f = n(RPM) p(NO OF POLES) / 120 ; GSR (GOV SPEED REG) = (nNL – Fluid Power: for piston & cylinders
rs * speed will depend Gas turbines
nRATED ) / nRATED = ( fNL - fRATED) / fRATED ; GD(GOV DROOP) =
∆f(HZ CHANGE) / ∆P(KW CHANGE) ; GSR X fRATED / PRATED = GSR X
nRATED / PRATED = ∆f / ∆P = GD ; P(KW) = P.F. X KVA
(INDUCTIVE LOAD) ; * If GD is same then both the genny will
share added load equally when in parllel; * When
parllel generators share load, the ∆f is always same.
Coz bus is same; * some places use GD to find ∆f if fnl
is given. * ∆P on bus will be same as sum of ∆P on all
genny. * GSR is used when fNL is not given ∆f for llel
genny same * GD remains const for any loading
conditon for that genny.
Synchorscope: It is the device which gives the voltage
phase difference in between the incoming generator
and the main bus; The pointer will keep on rotating till
the IG and bus voltages are out of phase; If IG is slow
then pointer will rotate in slow marked direction and is
IG is faster then the pointer will rotate in fast marked
direction; Generally the IG is kept slightly faster before
closing of ACB which connects IG to main bus; ACB is
closed when the pointer is some degrees before the 0
position since human reaction time is taken into
consideration; Once paralled the pointer will not rotate
and stay in 0 position.
on flow rate; * force will depend on pressure; *stroke
length will depend on volume swept; Force = P(press) x
A(area);
Hydraulic Pump formulae: (theoretical Flow rate) QP =
vol swept in one rev x rpm = DP(DISPLACEMENT OR VOL SWEPT PER
REV) nP(RPM OF P/P); (theoretical torque) = DP nP / 2 pi ;
Volumetric efficiency = ηPV = QP / DP nP; Mechanical
efficiency ηPT = DP PP(PUMP PRESS) / 2 pi TP (TORQUE); Overall
efficiency ηPO = ηPT ηPV = Output power / Input Power;
Hydraulic Circuits
Output Power = PP x QP = nP x TP 2 pi;
Hydraulic Motor formulae: (theoretical Flow rate) QM =
vol swept in one rev x rpm = DM(DISPLACEMENT OR VOL SWEPT
PER REV) nM(RPM OF MOTOR) ; (theoretical torque) = DM nP / 2
pi ; Volumetric efficiency = ηMV = DM nM / QM;
Mechanical efficiency ηMT = 2 pi TM (TORQUE) / DM PM(motor
PRESS); Overall efficiency ηMO = ηMT ηMV = Output power /
Input Power; Output Power = PM x QM=nMx TM 2 pi;
Variable pump fixed motor(const torque,variable HP):
NpDp=nmDm; nm= NpDp/Dm(assuming no leakage), work
done per rev = Tm = Dm*Pm / (2*pi); output power by Meter in ckt: When the +ve load is acting on the
hydraulic motor Tmnm. cylinder and pushing cylinder inside; Meter out: over
Variable motor,fixed pump(const HP, variable torque): running or -ve load, pulling the cylinder out; Bleed off:
Bleed off excess fluid not needed by the working
cylinder. - less accurate in speed control of working
cylinder. - cooler & more efficient system
Resistance: R = RT + RAIR + RWAVE; R = c VS2; Effective
power is PE = R VS ; Propller Law: 1) delivered power is
proportional to the (shaft/prop speed)3. 2) Prop
torque is proportional (shaft/prop speed)2;
1 lit = 1000cc; 1cc = 1 ml = 10-3 lit; 1 cc = 10-6 m3; nm=
NpDp/Dm(assuming no leakage), work done per rev = Tm
= Dm*Pm / (2*pi); output power by hydraulic motor
Tmnm.
Piston extention Extension speed: QT = Qp + QR; Pump
flow: Qp = QT - QR ; QP = Ap VP EXT - ( Ap(AREA OF PISTON) -
AR(AREA OF PIST ROD) ) Vp EXT VEL; Extension Vel Vp = Qp / AR ;
Retract Vel Vp = QP / Ap - AR; Load Capacity extension =
P(PRESS) AR ; Load Capacity retract FR = P(PRESS) (Ap - AR);
Power = F(Force) V(velocity).
Open water propeller efficiency diagram
1.refrigeration systems: certain industrial applications require Propulsion power: Effective towing power PE = R
moderately low temperatures and they involve a lot big
(RESISTANCE) Vs (SHIP SPEED). Hull efficiency ɳH = PE / Kp PT =
temperature range. This is difficult to achieve with the help of
single compression refrigeration cycle. The solution is to use
RVS/TVA = (1-t (THRUST DEDUCTION COEFF))/(1-w (WAKE FRACTION)).
Thrust Power PT = T(THRUST) VA (SPEED OF ADVANCE). Open
cascade system. Diagram down
Enthalpy h: change in heat dQ. Entropy T: Change in heat wrt t =
dh/dt. Two stage cycle are connected through heat exchanger in
the middle. It serves as an evaporator for cycle A and condenser
for cycle B.
Fuel cell technology: Challenges facing fuel cells in application: VA / 2 pi r nP; Hydrodynamic pitch angle tan β = VA / 2
1) costs, compactness & weight: materials, component and
manufact - volume related 2) Performance - efficiency, supply
of intermittent/transient high peak loads, startup response,
power quality 3) Reliability & durability especially in
challenging combat environments (eg. war-zones, high temp
& humidity, dusty / dirty / contaminated) 4) Fueling
requirements: (fuel type and storage–hydrogen not yet a
commonly used fuel) 5 Interconnectivity & integration with
grid & other power generations / supply systems. Merits of
fuel cells: Clean, quiet, fuel-flexible, efficient, compact, Main engine operating envelope:
inherently, modular, cheap, can be incorporated into flexible,
modular, distributed, interconnected integrated solutions,
inherently good part load efficiencies,direct energy
conversion.
Propeller to engine power transmission:
Water Efficiency ɳo = PT / PO. Open Water Propeller
Power PO = 2 pi Q (TORQUE) np (prop revs). Relative Rotative
Efficiency ɳR = PO / PD. Propeller Delivered Power PD = 2
pi MD (TORQUE) np (PROP REVS) Shaft Efficiency ɳs = PD / Ps.
Shaft Power PS = 2 pi MS (TORQUE) np (PROP REVS). Gear box
efficiency ɳGB = Ps / PB Brake Power PB = 2 pi MB (TORQUE)
nE (ENGINE REVS). Effective Engine Efficiency ɳE = PB / Q.
Heat Input = Q. Total Transmission Efficiency ɳTRM = ɳS
ɳGB. Total Propulsive Efficiency ɳ = ɳO ɳE ɳH = PE / PD.
Propeller dimensionless thrust ratio KT = T / (ρ nP ^2
D^4); Propeller dimensionless torque ratio KQ = Q / (ρ
nP ^2 D^5); Advance Ratio J = VA / nP D; Open water
efficiency ɳO = J KT / 2 pi KQ. Thrust deduction coeff t =
(T-R) / T Wake fraction w = ( V – VA) / V. t typically 0.12
– 0.3 & w typically 0.2 – 0.45. Theoretical speed VT = n
(revs) p (pitch). Apperent Slip sA = (VT – VS) / VT. Real Slip sR
= (VT – VA) / VT. Revolutions are in rps; Shaft efficiency
typically 0.95 & gear box effciciency 0.9; Angle of
propeller blade or attack angle tanθ = P(pitch) / 2 pi R.
Pitch ratio p = P(pitch) / D(dia); Circumferential velocity =
pi r(RADIUS OF PROP) nP ;
Undervoltage protection: is as shown in the figure below
1 is running generator give power & 2 is stationary generator
standy; Both generators are ∆ connected; By mistake if engg or
technician connect gen 2 to main line; voltage drop, short ckt &
balckout; Protection against that by UV relay; Assume generator
running parellel and load sharing; when any 1 generator is
running voltage is there; coil energised and contactors will be
retained to provide power to main line; fault occur in generator,
voltage drop so spring will push contactor and separate the
genny from main line; thus protection can be achieved.
Undercurrent relay: this is to protect genny from motoring.
Criteria for paralleling generators: The incoming generator and
the bus bar same voltage (AVR); Frequecy (speed) of the IG
same as bus bar; The IG voltage must be in phase with bus bar.
11 o clock synchroscope ACB close. V & Hz slightly higher than
the main bus. Gov droop once on load.
AVR: Automatic voltage regulator for taking V droop
Governor Droop:GD is ∂HZ wrt ∂KW. Nominal value on governor
is 2%. Load up freq down; To up Hz we increase droop set on
generator; Droop link gets feed back for o/p shaft; Droop is
necessary for stable load sharing when paralleling gennny;
Graph Hz(y) vs KW(x); One intersection point gives common
frequency and that point load share. Some cases one gen on 0
droop and other on 2-3 droop can run in parallel only droop gen
will change its frequency and load caried.
Fluid power troubleshooting Troubleshooting means finding the
problem. The five general type of problems are:- 1. Pressure 2.
Flow 3. Leakage 4. Heat 5. Noise and vibration. Every problem
has at least 1 symptom, but the symptom is not the problem.
Troubleshooting relates known symptoms with unknown
problems. The troubleshooting process: Service manual -
Service history - Initial inspection - List of symptoms - Basic
calculations - General problem statement - Specific problem
statements - Tests to accept/reject specific problem statement -
Teardown for visual inspection and verification. chart Incorrect
flow i) no flow 1)pump not receiving fluid A 2)pump drive motor
on working E 3)pump - drive coupling shear C 4)pump run in
opp dir G 5)Dir ctrl v/v in wrong position F 6)full flow passing
thru relief v/v D 7)pump damage C 8)Improper pump assembly
E; ii) low-flow: 1)Flow ctrl set too low D 2)Relef v/v set too low D
3)flow by-pass thru half open v/v E/F 4)Leakage B 5)Yoke
acutating device inoperative E 6)P/P RMP low H 7)worn
components E. iii)Excess flow: 1)Flow ctrl too high D 2)yoke
operating device inoperatve E 3)P/p RMP incorrect H 4)P/p size
incorrect H Remedy: A - Any or all of the following: Replace dirty
filters. Clean clogged inlet line. Clean reservoir breather vent.
Fill reservoir to proper level. Overhaul or replace super-charge
P/p. B – rectify leaks & vent out air C – Check for damaged P/P
or its drive D – adjust E – Overhaul or replace F – Check solenoid
v/v operations, manual v/v positions G – reverse rotation H –
replace incorrect units.
Direction control v/v: v/v is used to change the flow direction
A&B, flow to either side cylin.
P from P/P, T return reservior.
4/3 v/v 4-no of port, 3 position
Flow control v/v: controls the flow rate of oil in the hyd system.
the amt of flow going to the cylinder to
move the pstion up is controlled by the
flow control v/v. Flow can be adjusted
using the screw on the flow control v/v.
Pressure control v/v: to controll the pressure inside the system
Counter balance v/v: It avoids the
decend of the vetrical cylinder due to
external weight. When there is pressure
on the pump, the v/v will open against
the spring to relase oil back to tank. If
sudden pressure drop occurs the spring
will close the valve back. This will stop
the cylinder from moving due to weight
Advantages of Hydraulics 1) Ease and accuracy of control: By
the use of simple levers and push buttons, the operator of a
hydraulic system can easily start, stop, speed up and slow down.
2) Multiplication of force: A fluid power system (without using
cumbersome gears, pulleys and levers) can multiply forces
simply and efficiently from a fraction of a pound, to several
hundred tons of output. 3) Constant force and torque: Only
fluid power systems are capable of providing a constant torque
or force regardless of speed changes. 4) Simple, safe and
economical: In general, hydraulic systems use fewer moving
parts in comparison with mechanical and electrical systems.
Thus they become simpler and easier to maintain. Disadv: oil
handling messy; High pressure so bursting injury; Fire hazard;
marine pollution.