EEE 226 CONTROL SYSTEMS

UNIT 3

P. Kavitha
Associate Professor
SELECT, VIT
kavitha.p@vit.ac.in
 OVERVIEW

Frequency-domain techniques

Bode plots
 Frequency response for systems with transportation lag

 Frequency-domain specifications.

 Gain margin and Phase margin

2
 Introduction

 The frequency response and root locus approaches complement each other.

 One advantage of the frequency-response approach is that we can use the

data obtained from measurements on the physical system without deriving
its mathematical model.

 In many practical designs of control systems both approaches are

employed.

 The Nyquist stability criterion enables us to investigate both the absolute

and relative stabilities of linear closed-loop systems from a knowledge of
their open-loop frequency response characteristics

3
 Frequency Response

 The frequency response of a system is defined as the steady-state response

of the system to a sinusoidal input signal.

 The sinusoid is a unique input signal, and the resulting output signal for a
linear system, as well as signals throughout the system, is sinusoidal in the
steady-state

 The output differs form the input waveform only in amplitude and phase.
and the amount of difference is a function of the input frequency.

 We will examine the transfer function G(s) when s = jω and develop

methods for graphically displaying the complex number as ω varies.
- The Bode plot is one of the most powerful graphical tools for
analyzing and designing control systems.
- The Nyquist criterion can be used for design purposes regardless of
open-loop stability (Bode design methods assume that the system is
stable in open loop)
4
 A Perspective on the Frequency-Response Design Method

The design of feedback control systems in industry is probably accomplished

using frequency-response methods more than any other.

Advantages of frequency-response design:

1. It provides good designs in the face of uncertainty in the plant model

2. Experimental information can be used for design purposes.

Raw measurements of the output amplitude and phase of a plant

undergoing a sinusoidal input excitation are sufficient to design a
suitable feedback control.

3. No intermediate processing of the data (such as finding poles and zeros)

is required to arrive at the system model.
5
 Frequency response

The frequency response of a system is defined as the steady-state response of

the system to a sinusoidal input signal.

G(s)
r (t )  R sin 0t  y (t )  Y sin(0t   )

H(s)

For a LTI system, when the input to it is a sinusoid signal, the resulting output ,
as well as signals throughout the system, is sinusoidal in the steady-state;

The output differs from the input waveform only in amplitude and phase.
6
 The closed-loop transfer function of the LTI system:

Y ( s) G( s)
M ( s)  
R( s ) 1  G ( s ) H ( s )
For frequency-domain analysis, we replace s by jω:

Y ( j ) G ( j )
M ( j )  
R( j ) 1  G ( j ) H ( j )

The frequency-domain transfer function M(jω) may be expressed in terms of

its magnitude and phase

M ( j )  M ( j ) M ( j )

7
magnitude phase
 A   c
The magnitude of M(jω) is M ( j ) M ( j )  
  c
0

G ( j ) A
M ( j ) 
1  G ( j ) H ( j )
G ( j )

1  G ( j ) H ( j )
0 c 
Gain characteristic

0
The phase of M(jω) is

M ( j )  M ( j )
 G( j )   1  G( j ) H ( j )

Phase characteristic M ( jGain-phase

 ) characteristics of an ideal low-pass filter
8
 Frequency-Domain Specifications

M ( j )
Resonant peak M r
Mr Resonant frequency r
Cutoff
rate Bandwidth BW
0.707
d M ( j )
0
0 r BW  d
 
0
r

M ( j )
9
Typical gain-phase characteristic of a control system
 Frequency response of a second-order system

Closed-loop transfer function:

Y ( s) n2
M ( s)   2
R( s ) s  2n s  n2
Its frequency-domain transfer function

Y ( j ) n2
M ( j )  
R( j ) ( j ) 2  2n ( j )  n2
Define u   n
1
M ( ju ) 
1  j 2 u  u 2
10
 The magnitude of M(ju) is
1
M ( ju ) 
[(1  u 2 )2  (2 u ) 2 ]1/2
The phase of M(ju) is
Resonant peak
2 u 1
M ( j )  M ( j )   tan 1
Mr 
1  u2 2 1   2
The resonant frequency of M(ju) is

d M ( ju )
0 ur  1  2 2
du

ur  r n r  n 1  2 2
Since frequency is a real quantity, it requires 1  2 2  0
11 So   0.707
 According to the definition of Bandwidth

1 1
M ( ju )    0.707
[(1  u )  (2 u ) ]
2 2 2 1/2
2

u 2  (1  2 2 )  4 4  4 2  2

u   n

BW  n [(1  2 2 )  4 4  4 2  2]1/2

12
 For a second-order system   0.707
M r depends on  only.
Resonant peak
For   0, the system is unstable;
1
Mr  For 0<  0.707,   M r ;
2 1   2
For   0.707, M r  1

Resonant frequency r depends on both  and n .

For 0<  0.707, n fixed,   r ;
r  n 1  2 2
For   0.707, r  0.

Bandwidth BW  n [(1  2 2 )  4 4  4 2  2]1/2

BW is directly proportional to n , n  BW 
  BW n 
13 For 0    0.707, n fixed,   BW ;
 Frequency Domain Specifications
1. Resonant Peak (Mr): Maximum value of the
magnitude of closed loop transfer function.

2. Resonant frequency (ωr): The frequency at which

resonant peak occurs.

3. Bandwidth (ωb): Range of frequencies for which gain

of the system is more than -3db.

4. Gain Margin (Kg): This the gain value by which

system gain can be increased, beyond which system is
unstable.
14
 Frequency Domain Specifications
Where ωpc is Phase cross over frequency, the frequency at
which phase angle is 180°.

in db

5. Phase Margin (γ): This the phase angle value by which

system phase angle can be increased, beyond which system is
unstable.
γ = 180o +φ

Where ωgc is Gain cross over frequency, the frequency at

which gain is 0 db.
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 BODE PLOT - INTRODUCTION

A Bode diagram consists of two graphs:

 One is a plot of the logarithm of the magnitude of a sinusoidal transfer
function;

 The other is a plot of the phase angle; both are plotted against the frequency
on a logarithmic scale.

 The main advantage of using the Bode diagram is that multiplication of

magnitudes can be converted into addition

 Expanding the low frequency range by use of a logarithmic scale for the
frequency is highly advantageous since characteristics at low frequencies
are most important in practical systems
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 Bode Plots
A better way to graphically display the frequency response!

Bode Magnitude Plot:

plots the magnitude of G(j) in decibels w.r.t. logarithmic frequency, i.e.,
G ( j ) dB
 20log10 G ( j ) vs log10

Bode Phase Plot:

plots the phase angle of G(j) w.r.t. logarithmic frequency, i.e.,
G ( j ) vs log10
Benefits:
– Display the dependence of magnitude of the frequency response on the input frequency better,
especially for magnitude approaching zero
– Log axis converts the multiplications and divisions into additions and subtractions, which are
easier to handle graphically
– Allow straight-line approximations for quick sketch

17
 Bode Plots of 1st Order Poles
Standard Form of Transfer Function:
1
G p1 ( s )  ,  0 0
 s 1 -3

Frequency Response:
1 20dB/decade
G p1 ( j )  ,  0
 j  1 -20

 1

Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)

 G ( j ) 
 p1
 2 2  1


G p1 ( j )   atan2( ,1)
-40

  tan 1  
 0 b

20 log10 G p1 ( j )
 10 log10  2 2  1
-45
 1
0dB,  1 or   b
 
 1
  3dB,   1 or    b
  -90
    1
-20log10  ,  1 or   b
  b   0.01/ 0.1/ 1/ 10/ 100/
Frequency (rad/sec)

break frequency
 Example
20

 1st Order Real Poles 15

10
Transfer Function:
5
50

Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)

G( s )  0
s5
Plot the straight line approximation of
G(s)’s Bode diagram: 0
50 1
G( s)   10 
s5 1
s 1
5

-45

1
20 log10 G ( j )  20  20 log10
1
j  1 -90
5
-1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10

1  Frequency (rad/sec)
G ( j )    j  1 
5  1
b   5

 Bode Plots of 1st Order Zeros
Standard Form of Transfer Function
40
Gz1 ( s )   s  1 ,  0
Frequency Response
Gz1 ( j )   j  1  0
20
,
R
|SG ( j )   2 2  1

Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)

z1

|T
G z 1 ( j )  atan2( ,1)
3
0
af
 tan 1 

20log10 G p1 ( j ) 90

 10log10  2 2  1
 1
0dB,  1 or   b 45

 
 1
 3dB,   1 or    b
  0
  1 0.01/ 0.1/ 1/ 10/ 100/
 20log10   ,  1 or   b
 
 b  Frequency (rad/sec)
 Example

20
 1st Order Real Zeros
15
Transfer Function:
10
G ( s )  0.7 s  0.7 5

Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)

Plot the straight line approximation of G(s)’s
0
Bode diagram: -3

20log10 G ( j )  20log10 0.7  20log10 j  1

90

G ( j )  0.7  j  1 45

G ( j )    j  1 0

-1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)
Ex:1
Bode Plots
s 1 ( j )  1
G( s)   G ( j ) 
s 2  10s ( j )2  10( j )
G ( j )  ( j  1)     2  10 j 

 tan 1    atan2 10,  2 

 G ( j ) 20 log10 G( j) G ( j )
0.1 1.0049 0.0428 -83.8623
0.2 0.5098 -5.8520 -79.8358
1  2
G ( j ) 
0.5 0.2233 -13.0211 -66.2974  100   2
1 0.1407 -17.0329 -50.7016
2 0.1096 -19.2012 -37.8750
5 0.0912 -20.7988 -37.8750
10 0.0711 -22.9671 -50.7106
20 0.0448 -26.9789 -66.2974
50 0.0196 -34.1480 -79.8358
100 0.0100 -40.0428 -84.8623
Bode Plots of LTI Systems
Transfer Function
bm s m  bm1s m1   b1s  b0 bm ( s  z1 )( s  z2 ) ( s  zm )
G (s)  n n 1

s  an1s   a1s  a0 ( s  p1 )( s  p2 ) ( s  pn )
Frequency Response
bm ( j  z1 ) ( j  zm ) 1 1
G ( j )   bm   ( j  z1 ) ( j  zm )
( j  p1 ) ( j  pn ) ( j  p1 ) ( j  pn )

Bode Magnitude Plot

   
20log10 ( G ( j ) )  20log10  bm   20log10 
1 1
   20log10  
 ( j  p )
1   ( j  p )
n 

20log10  ( j  z1 )    20log10  ( j  z1 ) 

Bode Phase Plot

bm ( j  z1 ) ( j  zm )
G ( j )    bm  ( j  z1 )  ( j  z2 )   ( j  zm )
( j  p1 ) ( j  pn )
 ( j  p1 )  ( j  p2 )  ( j  pn )
 Example

Ex: Find the magnitude and the phase of the following transfer function:

3s 3  12 s 2  9 s 3s  s  3  s  1
G( s)  
2 s 3  22 s 2  76 s  80 2  s  2   s  4   s  5
3 3 1  1 
s  s  1  s  1 s  s  1  s  1
2245  3  9 3 
 
1  1  1  80  1  1  1 
 s  1  s  1  s  1  s  1  s  1  s  1
2  4  5  2  4  5 

9 1
j j  1 9 1 
G ( j ) 
80 3 20log10  G ( j )   20log10    20log10  j   20log10  j  1 
1 1 1  80  3 
j  1 j  1 j  1
2 4 5 1  1  1 
20log10  j  1   20log10  j  1   20log10  j  1 
2  4  5 

9 1 
G ( j )      j     j  1    j  1
80 3 
1  1  1 
  j  1    j  1    j  1
2  4  5 
 Bode Plots of Complex Poles
Standard Form of Transfer Function
1
Gp2  j   20
  2
 2 
1   j
 n2  n 0

40dB/decade
n2 -20
G p 2 ( s)  2 , 1   0
s  2 n s   n
2
-40

Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)

Frequency Response
-60
1
G p 2  j   -80
2
 2  4 2 2 
1  
1
1     n
 n2  n2 5
0

 2  2  
G p 2  j      1  2 
 j 
 n  n 
 
 2    2  -90
=  atan2  ,  1  
 n n2  
  

Peak (Resonant) Frequency and -180

Magnitude for 0.01n 0.1n n 10n 100n
  1  0.707 Frequency (rad/sec)
2  5 n
2
1
 r   n 1  2 2 and G p 2 ( j r ) 
2 1   
26
27
Bode Plot
Gain and Phase Margin
Let's say that we have the following system:
where K is a variable (constant) gain and G(s) is the plant under consideration.

The gain margin is defined as the change in open loop gain required to make the system
unstable.

The phase margin is defined as the change in open loop phase shift required to make a
closed loop system unstable.

Phase Margin: Difference in phase between the phase curve and -180 deg at the point
corresponding to the frequency that gives us a gain of 0dB (the gain cross over
frequency, Wgc).
Gain Margin: Difference between the magnitude curve and 0dB at the point
corresponding to the frequency that gives us a phase of -180 deg (the phase cross over
frequency, Wpc).
Gain and Phase Margin

-180
Bode Plot – Example

1. Calculate the gain and phase margins of the following system from
frequency response

2500
L( s ) 
s( s  5)( s  50)
 EX. 1 The open loop transfer function of certain unity feedback
control system is given by

1. Draw the bode plot and determine gain margin and phase
margin.
2. Determine the value of K for the desired specifications
a) Gain margin = 20 db
b) Phase margin = 45°

32
33
 PROCEDURE FOR DRAWING BODE PLOT
Magnitude Plot

 Step 1: Convert the given transfer function to standard form

(Time constant form) and Substitute K=1 and S=jω.

34
  Step 2: Calculate corner frequencies (ωc), slope, and change in
slope where corner frequency is the reciprocal of coefficient of S
term in standard form of transfer function

Factors Corner frequency Slope Change in Slope

Rad/sec db/decade db/decade

 Write the factors in the increasing order of the corner

frequencies
 First factor is K (or) K/(jω)n (or) K(jω)n

35
  Step 3: Choose two arbitrary frequencies (ωl and ωh), one decade
less than the lowest corner frequency and one decade greater than
the highest corner frequency.
Write the frequencies in the increasing order
 Step 4: Calculate db magnitude at first two frequencies using first
factor
 Step 5: Calculate db magnitude at 3rd and higher frequencies using
the following formula

 Step 6: Tabulate frequency and db magnitude values. Mark the values

in semilog graph sheet and join the points by straight lines.
Frequency in rad/sec Magnitude in db

36
 Phase Angle Plot

Write the phase angle function of the given transfer function

and calculate phase angle values at different frequencies.
Tabulate frequency and phase angle values. Mark the values in
semilog graph sheet and join the points by a smooth curve.

Frequency in rad/sec Phase angle

37
 End of Slides

38