 (t)} = 2N0 fx and

P {Rn < Ac } = 0.99 → exp(−A2c /2No ) = 0.01 (3.72)

Now, if we take Sr = A2c , then (SNR)i = Sr /No = A2c /No and

exp(−A2c /2No ) = exp(−Sr /2No ) = exp[−0.5(SNR)i ] = 0.01 (3.73)

 56 NOISE IN ANALOG COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

or

(SNR)i at threshold = 2 loge (100) ≈ 10 dB (3.74)

EXAMPLE 3.2

Compare the average transmitter power and channel bandwidth requirements of

DSB, SSB, and AM schemes for transmitting an audio signal with a bandwidth
of 10 kHz with a destination signal–to–noise ratio of 50 dB. Assume that
channel introduces a 50 dB power loss and that the noise power spectral density
at the receiver input 10−12 watt/Hz. Assume m2 Sx = 0.5 for AM.

SOLUTION
The bandwidth requirements are easl1y computed as
(
20 kHz, for DSB and AM
BT =
10 kHz, for SSB

(S/N )d for DSB and SSB modulation is given by

 
S Sr
=
N d ηfx

With (S/N )d = 50 dB, ηfx = 2 × 10−12 × 104 , we have

(Sr )DSB,SSB = 2 × 10−8 × 105 = 3 dBm

Since the channel power loss is 50 dB (or 105 ), we get

(ST )DSB,SSB = 2 × 10−3 × 105 = 200 watts

For the AM, assuming envelope demodulation,

m2 Sx
 
S Sr 1 Sr
= =
N d ηfx 1 + m2 Sx 3 ηfx

and hence ST = 600 watts.

3.4 Noise in Angle Modulation Systems

Before we proceed to derive expressions for the signal–to–noise ratios at the output
of angle modulated systems, let us restate appropriate signal and system models. The
transmitted signal Xc (t) has the form

Xc (t) = Ac cos[2πfc t + φ(t)] (3.75)

 NOISE IN ANGLE MODULATION SYSTEMS 57

where
(
kp X(t) for PM
φ(t) = Rt (3.76)
kf −∞
X(τ ) dτ, for FM

As before, the message signal X(t) is normalized such that |X(t)|max = 1. The
phase deviation constant kp is ≤ π for PM so that the message signal can be demod-
ulated from the PM waveform without ambiguity.
The detector is assumed to be ideal. With an input of Y (t) = RY (t) cos(ωc t +
θY (t)), the output of the detector is
(
kd θY (t) for phase detection
Z(t) = 0 dθ (t)
Y
(3.77)
kd dt , for frequency detection

For convenience, we will assume that the detector gain kd is such that
0
kp kd = kf kd = 1 (3.78)

We will use a common approach for analyzing FM and PM cases together and
separate the results by replacing φ(t) by the proper function.

3.4.1 Output Signal–to–Noise Ratios in Angle Modulation Systems

The input to the detector can be written as

Y (t) = Ac cos[2πfc t + φ(t)] + n(t)

= Ac cos[ωc t + φ(t)] + nc (t) cos(ωc t) − ns (t) sin(ωc t) (3.79)

where n(t) is bandlimited, zero mean Gaussian noise with

(
η
, for |f − fc | < BT /2
Gn (f ) = 2 (3.80)
0, elsewhere

The transmission bandwidth of the angle modulated signal is

(
2(D + 1) fx , for FM
BT = (3.81)
2(kp + 1) fx , for PM

where D = ∆f /fx = kf /(2πfx ) is the deviation ratio for the FM system.

The components that make up Y(t) are shown in the form of a phasor diagram
in Fig. 3.7. As in the case of envelope demodulation of AM signals, let us first
investigate the performance of angle modulation schemes when A2c >> E{n2 (t)}
that is, when the signal power at the input to the detector is much higher than the
noise power.
The input signal to the detector Y (t) can be written as

Y (t) = Ac cos[ωc t + φ(t)] + Rn (t) cos[ωc t + θn (t)] (3.82)

58 NOISE IN ANALOG COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Figure 3.7 Phasor diagram for an angle modulated signal corrupted by additive noise.

where Rn (t) and θn (t) are the envelope and phase of n(t). Using the relationships
shown in Fig. 3.7, we can express Y (t) in envelope and phase form as
Y (t) = RY (t) cos[ωc t + θY (t)] (3.83)
where the angle θY (t) is
θY (t) = φ(t) + θe (t) (3.84)
In Eq. (3.84), θe (t) is the perturbation of the carrier phase angle (which contains the
information signal) due to noise. This perturbation can be from Fig. 3.7 as
 
−1 Rn (t) sin(θn − φ)
θe (t) = tan (3.85)
Ac + Rn (t) cos(θn − φ)
With the assumption A2c >> E{n2 (t)}, we can expect Rn (t) << Ac most of the
time and hence θe (t) can be approximated by
 
−1 Rn (t)
θe (t) ≈ tan sin(θn − φ)
Ac
Rn (t)
≈ sin(θn − φ) (3.86)
Ac
the last step being obtained using the approximation tan−1 (α) = α when α << 1.
Combining Eqs. (3.84) and (3.86), we have the following expression for the angle
of the signal plus noise at the input to the detector:
Rn (t)
θY (t) ≈ φ(t) + sin[θn (t) − φ(t)] (3.87)
A
| c
|{z}
signal term
{z }
noise term
We are now ready to calculate the signal–to–noise ratio at the output of angle
modulation systems.
(S/N)d in PM Systems
Using the detector model stated in Eq. (3.77) the output of the phase detector is
Z(t) = kd θY (t)
Rn (t)
= kd φ(t) + kd sin[θn (t) − φ(t)] (3.88)
Ac
 NOISE IN ANGLE MODULATION SYSTEMS 59

If we use np (t) to denote the noise term in the preceding equation, then we can
express the detector output as

Z(t) = kd kp X(t) + np (t) = X(t) + np (t) (3.89)

since kp kd is assumed to be unity.

The post–detection filter passes X(t) without distortion and hence the output
signal component is X(t) and the output signal power is given by

E{Xo2 (t)} = E{X 2 (t)} = Sx (3.90)

To calculate the output noise power, we need to derive the spectral characteris-
tics of

Rn (t)
np (t) = kd sin[θn (t) − φ(t)] (3.91)
Ac

Unfortunately, the calculation of Gnp (f ) is complicated due to the presence of

sin[θn (t) − φ(t)]. To simplify the calculations, let us set the carrier modula-
tion φ(t) = 0 and compute Gnp (f ). While setting φ(t) = 0 may seem to be
an unreasonable assumption, it has been shown by Downing (1964), that car-
rier modulation φ(t) produces components in Gnp (f ) at frequencies above the
message band. Such components are rejected by the post–detection filter and
do not appear at the output, and hence our assumption φ(t) = 0 does not cause
any error in the calculation of inband noise power at the output. With φ(t) = 0,
we have

Rn (t)
np (t) = kd sin[θn (t)] (3.92)
Ac
or
kd
np (t) = ns (t) (3.93)
Ac

The power spectral density of np (t) can be obtained as

kd2
Gnp (f ) = Gns (f ) (3.94)
A2c

where

Gns (f ) = Gn (f − fc ) + Gn (f + fc )
(
η, for |f | < BT /2
= (3.95)
0, elsewhere
60 NOISE IN ANALOG COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

The post–detection filter passes the spectral components of np (t) that lie within
|f | < fx , and hence the output noise power is easily computed as
Z fx
E{n2o (t)} = Gnp (f ) df
−fx
kd2
= 2 η fx (3.96)
A2c

The output signal–to–noise ratio for the PM system is given by (using the results
stated in Eqs. (3.90) and (3.96))
E{Xo2 (t)} A2c Sx
 
S
= = (3.97)
N d E{n2o (t)} kd2 2ηfx
Substituting kp = 1/kd and Sr = A2c /2, we have
 
S Sr
= kp2 Sx (3.98)
N d ηfx

(S/N)d in FM Systems
The PM detector output may be obtained as
dθY (t)
Z(t) = kd
dt  
d Rn (t)
= kf kd X(t) + kd sin[θn (t) − φ(t)] (3.99)
dt Ac
Once again, setting φ(t) = 0 and recognizing that Rn (t) sin[θn (t)] = ns (t),
we get
kd d
Z(t) = kf kd X(t) + [ns (t)]
Ac dt
= X(t) + n1 (t) (3.100)
since kf kd = 1. In the preceding equation, n1 (t) denotes the noise term. The
psd of n1 (t) is given by
kd2
Gn1 (f ) = Gns (f ) (2πf )2
A2c
( k2
2
A2 (2πf ) η,
d
for |f | < BT /2
= c (3.101)
0, elsewhere

The post–detection filter rejects the spectral components of Gn1 (f ) that lie out-
side the message band and the output noise psd is
( k2
2
d
2 (2πf ) η, for |f | < fx
Gno (f ) = Ac (3.102)
0, elsewhere
 NOISE IN ANGLE MODULATION SYSTEMS 61

This spectrum is illustrated in Fig. 3.8. The parabolic shape of the spectrum
results from the differentiation action of the FM discriminator. It is clear from
Fig. 3.8 that low–frequency message components are subjected to lower noise
levels than higher frequency message components.

Figure 3.8 Output noise psd in FM systems.

From Eqs. (3.100) and (3.102) we obtain the signal power and the noise power
at the output of the post–detection filter as

E{Xo2 (t)} = E{X 2 (t)} = Sx (3.103)

and
fx
kd2 2kd2
Z
E{n2o (t)} = 2
(2πf )2 η df = (2π)2 η fx3 (3.104)
−fx Ac 3A2c

Thus, the signal–to–noise ratio at the output of an FM system is given by

3A2c Sx
 
S
= (3.105)
N d 2(2πkd )2 η fx3

Our assumptions |X(t)|max = 1, kf = 1/kd , and |kf X(t)|max = 2π∆f allow

us to write
kf 1
∆f = = (3.106)
2π 2πkd

Hence, we can rewrite (S/N )d for the FM system as

   2
S ∆f Sr
=3 Sx (3.107)
N d fx ηfx

In Eq. (3.107), ∆f /fx is the deviation ratio (D) of the FM system. Comparing
(S/N )d for PM with FM, we find that FM is superior to PM insofar as noise
performance is concerned since (S/N )d for FM can be made as large as desired
by increasing ∆f whereas in PM this increase is limited by the requirement that
kp ≤ π.
62 NOISE IN ANALOG COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Comparison of (S/N )d for PM and FM systems with linear modulation reveals an

important fact: In angle modulation systems, (S/N )d can be increased by increasing
the modulator sensitivity (kp for PM and kf for FM) without having to increase the
transmitted power. Increasing kf or kp will, of course, increase the transmission
bandwidth. Thus, it is possible to trade off bandwidth for signal–to–noise ratio in
angle modulation systems. For this reason, WBFM systems are used in most of the
low power applications such as in space communications.

EXAMPLE 3.3

Compare the transmitted power and bandwidth requirements of a FM system,

an AM system, and a DSB system designed to produce (S/N )d = 60 dB. The
message signal is a video signal with the following characteristics:
|X(t)|max = 1, E{X 2 (t)} = 0.5, and fx = 5 M Hz
Assume that the channel noise has a psd 0.5×10−14 watt/Hz and that the channel
introduces a 60 dB power attenuation. Assume a modulation index 100% for
the AM and a deviation ratio of 5 for the FM.

SOLUTION

(a) FM: We are given that the FM system operates with a deviation ratio ∆f /fx =
5. Hence, BT = 2(∆f + fx ) = 60 M Hz. From Eq. (3.107), we have
   2
S ∆f Sr
= 3 Sx
N d fx ηfx
3 × (5)2 × 0.5 × Sr
106 =
10−14 × 5 × 106
1
⇒ Sr =
750
with a channel attenuation of 60 dB, ST = Sr × 106 = 1333 watts.
(b) AM: BT = 2fx = 10 M Hz. With 100% modulation (m = 1) and envelope
demodulation we have
m2 Sx
 
S Sr
=
N d 1 + m2 Sx η fx
1
3 × Sr
106 = −14
10 ×5× 106
15
⇒ Sr =
100
Hence,
ST = Sr × 106 = 150 kW
 PREEMPHASIS/DEEMPHASIS FILTERING IN CW MODULATION SYSTEMS 63

(c) DSB: BT = 2fx = 10 M Hz and

 
S Sr
=
N d ηfx
Sr
106 =
10−14 × 5 × 106
1
⇒ Sr =
20
yields,

ST = Sr × 106 = 50 kW

3.5 Preemphasis/Deemphasis Filtering in CW Modulation Systems

In the preceding sections, we saw that the output of a CW modulation scheme operat-
ing above threshold consists of undistorted signal component X(t) plus an additive
noise component no (t). Hence, a CW modulation scheme can be modeled by the
baseband–to–baseband model shown in Fig. 3.9. The psd of the noise, no (t), de-
pends on the modulation and demodulation process used in the system. Two cases
of interest are

Gno (f ) = k1 η, for |f | < fx (3.108)

and

Gno (f ) = k2 η f 2 , for |f | < fx (3.109)

Equation (3.108) represents the noise psd at the output of a linear modulation scheme
using coherent demodulation, and (3.109) represents the noise psd at the output of
an FM system using a discriminator for demodulation.

Figure 3.9 Baseband–to–baseband model of a communication.

The reader should note the similarity between the CW system model shown in
Fig. 3.9 and the baseband system model shown in Fig. 3.1. This similarity suggests
the possibility of using preemphasis/deemphasis filtering in CW modulation systems
for improving the output signal–to–noise ratio. The preemphasis/deemphasis filter
arrangement is shown in Fig. 3.10.
64 NOISE IN ANALOG COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Figure 3.10 Preemphasis/deemphasis filtering in CW communication systems.

Following the development in section 3.2.4, we obtain the transfer function of

these filters as
s
Gno (f )
|HT (f )|2 = K1 (3.110)
Gx (f )
s
2 1 Gx (f )
|HR (f )| = (3.111)
K1 Gno (f )
HT (f ) HR (f ) = exp(−j2πf td ) (3.112)

The constant K1 is chosen to satisfy the constraint

Z fx Z fx
Gx (f ) df = Gx (f ) |HT (f )|2 df (3.113)
−fx −fx

Equation (3.113) requires that the normalized average power of the baseband sig-
nal X(t) is the same as the normalized power of the preemphasized signal Xp (t).
This constraint assures that for linear modulation schemes the transmitted power is
not altered by preemphasis filtering. For FM systems, equal power requirement en-
sures that the bandwidth of the FM signal remains the same.
The signal power at the output is the same with or without preemphasis/deemphasis
filtering. The noise power at the output without filtering is
Z fx
E{n2o (t)} = Gno (f ) df (3.114)
−fx

With the deemphasis filter, the noise psd is given by

Z fx
2
E{nd (t)} = Gno (f ) |HR (f )|2 df (3.115)
−fx
Z fx
Gno (f )
= df (3.116)
−fx |HT (f )|2

The signal–to–noise ratio improvement due to preemphasis/deemphasis filtering

is given by
R fx
E{n2o (t)} −fx
Gno (f ) df
γ= 2 = R fx (3.117)
E{nd (t)} Gno (f ) |HR (f )|2 df
−fx