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Thermodynamic analysis of CAES/TES systems for renewable energy plants

Article in Renewable Energy · September 2008

DOI: 10.1016/j.renene.2007.12.003

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 Author's personal copy

Renewable Energy 33 (2016) 1998–2006

www.elsevier.com/locate/renene

Thermodynamic analysis of CAES/TES systems for

renewable energy plants
Giuseppe Grazzini, Adriano Milazzo
Dipartimento di Energetica ‘‘Sergio Stecco’’, Università degli studi di Firenze, via di Santa Marta, 3-50139 Firenze, Italy
Received 22 July 2016; accepted 5 December 2015
Available online 28 January 2016

Abstract

A thermodynamic analysis is presented for an energy storage system without combustion and including thermal recuperation
(adiabatic compressed air energy strong (CAES)). The storage volume is optimized and a system layout with thermal storage (TES) and
variable configuration is designed. The proposed system is simulated in order to have a first estimate of its energy recovery efficiency.
r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Energy storage; CAES; TES

1. Introduction Compressed air energy storage (CAES) is located slightly

below pumped hydro systems, in terms of power. Actually,
Thermodynamics is the science of temperature, heat, and in the very few practical realizations, CAES systems are
energy exchange. Thermodynamics has practical hybrid plants, comprising energy storage and conversion.
applications in all branches of science and technology as Ambient air is compressed and stored in large underground
well as in various aspects of daily life, from weather to caverns during low-demand periods. In peak hours, the
cooking. Temodinamika is the study of the relationship compressed air is heated in a combustor and fed to a gas
between heat and effort and the properties that support the turbine. In this way, the whole turbine power is available at
relationship. It can also be said that thermodynamics is the the alternator, compression being performed apart. The
study of energy and its transformation. compression may be inter-refrigerated, but the recovered
The principles and laws of thermodynamics are used in the energy is usually wasted. An example of the economic
planning of combustion engines, nuclear power centers, potential of a current technology CAES system is given in
refrigeration planes, rockets, airplanes, aircraft with electric [2], with specific reference to a network with high wind
power, etc. Various energy storage technologies are energy share. The potential of CAES in arid regions is dealt
available (Fig. 1), according to different physical with in [3].
principles, and each of these technologies is well suited for In the case of a CAES coupled with a renewable energy
a specific power or energy range. Alternatively, energy plant, some variations to the above concept may be useful,
storage systems can be qualified according to their as will be shown later on. Specifically, energy recovery
operation time. efficiency should be optimized. For this purpose, the energy
Some of these systems, such as flywheels or super- expelled as heat during compression should be recovered
capacitors, have limited capacity. Others, like advanced and reused during expansion. This can be done by using
batteries or fuel cells, have high costs or low availability. thermal energy storage (CAES-TES) [4].
Moreover, they are often impaired by a low number of Besides, in order to avoid any local gaseous emission, the
charge/discharge cycles. The upper right corner of the combustor should be eliminated. This produces the so-
diagram in Fig.author.
Corresponding 1 is dominated by pumped
Tel.: +39 55 4796333; hydro
fax: +39 systems.
55 4796342. called ‘‘adiabatic CAES’’ concept, which is currently the
Indeed
E-mailthese systems
address: have been extensively
adriano.milazzo@unifi.it used, as far as
(A. Milazzo). object of an EU-funded research project [5]. Initial results
the orography of each country allows.
0960-1481/$ - see front matter r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.renene.2016.12.003
 Author's personal copy

G. Grazzini, A. Milazzo / Renewable Energy 33 (2008) 1998–2006 1999

Nomenclature t time

D diameter of reservoir Greek Letters

E stored energy
L work b compression ratio
L~ non-dimensional work e heat exchanger efficiency
P power Z energy efficiency
Q heat l exponent equal to (m 1)/m
R gas constant r density of material
T charging time s maximum allowed stress
T temperature t time constant
V storage volume
Vmat volume of material Subscripts
cp constant pressure specific heat
cv constant volume specific heat 0 ambient condition
k ratio cp/cv AF temperature of cold thermal storage
m polytropic exponent AC temperature of hot thermal storage
mmat mass of material c compression
m_ mass flow e expansion
n number of stages h heated
p pressure rest energy restitution
s thickness of reservoir t isothermal

of this project are reported in [6]. Here, however, some
significant departures have been made from this approach.
As a last modification, the CAES concept can be
uncoupled from the availability of underground natural
volumes [7]. For this purpose, low-cost artificial reservoirs
should be conceived. In this way, the CAES could be located
in the neighborhood of the renewable energy source or in a
location that minimizes global energy transmission cost in a
distributed generation scenario. An extreme consequence of
this concept is presented in [8], where the air compressor is

1.E+10
PH
1.E+09
CAES
1.E+08
SMES

1.E+07

1.E+06 FC Batt
Energy [kJ]

FC Batt FC
FC Batt
1.E+05
FW
FW FW SMES
1.E+04 SMES
FW SMES
Batt FW
1.E+03
Cap Cap FW
1.E+02 Batt
Cap
Cap
1.E+01 Cap

1.E+00
1.E+00 1.E+01 1.E+02 1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05
Power [kW]

FW = Flywheel SMES = Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage

FC = Fuel Cell PH = Pumped Hydro
Batt = Lead-Acid Battery CAES = Compressed Air Energy Storage
Cap = Supercapacitor

Fig. 1. Performance of various energy storage technologies (data from [1]).

 Author's personal copy
2000 G. Grazzini, A. Milazzo / Renewable Energy 33 (2008) 1998–2006
directly coupled to a wind turbine, avoiding the mechanical-
to-electric energy conversion.
2. Exploratory design of a CAES system for renewable
energy plant
2.1. Choice of storage pressure
Thinking, as a reference, of a medium size energy source,
the system is dimensioned to accept an input power
P ¼ 500 kW. A charging period T ¼ 8 h should be allowed
at full power. The stored energy is then E ¼ PT ¼
14,400 MJ. Actually, most of following results are general,
independent of the above assumptions.
At constant temperature, the energy stored in a
compressed air volume varies with the compression ratio
b. The system cost is a function of the required volume per
unit stored energy, i.e.:
V 1
,E ¼ p b lnðbÞ
0
where p0 is the ambient pressure.
Both storage volumes and air masses steeply decrease for
bo50. For higher values, the decrease is slower (Fig. 2).
To quantify the investment cost, some hypotheses should
be made on the reservoir. In the case of natural under-
ground storage, the system capacity and its cost are given
by the available underground volume. On the other hand,
for artificial storage, optimization is possible.
For the sake of simplicity, the material is considered to
be working at constant stress. For example, the reservoir
could be a relatively thin sphere. To avoid excessive
thickness, the volume may be divided into several
connected reservoirs. If the thickness s is small, its value
can be calculated as
s 1p
¼ ,
D 4s
where p is the pressure, D the reservoir diameter, and s the
maximum allowed stress.
10
1
V/E [m3/MJ]
0.1
0.01
0.001
0 50
Fig. 2. Specific air volume and mass for a constant temperature energy storage.
With some simplification, the material volume results as
V mat 3
¼p . (2)
V 2s
In other words, the reservoir volume is proportional to the
air volume and to the ratio p/s between the internal
pressure and maximum allowed stress, while it is indepen-
dent of the volume fractioning in several reservoirs. Taking
the volume from Eq. (1) and introducing the material
density r, the reservoir mass is
3 E r
mmat ¼ . (3)
2 ln ðbÞ s
In Eq. (3) the ratio s/r quantifies the elastic energy that
can be stored in the reservoir material. For some values of
this ratio, Fig. 3 shows the reservoir material per unit
stored energy.
For s/r ¼ 30 kJ/kg, representing steel with allowable
stress s ¼ 234 MPa, the reservoir mass can be lower than
10 kg/MJ. For the energy amount considered herein, this
means a mass below 150,000 kg.
(1) In practice, the reservoir mass will be slightly higher than
estimated above, due to practical available shapes,
accessories, etc. Apart from specific values, the diagram
shows that the curves are almost horizontal for b4200.
2.2. Energy storage and recovery
According to what has been said, b ¼ 200 is assumed in
what follows. Air can be compressed with volumetric or
dynamic compressors. In both cases, the compression
can be analyzed as a polytropic transformation,
whose exponent m is higher than the specific heat ratio
cp/cv. Therefore, compressed air temperature increases
according to
T c ¼ T 0 ðbÞðm 1=mÞ
. (4)
In order to limit this exit temperature and energy loss,
compression can be divided into stages and air can be
cooled between them. If the heat exchangers used for
cooling have efficiency e and the cooling medium enters at
a temperature TAF, the exit temperature from the i-esime
10
V/E
m/E
m/E [kg/MJ]
1
100 150 200 250 300
Compression ratio
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G. Grazzini, A. Milazzo / Renewable Energy 33 (2008) 1998–2006 2001

100
90
80
70
mmat/E [kg/MJ]

60
50
40
[kJ/kg]
30
10
20
20
10 30
40
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Compression ratio

Fig. 3. Reservoir mass per unit of stored energy as a function of material strength.

Compression train Expansion train

M C1 C2 C3 E1 E2 E3 U

Compressed air
Hot storage storage Cold storage

Fig. 4. Scheme of CAES system with thermal storage.

stage in a system with n stages is of this energy. On the whole, the reduction of the
compression work obtained with inter-cooling compen-
T i ¼ ð1 Þbl=n T i 1 þ T AF, (5) sates the reduction of expansion work due to lower
where l ¼ (m 1)/m. The non-dimensional compression expanding air temperature, giving the same recovery
work L~c ¼ Lc =ðcp T 0 Þ is efficiency. The specific energy storage per unit mass of
! thermal storage (TES) material is lower, but technological
l=n
Xn 1
T i problems, as well as heat losses in the environment are
L~c ¼ ðb 1Þ 1 þ . (6) reduced.
i¼1
T0
The hot storage temperature is related to cold storage
The heat recovered in the above exchangers can be stored and to compressor exit temperature given by (4) through
and reused in the following expansion, in order to raise the the heat exchanger efficiency e:
expanding air temperature and increase the recovered T AC ¼ T AF þ ðT c T AF Þ. (7)
work. For the sake of simplicity, the exchangers can be
arranged in parallel (Fig. 4). In this case, the cooling fluid Therefore, Tc being proportional to bl/n, the final tem-
temperature in the hot storage TAC is the average of those perature of the refrigerant fluid decreases with the number
reached at the exit of the exchangers. of stages.
In contrast with what is stated in [6], here an inter-cooled The expansion can be dealt with similarly, accounting
compression is pursued. This reduces the thermodynamic for heat exchange between air and fluid that comes from
value of the stored energy, but does not affect the amount the hot storage at TAC. Air enters the expander at a
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2002 G. Grazzini, A. Milazzo / Renewable Energy 33 (2008) 1998–2006
temperature
T h ¼ T 0 þ ðT AC T 0 Þ.
Afterward, air is expanded and cooled down to a
temperature Te ¼ Th(b) l, where l has a different value
from that of compression, m now being smaller that k.
Accordingly, in an n-stage system configured as in Fig. 3,
the exit temperature from i-esime expander is
T i ¼ ½T i 1 ð1 Þ þ T AC b l=n
. (9)
~
The non-dimensional expansion work Le ¼ Le =ðcp T 0 Þ for
an n-stage system is
Xn
Ti
L~e ¼ ðbl=n 1Þ . (10)
i¼1
T0
An example can be carried out with a system working with
air (cp ¼ 1.0 kJ kg 1 K 1 and cp/cv ¼ 1.4), where the poly-
tropic exponents are 1.45 for compression and 1.36 for
expansion, as in state-of-the-art machinery.
Thermal fluid and inducted air are initially at ambient
temperature, i.e. 20 1C. The same is true for air inside
storage volume. Heat exchanger efficiency is 0.7 and
remains constant.
Fig. 5 shows the compression and expansion works, Lc
and Le, and heat exchanges Qc and Qe; these quantities are
reported with solid lines for easy reading, but obviously
they are meaningful only at integral numbers of stages.
Work and heat recovery efficiencies Z and Zt, defined as
ratios between energies introduced during the charge phase
and recovered during discharge, are shown as well.
For comparison, the diagram also shows the isothermal
compression work Lt, which is remarkably lower. Expan-
sion work is also lower than its compression counterpart,
but the difference decreases as the number of stages
increases. This improvement is measured by the work
recovery efficiency Z that reaches a value of 0.8 for a system
with 10 stages. Similarly, the heat recovered in the
expansion is lower than that stored during the compres-
sion, but the heat recovery efficiency Zt increases with the
number of stages.
The gain obtained with fractioning is evident as long as
the stages are few. Given the behavior depicted in Fig. 4, a
good compromise between complexity and energy effi-
ciency could be n ¼ 5. A detailed analysis should account
for pressure losses in the heat exchangers and minimize
global irreversibility. This is not the purpose of this work.
On the other hand, an initial attempt should be made to
understand system behavior with a storage pressure that
changes from the ambient to fully charged value, i.e. with a
variable compression ratio.
2.3. Variable configuration system
The foregoing analysis was made at steady state, while
actually the compression ratio starts from b ¼ 1 (or
possibly from some residual value, if the former discharge
phase was incomplete) and increases continuously up to the
optimized value found in Section 2.1. The opposite takes
(8) place during discharge. A real compressor or turbine would
hardly work with reasonable efficiency on such an extended
range. Simply wasting the exceeding pressure on a valve, as
in [9], is acceptable only for small and infrequently
operated systems.
The problem could be solved by a variable configuration.
At first all the stages are operated in parallel, using the
incoming power to drive a huge flow rate inside the low
pressured reservoir. As the reservoir pressure increases,
some stages are placed in series, until the configuration
shown in Fig. 4 is reached.
A possible arrangement for such a variable configuration
system is shown in Fig. 6, where, for the sake of clarity, the
TES has been omitted. Valves V1, V2, etc. have two
positions and allow changing the connection between each
stage and the following one. For higher numbers of stages,
intermediate series/parallel configurations are viable and
more complex valve assemblies will be required.
The real behavior of compressors and expanders is
dependent on the specific machine and its regulation. As a
first attempt, it can be assumed that the control systems are
able to vary the rotation speed, in order to keep absorbed
(or released) power constant. In this way, stored (or
recovered) energy is simply proportional to elapsed time. If
power P is a constant, the instant flow rate can be
expressed as a function of compression work L as
P
m
_ ¼ . (11)
L
On the other hand, in the absence of fluid sinks, the input
flow in the storage volume V is equal to the increase of
stored mass:
dm V dp
m
_ ¼ ¼ . (12)
dt RT dt
Substituting and integrating gives a relation between time
and pressure:
Z p Z
V p0 V b
t¼ L dp ¼ LðbÞdb. (13)
PRT p0 PRT 1
Temperature T inside the storage volume is basically
constant and equal to ambient temperature T0, so that (13)
can be further simplified. Using once more the non-
dimensional work L~ ¼ L=ðcp T 0 Þ and introducing a time
constant t ¼ (p0 V/P)(cp/R), one has
Z b
t¼t L~ðbÞdb. (14)
1
Compression work varies with configuration: if n is the
maximum number of stages connected in series, recalling
(6), compression proceeds as follows:
(1) all stages in parallel up to b1 ¼ b1/n:
L~ðbÞ ¼ bl 1, (15)
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G. Grazzini, A. Milazzo / Renewable Energy 33 (2008) 1998–2006 2003

1400 1.0

1200 0.8

1000 0.6
L [kJ/kg]

Lc
800 0.4

Le
600 0.2

Lt
400 0.0

900 0.80
Qc
800 0.76
t
Q [kJ/kg]

700 0.72

t
600 0.68

Qe
500 0.64

400 0.60
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
N of stages

Fig. 5. Exchanged heat and work during compression and expansion vs. number of stages.

! ! This phase ends at time t2 calculated with (18) at

b l þ1 b lþ1 þ b ¼ b2.
t¼t b þ1 ¼t b . (16)
1l þ1 ll þ1 (3) Three groups of stages in series from b2 to b3 ¼ b3/n:

This first phase ends at time t1 ¼ t½ðblþ1 þ lÞ= L~ðbÞ ¼ ð1 Þ 2b l þ 2 ð1 Þb 2=3l

1
ðl þ 1Þ b1 . þ ð2 þ Þb l=3 ð1 þ 2 Þ, ð19Þ
(2) two groups of stages in series from b1 to b2 ¼ b2/n:
"
L~ðbÞ ¼ ðbl=2 1Þð1 þ T~ 1 Þ; with blþ1 lþ1
b
t ¼ t2 þ t ð1 Þ2 þ 2 ð1 Þ
2 l þ1
T~ 1 ¼ ½ð1 Þbl=2 T 0 þ T AF =T 0 .
The analysis remains general, supposing the cooling bð2=3Þlþ1 bð2=3Þlþ1
2 bðl=3Þþ1 ðl=3Þþ1
b2
þ ð2 þ Þ
fluid at heat exchanger entrance to be roughly at the ð2=3Þl þ 1 l=3 þ 1
#
ambient temperature. Substituting and simplifying gives
ð1 þ 2 Þðb b2 Þ . ð20Þ
L~ðbÞ ¼ ð1 l
Þb þ 2 b l=2
ð1 þ Þ, (17)

" (4) Four groups of stages in series from b3 to b4 ¼ b4/n:

b lþ1 1 b
t ¼ t1 þ t ð1 Þ l þ1
l þ1
# L~ðbÞ ¼ ð1 Þ 3 bl þ 2 ð1 Þ2 b3=4l
ðl=2 Þþ1 ðl=2
b 1b þ ð2 þ Þð1 Þb l=2 þ 2 ð1 þ Þb l=4
þ4 Þþ1 ð1 þ Þðb b1 Þ . ð18Þ
l þ2
ð1 þ 3 Þ ð21Þ
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2004 G. Grazzini, A. Milazzo / Renewable Energy 33 (2008) 1998–2006

parallel

M C1 C2 C3 E1 E2 E3 U

V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6

storage

series

M C1 C2 C3 E1 E2 E3 U

V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6

storage

Fig. 6. Variable configuration air circuit.

"
bl þ1 3 b b ð2 =5 Þlþ1 b4
ð2 =5 Þl
t ¼ t3 þ t ð1 Þ 3l þ1 þ 2 ð1 2
Þ þ1
l þ1 ð2=5Þl þ 1
ð3=4Þlþ1
#
bð3=4Þlþ1 b3 bl=5 l=5
þ 2 ð1 Þ2 ð2 þ 3 Þ b ð1 þ 4 Þðb b4 Þ . ð24Þ
ð3=4Þl þ 1 ðl=5Þ
4 þ1
ðl
b ðl =2 Þþ1 3 b
þ ð2 þ Þð1 Þ =2 Þþ1 Substitution of due values of b gives the time values
ðl=2Þ þ 1
# t 3 , t 4, and e t 5.
b ðl=4 Þþ1 3 b For example, let â ¼ 200, p0 ¼ 1 bar, and n ¼ 5
þ 2 ð1 Þ ðl=4 Þþ1 ð1 þ 3 Þðb b3 Þ .
ðl=4Þ þ 1 stages. Other data are set as in Section 2.2.
ð22Þ
The connection between the stages varies as described
above and is shown in Table 1, together with pressure
(5) Five groups of stages in series from b4 to b5 ¼ b5/n: ranges and durations of each phase.
The first phase is very short, and probably could be
omitted without significant losses. The pressure curve,
L~ðbÞ ¼ ð1 Þ4 bl þ 2 ð1 Þ 3b ð4=5Þl
Fig. 7, is smooth, so that the single phases are not
þ ð2 þ Þð1 Þ 2b ð3=5Þl þ 2 ð1 2
Þb ð2=5Þl distinguishable. The duration of the charging phase is
þ ð2 þ 3 Þbl=5 1þ4 , ð23Þ 9.17 h instead of 8 h, due to energy losses; the input energy
is 16,500 MJ.
The simulation shows also that cooling medium in the
"
blþ1 lþ1 heat exchangers reaches a maximum temperature of 426 K,
t ¼ t4 þ t ð1 Þ4 which is barely feasible using pressurized water. A water
b4 l þ1
mass of 34,200 kg is needed. At the end of charging, the
ð4=5Þlþ1 water reaches 398 K.
bð4=5Þlþ1 b4
þ 2 ð1 Þ3 The same scheme with an inverse sequence is used in the
ð4=5Þl þ 1
ð3=5Þlþ1
discharge phase. Stages are connected in series at first and
bð3=5Þlþ1 b4 then in parallel. The configuration and the duration of each
þ ð2 þ Þð1 Þ2
ð3=5Þl þ 1 phase are shown in Table 2.
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G. Grazzini, A. Milazzo / Renewable Energy 33 (2008) 1998–2006 2005

Table 1
Charging sequence

p (bar) t (s) Configuration

1–2.9 0–39

2.9–8.3 39–364

8.3–24 364–1953

24–69 1953–8480

69–200 8480–33,000

Fig. 7. In-storage pressure for a variable configuration, 5-stage system.

Table 2
Discharging sequence

p (bar) t (s) Configuration

200–69 0–17385

69–24 17,385–22,117

24–8.3 22,117–23,307

8.3–2.9 23,307––23,563

2.9–1 23,563–23,596
 Author's personal copy
2006 G. Grazzini, A. Milazzo / Renewable Energy 33 (2008) 1998–2006
Energy losses produce a reduction of the discharge
duration, which turns out to be slightly more than 6.5 h,
releasing 11,800 MJ.
System power being constant, the energy recovery
efficiency can be easily calculated as the ratio between
charge and discharge duration. The result is
Zrest ¼ 0:72.
This value is rather high and close to those commonly
considered for batteries. Clearly, the simulation presented
herein is simplified in many aspects, i.e. constant fluid
characteristics, constant efficiencies of all components, or
disregarding of pressure losses along piping and heat
exchangers. If this has probably overestimated the system
performance, it is also true that optimization could be
improved in many respects, for example by imposing
different subdivision of the pressure ratio or introducing
various TESs at different temperatures. With some
compensation between these two aspects, the efficiency
value reported above could be not far from reality.
3. Closure
It has been shown in this paper that a variable
configuration system based on compressed air and a heat
reservoir can be used for energy storage. This system has
off-the-shelf components and does not use any fuel,
therefore avoiding local emissions. Calculated performance
is aligned to the findings of other authors and can compete
with other energy storage technologies. Therefore, the
proposal seems worth further analysis, in order to assess its
technical and economical feasibility.
This type of storage would be appropriate for any power
system, in order to face both source and load fluctuations.
In the size proposed herein, it would be remarkably well
suited in conjunction with wind energy plants. Moreover,
given that wind turbines produce mechanical energy, it
could be useful to explore the feasibility of a direct
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connection between these turbines and CAES compressors.
In this way, the cost, complexity, and energy losses due to
conversion to and from electric energy could be avoided,
though these gains are not quantified here. Obviously a
mechanically coupled storage would be unable to accept
energy from the grid in low load periods, limiting its
function to the source variability mitigation.
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