Introduction to Eddy Current Testing

Nail Widya Satya

 Theory
• Eddy-current testing (ECT) is a nondestructive testing method in
which eddy-current flow is induced in the test object. Changes in the
flow caused by variations in the specimen are reflected into a nearby
coil or coils for subsequent analysis by suitable instrumentation.
• ECT is based on the principles of electromagnetic induction,
generating an electrical current in another conductive material by
varying the way the primary flux density interacts with the secondary
material
• ECT is used mainly to inspect conductive (able to conduct electrical
current) non ferromagnetic materials
• When an electrical current flows through a wire, a magnetic field
exists around the wire
• If the straight wire is wound into a coil, the lines of force encircling
the wire forming a magnetic field inside and outside the loop
• The strength of the magnetic field is dependent upon 2 factors:
number of coil turns & the magnitude of the current
• Based on Faraday’s law, electric current can be produced by change in
magnetic field
• Constantly change magnetic field is achieved by using alternating
current (AC)
• In each ECT circuit there is 2 types of resistance, R (wire resistance) &
XL (coil resistance / inductive reactance)
• Inductive reactance is an effect caused by the fact that every turn of
coil inducing current to another turn (oppose & aid original current)
causing resultant current to shifted out of phase with the voltage.
XL = 2.π.f.L where XL = inductive reactance (in ohms), f = frequency (in
hertz), L = inductance (in henries)
• Inductance is determined by size, shape, & number of turns in the coil
• 2, π, & L are constant, thus inductive reactance for any given coil
depends entirely on the current frequency through the coil
• R & XL is 90o different in phase. Sum of them is called impedance (Z).
Z2 = R2 + XL2 (in ohms)
• ECT instrument works with a principle of reading this impedance
difference
Principles
1. A coil energized by an alternating primary current creates an
alternating magnetic field around it
2. If the inspection coil is placed on or near a conductive test
specimen, a small circulating electrical currents (eddy currents) are
induced in the specimen
3. These eddy currents produce a magnetic field that opposes the
primary magnetic field causing the eddy currents
4. The opposing secondary magnetic field causes a change in the
original magnetizing field
5. Changes in the primary magnetic field cause a change in the
impedance of the coil
6. The change in impedance is detected by ECT instrument
 Material Properties Affecting Eddy Current Induced
There are 3 material properties that affect the eddy currents induced:
• Conductivity
Ability of a material to carry electrical current. Expressed as percentage of pure annealed
copper conductivity (IACS system). Higher conductivity, more sensitive the test.
Factors changing conductivity:
A combination of materials forming alloy, changes in hardness due to heat treatment,
changes in the temperature, residual stress, presence of conductive coating
• Dimension
Dimensional factor fall under 2 types:
o Dimension of material under test (thickness, lift-off, fill factor, edge effect & end effect)
o Presence of discontinuities
• Permeability
The ease with which a magnetic flux is established. High permeability means easy to be
magnetized, vice versa. Greater permeability, less penetration
 Depth of Penetration
• Standard depth of penetration (SDP) is the distance from the surface of the
article to the point where the current density is +- 37% current surface density.
SDP = K.(p/(f.µrel))1/2 where K = 50 for mm or 1.98 for inch, p = resistivity (in micro-
ohm-centimeter). resistivity = 172.41 / conductivity, f = frequency (in hertz), µrel = 1
for non ferromagnetic materials
• Greater conductivity, less penetration. Lower frequency, greater penetration
• Effective depth of penetration (EDP) is +- 3 x SDP
 Probes
Eddy current instruments can perform a wide variety of tests depending on the
type of probe being used. Careful probe selection will help optimize performance.
Some common probe types are listed below:
• Surface probes / probe coils / flat coils / pancake coils - Used for identifying flaws
on and below metal surfaces, usually large diameter to accommodate lower
frequencies for deeper penetration, or for scanning larger areas.
• Pencil probes - Smaller diameter probes housing coils built for high frequencies
for high resolution of near surface flaws.
• Bolt hole probes - Designed to inspect the inside of a bolt hole. These probes can
be rotated by hand or automatically using a rotary scanner.
• Donut probes - Designed to inspect aircraft fastener holes with fasteners in place.
• Sliding probes - Also used in testing aircraft fastener holes, offering higher scan
rates than donut probes.
• ID probes (bobbin coils) - Used for inspection of heat exchangers and similar
metal tubing from the inside, available in a variety of sizes.
• OD probes / encircling coils / feed-through coils - Used for inspection of metal
tubing and bars from the outside, with the test piece passing through the coil
 Test Coil Arrangement
This classifications are determined by
how the coils are electrically
connected which can be divided into
3, absolute, differential, and hybrid.
• Absolute coils
Making a measurement without
direct reference or comparison to a
standard as the measurement is
being made. The applications are for
measuring conductivity, permeability,
dimension, and hardness.
• Differential coils
Consist of 2 or more coils electrically connected to oppose each other. The
output of one coil cancels the output of the other coil when the article
properties are the same under both coils. Differential coils can further
divided into 2, self-comparison & external reference.
Picture of bobbin coils calibration. left: 20% flat bottom hole at 100o, center:
100% through wall hole at 40o, right: 60% flat bottom hole at 80o
 Instrument Parameters
Balance point
• The use of bridge circuit allows
us to “null” or cancel out a
certain offset voltage or
response. Balance point can be
set either in air (inspect
conductivity) or in the specimen
(inspecting parts)
Frequency
• Rate at which an alternating
current changes direction. It is
the number of times per
second a cycle occurs (in
Hertz).
• Frequency determines how
deep an eddy current signal
penetrate. It is affected by the
type, size and frequency of
probe, the depth of
penetration required, and the
conductivity of the material.
• Higher frequency will increase
the resolution on near surface
defects and also the phase
separation of those defects,
but limit the depth of
penetration, vice versa
Phase
• Changing the phase rotates what is seen on the screen.
• Eddy current “spot” on the screen moves in different directions
according to what is happening beneath the probe.
Gain
• Zoom and increase the size of the signals on the screen.
• Gain should be set so that the size of artificial defect is X % of the
screen height according to the manual used
• A test block with a defect of a known size on it is needed
Filter
• Low pass filter:
Only low signal will be displayed
• High pass filter
Only high signal will be
displayed
• In general any NDT methods
should have signal to noise
ratio of 3 : 1
 Reference standards
• For flaw detection applications, reference standards must use the
same material, shape, and size as the test piece, containing artificial
defects such as saw cuts, drilled holes, or milled walls to simulate
flaws.
• For thickness measurement applications, reference standards would
consist of various samples of known thickness.
• The operator observes the response from the reference standards
and then compares the indications from test pieces to these
reference patterns to categorize parts.
 Common ECT applications
• Weld Inspection - Many weld inspections employ ultrasonic NDT for subsurface
testing and a complimentary eddy current method to scan the surface for open
surface cracks on weld caps and in heat affected zones.
• Conductivity Testing - Used to identify and sort ferrous and nonferrous alloys, and
to verify heat treatment.
• Surface Inspection - Surface cracks in machined parts and metal stock can be
readily identified with eddy current. This includes inspection of the area around
fasteners in aircraft and other critical applications.
• Corrosion Detection – Used to detect and quantify corrosion on the inside of thin
metal such as aluminum aircraft skin. Low frequency probes can be used to locate
corrosion on second and third layers of metal that cannot be inspected
ultrasonically.
• Bolt Hole Inspection - Cracking inside bolt holes can be detected using bolt hole
probes, often with automated rotary scanners.
• Tubing inspection - Both in-line inspection of tubing at the manufacturing stage
and field inspection of tubing like heat exchangers are common eddy current
applications. Both cracking and thickness variations can be detected.
 Eddy Current Testing On Aircraft
When using NDT on an aircraft, there are many areas of the plane that
can be inspected using eddy current testing and all fall into one of the
following categories:
• Defect detection including surface and sub-surface crack detection
using single and dual frequency
• Material sorting of ferrous and non-ferrous metals and coating and
wall thickness assessment
• Hole inspection manually and dynamically
• Wheel inspection
• Corrosion detection in multi-layer structures
 Advantages
• Sensitive to small discontinuities at right angles to the surface (e.g. cracks and
corrosion)
• Not affected by non-conductive layers (e.g. paint and sealant)
• Good for surface and near surface Inspection in thin (up to 6mm thick) non-
ferrous material.
• Immediate results
• Equipment is very portable
• Method can be used for much more than flaw detection (e.g. sorting heat
treatment or materials coating measurement)
• Minimum part preparation is required
• Test probes do not need to contact the part
• Suitable for complex shapes
• Small size of the sensor allows probes to made to inspect poor access areas (e.g.
grooves and thread forms) and difficult access areas (e.g. inside an engine and
blade trailing edges)
 Disadvantages
• Only conductive materials can be inspected
• Surface must be accessible to the probe
• Surface finish and roughness may cause problems
• Reference standards needed for setup
• Depth of penetration is limited
• Flaws such as delaminations that lie parallel to the probe coil winding
and probe scan direction are undetectable
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