MIDTERM REVIEW ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT, FALL 2018

KEY CONCEPTS
Session 1 (Intro, Scientific Method):
Science:
 Definition: state of knowing; department of systemized knowledge as an object of study;
knowledge or system of knowledge covering general truths or the operation of general
laws especially as obtained and tested through scientific method.
Hypothesis vs. Theory vs Law:
 Hypothesis: a suggested explanation for an event that can be tested, but has not yet been
rigorously studied.
 Theory: rigorously tested and confirmed explanation for a phenomenon; explanation for
patterns; explains WHY something happens
 Law: describes a generalized pattern in nature that has been rigorously tested and
supported by scientific evidence; describes a pattern/phenomenon; doesn’t explain WHY
something happens, just that it happens, all the time and everywhere
Scientific Method:
1. Observe/ask a question
2. What we already know
3. Formulate hypothesis
4. Design an experiment
5. Conduct experiment + collect data
6. Analyze the data
7. Interpret results
Innovation Process (from concept to final product):
1. Basic Research
2. Applied Research
3. Prototype Development
4. Engineering for Assembly and Manufacturing
5. Improvement/Enhancement Research

Session 2 (Energy and Electricity):

Law of Conservation of Energy:
 Energy can be transformed from one type to another; use energy to make other types of
energy
 Types: readily available energy (kinetic energy); stored energy (gravitational potential
energy, spring potential energy, electrical potential energy); hard to recover energy
(thermal energy); other types of energy (chemical energy, nuclear energy)
 Law of conservation of energy: energy cannot be created nor destroyed; it can only be
transformed
 “Total energy is constant in any process. It may change in form or be transferred from
one system to another, but the total remains the same”
 E = K + U + Eth + Echem
 Energy leaves the system through heat (thermal energy)
Energy Systems:
Energy Transformations:
 Work or heat
  Electricity = energy associated with the presence and flow of charged particles (typically
electrons)
 Energy stored in electrons (voltage)
 Energy in movement (current)
Thermal Energy:
 How energy leaves the system  hard to recover energy
Work: force x distance, energy into or out of a system
Energy:
 Disturbs the balance of a still world
 Powers movement, activities
 Causes change
 Ability to work
Power:
 Energy / time
 Power is a rate of energy generation, delivery or use
 P=VxI
Joules:
 1 Watt = 1 Joule of energy / second
Watts:
 1 joule of energy per second
 Power is the rate of energy generation, delivery, or use
Watts vs. Watt-hours:
 1 Watt-Hour (Wh): amount of energy in the form of electricity used/produced in a one
hour period.
Watts vs. Kilowatts vs. Megawatts:
 1 Watt (W) = 1 Joule of energy / sec
 1 Kilowatt (kW) = 1000 Watts
 1 kWh = 1000 Wh
o Commonly used metric for electricity use
 1 Megawatt (MW) = 1,000,000 W
o Commonly used metric for large scale electricity generation
Electricity:
 Energy associated with the presence and flow of charged particles (typically electrons)
Electrons: negatively charged particle
Current:
 Rate at which electrical charge flows through a surface; the number of electrons moving
past a given point.
o Symbol = I
o Measured in = Amperes (Amps)
 Rate of flow of the charged particles, amount of charged particles flowing past a given
point in a given time
Voltage:
 Electrical potential energy per unit charge, or difference in electrical potential between 2
points
o Symbol = V
o Measured in = Volts
  Represents the amount of energy that each charged particle carries, and the voltage
change between two points in an electrical circuit is measured in volts (V)
Amperes: measurement for current
Volts: measurement for voltage
Power Equation: ∆V x I = P

Session 3 (Future Energy Demand):

2 primary causes of growing global demand
 Global population growing (1.13% per year)
 Increasing per capita (and total) energy demand (0.5% per capita) (2% total per year)
Arithmetic vs. Exponential vs. Logistic Growth
Carrying Capacity
Human Population Growth Pattern
 Exponential vs. logistic growth
Geographical/National Differences in Growth Rates
 As economies grow and income increases  countries will use more energy
 GDP per capita and energy use are positively correlated
Demographic Transition Model
 Theory of geography: population growth vs. economic development
o Predicts that as societies develop, populations will grow, and then stabilize and
potentially decline
 Demography: statistical study of population dynamics (birth, death, etc.)
 Model predicts that as societies develop, populations will grow, then stabilize and
potentially decline
Energy Demand vs. GDP
 As economies grow and income increases, countries use more energy
Energy Poverty
 Lack of access to modern energy systems (electricity and clean cooking facilities)
Energy Security
 Reliable access to energy resources at any affordable price
o More services less energy
India Case Study
 Energy use has almost doubled since 2000
 Lifted millions from energy poverty
 ¾ of energy demand comes from fossil fuels
 Policy = remove obstacles for investments in energy
 Fulfill growing demand:
o Raise tariffs and add more capacity
o Main resources and capacity for generation are often not located close to main
centers of demand (move them)
 Energy sources:
o Solar / hydro
o Import renewable/sustainable energy
 Infrastructure:
o Deal with inefficiencies and bottlenecks  poor coal quality and high ambient
temperatures
Energy Conservation and Efficiency
  Increases in both can decrease energy consumption
 Energy efficiency = energy services as a function of energy use
o Increased efficiency = more services/less energy
o Better fuel efficiency
o More services/less energy
 Energy conservation = reducing energy consumption by using less energy services
o Ex. Driving fewer miles
o Less services/less energy

Session 4 (Current Energy Supply):

Fossil Fuels
Relative Global Consumption of Energy Sources (what is #1, Fossil Fuels vs. Renewable)
 Oil
 Coal
 Natural Gas
 Hydroelectricity
 Nuclear energy
 Renewables
Be able to interpret an energy flow chart/Sankey Diagram
Rejected Energy vs. Energy Services
 Rejected energy = losses from inefficiencies (most is lost as heat)
 Main source = electricity
Energy Crisis
4 factors driving current Energy Crisis (2 supply and 2 demand related):
 Supply:
o Most traditional sources of energy sources are not renewable or sustainable
o Current primary energy sources have negative environmental impacts
 Demand:
o Global population is growing
o Increasing per capita (and total) energy demand
Renewable:
 Can’t run out; unlimited supply or able to replenish it; uses same resources multiple
times; natural
 Rate of replenishment > rate of consumption
Sustainable:
 Can’t run out / constant force
 Not detrimental to environment
 Current use does not negatively impact future generations
Ecosystem:
 A community of living organisms, interaction with one another and the non-living
environment
o Minor changes can have implications
Stages of Energy Production that can cause Environmental Impacts (examples):
 Resource extraction
 Equipment/production
 Energy production
 Waste disposal
  **can occur during “business as usual” or due to accidents/disasters
Types of Environmental Impacts (examples):
 Resource depletion / consumptive water use
 Habitat destruction / loss of wildlife
 Air / pollution
 Human health
Combustion Equation:
 CxHx + O2 (heat) CO2 + H2O
 Hydrocarbon + oxygen  carbon dioxide (GHG) + water
 Other emissions depend on the purity of the hydrocarbon source
Hydrocarbon:
 Molecule composed of carbon and hydrogen
 Examples:
o Methane CH4
o Neptane C7H16
o Nonane C9H20
o Decane C10H22
Greenhouse Gases:
 CO2, Methane, Nitrous Oxide, Fluorinated Gases
 GHG’s bring back/retain energy released from the energy systems
Earth’s Energy Budget and Impacts of GHGs
 Earth’s surface budget
o Absorbs short wave radiation (visible light / solar radiation)
o Emits long wave radiation (infrared, heat)
 GHG
o allows short-wave radiation to pass through
o absorbs and re-emits long-wave radiation
 Global Warming Potentials
o Based on atmospheric lifetime of a gas and how much long wave radiation
(infrared) it absorbs
o Higher GWP = higher “potency” of GHG
 Longer lifetime
 Absorbs more infrared (long-wave radiation)
o GWP is a relative measurement with CO2 as the reference gas.
Life Cycle Emissions
 Total global warming potential from all stages of energy production from raw materials
extraction through disposal of waste products
 Cradle-to-Grave Emissions
o Upstream: raw materials extraction; construction materials manufacture; power
plant construction
o Fuel Cycle: resource extraction/production; processing/conversion; delivery to
site
o Operation: combustion; maintenance; operations
o Downstream: dismantling; decommissioning; disposal and recycling
Environmental Degradation
 Deterioration of the environment through the depletion of resources or destruction of
ecosystems
 o Includes pollution of air, water and soil
o Also includes removal of resources and habitat destruction
o Can be visible/obvious, but also cryptic/invisible
Pollution
 Contamination of the air, water, or soil by the discharge of harmful substances
Emissions from the Combustion of Fossil Fuels
 Impacts of pollutants:
o Carbon Dioxide: GHG
o Carbon Monoxide:
 Harmful to life in high concentrations
 Weak GHG, but impacts other GHG
o Nitrogen Oxides:
 GHG
o Sulfur dioxide:
 cause of acid rain
o particulates:
 cause of smog, respiratory problems
 absorb incoming solar radiation
o mercury
 heavy metal
 neurotoxinm

Session 5 (Energy Efficiency Lab):

Luminous Efficacy
 the luminous flux of the bulb divided by the power used by the bulb
 Convert light output in lux into luminous flux.
o Luminous flux = illuminance (lux) x 4πr2
Efficiency of Incandescent vs. Compact Fluorescent (CFL) vs. LED bulbs

Energy loss and Energy Transformation in Light Bulbs


Session 6 (Global Trends):

Current patterns of renewable vs. non-renewable energy use
 fossil fuels dominate over other renewables (renewables have 13.8% of market share)
Solid Fuels (Solid Biomass, Traditional Biomass)
 Non-solid:
o Natural gas
o Kerosene
o Ethanol and other refined biofuels
 Solid Fuels (traditional biomass energy):
o Wood
o Charcoal
o Agricultural residues
o Briquettes
Use of Solid Fuels Relative to Electricity Access/Energy Poverty
OECD vs. Non-OECD
  OECD = organization for economic development and cooperation
 Goals = foster prosperity and fight poverty through economic growth and financial
stability
Renewable Energy in OECD vs. Non-OECD countries
 OECD: 22.3% renewables, 40.7% coal, 4.3% oil, 10.6% nuclear, 21.6% of natural gas
o Total demand declines
 Non-OECD: Much higher use of non-renewable sources // heavy reliance on fossil fuels
o Industrializing, urbanizing = increase in energy consumption
Paris Agreement
 Driver of future energy trends
 Goal = reduce impact to earth’s energy budget, reduce climate change
 Agreement to attempt to reduce overall surface temperature to well below 2*C
 Each country developed national plan aimed at goal

Session 7 (Model UN):

Goals of Actual Decade of Sustainable Energy for All
 Universal energy access (1.3 billion without electricity)
 Double the global rate of energy efficiency improvement
 Double the share of renewable energy in global mix
Estimated Cost of Achieving Goals
 Total global investment = $600-800 billion per year
 $50 billion per year for energy access alone
 Finance committee through World Bank to mobilize resources for country level actions 
private investment, green bonds, etc.

Hydrogen Fuel Cells Lab:

Anode
 Negatively charged anode
 Negative terminal of the fuel cell
 The hydrogen gas splits into free electrons and free protons (H+)
Cathode
 Positively charged cathode
 Opposite side of the fuel cell
Membrane
 Electrolyte solution
 Free protons travel through special membrane to cathode, free electrons flow up the
anode generating an electrical current within the circuit
Electrolysis
 Uses high energy of the electricity to split the hydrogen and oxygen bonds in water and
allows the hydrogen atoms to re-bond with other hydrogen atoms
Hydrogen Fuel Cell:
 Electrochemical device that produces electricity by combining hydrogen and oxygen gases
 Converts chemical energy stored in the chemical energy stored in the molecular bonds of
the gases to electricity, and forms water as the only by-products.
Hydrogen Energy System
 System that starts and ends with water
Energy Storage
  Hydrogen Gas Storage
o Hydrogen and oxygen gas can be stored, losing very little energy during storage
and then used to power a fuel cell.

Session 8 (Brainshark – Electricity Generation and Transmission):

Electromagnetic Induction
 Magnetic fields cause voltage differences that force electrons to move
Electrochemical Cells (Voltaic cells)
 Chemical reactions cause voltage differences that force electrons to flow
 Chemical reactions create a positive charged cathode and a negatively charged anode
 Voltage difference between anode and cathode drive movement of electrons through
conductor
o Ex. Batteries, photovoltaic cells (solar panels), hydrogen fuel cells
Faraday’s Law
 A changing magnetic field produces an electromotive force
𝑑𝛷 𝑑𝛷
 𝜖 = −𝑁 𝐵 or ∮ 𝐸⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 = − 𝐵
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
o 𝜖 = voltage generated or electromotive force
o N = # of turns in winding
𝑑𝛷𝐵
o = change in magnetic flux over time (area of the coils (A) x magnetic field
𝑑𝑡
strength (B)
Use of Magnets and Coils to produce electricity
 Needed to move magnet in order to see response on ammeter
 Sign of reading (+ vs. – current) varied based on side of the magnet and direction of
movement
 More coils = greater electromotive force
(+/-) meaning for electrical current
Electromotive Force
 EMF = force that moves electrons, difference in voltage potential that causes electrons to
flow
Electrical Generator
 Ohm’s Law: Change in V = I x R
 Resistance measures how difficult it is for charges to move through circuit
o High resistance = harder to move
o Low resistance = easier to move
Conductivity
 Measure the ability of electrons within a material to move
 Coil = good conductor (often copper)
Turbine
 A machine for producing continuous power in which a wheel or rotor is made to revolve
by a fast-moving flow of water, steam, gas, air or other fluid
 Source of mechanical energy
Basic Power Plant (key features)
 Needed in turbine generator system:
o Turbine
o Moving fluid to spin turbine
o Generator with magnet and copper coils
3 Phase Alternating Current
 Generation
o Electricity is generated at various kinds of power plants by utilities and
independent power producers
 Transmission
o Electric transmission is the vital link between power production and power usage
o Transmission lines carry electricity at high voltages over long distances from
power plants to communities
 Distribution
o Electricity from transmission lines is reduced to lower voltages at substations
o Distribution companies then bring the power to home and workplace
Direct vs. Alternating Current
 Direct:
o Loses less energy over long distances (point A to point B)
o Most electrical devices required
 Alternating:
o Voltage can be changed easily in a transformer
o Can be easily converted to DC
o Less energy is lost in grid distribution (overall)
Traditional Energy Grids
 Goal: transmit as much power as possible, as efficiently as possible, from 1 source (power
plant) to many end users (industries, commercial properties, house etc.)
 Design: send out a lot of power in a few lines, but divide those lines and reduce power as
you reach end users.
Line Losses
 Energy lost (usually thermal / heat) in the transmission of electricity
 High Voltage vs. High Current
o High voltage: less energy lost in transmission
o High current: more energy lost in transmission
 Ideal: high voltage, low current
Step-Up and Step-Down Transformers
 Step Up (increase voltage)
o Primary side:
 Incoming current produces a magnetic field (ampere), thus altering the
magnetic field around the transformer
o Secondary side:
 Change in magnetic field (due to incoming current) produces an
electromotive force (Faraday’s Law) that induces current in copper coils.
o KEY: need alternating current; need changing magnetic field; need changing
current.
 Step Down (decrease voltage)
 Overall: the same amount of power (minus any thermal energy losses) is on both sides
(law of conservation of energy) but the energy/power has been transformed due to a
different of number of turns in coils.
Ampere’s Law
 Ampere’s Law (fundamental law of electromagnetism) = an electrical current produces a
magnetic field proportional to the current
Energy Loss
 Energy is lost
o Generation (plant)
 Inefficiencies in conversion from initial energy source to electricity
o step-up/step-down losses (substations)
 every time transformed some is lost
o transmission efficiency (line losses) (power lines)
 transmission inefficiencies
o end use efficiency (residents, commercial buildings)
 energy vampires
Load Variation
 need to match electricity production with demand in real time
 supply must equal or exceed demand
Managing Energy Grids
2003 Northeast Blackout
 electricity must be in balance with supply, otherwise blackouts
 power companies monitor consumption at all times
o shift energy to locations BEFORE blackouts occur
 threats
o terrorist/cyber terror

Session 9 (Intro to Solar):

Intermittent Energy Sources
 sources of energy that are governed by natural variability and cannot be dispatched to
meet demand of consumers
Solar Photovoltaic Cells (Structure and Function)
 typically commercially available solar panel = converts 15-20% of energy in light to
electricity
o efficiency of solar PV cell = power produced by panel / power available from
sunlight x 100%
 similar to electrochemical cells (batteries, fuel cells)
 electrons “want” to move from N-type to P-type
 need energy to “pop” out of silicon matrix and move
 junction = prevents direct flow, so electron movement can be harnessed in conductor
o produces direct current
Photoelectric Effect
 phenomenon in which photons striking a material cause the emission of electrons
 need semiconductor so ejected electrons can be harnessed
 insulator = too much energy required for electrons to move
 conductor = all electrons move at once/random directions, difficult to harness/control
Semiconductor
 a material with conductivity somewhere between an insulator and a metal (good
conductor)
Insulator
 a material through which electricity does not easily flow; electrons are resistant to moving
Doping
 Standard PV Semiconductor = Doped Silicon
  Pure Silicon = Insulator
N-type
 N-type doping
o Adding impurities to create free electrons
P-type
 P-type doping
o Adding impurities to create electron “holes”
Types of Solar PV Panels
 Monocrystalline
o Higher grade silicon
o Higher production efficiency (better space efficiency)
o Longer life span
o More expensive
o Whole array can fail if just one panel is blocked
 Polycrystalline
o Simpler process to make
o Less expensive
o Efficiency further reduced at warm temperatures
 Thin film (amorphous)
o Deposit I layer of PV material on surface
o Least expensive
o Best in warm temperatures
o Lowest cost
Angle of Incidence
 Based on geographical location
 Equator = sunlight directly overhead
 Poles = lower angle of direct incoming sunlight

Session 10 (Solar and Wind Lab):

Experimental Design
 Independent Variable
o Variable that is manipulated/altered by the experimenter
 Dependent Variable
o Variable that which the experimenter will measure (expects to change in response
to the independent variables
 Experimental Treatments
o Different levels of the independent variable will be tested in the experiment
 Experimental Controls
o Variables that are kept constant in the experiment to ensure similar conditions for
all replicates of all experimental treatments
 Control Treatments
o A level of the independent variable that is used as a baseline (may or may not
have)
 Replicates
o Repeated measurements of the dependent variable for each treatment of the
independent variable
Session 11 (Solar Continued and Wind):
Sun and Solar Potential 3 types of Solar Techs (Solar Water Heating, Photovoltaics, Concentrated
Solar)
 Sun
o Primary source of energy and heat in the solar system
o 99.8% of all the mass in the solar system
o Heat produced from nuclear fusion reactions
 Why solar?
o Earth receives approx. 1300 W/m2 at the top of the atmosphere
 Types of solar:
o Solar water heating (solar thermal)  residential
 Usually for domestic heat, hot water, heated floors
 Generally as a boiler “assist” rather than 100% solar heater
o Photovoltaic cells (PV)
 Residential to grid
 Semiconductor = material with conductivity somewhere between an
insulator and a metal (good conductor)
o Concentrated Solar Power (CSP)
 Grid
Direct vs. Indirect Solar Water Heating
 Direct: sun heats water (suitable if temps are always above 4*C)
 Indirect: sun heats a heat exchanger fluid (glycol) that is then used to heat water
Flat Plate vs. Evacuated Tubes
 Flat plate (indirect): heat exchanger fluid in tubes enclosed within insulated glass frame
 Evacuated Tubes (indirect): heat exchanger fluid in vacuum tubes
o Vacuum is a better insulator than air, greater heat retention
o Best for coldest climates
Doping Silicon
 Doping (chemistry) = intentional introduction of impurities to alter electrical properties
Parabolic Trough vs. Tower/Heliostat Concentrated Solar Power
 Parabolic trough system vs. Heliostat-tower system
 Both use solar concentrators to heat water for a traditional steam turbine
– generator system
 Achieve 25-35% efficiency
Pros and Cons of Solar
 Advantages:
o Renewable
o Low life-cycle emissions
o Solar water heating and solar PV cells can be “off grid”
o CSP and large PV arrays can produce grid scale electricity
o Net Metering:
 Pay for NET amount of electricity used from the grid
 Total used – total produced
 Consequences:
o solar irradiance varies in different world locations
o Sulfur Hexafluoride
  Used in production process (life-cycle emissions) – highly potent
greenhouse gas
o Silica Dust
 Respiratory hazard
 Standards are not universal
o CSP plants
 Get hot and look like water
o Desert solar power
 Water – CSP needs water
 Dust – dust on PV cells and CSP mirrors, limits efficiency, light absorption
 Solutions: water sprays; self-cleaning water free PV panels
 Transmission – from desert to market
 Loss of power in AC lines
 HVDC lines = less loss, $$$$
Solar Arrays and Birds
Emerging Solar Techs
 Solar glass  crystalline glass
 Thin film (amorphous silicon PV material)
 Solar skins (aesthetics)a
Wind Turbines
 Horizontal vs. vertical axis
 Blade and airfoil design
 Height and diameter
 High or low wind speeds
 Onshore vs. offshore
o Floating vs. stationary
 Efficiency of wind turbine = power produced by turbine / power available in wind x 100%
o Power available in wind = 1/2 pAv3
 P = density of air
 A = area swept by turbine blades
 V = wind velocity (wind speed)
Causes of Wind Currents
 Uneven heating between poles and equator
o Warm equatorial air rises due to convection and spreads towards the poles
o As air rises, it is replaced by air flowing towards the area where air is rising
 Local influences:
o Topography
o Weather
o Turbulence
 Ultimate source = sun
Turbulence
 Interference of an obstacle to the path of wind currents
Airfoil
 Curved surface designed to produce a favorable ratio of life and drag forces
Lift and Drag
 Both = mechanical forces generated by a solid object moving through fluid (gas or liquid)
 Lift:
 o Source = debated
o Acts perpendicular to direction of motion
 Drag:
o Acts opposite to direction of motion
Betz Limit
 Theoretical limit of efficiency (Betz limit) = 59.3%
 Most commercial turbines max. = 35-45%
Standard Wind Turbine
 Modern standard = 3 blade, horizontal axis
 Typically, max. efficiency 3-blade horizontal axis turbine = direct, head on wind
 Typically, turbines are shut down in extremely low or high winds
Horizontal vs. Vertical Wind Turbines
Wind Turbine Variations (micro-wind turbines, urban wind turbines, BAT turbine, shrouded
turbines, offshore turbines)
Pros and Cons of Wind Techs
 Advantages:
o Renewable
o Low life-cycle GHG Emissions
o Technology for many conditions
o Many scales of use
o Relatively cost-effective
 Challenges:
o Transmission and grid connectivity
o Intermittent energy source
o Environmental impact
o Noise pollution and aesthetics
Feathering
 Reducing speed or shutting down wind turbines during periods of bird migration
Wind turbines and Birds/Bats

Session 12 (Fossil Fuels):

3 fossil fuel types:
 Oil, natural gas and coal
photosynthesis reaction
organic material
 Organic = carbon-containing
fossil fuel formation (inclupding oil/natual gas vs. coal, time frame, factors influencing)
 Build up of organic material (buried)
 PROCESS (MILLIONS OF YEARS)
o Sun = ultimate source of energy
o Gives light to plants, which use CO2 and water to form glucose, and release oxygen
as a byproduct (photosynthesis)
o Photosynthesis exceeds decomposition
o Accumulation of Detritus
o Organic matter buried under sediments
o +++ time, heat, pressure
o Natural gas, oil and goal
  End product determined by temperature, pressure, initial plant type and habitat
o Different habitats = different products
 Petroleum & Natural Gas
 Sea plants and animals died  buried on ocean floor, over time
were covered by silt and sand
 Millions of years  buried deeper and deeper.
 Heat and pressure  gas and oil
 Coal
 Giant plants died in swamps  buried under water and dirt
 Heat and pressure  coal
o More pressure, heat and time = higher energy content
o Ranked based on energy and moisture content (different
ranks = different uses)
Carboniferous Period
Conventional fossil fuel extraction methods
 Drilling
 Mining
o Underground mining methods
o Surface Mining methods
Coal power plants
 Coal burned with addition of air, steam spins turbine which oils water that leads to
generator = electricity.
Natural gas power plants
 Combustion chamber with natural gas  high pressure spins turbine which generates
energy  into electricity
Combined cycle turbines
 Combined-cycle:
o 1st turbine: uses pressure from combustion reaction
o 2nd turbine: uses steam generated by the heat from combustion
o Higher efficiency
2 industry aims for new technologies (and examples)
 Increase extraction efficiency
o Tar sands extraction
o Fracking (hydraulic fracturing)
 Lessen environmental impacts
o “cleaner” coal technologies (oxyfuel combustion)
o Carbon capture and storage
Tar sands extraction
 Tar sands = deposits of clay, sand, water and bitumen
 Typically found in wetlands, bogs, swamps at up to 250ft deep
 Sediments extracted and then processed to remove bitumen
Bitumen
 A heavy, viscous oil
Alberta tar sands controversy
Hydraulic fracturing (fracking)
 Process to extract small, pocket-like deposits of natural gas (or oil) in shale rock
Shale rock
Oklahoma earthquakes controversy
Oxyfuel combustion
carbon capture and storage