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NEBOSH International General Certificate

Week 2 Element 7

Chemical & Biological

Health Hazards and Control

Learning Outcome
7.1 Outline the forms of, the classification of, and health risks from
exposure to hazardous substances
7.2 Explain the factors to be considered when undertaking an
assessment of the health risks from substances commonly
encountered in the workplace
7.3 Describe the use and limitations of Workplace Exposure Limits
including the purpose of long term and short term exposure limits
7.4 Outline control measures that should be used to reduce the risk of ill-
health from exposure to hazardous substances
7.5 Outline the hazards, risks and controls associated with specific
agents
7.6 Outline the basic requirements related to the safe handling and
storage of waste.

Forms Of Chemical Agent

• Dust
• Fibres
• Fume
• Gas
• Mist
• Vapour
• Liquids

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Biological Hazards
Bacteria – Legionella (pneumonia, possible death),
Leptospirosis (damage kidney & liver, possible death),
Salmonella (poisoning, nausea, vomiting, possible death)

Virus – Common Cold (sore throat, coughing, nasal

congestion), Hepatitis A (fatigue, loss of appetite, fever)
Hepatitis B (liver damage, jaundice, fatigue, muscle ache)
Hepatitis C (liver damage, abdominal pain, vomiting and
swelling)

Fungi – Toxic mould (Allergic reaction, asthma, sinus

congestion) Toxic mushroom (poisoning, vomiting, muscle
cramps)
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Classification Of Substances
Hazardous To Health
• Irritant
• Corrosive
• Harmful
• Very toxic
• Toxic
• Carcinogenic
• Mutagenic
• Teratogenic

Difference Between Acute and

Chronic Effects
Acute:
Exposure is usually sudden, typically to one exposure or a short
exposure, could be severe and cause immediate health problems.
Such exposure could range from minor irritation reaction to possible
death. Usually the effects are reversible after a period of time.
Examples of acute effects are: headaches, diarrhea, nausea and
fatigue
Chronic:
Exposure is over a continuous period of time. The health problems
may not be immediately noticeable, but will progressively worsen.
The effects on the body are irreversible. Examples of chronic
effects are: cancer and liver cirrhosis
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7.2 Assessment of Health

Risks

Routes Of Entry Into The Body

INGESTION ABSORPTION

INHALATION INJECTION

Body defences against dust

Respiratory Defences

• The nasal hairs

• Larynx
• Coughing and sneezing
• The cilliary escalator
• Macrophages

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The Body’s Defenses

Gastrointestinal defences - against Ingestion
• Saliva
• Stomach acid
• Vomiting and diarrhoea

Skin defences - against absorption

• Sebum – natural body oil
• Sensory nerves – alerts body to temperature
• Melanin – Pigment cells tan on exposure to sunlight
• Blisters, rashes, inflammation

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The Body’s Defenses

Injection
• Needle stick injuries & sharps

Mucous membranes of the eyes

• Eye lash, blinking, tears

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The Body’s Defenses

Other Defences
• Pain
• Hormones e.g. adrenalin

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Cellular Defence Mechanisms

• Scavenging Action
• Secretion of defensive substances
• Prevention of excessive blood loss
• Repair of damaged tissues
• The Lymphatic system

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Factors To Be Taken Into Account

When Assessing Health Risks
Factors to be considered when assessing health risks include:
Secretion of defensive substances
• Numbers exposed
• Particle size
• Hazardous properties of the substance
• Individual factors
• Concentration of hazardous substances
• Type and duration of exposure
• Exposure limit
• How work is undertaken

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Factors To Be Taken Into Account

When Assessing Health Risks

Factors to be considered when assessing health risks include:

Secretion of defensive substances
• Environmental conditions
• MSDS

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Sources of Information on Hazardous

Substances
1) Manufacturers Safety Data Sheets
2) Product labels
3) Governmental and state organisations
4) Guidance documents
5) ILO Code of Practice
6) Trade Association publications
7) Worker Unions and insurance companies
8) Professional occupational health technical journals
9) Supplier information
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Manufacturers Safety Data Sheets

1) Identification of the substance or preparation and the
Manufacturer;
2) Composition of the ingredients;
3) Hazard identification;
4) First-aid measures;
5) Fire-fighting measures;
6) Accidental release measures;
7) Handling and storage;
8) Exposure controls;
9) Personal protection;

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Manufacturers Safety Data Sheets

10) Physical and chemical properties;
11) Stability and reactivity;
12) Toxicological information;
13) Ecological information;
14) Disposal considerations;
15) Transport information;
16) Regulatory information;
17) Other information.

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Limitations of Information in Assessing

Risks to Health
1) Information although useful has the following
limitations:
2) There may be variance that accompanies scientific
measurements (eg measurement of exposure),
3) Absence of or incomplete data
4) Too technical to understand and requires specialist to
explain its relevance
5) Information is out of date eg: new toxicology
developments not taken into account
6) Individuals have different susceptibility

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Limitations of Information in
Assessing Risks to Health
7) Cumulative effects from earlier exposure not taking into
account
8) Frequency of past events cannot provide an indication
of the probability of repeats in the future, if
circumstances are not the same
9) Data gathered from events for which there is no
previous accident data or which occur infrequently are
estimated by modelling or by the exercise of
judgement, inevitably subjective and uncertain.

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Role and Limitations of Hazardous

Substance Monitoring

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Role And Limitations Of Hazardous

Substance Monitoring
where the risk assessment indicates that:
• It is requisite for the maintenance of adequate control of
exposures; or
• It is otherwise requisite to protect the health of employees
• The material is carcinogenic, mutagenic, harmful for
reproduction or sensitising. Such materials have Exposure
Limits for which exposure ‘as low as is reasonably
practicable’ should be achieved.
• Assurance is required that a control measure is working
correctly.

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Role And Limitations Of Hazardous

Substance Monitoring

• There is a significant change in process and some assurance

is sought that exposure to staff is at an acceptable level.
• It is specified within legislation or standards.
• Employers need to keep and maintain a suitable record of
monitoring

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Measurement of Health Hazards

The stages of these include:

• An initial appraisal
• A basic survey (Smoke tube, dust lamps, grab sampler)
• A full survey (direct & indirect reading instruments)

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Stain Tubes

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Chemical Stain Detector Tube

(Grab Sampler)

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Advantages of Grab Sampling Disadvantages of Grab Sampling

Inaccurate
Low cost

Results depend upon positioning of the

Takes little time
tube

Immediate result
Only a ‘snap shot’ is taken during a small
amount of time
Operators need little experience

The pump may be inefficient or inaccurate

Gives indication during emergency
in each sample
spillages, etc.

Chemical use only (no dusts)

Good for ‘coarse’ indication of
measurement.
Substance specific – the substance
sampled must be known.

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Direct and Indirect Measurement of

Dust
• Direct reading instruments – specially
designed to give an accurate direct
measurement of the dust level or gas -
oxygen, carbon monoxide, etc. Accurate,
quick reading

• Indirect reading instruments – measure

dust by sending a filter element to a
laboratory for examination.

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Personal and Static Sampling

Personal Sampling - these may be passive or active samplers:
• For passive personal sampling - the badge or stain tube
sampler is placed in the workers breathing zone
• For active personal sampling – makes use of an air pump and
the sampling head is placed in the workers breathing zone

Static Sampling - these may be passive or active:

• Static samplers are generally the active type with air pump
• Usually placed at static points, like under work stations
• Used for environmental sampling

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Passive and Active Samplers

Passive Sampler Active Sampler

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Personal Sampling
LIMITATIONS
Limitations of personal sampling include the possibility of operator
interference. Unless watched continuously, there is a risk that the
operators may attempt to manipulate the reading for their own
interest. They could seek to lower the result by blocking the inlet,
or exaggerate the reading by deliberately standing in a discharge
plume, or sprinkling dust into the sampling head. Often
discussions with the operators prior to sampling can help gain
their full co-operation, and monitoring over an extended period
with several different samples can help to eliminate any rogue
results. The operator may also inadvertently block the sampler,
turn the sampler head to the wrong direction (to face his or her
body for example), cause any flexible pipes on the sampler to kink
or become detached.

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7.3 Occupational Exposure Limits

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Occupational Exposure Limits (OEL)

Definition:
the maximum concentration of an airborne substance
averaged over a reference period to which an employee
may be exposed by inhalation.

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Occupational Exposure Limits (OEL)

Occupational Exposure Limits (OEL) subject to:

LTEL - 8hr (prevent chronic effects)

STEL -15min] (prevent acute effects)

MUST NOT BE EXCEEDED

Long / short term exposure limits must always be below
OEL and as low as is reasonably practicable.

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Limitations on use of Exposure Limits

• Work rate could cause more air to be inhaled.

• Chemicals can enter the body by routes other than
inhalation, e.g. Skin absorption,
• Toxicological data on which limits are based may
not be accurate
• Errors in estimating exposures
• Many substances do not have a limit set

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Action to take if an OEL is exceeded

• Stop the process
• Remove employees from area
• Make area safe
• Investigate cause
• Assess existing controls
• Monitor procedures
• Check workers health
• Record incident and findings

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Application of Relevant Limits

• Threshold Limit Values (TLV) in the USA
• Workplace Exposure Limits in the UK
• Maximum Allowable Concentration

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• Comparison of Measurements to
Exposure Limits established by
Competent National Authorities
or Internationally Recognised
Standards

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Exposure Limits
International and national authorities have published
lists of legal or recommended ELs values for:

• Airborne chemicals
• Biological monitoring limits
• Ionizing, non-ionizing and optical radiation
• Thermal stress
• Noise
• Vibration

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7.4 Control Measures

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The Need To Prevent Exposure

Applying 8 principles of good practice for the control of
substances hazardous to health (regardless of whether a
substance has an exposure limit)

Ensuring that the Workplace Exposure Limit (WEL) is not

exceeded

Ensuring that exposure to substances that can cause

occupational asthma, cancer, or damage to genes that can be
passed from one generation to another, is reduced to a level
which is as low as is reasonably practicable.

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The Need To Prevent Exposure

Principles of Good Practice

Principles of good practice for the control of exposure to

hazardous substances include:

• Minimisation of emission, release and spread of hazardous

substances through design and operation of processes and
task activities
• Account for relevant routes of entry into the body when
developing control measures for hazardous substances
• Control measures to be proportional to health risk

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• Effectiveness and reliability of control options that minimise the

escape and spread of hazardous substances
• Use of personal protective equipment in combination with
other measures where adequate controls cannot be achieved
otherwise
• Regular checks and review of implemented control measures
to confirm continued effectiveness
• Provision of information and training to those working with
hazardous substances as to the risks and use of measures to
minimise the risks
• Ensuring control measures do not increase overall risk to
health and safety

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The Need To Prevent Exposure

Implementation of Principles of Good Practice
• Elimination or substitution of hazardous substances or form of
substance
• Process changes
• Reduced time exposure
• Enclosure of hazards; segregation of process and people
• Local exhaust ventilation: general applications and principles of
capture and removal of hazardous substances; components of a
basic system and factors that may reduce its effectiveness;
requirements for inspection
• Use and limitations of dilution ventilation

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The Need To Prevent Exposure

Implementation of Principles of Good Practice
• Respiratory protective equipment: purpose, application and
effectiveness; types of equipment and their suitability for different
substances; selection, use and maintenance
• Other protective equipment and clothing (gloves, overalls, eye
protection)
• Personal hygiene and protection regimes
• Health/medical surveillance and biological monitoring

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Ventilation
(Local Exhaust and Dilution)

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Ventilation Methods:

• Local Exhaust Ventilation

• Dilution or General Ventilation

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Local Exhaust Ventilation - Parts

Hood Ducting Filter Fan

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Local Exhaust Ventilation - Purpose

Extracts airborne contaminants such as:

• Fumes – welding fumes
• Smoke – burning material
• Gas – hydrogen
• Dust – flour, saw dust
• Vapour - hot steam vapour

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Key Components of LEV

Hood - Collection point

Ducting - Transport contaminants away inlet and exhaust
Filter - Air purifying device
Fan - Forces air movement

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Factors that affect Effectiveness of LEV

• Damaged ducting
• Alterations
• Process changes
• Poor hood location
• Fan strength
• Bends In ducting
• Blocked filters
• Lack of maintenance
• LEV made with incorrect material
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Sawdust Extraction

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Machine Shop Extraction

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Portable Extraction

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Dilution Ventilation
Not as effective as LEV but used for:

• Non-toxic contaminant
• Uniformly produced in small quantities
• No discrete point of release
• Not reasonably practical to introduce other more
effective control measures such as LEV.
• Where heat loss or gain is unlikely to cause a
problem

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Further Control Of Substances

Stringent requirements should be implemented for the control of
carcinogens, mutagens and asthma inducing substances known as
respiratory sensitisers,. The suggested control measures include the
following:

Totally enclose the process and handling, unless this is not

reasonably practicable.

Prohibit eating, drinking and smoking in areas that may be

contaminated with carcinogens or mutagens.

Regular cleaning of floors, walls and other surfaces as necessary.

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Further Control Of Substances

Designating areas which may be contaminated with carcinogens and
mutagens using suitable and sufficient warning signs

Storing and handling carcinogens and mutagens safely, including the

use of closed and clearly labeled containers.

In terms of undertaking an assessment for carcinogenic substances, a

similar approach is taken as for any material, but in determining
control measures a greater emphasis is placed on elimination, total
enclosure, minimising quantities, etc. A combination of control
measures may be appropriate, e.g. using respiratory protection in
addition to other measures.

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Further Control Of Substances

Monitoring would normally be required in respect of carcinogenic
substances because of the greater need to establish that control
measures are performing as required.

Where appropriate, some form of health surveillance would normally

be expected where employees use carcinogenic substances.

Staff should be advised of the need to take particular precautions

against the use of carcinogenic substances, and made aware of the
long-term risks associated with carcinogenic substances. They should
also be advised of the added risks of smoking which can damage the
lungs’ natural defences.

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7.5 Specific Agents

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Health Risks and Controls Associated

with Asbestos
White Asbestos is less likely to cause disease however whenever
asbestos dust is generated and may be inhaled a hazard exists.

There are three major diseases by exposure to asbestos and these

are:
1. Asbestosis (Lung tissue is replaced by fibrous tissue)
2. Mesothelioma (Causes tumours)
3. Lung cancer (Growth of malignant cells in lung)

Symptoms of Asbestos

The symptoms of asbestos caused diseases are breathlessness,

tiredness and coughing and all take many years to develop after
exposure.

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Asbestos has been used for many purposes

• Cloth for protective clothing
• Insulation boards for fire protection in buildings
• Insulation boards for equipment
• Pipework lagging
• Asbestos cement boards for building and pipes
• Gaskets, Filters, Brake linings
• Plasterwork in old buildings
• Sprayed on for thermal and acoustic insulation

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Control Program to Minimize Release of Asbestos

In general, the control plan should address:

• Containment of asbestos operations

• Controlling of the release of asbestos fibres
• The engineering controls, work practices, hygiene
practices, and facilities necessary to control the exposure
of a worker to asbestos
• Providing workers with task-specific work instructions that
address both the hazards and the necessary controls

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Control Program to Minimize Release of Asbestos

• Providing, using and maintaining appropriate personal

protective equipment and clothing
• The methods and procedures needed to monitor the
concentration of airborne asbestos and the exposure of
a worker
• The methods needed to decontaminate workers clothes,
etc., and
• The removal and clean-up of asbestos waste and related
material.

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Managing Asbestos in Buildings

Before working with asbestos-containing material (ACM),
employers should:
• Identify and mark the boundary of the designated work
area by barricades, fences, or similar means,
• Ensure that the immediate work area is cleared of
objects, materials and equipment other than what is
needed to do the work,
• Ensure that windows, doorways and all other openings
are adequately sealed or secured to prevent the release
of asbestos fibre into other work areas,
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Managing Asbestos in Buildings

• Post signs at the boundaries of the designated work area
indicating asbestos work is in progress, the hazards, and
the precautions required for entering the work area.
These signs must be posted in a conspicuous location at
the entrances to and on the periphery of each restricted
area, as appropriate, and must remain posted until the
area is no longer a restricted area, and
• Restrict entry into the designated work area to authorized
persons who are adequately protected against the level
of risk within the designated work area.

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Good Practices when working with Asbestos

• Workers should not eat, drink, chew or smoke within any work
area containing asbestos.
• Drop sheets and barriers used in the work area should be wet-
wiped or vacuumed with a HEPA-filtered vacuum.
• Drop cloths should not be re-used.
• Barriers and portable enclosures should not be reused unless
they are rigid and can be thoroughly cleaned.
• Compressed air must not be used to clean up and remove dust
from any surface.
• Clean the work area frequently and at regular intervals during
the work and immediately on completion of the work.

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Good Practices when working with Asbestos

Dust and waste should be cleaned up and removed using a
vacuum equipped with a HEPA filter, or by damp mopping or wet
sweeping, and placed in a container. The container must be:
• Dust tight and suitable for the type of waste
• Impervious to asbestos
• Labelled as containing asbestos waste with a warning that the
dust from the contents should not be inhaled
• Cleaned with a damp cloth or a vacuum equipped with a
HEPA filter immediately before being removed from the work
area
• Removed from the workplace frequently and at regular
intervals.
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Good Practices when working with Asbestos

• Before leaving the work area, workers must decontaminate their
protective clothing by using a vacuum equipped with a HEPA filter, or
by damp wiping, before removing the protective clothing. If the
protective clothing will not be reused, the clothing should be placed in
a container as described above. Workers must wash their hands and
face before leaving the work area. The employer must provide
adequate wash facilities.
• A double locker facility is often used to assist workers with cleaning up
after working with asbestos, particularly after medium- to high-risk
operations. A "double locker" requires two locker rooms with showers
between. Using double locker rooms allows workers remove asbestos
contaminated clothes in one locker room, then shower off asbestos
contaminants, then use the second locker area to keep their street
clothes. Double locker rooms are required in certain jurisdictions.
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Good Practices when working with Asbestos

• Controlling the spread of dust beyond the work area is critically

important so that people outside of the work area are not exposed to
asbestos fibres. The specific controls to achieve this vary from using
polyethylene sheeting barriers for low-risk operations, to setting up a
separate ventilation system, maintained under a negative pressure for
high-risk work areas.

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Health Risks and Controls Associated with

Other Specific Agents
• Carbon monoxide
• Blood borne viruses
• Cement
• Legionella
• Leptospira
• Silica
• Wood dust

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Dust

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Airborne Dusts
Respirable dust is defined as:
Airborne dust small enough to enter the lungs during normal
breathing.
Particle size is between 0.5 and 10 microns.

Acute effects of dust:

• Irritation of the skin and eyes, respiratory irritation causing
coughing and sneezing.

Chronic effects of dust:

• Dust particles that remain in the lung can cause damage -
asbestos, which can lead to cancer. Can also lead to
bronchitis and occupational asthma.

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The Body’s Defences Against

Dust include:
• The nasal hairs
• Coughing and sneezing
• Eye watering
• The ciliary escalator

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Indicators of Dust Problems

• Visible signs – dust on surfaces
• Complaints by employees
• Health problems - asthma
• Equipment problems
• Blocked filters
• Sneezing

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How to Assess Level of Dust

• Visual examination
• Sampling for dust by means of:
• Personal samplers
• Static samplers
• Filters attached to pumps
• Sample for a fixed time
• Dust lamps
• Direct reading instruments
• Dust accumulation in the environment

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Control Measures to Reduce Dust

• Eliminate at source
• Substitute with pellets
• Change process
• Use liquid process
• Enclose the complete process
• Ventilation
• Control by suppression
• Housekeeping
• Maintenance
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Basic Survey
Dust lamp

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Global Concerns
Environmental Aspect An element of an
organisation’s activities, products and services that
can interact with the environment.

Environmental Impact Any change to the

environment, whether adverse or beneficial, wholly or
partially resulting from an organisation’s activities,
products or services.

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Pollution
Pollution is considered under the headings of:

1. Air pollution – emission of pollution directly into the

atmosphere

2. Water pollution – dumping of wastes/chemicals into

waterway

3. Land pollution – toxic wastes, radioactive material and

non-biodegradable material illegally deposited into landfill
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Managing Waste
Managing Waste

If organisations wish to minimise the waste produced by their

activities and improve their process efficiency, they must
understand why and how wastes are produced and what can
be done to minimise and, where possible, eliminate them.
However, it is important to remember that waste is produced
across all the activities of business, for example in offices,
canteens, vehicle maintenance facilities, laboratories,
warehousing and retail outlets as well as in production and
manufacturing processes.

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Legislation on Waste Management

Most countries now have legislative controls on the management
of waste. The core aims of this plan are to:

• Ensure that waste is managed without endangering human

health or harming the environment;

• To provide an integrated and adequate network of waste

management installations so that waste can be disposed of
close to its point of production (i.e. The so called proximity
principle) with each member state’s waste disposal capacity
meeting its own needs, although waste for recovery and
recycling is allowed to move freely between the member
states
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Legislation on Waste Management

• To promote waste reduction, reuse and recovery so that
waste is moved up the waste hierarchy to:

1) Prevent
2) Reduce
3) Re-use
4) Recover
5) Dispose

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Legislation on Waste Management

The aim of all pollution control regimes should be to minimise
and, where possible, to prevent the release of substances which
are potentially harmful or polluting to the environment.

There are two main classes of pollution control:

1.Control at source where the process itself is considered and
modifications or changes made to reduce the productions of
pollutants; and
2.Control at the point of effect where the ‘end of pipe‘ solution is
considered, i.e. The production of pollutants is allowed and then
the treatment is applied before emission to air, land or water.
This is obviously a less preferable option than control at source.

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Legislation on Waste Management

There are four key steps to controlling pollution at source.
These steps form a hierarchy and are:

1. Reformulate the product, e.g. develop a non-polluting or

less-polluting product or process by using different raw
materials or feedstock

2. Modify the process, e.g. change the process to control

by-product formation or to incorporate non-polluting raw
materials.

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Legislation on Waste Management

3. Change the equipment, e.g. make the equipment more

efficient or allow it to use by-products from another
process.

4. Recover resources, e.g. recycle by-products for own

use or use by others. Wastes produced by one activity
can be raw materials for another. In large integrated
chemical plants, reuse of materials in this way is
normally an inherent part of the design.

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Waste Management
There are instances where one company’s waste materials can
be of use to another company. For example oil is widely
recovered from oily wastes and reused. Rubber is increasingly
being reclaimed from scrap tyres by means of shredding and
crumbing and being re-used in manufacturing a range of
products, including carpet underlay as well as being used as a
fuel in purpose built facilities.

Energy recovery is also possible in many modern incinerators.

Virtually all organic compounds have an energy content that can
be utilised if they are burnt under appropriate conditions. It is
generally better to recycle solvents than to burn them for energy

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Waste Management
production as their manufacture uses more energy than can be
recovered by burning and their selling price allows a profit to be
made.

Significant environmental problems may also arise when waste is

burnt. For example, hydrogen chloride or dioxins may be
produced.

If waste cannot be reduced, reused or recycled then the only

options left are treatment or disposal.

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Waste Treatment
Waste treatment is defined as:

‘Any chemical, biological or thermal process that destroys

or neutralises waste or reduces its volume and allows it to
be transported or stored’.

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Waste Treatment
Incineration: for most organic wastes.

Landfill is currently the cheapest and most common

waste disposal route

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Segregation of Waste
Waste should be segregated because:

• Potential reactions between certain waste materials could occur

• Small quantities of hazardous waste mixed with non-hazardous

waste makes the whole consignment hazardous

• Contamination of inert and non-inert waste increase landfill tax

• Waste is easily directed to the correct disposal facility

• Data collected and all relevant paperwork for disposal is made

simpler and quicker.

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Waste Storage
There are ten simple rules for waste storage which are
outlined below:
1. Ensure the storage area is of sufficient size and is suitably
located, i.e. Away from drains, water courses, etc.
2. Clearly label the storage area, and individual containers
to advise of contents and hazardous properties
3. Ensure the storage area is secure and protected from
accidental or malicious damage
4. If necessary protect the storage area with bunds and
rainwater collection sumps to minimise the risk of water
pollution

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Waste Storage
5. Store different waste types separately to avoid confusion
6. Never store incompatible wastes together
7. Select the appropriate container for the waste and ensure
it is in good condition
8. Keep quantities of waste and storage times; to a minimum
9. Protect the waste from the elements (sunlight, rain and
wind) if necessary
10. Do not dispose of unusual wastes in a general waste skip.

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Chemicals

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Environmental Protection
Story of Stuff

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Classification of Waste
Hazardous Waste

• Hazardous waste is a waste with properties that make it

potentially dangerous or harmful to human health or the
environment.

Non - Hazardous Waste

• Non-Hazardous waste is a waste that is not classified as

hazardous.

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QUESTIONS ?

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Identify activities on a construction site that may expose

workers to cement or material containing cement. (3)

 Breaking up of concrete using jack hammer, mixing of

cement, brick laying using cement compound.

Identify the harmful effects to workers which could result

from contact with cement. (5)

 Workers may develop dermatitis, redness of the hands,

allergies, rashes, asthma, silicosis, irritation to the eyes

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Identify possible routes of entry of biological

organisms into the body. (4)

 Inhalation through the mouth and nose

 Ingestion through the mouth

 Injection through skin puncture

 Absorption through the skin and mucous membrane of

the eye

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Outline control measures that could be used to reduce

the risk of infection from biological organisms. (4)
 Cleaning / Disinfecting / personal hygiene
 Water treatment
 Pest control
 Procedures for handling, containment and disposal of wastes
 Immunization to build resistance to specific infections
 Health surveillance strategies
 Specific training
 PPE

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Outline the factors that may reduce the effectiveness of

a local exhaust ventilation system (LEV). (12)

 Damaged Ducting
 Alterations
 Process Changes
 Poor Hood Location
 Fan Strength
 Bends In Ducting
 Blocked Filters
 Lack of maintenance
 LEV made with incorrect material

100

Identify FOUR types of hazards for which local exhaust

ventilation (LEV) would be an appropriate control
measure giving an example in EACH case of the
harmful effect that might be produced. (8)
Extracts airborne contaminants such as:
• Fumes – welding fumes
• Smoke – burning material
• Gas – Hydrogen
• Dust – flour, saw dust
• Vapour - hot steam vapour

101

Explain the difference between acute and chronic health

effects. (4)
Acute:
Is an immediate or rapidly produced adverse effect, following a
single or short-term exposure to a hazardous substance, usually
with a rapid or immediate response which is normally reversible.
Chronic:
Adverse health effect resulting from prolonged, repeated exposure
to a hazardous substance the response being gradual (often
unrecognized for a long time) may get worse with no further
exposure and is often irreversible.

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Identify the sources of information which could be

used in the assessment of risk of toxic substances.
(4)
 Ill health report
 Material Safety Data Sheet
 Health surveillance report
 ILO
 Government bodies such as Ministry of health.

103

Outline the control measures that might be required

in order to minimize risks to workers to toxic
substances (8)
 Eliminate the hazard
 Reduce the risk by substitution
 Isolate the people from the hazard
 Total enclosure, Segregate the people, LEV
 Control
 Reduce period of exposure, Prohibit eating in area, safe
storage, Hygiene, limit access by employees
 Personal protective equipment
 Discipline
Remember - ERIC PD

104

Identify FOUR forms of hazardous substance for which

respiratory protective equipment could be used to reduce the
risk of harm. (4)
 Dust, fumes, vapor, mist.

Outline factors that could reduce the effectiveness of the

respiratory protective equipment. (4)
 The RPE is of poor quality
 The RPE is damaged
 The RPE is not a correct fit
 The RPE filter is blocked
 The RPE is dirty and contaminated
 The user not trained to correctly use the RPE
 Incorrect storage of RPE which could cause RPE to be damaged
 Other PPE may interfere with RPE

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Identify factors that may indicate a need for health

surveillance of workers in a workplace. (8)
Following an increased in :
 Ill health of workers
 General health related complaints from workers such as
headache, sinus problems, eye irritation, sneezing
 Sick leave days
 Staff turnover
 Low morale
 Accidents and incidents
 Asthma attacks
 Civil claims

106

Identify two types of hazardous substances (4)

Lead, Mercury

Outline personal hygiene controls to reduce the risk of

ingestion of a hazardous substance (4)

 Prohibition of eating or drinking in areas where hazardous

substance is used.
 Washing with soap and warm water before meals
 Good housekeeping, daily cleaning of areas where
hazardous substances are in used or produced.
 Change out of contaminated clothing and shower prior to
meals
107

Identify the elements of a hierarchy of control to minimize

pollution from waste. (4)

1. Prevent – Example use less packaging

2. Reduce – Make the process more efficient
3. Reuse – Reduce the amount of waste thrown up.
Incineration produces heat which can be used for general
purpose
4. Recover – Recycle into another usable product
5. Dispose – Dispose in a correct manner. Incinerate or
landfill

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Outline the term respirable dust (2)

Respirable dust is airborne dust of such a size that it is able to
enter the lungs during normal respiration. Particle size is between
0.5 and 10 microns.

Outline how the human body defends itself against the

effects of airborne dust (6)
 Nasal hair
 Nasal mucus
 Sneezing
 Coughing
 Saliva
 Eyes watering, ciliary escalator

109

Outline using practical examples, the control measures that

should be implemented to reduce levels of dusts in a workplace.
(10)
 Eliminate at source – Example purchase ready mixed cement
 Substitute – Example instead of using powder detergent, use pellets
 Change process - Example, arrange for flour to be deposited directly into
the hopper to minimize handling.
 Use liquid process – Example instead of using powder detergent, use liquid
detergent
 Enclose the complete process – Example by using a dedicated enclosed
room for timber machining
 Ventilation – Example using local exhaust ventilation to extract dust
 Control by suppression – Example using water to damp down dust
 Housekeeping – Example daily vacuuming of the workplace
 Maintenance – Example ensure all the filters of the machine, local exhaust
ventilation, vacuum cleaners are maintained and clean

110

Identify the information that should be included on a

material safety data sheet provided with a hazardous
substance. (10)
 Identification of substance/preparation
 The manufacturer/supplier
 Composition/information on ingredients
 Hazard identification
 Health effects
 First Aid measures
 Fire fighting measures
 Accidental release measures
 Handling and storage
 Exposure controls – (cont.)

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 Personal Protective Equipment

 Environmental/Disposal considerations
 Physical and chemical properties;
 Stability and reactivity;
 Toxicological information;
 Ecological information;
 Disposal considerations;
 Transport information;
 Regulatory information;
 Other relevant information.

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