Physics

Physics
SUMMARY
SUMMARY
Khaled Mamdouh
Abdullah Hassan
Mohamed Alfateh STEM Assiut Community
Isaac Nady
Mohamed K. Elsied
,

PH.2.01: -
➢Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation
➢Gravitational field
➢Launching velocity of satellites.
➢Orbital velocity of satellites.
PH.2.02: -
➢Static electricity
➢Coulomb’s Law
➢Methods of electrification
➢Electric Field
PH.2.03: -
➢Dynamic Electricity
➢Potential Difference
➢Resistance
➢Electric energy and power
➢Ohmic and Non ohmic materials
 Newton’s Law of Gravitation
PH.2.01: -

If you look at the moon there is a force that makes the moon in its
orbit around the Earth.

Newton found that when 2 objects have masses, if the distance

between them increases the force decreases so he found that the force
and the square of the distance are inversely proportional.

Newton also found that there is another factor affect this force, the
masses of the objects and he found that the force increases when the 2
masses increase, and it is a directly proportional relation.

, So
But the dimensional analysis of the 2 sides isn’t equal so Newton put a
constant (G) to make that 2 sides equal and the dimensions of (G)
(M^-1 . L^3 . T^-2) or Nm^2 / kg^2.

So, the Final Law is:

Acceleration due to gravity (g): -

There is a difference between G and g. G is the universal gravitation
constant. g is the acceleration the Earth exerts to anybody on the surface
on it. So, g equals the mass of the Earth (ME) times G over the radius of
the Earth squared (RE^2).

ME = 5.98 x 10^24 kg RE = 6.38 x 10^6 m

G = 6.67 x 10^-11 Nm^2/kg^2
From that information we can calculate g
 Gravitational Field

It is the force per unit mass (acceleration) that would be exerted on a small
test mass at a specific point.
The gravitational field pointed to the center
of the object all the time.
We can determine the gravitational
Field by these 2 formulas:

OR
Gravity at the center of the earth:
The gravity at the center of the Earth is ZERO because:
If you go down, there is a mass around
You, pulling you with the same magnitude
that the other direction pulls you.
Launching Velocity Of Satellites
If there was an object has lunched from the
Earth with an initial velocity Vi and reach its
Final velocity Vf. Its mass is m and the mass
Of the Earth is M. the distance is d, the
escape velocity can be determined by
this formula: -

because g = GM/r^2 the escape velocity can be

Orbital Velocity Of Satellites

It is the velocity that the object moves with when it orbits around another
object.
the orbital velocity can
be determined by this
formula: -
because g = GM/r^2 the orbital
velocity can be

The relation between orbital and escape velocity:

Vesc= √2 Vo
So, the escape velocity over the orbit velocity equal √2 on the Earth.

𝑽𝒆𝒔𝒄𝟏 𝑽𝒆𝒔𝒄𝟐 𝑽𝒆𝒔𝒄𝟑

= = = √𝟐
𝑽𝒐𝟐 𝑽𝒐𝟐 𝑽𝒐𝟑
The time of one period around any object:
You can calculate the time
that the small mass object takes to
make one period around the big mass
object by this formula: -

You can also calculate the distance

between the centers of the 2 objects
by this equation: -
The relation between time (T) and distance (r): -

𝑻𝟐 𝟒𝝅𝟐
= = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕, so 𝑻𝟐 ~ 𝒓𝟑
𝒓𝟑 𝑮𝑴
𝑻𝟐 𝟏 𝑻𝟐 𝟐 𝟒𝝅𝟐
𝟑
= 𝟑 =
𝒓 𝟏 𝒓 𝟐 𝑮𝑴
M is the mass of the objects that the object 1 and object 2 orbit around it:
For example: if M is the mass of the sun then the objects are the
planets around the sun.
If M is the mass of the Earth, then the objects are the satellites around the
Earth.
 Static Electricity: -

Electrostatics:
The interactions between the electric charges which are at rest.

Electric Charge: -
is the physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force when
placed in an electromagnetic field and Is an intrinsic characteristic of up the
fundamental particles making those objects.
There are two different kinds of charges, so Benjamin Franklin suggests
calling those charges as Negative and positive in which:
Two positive charges or two negative charges repel each other. A positive
charge and a negative charge attract each other.
Conservation of the electric charge: -
The algebraic sum of all the electric charges in any closed system is
constant.
As charges are neither created nor destroyed but they are transfer from one
place to another, so that the total charge of the system is neutral or zero.
Charges are also quantized such that the magnitude of charge of the
electron or proton is a natural unit of charge, there is nothing less than that
(The quark charges, ± 1 3 and ± 2 3 of the electron charges, are probably
not observable as isolated charges.)

Coulomb’s Law: -
Like in Newton’s universal gravitational force, the electric force between
two charges is directly proportional to their charges and inversely
proportional to the square distance between them
 Methods Of Electrification: -

The process of supplying the electric charge (electrons) to an object or

losing the electric charge (electrons) from an object is called charging. An
uncharged object can be charged in different ways.
Charging by friction: -
When an object is rubbed over another object, the electrons get transferred
from one object to another. This transfer of electrons takes place due to
friction between the two objects. The object that transfers electrons loses
negative charge (electrons) and the object that accepts electrons gains
negative charge (electrons).
Hence, the object that gains extra electrons becomes negatively charged
and the object that loses electrons becomes positively charged. Thus, the
two objects get charged by friction. The charge obtained on the two objects
is called friction charge. This method of charging an object is called
electrification by friction.
Charging by conduction: -
The process of charging the uncharged object by bringing it in contact with
another charged object is called charging by conduction.
A charged object has unequal number of negative (electrons) and positive
charges (protons). Hence, when a charged object is brought in contact with
the uncharged conductor, the electrons get transferred from charged object
to the conductor.
Consider an uncharged metal rod A kept on an insulating stand and a
negatively charged conductor B
If we touch the uncharged conductor A with the negatively charged
conductor B, transfer of electrons from charged conductor to uncharged
conductor takes place. Hence, uncharged conductor gains extra electrons
and charged conductor loses electrons. Thus, uncharged conductor A
becomes negatively charged by gaining of extra electrons.
Similarly, uncharged conductor becomes positively charged if it is brought in
contact with positively charged conductor.
Charging by induction: -
The process of charging the uncharged object by bringing another charged
object near to it, but not touching it, is called charging by induction.
Consider an uncharged metal sphere and negatively charged plastic rod as
shown in below figure (1). If we bring the negatively charged plastic rod
near to uncharged sphere as shown in below fig (2), charge separation
occurs.
The positive charges in the sphere get attracted towards the plastic rod and
move to one end of the sphere that is closer to the plastic rod. Similarly,
negative charges get repelled from the plastic rod and move to another end
of the sphere that is farther away from the plastic rod. Thus, the charges in
the sphere rearrange themselves in a way that all the positive charges are
nearer to the plastic rod and all the negative charges are farther away from
it.

If this sphere is connected to a ground through the wire as shown in fig (3),
If this sphere is connected to a ground through the wire as shown in fig (3),
free electrons of the sphere at farther end flow to the ground. Thus, the
sphere becomes positively charged by induction. If the plastic rod is
removed as shown in fig (4) all the positive charges spread uniformly in the
sphere.
Electroscope: -
A gold leaf electroscope measures potential difference between the leaf
and the base (or earth). The leaf rises because it is repelled by the stem
(support). The leaf and its support have the same type of charge. A typical
school electroscope will show a deflection for a charge as small as 0.01 pC
(the unit pC is a pico coulomb, 1x10-12 coulombs, equivalent to the charge
on over 6 million electrons).
 Electric Field: -

Conductors and insulators: -

In a conductor, electric current can flow freely, in an insulator it cannot.
Metals such as copper is a conductor, while most non-metallic solids are
said to be good insulators, having extremely high resistance to the flow of
charge through them. "Conductor" implies that the outer electrons of the
atoms are loosely bound and free to move through the material. Most
atoms hold on to their electrons tightly and are insulators. In copper, the
valence electrons are essentially free and strongly repel each other. Any
external influence which moves one of them will cause a repulsion of other
electrons which propagates, "domino fashion" through the conductor.
Electric Field: -
Electric field is defined as the electric force per unit charge. The direction of
the field is taken to be the direction of the force it would exert on a positive
test charge. The electric field is radially outward from a positive charge and
radially in toward a negative point charge.

The electric field of a point charge can be obtained from Coulomb's law:
Field Lines: -
 Dynamic Electricity: -

Dynamic electricity: -
is the flow of charge throw the
conducting wire in the circuit.

Electric Current: -
The electric current is the number charges that flow throw a point of a
conductor in the second.
Quantity of charge (Q or q measured by coulombs C) and the quantity of
charge is expressing the amount of the electrons moving in the circuit that
has a charge of (1.602x10 -19C).
current intensity (I measured by the Amperes A).
from the definition of the current we found that
𝑄
𝐼=
𝑇
Surely the current should have a direction but what is the direction of the
current?
There are two directions of the current in a conductor:
1st one is the conventional direction (+ to -) and this says that the current is
transported from the higher potential to lower the potential. So that we
consider that the current flow from the positive terminal to the negative
terminal of the battery, so that the direction of the electric current is always
in the direction of moving positive charges.
2nd one is the actual direction (- to +) the proving of this situation is that
the conductors (metals) have free electrons and the protons (+ive charges)
is held in the nucleus so that the electrons are the only things that moving
in the circuit
But at all situation in our curriculum we will use the conventional direction.

Current Density: -
The flowing current throw current per the cross-section area of the
conductor is called the current density (J).
𝐼
𝐽=
𝐴
 Potential Difference: -
The potential difference is the work done by the supplier (battery) to move
a quantity of charge from the higher potential terminal to the lower.
𝑊 𝑃
𝑉= =
𝑄 𝐼
So that at the conventional direction of the current we said that the charge
moves from the positive terminal to the negative one because the product
of the work (+) over the (+) charge will have a higher value than the
negative side.
How to get the Voltage in the situations.
At first, we have to know that the power (P)=W/T
So, the first EQ is: -
𝑃
𝑉=
𝐼
𝑉 = √𝑃𝑅
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅
 Resistance: -
Electric Resistors: -
The resistance is something like the block that forbid the current to flow.
Resistance is measured by Ω ohm, and it is
Clearly consider the electric current in a wire as the flow of water in a pipe.
Electromotive force: -
The electromotive force or EMF is the highest potential difference that the
battery can make.
It is measured by VOLTs and its value = I(R+r) when R is the outer resistance
and r is the internal resistance of the battery.
Resistivity &Conductivity: -
The resistance of some wire is depending on some factors:
1-Resistivity and the Conductivity of the material ρ
2-The length of it
3-The cross-sectional area of the conductor
As we said previously that the electric current is like the flow of the water
throw the pipe
So, imagine that you have a pipe connected to the tap and you opined the
tap at some water current for EX: ρ and you have a pipe of length L and
cross-sectional area A.
For the same flow rate or resistivity of the wire or the pipe when we
decrease the cross-section area the current surely will flow in smaller rate
and when increasing its length, it is the same.
So, the resistance
 𝐴
𝑅=𝜌
𝐿
And in the opposite of the resistivity the conductivity σ
It is equal ρ^(-1)

Electric Power And Energy: -

the electric energy: is the energy consumed by the devices (resistors) to

transport the current and like all the energy forms it measured by the unit
joule (J)
the electric power: is the amount of energy that must be provided for a
device to supply its needs per the unit of time.
𝑾
𝑷=
𝑻
𝑽𝟐
𝑷=
𝑹
𝑷 = 𝑹𝑰𝟐
𝑷 = 𝑽𝑰
Some relations between the electric current, the electric power, electric
potential difference, and the resistance of the conductor
- Current intensity:
𝑉
𝐼=
𝑅
𝑃
𝐼=
𝑉
𝑃
𝐼=√
𝑅
 - Voltage
𝑃
𝑉=
𝐼
𝑉 = 𝑅𝐼
𝑉 = √𝑅𝑃
- Power
𝑉2
𝑃=
𝑅
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼
𝑃 = 𝑅𝐼 2
- Resistance
𝑃
𝑅=
𝐼2
𝑉
𝑅=
𝐼
𝑉2
𝑅=
𝑃

Ohmic And Non-Ohmic Material:

-

Since,
𝑬
𝝆=
𝑱
Where, E is the electric field and J is the current density.
This the real ohm’s law so that a material that obeys Ohm’s law
reasonably well is called an ohmic conductor
or a linear conductor.
For such materials, at a given temperature, J is a constant that does not
depend on the value of E. Many materials show substantial departures from
Ohm’s-law behavior; they are nonohmic, or nonlinear. In these materials, J
depends on E in a more complicated manner.
Super Conductors: -
Some materials, including several metallic alloys and oxides, show a
phenomenon called superconductivity. As the temperature decreases, the
resistivity at first decreases smoothly, like that of any metal. But then at a
certain critical temperature Tc a phase transition occurs, and the resistivity
suddenly drops to zero. Once a current has been established in a
superconducting ring, it continues indefinitely without the presence of any
driving field.