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The term hot-dip galvanizing is defined as the process of immersing iron or steel in a
bath of liquid zinc to produce a corrosion resistant, multi-layered coating of zinc-iron
alloy and zinc metal. The coating is produced as the result of a metallurgical reaction
between the liquid zinc and the iron in the steel. The coating forms an equal thickness
on all surfaces immersed in the galvanizing kettle. This process, similar to the one
seen in Figure 1, has been in use since 1742 and has provided long-lasting,
maintenance-free corrosion protection at a reasonable cost for many years. The three
main steps in the hot-dip galvanizing process are surface preparation, galvanizing, and
post-treatment, each of which will be discussed in detail.
Surface Preparation:-
The first step in the hot-dip galvanizing process is
intended to obtain the cleanest possible steel surface
by removing all of the oxides and other contaminating
residues. This is achieved by first hanging the steel
using chains, wires, or specially designed dipping
racks, as seen in Figure 3, to move the parts through
the process. There are three cleaning steps to prepare
the steel for galvanizing.
Degreasing/Caustic Cleaning:-
First the steel is immersed in an acid degreasing bath or caustic solution in order to
remove the dirt, oil, and grease from the surface of the steel. After degreasing the steel
is rinsed with water.
Pickling:-
Next the steel is immersed in an acid tank filled with either hydrochloric or sulfuric
acid, as seen in Figure 4, which removes oxides and
mill scale in a process called “pickling.” Once all
oxidation has been removed from the steel, it is
again rinsed with water and sent to the final stage of
the surface preparation.
Fluxing :-
The purpose of the flux is to clean the steel of all oxidation developed since the
pickling of the steel and to create a protective coating to prevent the steel from any
oxidizing before entering the galvanizing kettle. One type of flux is contained in a
separate tank, is slightly acidic, and contains a combination of zinc chloride and
ammonium chloride. Another type of flux, top flux, floats on top of the liquid zinc in
the galvanizing kettle, but serves the same purpose After being immersed in the
degreasing, pickling, and fluxing tanks, the surface of the steel is completely free of
any oxides or any other contaminants that might inhibit the reaction of the iron and
liquid zinc in the galvanizing kettle.
Galvanizing:
The galvanizing kettle, like the one seen in Figure 5, is typically operated at a
temperature ranging from 820-860 F (438-460 C), at which point the zinc is in its
liquid state. The steel products are immersed into the galvanizing kettle and remain in
the kettle until the temperature of the steel has reached the temperature required to
form a hot-dip galvanized coating. Once the interdiffusion reaction of iron and zinc is
completed, the steel product is withdrawn from the zinc kettle. The entire dip usually
lasts less than ten minutes, depending upon the thickness of the steel.
The coating, as seen in the micrograph in Figure 6, is typical for low silicon steels
with silicon impurities less than 0.04% and where the thickness of the
coating is limited by the interdiffusion of iron and zinc.
Post-Treatment
There are also a wide variety of zinc coatings used for corrosion protection. Many
people use “galvanizing” to describe all of these coatings, but each has its own unique
characteristics and performance. These coatings have several applications based on
their properties and respective thicknesses. The corrosion protection offered by a zinc
coating is linearly related to its coating thickness. The most commonly used coatings
are hot-dip galvanized, metallized, zinc-rich paint, galvannealed or galvanized sheet,
and electroplated. The relative thickness for each of these zinc coatings can be seen in
the photomicrograph (Figure 8). Below is a brief explanation of each type of zinc
coating.
Figure 8: Photomicrogrpah of Zinc Coatings’ Thicknesses
Metalizing:-
Metalizing is the general name for the technique of spraying a metal coating on the
surface of non-metallic or metallic objects. This process is accomplished by feeding
zinc in either wire or powder form into a heated gun, where it is melted and sprayed
onto the surface to be coated using combustion gases and/or auxiliary compressed air
to provide the necessary velocity. The limitations of this process include a difficulty in
reaching recesses, cavities, and hollow spaces, even coating thickness and cost.
Zinc-Rich Paint
Zinc-rich paint is applied to a clean, dry steel surface by either a brush or spray and
usually contains an organic binder pre-mix. Paints containing zinc dust are classified
as organic or inorganic, depending on the binder that they contain, and are discussed
in more detail later in this course.
Continuous Galvanizing
The continuous galvanizing process is a hot-dip process where a steel sheet, strip, or
wire is cleaned, pickled, and fluxed on a processing line approximately 500 feet (154
m) in length, and running at speeds between 100 to 600 feet per minute (30 to 185 m
per minute). In the coating of a steel sheet or strip, the galvanizing kettle contains a
small amount of aluminum, which suppresses the formation of the zinc-iron alloys,
resulting in a coating that is mostly pure zinc. A post-galvanizing, in-line heat
treatment process known as galvannealing can also be used to produce a fully alloyed
coating. Galvannealing is usually ordered by those wanting to paint over the zinc
surface because the presence of alloy layers on the steel surface promotes paint
adhesion. A photo of a continuous galvanizing plant is seen in Figure 9 and the
common plant setup is shown in Figure 10.
Electroplating
The electroplating process, or zinc-plated coating, has a dull gray color, a matte finish,
and a thin coating that ranges up to one mil (25 µm) thick. This very thin
coating restricts the use of zinc-plated products to indoor exposures. The specification
ASTM B 633 lists the classes of zinc-plated steel coatings as Fe/Zn 5, Fe/Zn 8, Fe/Zn
12, and Fe/Zn 25, where Fe represents iron and Zn represents zinc, while the
number indicates the coating thickness in microns. The main uses for this
type of coating include screws, light switch plates, and other small products or
fasteners.
ASTM Specifications
There are certain specifications that have been developed for hot-dip galvanizing in
order to produce a high-quality coating. The most commonly used specifications
design engineers and fabricators should become familiar with in order to promote a
high-quality coating and ensure their steel design is suitable for hot-dip galvanizing
are:
The ASTM A 123/A 123M specification covers individual steel pieces as well as
assemblies of various classes of material. The four material categories covered in
ASTM A 123/A 123M include structural steel and plates, strips and bars, pipes and
tubing, and wires. A fabrication can have more than one material category such as a
frame assembly. Any combination of these products can be assembled into a single
fabrication and then can be hot-dip galvanized, as seen in Figure 11.
It is the responsibility of the designer and fabricator to ensure the product has been
properly designed and built before the hot-dip galvanizing process. The galvanizer
should be made aware of any necessary special instructions or requests in advance of
shipping the materials to the galvanizing plant. These requests should be stated on the
purchase order for the hot-dip galvanizing.
Any materials rejected by the inspectors for reasons other than embrittlement may be
stripped, regalvanized, and resubmitted for inspection. The ASTM specifications A
143/A 143M, ASTM A 384/A 384M, and ASTM A 385 provide guidelines for
preparing products for hot-dip galvanizing. The requirements listed in ASTM A 123/A
123M include coating thickness, finish, appearance, and adherence. These are each
defined below and discussed in more detail later in this course.
The time to first maintenance of hot-dip galvanized steel is directly proportional to the
thickness of the hot-dip galvanized coating. With all other variables held constant, the
thicker the zinc coating, the longer the life of the steel. The aim of the finish and
appearance requirements is to ensure no coatings have problem areas that are deficient
of zinc or have surface defects that would interfere with the intended use of the
product. In addition, the coating should have a strong adherence throughout the
service of the hot-dip galvanized steel.
The requirements for ASTM A 153/A 153M are very similar to those reported earlier
for ASTM A 123/A 123M, except for the addition of threaded products and
embrittlement requirements.
There are fabrication steps that may impair the corrosion protection of the hot-dip
galvanized coating, however, flaking or damage to the coating because of this is not
case for rejection. In all cases, good steel selection results in the formation of a higher
quality coating and finish on the product. The corrosion protection coating for
threaded products is applied after the product has been fabricated and further
fabrication may compromise the corrosion protection system. The one exception to
this rule is the internal threads of a nut that should be over-tapped after the coating is
applied in order to accommodate the coating thickness change on the thread of the
bolts. In this case, the zinc on the bolt threads provides the corrosion protection to the
uncoated threads in the nut.
There are certain fabrication techniques that can induce stresses into the steel and lead
to brittle failure. There are precautions given in ASTM A 143/A 143M that should be
taken in order to prevent embrittlement. In addition, selecting steels with appropriate
chemistries can help prevent embrittlement of malleable castings. A reproduction and
summary of the table given in ASTM A 153/A 153M, which is seen in Table 3, gives
the different classes of products and the minimum coating thickness required by the
specification.
Table 3: Minimum Average Coating Thickness by Material Class (From ASTM A
153
The requirements in ASTM A 767/A 767M are also intended to produce a high quality
zinc coating for corrosion protection.
This specification also introduces a new requirement to the galvanized coating known
as chromating. Newly galvanized steel can react with wet cement and potentially form
hydrogen gas as a product. As this evolved hydrogen gas travels through the concrete
matrix toward the surface, voids can be created which weaken the bonding with the
concrete or disturb the smoothness of the concrete surface. In order to help prevent
and suppress this reaction, hot-dip galvanized rebar is dipped into a weak chromate
quench solution after being removed from the galvanizing kettle.
The finish requirement for rebar is along the same lines as the finish requirements
given in specifications ASTM A 123/A 123M and A 153/A 153M. The coating is
intended for corrosion protection, so deficiencies that affect the coating’s corrosion
performance are grounds for rejection. In addition, since rebar is handled frequently
during its installation, any tears or sharp spikes that make the material dangerous to
handle are grounds for rejection.
Rebar is commonly bent prior to the hot-dip galvanizing process. The table below
gives recommendations for bend diameters based upon the bare steel bar diameter
before coating. Steel reinforcing bars that are bent cold prior to hot-dip galvanizing
should be fabricated to a bend diameter equal to or greater than the specified values.
However, steel reinforcing bars can be bent to diameters tighter than specified in
Table 5 providing they are stress relieved at a temperature of 900 to 1050 F (480 to
560 C) for one hour per inch (25 mm) of diameter.
Table 5: Minimum Finished Bend Diameters (From ASTM A 767)
Scope
1. This standard specifies the requirements for zinc coating (galvanizing) by the
hot-dipping process on iron and steel products made from rolled, pressed, or
forged shapes such as structural sections, plates, bars, pipes, or sheets 1 mm
thick or thicker.
2. Applies to both unfabricated and fabricated products such as assembled steel
products, structural steel fabrications, large hollow sections bent or welded
before galvanizing, and wire work fabricated from uncoated steel wire.
3. Applies to steel forgings and iron castings that are to be galvanized separately
or in batches.
4. Does not apply to continuous galvanizing of chain link fence fabric, wire,
sheet, and strip.
5. Does not apply to pipe and conduit that are normally hot dip galvanized by a
continuous or semicontinuous automatic process.
6. The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as the standard. The values in
parentheses are imperial units and are included for information only.
ISO 1461 Hot Dip Galvanized Coatings on
Fabricated Iron and Steel Articles:-
Scope: This Standard specifies the general properties of and methods of test for
coatings applied by hot dipping in zinc (containing not more than 2% of other metals)
on fabricated iron and steel articles.
NOTE Individual product standards can incorporate this standard for the coating by
quoting its number, or may incorporate it with modifications specific to the product
Types of Inspection:-
In this section, the type of inspections performed on hot-dip galvanized steel will be
discussed. The various inspections are used to verify the necessary specifications for
the galvanized product are met. These techniques for each test method are specified in
ASTM A 123/A 123M, A 153/A 153M, or A 767/A 767M, depending upon the type of
product being inspected. The most common inspections, listed below, range from a
simple visual inspection to more sophisticated tests to determine embrittlement or
adhesion.
The first method to measure coating thickness involves using magnetic thickness
gauges. There are three different types of magnetic thickness gauges and all can be
used quite easily in the galvanizing plant or in the field.
The first type of magnetic thickness gauge is very small and utilizes a spring-loaded
magnet encased in a pencil-like container, as seen in Figure 14. The tip of the gauge is
placed on the surface of the steel and is slowly pulled off in a continuous motion.
When the tip of the gauge is pulled away from the surface of the steel, the magnet,
near the tip, is attracted to the steel. A graduated scale indicates the coating thickness
at the instant immediately prior to pulling the magnet off the surface of the steel. The
accuracy of this gauge requires it to be used in the true vertical plane because, due to
gravity, there is more error associated with measurements taken in the horizontal
plane or overhead positions. The measurement should be made multiple times because
the absolute accuracy of this type of gauge is below average and it is difficult to
determine the true coating thickness when only one reading is taken.
A banana gauge, as seen in Figure 15 is the second type of thickness gauge. With this
gauge, coating thickness measurements are taken by placing the rubber magnet
housing on the surface of the product with the gauge held parallel to the surface. A
scale ring is rotated clockwise to bring the tip of the instrument in contact with the
coated surface and rotated counter-clockwise until a break in contact can be heard and
felt. The position of the scale ring when the magnetic tip breaks from the coated
surface displays the coating thickness. This type of gauge has the advantage of being
able to measure coating thickness in any position, without recalibration or interference
from gravity.
Figure 16: Electronic/Digital Thickness Gauge
The electronic or digital thickness gauge, as seen in Figure 16 is the most accurate
and arguably, the easiest thickness gauge to operate. The electronic thickness gauge is
operated by simply placing the magnetic probe onto the coated surface and then a
digital readout displays the coating thickness. Electronic gauges have the advantage of
not requiring recalibration with probe orientation, but do require calibration with
shims of different thicknesses in order to verify the accuracy of the gauge at the time
it is being used. These shims are measured and the gauge is calibrated according to
the thickness of the shim, and then this process is repeated for shims of different
thicknesses until the gauge is producing an accurate reading in all ranges of thickness.
ASTM E 376
The specification ASTM E 376 contains information for measuring coating thickness
using magnet or electromagnetic current. It also provides some tips for obtaining
measurements with the greatest accuracy, as well as describing how the physical
properties, the structure, and the coating can interfere with the measurement methods.
The requirements for ASTM E 376, as seen below, are intended to make the coating
thickness measurements using magnet or electromagnetic current as accurate as
possible.
Measurements on large products should be made at least four inches from the
edge to avoid edge effects
Measurement readings should be as widely dispersed as possible
There are some general guidelines, as seen below, for reducing error and ensuring the
most accurate readings are being collected when using magnetic thickness gauge
instruments.
Coating Weight
The term coating weight refers to the amount of zinc applied to a product for a given
surface area. Two different methods can be used to measure the coating weight of hot-
dip galvanized steel.
Appearance:-
The appearance of the hot-dip galvanized coating can vary from piece to piece, and
even section to section of the same piece. There are a number of reasons for the non-
uniform appearance, but it is important to note appearance has no bearing on the
corrosion protection of the galvanized piece. This section will overview the resons for
differences in appearance.
Finish:-
This section will review a number of possible surface defects visible on the
galvanized coating. Some of these surface defects are rejectable, as they will seriously
lower the corrosion protection, while others have little or no effect on the corrosion
performance and are acceptable
Different Appearances:-
The appearance of hot-dip galvanized steel immediately after galvanizing can be
bright and shiny, spangled, matte gray, or a combination of these. There are a number
of reasons for the difference in appearance, as explored here, but regardless if the
piece is shiny or dull, the appearance has no effect on the corrosion performance. And
in time after exposure to the environment, all galvanized coatings will take on a
uniform matte gray appearance.
The most common reason for galvanized steel to have different appearances is the
chemistry of the steel pieces. There are two elements of steel chemistry which most
strongly influence the final appearance; silicon and phosphorous. Both silicon and
phosphorous promote coating growth, and this thicker coating is responsible for the
differing appearance.
The amount of silicon added during the steel making process to deoxidize the steel
can create differences in appearance of galvanized products. The recommended
silicon composition is either less than 0.04% or between 0.15% and 0.25%. Any steels
not within these ranges are considered reactive steels and are expected to form zinc
coatings that tend to be thicker.
In addition to producing thicker coatings, highly reactive steels tend to have a matte
gray or mottled appearance instead of the typical bright coating. This difference in
appearance is a result of the rapid zinc-iron intermetallic growth that consumes all of
the bright, pure zinc. This growth of the intermetallic layer is generally out of the
galvanizer’s control, because they usually do not have prior knowledge of the steel’s
composition. However, this increased coating thickness can be beneficial in some
respects because time to firrst maintenance is directly proportional to coating
thickness.
In Figure 18, the micrograph on the left shows a regular zinc-iron alloy, while the
micrograph on the right shows an irregular zinc-iron alloy. These clearly show the
microscopic level differences that can occur due to the amount of silicon in the steel
being hot-dip galvanized.
The Sandelin curve, as seen in Figure 19, compares the zinc coating thickness to the
mass percentage of silicon in the steel. The area on the graph labeled “I” is called the
Sandelin area and the coatings tend to be thick and dull gray as a direct result of the
percentage of silicon present in the base steel. This area is known as the Sandelin
range since Dr. Sandelin, a metallurgist, performed the experimental work to show
this behavior of galvanized steel. The Sandelin area is roughly between 0.05% and
0.15% silicon. The area on the graph labeled “II”, which represents a steel content of
greater than 0.25% silicon, shows the coating thickness increases with increased
silicon content and then starts to level off at around 0.4% silicon.
Figure 21 is an example of products with separate galvanized pieces that have very
different appearances due to the difference in steel chemistry. However, all of these
products still have an equal amount of corrosion resistance throughout and are
acceptable.
Cooling Rate
A visually dull or shiny coating on a product can be caused by the different rate of
cooling of a product. In Figure 22, the outer edges were cooled rapidly, which
allowed free zinc or an eta layer to form on top of the intermetallic layers. The zinc in
the center of the product that would have formed the eta layer was consumed in the
reaction with the iron after the part was removed from the galvanizing kettle and
formed an intermetallic layer that gives the dull gray look. Eventually as the product
weathers, the differences in appearance will disappear and it will become a dull gray
color throughout.
Steel Processing
A–C
Bare Spots
Blasting Damage
Chain and Wire Marks
Clogged Holes
Clogged Threads
D–E
Delamination
Distortion
Drainage Spikes
Dross Inclusions
Excess Aluminum in Galvanizing Bath
F–O
Fish Boning
Flaking
Flux Inclusions
Oxide Lines
P–R
Products in Contact
Rough Surface Condition
Runs
Rust Bleeding
S–T
Sand Embedded in Casting
Striations
Steel Surface Condition
Surface Contaminant
Touch Marks
U–Z
Weeping Weld
Welding Blowouts
Welding Spatter
Wet Storage Stain
Zinc Skimmings
Zinc Splatter
Bare spots, defined as uncoated areas on the steel surface, are the most common
surface defect and occur because of inadequate surface preparation, welding slag,
sand embedded in castings, excess aluminum in the galvanizing kettle, or lifting aids
that prevent the coating from forming in a small area. Only very small areas, less than
1 inch in the narrowest dimension with a total of no more than 0.5%of the accessible
surface area, may be renovated using ASTM A 780. This means narrow, bare areas
may be repaired; however, if they are greater than one inch-square areas, the product
must be regalvanized. In order to avoid bare spots, like those seen in Figure 24, the
galvanizer must ensure the surfaces are clean and no contaminants are present after
pretreatment. If the size of the bare spot or total surface area causes rejection, the
parts may be stripped, regalvanized, and then re-inspected for compliance to the
standards and specifications.
Blasting damage creates blistered or flaking areas on the surface of the galvanized
product. Blasting damage follows abrasive blasting prior to painting of the galvanized
steel. It is caused by incorrect blasting procedures creating shattering and
delamination of the alloy layers in the zinc coating. Blasting damage, as seen in
Figure 25, can be avoided when careful attention is paid to preparation of the product
for painting. In addition, blast pressure should be greatly reduced according to ASTM
D 6386. Since blasting damage is induced by a post-galvanizing process, the
galvanizer is not responsible for the damage.
Clogged Holes
Clogged Threads
Clogged threads are caused by poor drainage of a threaded section after the product is
withdrawn from the galvanizing kettle. These clogged threads, as seen in Figure 28,
can be cleaned by using post-galvanizing cleaning operations such as a centrifuge or
by heating them with a torch to about 500 F (260 C) and then brushing them off with
a wire brush to remove the excess zinc. Clogged threads must be cleaned before the
part can be accepted.
Delamination
Distortion
Drainage spikes or drips are spikes or tear drops of zinc along the bottom edges of the
product. These result when the surfaces of the product are processed horizontal to the
galvanizing kettle, preventing proper drainage of the zinc from the surface as the
product is withdrawn from the kettle. Drainage spikes, as seen in Figure 31, are
typically removed during the inspection stage by a buffing or grinding process.
Drainage spikes or drips are excess zinc and will not affect corrosion protection, but
are potentially dangerous for anyone who handles the parts. These defects must be
removed before the part can be accepted.
Dross Inclusions
Dross inclusions are a distinct zinc-iron intermetallic alloy that becomes entrapped or
entrained in the zinc coating. This is caused by picking up zinc-iron particles from the
bottom of the kettle. Dross, as seen in Figure 32, may be avoided by changing the
lifting orientation or redesigning the product to allow for proper drainage. If the dross
particles are small and completely covered by zinc metal, they will not affect the
corrosion protection and are acceptable. If the dross particles are large, then the dross
must be removed and the area repaired.
Fish Boning
Flaking
Flux Inclusions
Oxide Lines
Oxide lines are light colored oxide film lines on the galvanized
steel surface. Oxide lines are caused when the product is not
removed from the galvanizing kettle at a constant rate. This may
be due to the shape of the product or the drainage conditions.
Oxide lines, as seen in Figure 37, will fade over time as the
entire zinc surface oxidizes. They will have no effect on the corrosion performance;
only the initial appearance will be affected. This condition is not a cause for rejection
of the hot-dip galvanized parts.
Products in Contact
Runs
Rust Bleeding
Rust bleeding appears as a brown or red stain that leaks from unsealed joints after the
product has been hot-dip galvanized. It is caused by pre-treatment chemicals that
penetrate an unsealed joint. During galvanizing of the product, moisture boils off the
trapped treatment chemicals leaving anhydrous crystal residues in the joint. Over
time, these crystal residues absorb water from the atmosphere and attack the steel on
both surfaces of the joint, creating rust that seeps out of the joint. Rust bleeding, as
seen in Figure 41, can be avoided by seal welding the joint where possible or by
leaving a gap greater than 3/32” (2.4mm) wide in order to allow solutions to escape
and zinc to penetrate during hot-dip galvanizing. If bleeding occurs, it can be cleaned
up by washing the joint after the crystals are hydrolyzed. Bleeding from unsealed
joints is not the responsibility of the galvanizers and is not cause for rejection.
Striations
Surface Contaminant
Touch Marks
Weeping welds stain the zinc surface at the welded connections on the steel. They are
caused by entrapped cleaning solutions that penetrate the incomplete weld. In order to
avoid weeping welds for small overlapping surfaces, completely seal weld the edges
of the overlapping area. For larger overlapping areas, the area cannot be seal welded
since the volume expansion of air in the trapped area can cause explosions in the
galvanizing kettle. To avoid weeping welds in large overlapping areas, the best plan is
to provide a 3/32” (2.4mm) or larger gap between the two pieces when welding them
and let the zinc fill the gap between the pieces. This will actually make a stronger
joint when the process is complete. Weeping welds, as seen in Figure 46, are not the
responsibility of the galvanizer and are not cause for rejection.
Welding Blowouts
Welding Spatter
Wet storage stain is a white, powdery surface deposit on freshly galvanized surfaces.
It is caused by newly galvanized surfaces being exposed to fresh water, such as rain,
dew, or condensation that react with the zinc metal on the surface to form zinc oxide
and zinc hydroxide. It is found most often on tightly stacked and bundled items, such
as galvanized sheets, plates, angles, bars, and pipes. Wet storage stain can have the
appearance of light, medium, or heavy white powder on the galvanized steel product.
Each of these appearances can be seen from right to left in Figure 49.
One method to avoid wet storage stains is to passivate the product after galvanizing
by using a chromate quench solution. Another precaution is to avoid stacking products
in poorly ventilated, damp conditions. Light or medium wet storage stain will weather
over time in service and is acceptable. In most cases, wet storage stain does not
indicate serious degradation of the zinc coating, nor does it necessarily imply any
likely reduction in the expected life of the product. However, heavy wet storage stain
should be removed mechanically or with appropriate chemical treatments before the
galvanized part is put into service. Heavy storage stain must be removed or the part
must be rejected and regalvanized.
Zinc Skimmings
Figure 50: Zinc Skimming Inclusions
Additional Tests
Adherence Test
Bending Test
The hot-dip galvanized coating on a steel bar must withstand bending without flaking
or peeling when the bending test is preformed in accordance with the specifications in
ASTM A 143. There are various tests used to assess the ductility of steel when
subjected to bending. One test may include the determination of the minimum radius
or diameter required to make a satisfactory bend. Another test may include the
number of repeated bends that the material can withstand without failure when it is
bent through a given angle and over a definite radius.
Rebar is commonly bent prior to the hot-dip galvanizing process. Steel reinforcing
bars bent cold prior to hot-dip galvanizing should be fabricated to a bend diameter
equal to or greater than the specified value in ASTM A 767/A 767M. However, steel
reinforcing bars can be bent to diameters tighter than the specified values if they are
stress relieved at a temperature of 900 to 1050 F (480 to 560 C) for one hour per inch
(25mm) of diameter.
Chromating Test
Embrittlement Test
Sampling
A sampling protocol has been developed by ASTM to ensure high quality products
because the inspection of the coating thickness for every piece of material galvanized
in a project would not be practical. ASTM A 123/A 123M states for a unit of products
whose surface area is equal to or less than 160 in² (1032 cm²), the entire surface of
each test product constitutes a specimen. In the case of a product containing more
than one material category or steel thickness range, that product will contain more
than one specimen. In addition, products with surface areas greater than 160 in² (1032
cm²) are multi-specimen products. There are four important terms used in the ASTM
specifications and each is defined below.
Sampling Terms
Lot – unit of production or shipment from which a sample is taken for testing
Sample – a collection of individual units of product from a single lot
Specimen – the surface of an individual test product or a portion of a test
product which is a member of a lot or a member of a sample representing that
lot
Test Product – an individual unit of product that is a member of the sample
A multi-specimen product is defined as having a surface area that may be larger than
160 in² (1032 cm²), have multiple steel thicknesses, or contain more than one coating
category. In order to test coating thickness of products whose surface area is greater
than 160 in² (1032 cm²), they are subdivided into three continuous local sections with
equivalent surface areas, each of which constitutes a unique specimen. In the case of
any such local section containing more than one material category or steel thickness
range, that section will contain more than one specimen. In Figure 54, the separation
of a lot into a sample and individual specimen is shown.
Figure 54: Mutli-Specimen Product Sampling
For products hot-dip galvanized to either ASTM A 123/A 123M or A 153/A 153M,
Table 6 is used to determine the minimum number of specimens for sampling from a
given lot size.
For rebar hot-dip galvanized according to ASTM A 767, the information below is
used to determine the minimum number of samples per lot, measurements per sample,
and the total number of measurements required for each of the different coating
thickness measurement techniques.
Magnetic Thickness:
o 3 samples per lot
o 5 or more measurements per sample
o 15 measurements, at the minimum, comprise the average
Microscopy Method:
o 5 samples per lot
o 4 measurements per sample
o 20 measurements, at minimum, comprise the average
Stripping and Weighing:
o 3 samples per lot
The minimum average coating thickness for a lot is the average of the specimen
values and must meet the minimum for the material category. The minimum for an
individual specimen is one grade below the minimum for the material category. An
individual measurement has no minimum, but bare areas are not allowed on the part.
The final inspection of a part shall include thickness measurements and visual
inspection. All parts that do not meet the requirement must be resorted and
reinspected or rejected and then regalvanized
Repair
If the galvanized product does not meet all of the requirements of the specification, it
must be repaired or rejected along with the lot it represents. When repair of the
product is allowed by the specification or bare spots are present, the galvanizer is
responsible for the repair unless directed otherwise by the purchaser. The
specifications allow for some retesting of products that represent lots or retesting after
the lot has been sorted for non-conformance. The coating thickness of the repaired
area must match the coating thickness of the surrounding area. However, if zinc-rich
paint is used for repair, the coating thickness must be 50% higher than the
surrounding area, but not greater than 4.0 mils because mud cracking tends to result
when the paint coating is too thick. The maximum sizes for allowable areas that can
be repaired during in-plant production are defined in the specifications as summarized
below.
Repair Methods
Any repairs made to galvanized products must follow the requirements of ASTM A
780, which defines the acceptable materials and the required procedures. Repairs are
normally completed by the galvanizer before the products are delivered, but under
certain circumstances, the purchaser may perform the repairs on their own. The touch-
up and repair materials are formulated to deliver an excellent color that matches either
brightly coated, newly galvanized products or matte gray, aged galvanized products.
Materials used to repair hot-dip galvanized products include zinc-based solder, zinc-
rich paint, and zinc spray metalizing, and are explained in the following sections.
Zinc-Based Solder
Soldering with zinc-based alloys is achieved by applying zinc alloy in either a stick or
powder form. The area being repaired needs to be preheated to approximately 600 F
(315 C). The most commonly used solders for repair, as seen in Figure 55, include
zinc-tin-lead, zinc-cadmium, and zinc-tin-copper alloys.
Surface Preparation
Application
The soldering method is the most difficult of the three repair methods to complete. A
high level of caution must be taken while heating the bare spot to prevent oxidizing
the exposed steel or damaging the surrounding galvanized coating. Solders are
typically not economically suited for touch-up of large areas because of the time
involved in the process and because heating of a large surface area to the same
temperature is very difficult. When the repair has been completed, the flux residue
needs to be removed by rinsing the surface with water or wiping with a damp cloth.
The final coating thickness for this repair shall be agreed upon between the galvanizer
and the purchaser, and is generally in the 1 to 2 mil range. The thickness shall be
measured by any of the methods in ASTM A 123/A 123M that are non-destructive.
Zinc-based solder products closely match the surrounding zinc and blend in well with
the existing coating appearance.
Zinc-Rich Paint
Figure 56: Zinc-Rich Paint
Surface Preparation
According to ASTM A 780, the surface to be repaired shall be blast cleaned to SSPC-
SP10/NACE No.2 near white metal for immersion applications and SSPC-SP11 near
bare metal for less aggressive field conditions. When blasting or power tool cleaning
is not practical, hand tools may be used to clean areas to be reconditioned. The blast
cleaning must extend into the surrounding, undamaged, galvanized coating.
Application
This method of repairing galvanized surfaces must take place as soon as possible after
preparation is completed and prior to the development of any visible oxides. The
spraying or brushing should be in an application of multiple passes and must follow
the paint manufacturer’s specific written instructions. In addition, proper curing of the
repaired area must occur before the product is put through the final inspection
process. This repair can be done either in the galvanizing plant or on the job site and
is the easiest repair method to apply because limited equipment is required. Zinc-rich
painting should be avoided if high humidity and/or low temperature conditions exist
because adhesion may be adversely affected.
The coating thickness for the paint must be 50% higher than the surrounding coating
thickness, but not greater than 4.0 mils, and measurements should be taken with either
a magnetic, electromagnetic or eddy current gauge. Finally, the surface of the painted
coating on the repaired area should be free of lumps, coarse areas, and loose particles.
Zinc Spray Metalizing
Figure 57: Zinc Spray Metalizing
Surface Preparation
Application
Zinc spraying of the clean, dry surface must be completed by skilled workers and
should take place within four hours after preparation or prior to development of
visible oxides. Spraying should also be done in horizontal overlapping lines, which
yield a uniform thickness more consistent than the crosshatch technique. The zinc
coating can be sealed with a thin coating of low viscosity polyurethane, epoxy-
Phenolic, epoxy, or vinyl resin. The details of the application sequence and procedures
can be found in ANSI/AWS C2.18-93. The application of zinc spray can be done
either in the galvanizer’s plant or at the job site. In addition, if high humidity
conditions exist during spraying, adhesion may be degraded.
The renovated area shall have a zinc coating thickness at least as thick as that
specified in ASTM A 123/A 123M for the thickness grade required for the appropriate
material category. These thickness measurements should be taken with either a
magnetic or an electromagnetic gauge for best results. The plain zinc sprays or the
sprays with aluminum additives both provide a good match for newly galvanized,
bright surfaces. Finally, the surface of the sprayed zinc coating should be free of any
lumps, coarse areas, and loose particles.