Materi Kuliah TPA 2 (Arsitektur Klasik)

Dosen: EKO NURSANTY

Contents

0.1 Classical architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

0.1.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
0.1.2 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
0.1.3 Petrification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
0.1.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
0.1.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
0.1.6 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
0.2 Classical order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
0.2.1 Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
0.2.2 Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
0.2.3 Greek orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
0.2.4 Roman orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
0.2.5 Historical development of the orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
0.2.6 Vignola defining the concept of “order” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
0.2.7 Nonce orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
0.2.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
0.2.9 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
0.2.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
0.2.11 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
0.3 Outline of classical architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
0.3.1 What type of thing is classical architecture? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
0.3.2 Classical architectural structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
0.3.3 Classical architectural styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
0.3.4 Classical architectural concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
0.3.5 Classical architecture organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
0.3.6 Classical architecture publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
0.3.7 Persons influential in classical architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
0.3.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
0.3.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
0.3.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

1 Greek 15
1.1 Ancient Greek architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

i
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1.1.1 Influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.1.2 Architectural character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.1.3 Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.1.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.1.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.1.6 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.2 Ancient Greek temple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.2.2 Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.2.3 Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.2.4 Design and measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.2.5 Optical refinements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.2.6 Decoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.2.7 Function and design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.2.8 Sponsors, construction and costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1.2.9 Temples of the different architectural orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1.2.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
1.2.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
1.2.12 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
1.2.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
1.3 List of Ancient Greek temples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
1.3.1 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
1.3.2 The list . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
1.3.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
1.3.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
1.3.5 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
1.4 Theatre of ancient Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
1.4.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
1.4.2 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
1.4.3 New inventions during the Classical Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
1.4.4 Hellenistic period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
1.4.5 Characteristics of the buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
1.4.6 Masks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
1.4.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
1.4.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
1.4.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
1.4.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
1.5 Acropolis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
1.5.1 Use in antiquity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
1.5.2 Metaphorical use in modern times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
1.5.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
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1.5.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

1.6 Agora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
1.6.1 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
1.6.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
1.6.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
1.6.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
1.7 Stoa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
1.7.1 Famous stoae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
1.7.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
1.7.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
1.7.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

2 Roman 68
2.1 Ancient Roman architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.1.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.1.2 Influence on later architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.1.3 Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.1.4 City design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.1.5 Building types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.1.6 Decorative structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
2.1.7 Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
2.1.8 Architectural features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
2.1.9 Significant buildings and areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
2.1.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
2.1.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
2.1.12 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
2.1.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
2.2 Dome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
2.2.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
2.2.2 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
2.2.3 Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
2.2.4 General types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
2.2.5 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
2.2.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
2.2.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
2.2.8 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
2.3 Vault (architecture) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
2.3.1 Vault types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
2.3.2 Byzantine vaults and domes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
2.3.3 Romanesque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
2.3.4 Gothic survival and the renaissance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
2.3.5 Vaulting and Faux Vaulting in the Renaissance and after . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
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2.3.6 India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

2.3.7 Modern vaults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
2.3.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
2.3.9 References and sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
2.3.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
2.3.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
2.4 Pantheon, Rome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
2.4.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
2.4.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
2.4.3 Cardinal deaconry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
2.4.4 Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
2.4.5 Christian modifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
2.4.6 Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
2.4.7 Works modeled on, or inspired by, the Pantheon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
2.4.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
2.4.9 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
2.4.10 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
2.4.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
2.4.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
2.5 Public bathing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
2.5.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
2.5.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
2.5.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
2.5.4 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
2.5.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
2.6 Basilica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
2.6.1 Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
2.6.2 Ecclesiastical basilicas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
2.6.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
2.6.4 References and sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
2.6.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
2.7 Baths of Diocletian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
2.7.1 Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
2.7.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
2.7.3 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
2.7.4 Present day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
2.7.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
2.7.6 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
2.7.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
2.7.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
2.8 Baths of Caracalla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
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2.8.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

2.8.2 Interior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
2.8.3 Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
2.8.4 Grounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
2.8.5 Public use in culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
2.8.6 Visiting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
2.8.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
2.8.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
2.8.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
2.9 Roman amphitheatre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
2.9.1 Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
2.9.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
2.9.3 Important Roman amphitheatres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
2.9.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
2.9.5 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
2.9.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
2.10 List of Roman amphitheatres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
2.10.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
2.10.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
2.10.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
2.11 Circus (building) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
2.11.1 Architectural design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
2.11.2 Common characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
2.11.3 Best preserved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
2.11.4 List of Roman circuses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
2.11.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
2.11.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
2.11.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
2.12 Roman theatre (structure) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
2.12.1 Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
2.12.2 List of Roman Theatres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
2.12.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
2.12.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
2.13 Amphitheatre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
2.13.1 Roman amphitheatres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
2.13.2 Modern amphitheatres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
2.13.3 Natural amphitheatres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
2.13.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
2.13.5 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
2.13.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
2.14 List of monuments of the Roman Forum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
vi CONTENTS

2.14.1 Existing (or reconstructed) ruins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

2.14.2 Vanished (or almost vanished) structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
2.14.3 Christian churches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
2.14.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

3 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses 172

3.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
3.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
3.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
0.1. CLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE 1

0.1 Classical architecture 0.1.1 History

Origins

Classical architecture is derived from the architecture of

ancient Greece and ancient Rome. With the collapse of
the western part of the Roman empire, the architectural
traditions of the Roman empire ceased to be practised
in large parts of western Europe. In the Byzantine Em-
pire, the ancient ways of building lived on but relatively
soon developed into a distinct Byzantine style.[7] The first
conscious efforts to bring back the disused language of
form of classical antiquity into Western architecture can
be traced to the Carolingian Renaissance of the late 8th
and 9th centuries. The gatehouse of Lorsch Abbey (c.
800), in present-day Germany thus displays a system of
alternating attached columns and arches which could be
an almost direct paraphrase of e.g., that of the Colosseum
in Rome.[8] Byzantine architecture, just as Romanesque
and even to some extent Gothic architecture (with which
classical architecture is often juxtaposed), can also in-
corporate classical elements and details but do not to the
same degree reflect a conscious effort to draw upon the
architectural traditions of antiquity; for example, they do
not observe the idea of a systematic order of proportions
for pillars. In general, therefore, they are not considered
classical architectural styles in a strict sense.[9]
Origins of classical architecture
Sebastiano Serlio's canon of the Classical orders, a prime exam-
ple of classical architectural theory.

Classical architecture usually denotes architecture

which is more or less consciously derived from the princi-
ples of Greek and Roman architecture of classical antiq-
uity, or sometimes even more specifically, from the works
of Vitruvius.[1][2] Different styles of classical architec-
ture have arguably existed since the Carolingian Renais-
sance,[3] and prominently since the Italian Renaissance.
Although classical styles of architecture can vary greatly, Caryatids
they can in general all be said to draw on a common “vo- on the Erechtheion, (Athens), an example of a Greek
cabulary” of decorative and constructive elements.[4][5][6] architectural element taken up by later classical architec-
In much of the Western world, different classical archi- ture.
tectural styles have dominated the history of architecture
from the Renaissance until the second world war, though
it continues to inform many architects to this day.
The term “classical architecture” also applies to any mode
of architecture that has evolved to a highly refined state,
such as classical Chinese architecture, or classical Mayan
architecture. It can also refer to any architecture that em-
ploys classical aesthetic philosophy. The term might be
used differently from “traditional” or "vernacular archi-
tecture", although it can share underlying axioms with it. The fronts
For contemporary buildings following authentic classical of ancient Roman temples like the Maison Carrée in
principles, the term New Classical Architecture may be Nîmes have inspired much later classical architecture,
used. e.g. Virginia State Capitol.
2 CONTENTS

Most of the styles originating in post-renaissance Europe

can be described as classical architecture. This broad use
of the term is employed by Sir John Summerson in The
Classical Language of Architecture. The elements of clas-
sical architecture have been applied in radically differ-
ent architectural contexts than those for which they were
developed, however. For example, Baroque or Rococo
architecture are styles which, although classical at root,
display an architectural language very much in their own
right. During these periods, architectural theory still re-
ferred to classical ideas but rather less sincerely than dur-
Lorsch
ing the Renaissance.[13]
Abbey gatehouse (Germany), c. 800, an example of
the architectural style of the short-lived Carolingian As a reaction to late baroque and rococo forms, ar-
Renaissance, a first classical movement in architecture. chitectural theorists from circa 1750 through what be-
came known as Neoclassicism again consciously and
earnestly attempted to emulate antiquity, supported by
recent developments in Classical archaeology and a de-
Development sire for an architecture based on clear rules and rational-
ity. Claude Perrault, Marc-Antoine Laugier and Carlo
Lodoli were among the first theorists of neoclassicism,
while Étienne-Louis Boullée, Claude Nicolas Ledoux,
Friedrich Gilly and John Soane were among the more
radical and influential.[14] Neoclassical architecture held
a particularly strong position on the architectural scene
c. 1750–1850. The competing neo-Gothic style however
rose to popularity during the early 1800s, and the later
part the 19th century was characterised by a variety of
styles, some of them only slightly or not at all related to
classicism (such as Art Nouveau), and eclecticism. Al-
though classical architecture continued to play an impor-
tant role and for periods of time at least locally dominated
the architectural scene, as exemplified by the "Nordic
Classicism" during the 1920s, classical architecture in its
stricter form never regained its former dominance. With
The emphatically classical church façade of Santa Maria Nova,
the advent of Modernism during the early 20th century,
Vicenza (1578–90) was designed by the influential Renaissance
classical architecture arguably almost completely ceased
architect Andrea Palladio.
to be practised.[15]
During the Italian renaissance and with the demise of
Gothic style, major efforts were made by architects such
as Leon Battista Alberti, Sebastiano Serlio and Giacomo
Barozzi da Vignola to revive the language of architec-
ture of first and foremost ancient Rome. This was done
in part through the study of the ancient Roman architec-
tural treatise De architectura by Vitruvius, and to some
extent by studying the actual remains of ancient Ro-
man buildings in Italy.[10] Nonetheless, the classical ar-
chitecture of the Renaissance from the outset represents
a highly specific interpretation of the classical ideas. In a
building like the Ospedale degli Innocenti in Florence by
Filippo Brunelleschi, one of the very earliest Renaissance
buildings (built 1419–45), the treatment of the columns
for example has no direct antecedent in ancient Roman
architecture.[11] During this time period, the study of an-
cient architecture developed into the architectural theory The Glyptothek in Munich, designed by Leo von Klenze and built
of classical architecture; somewhat over-simplified, one 1816–30, an example of Neoclassical architecture.
could say that classical architecture in its variety of forms
ever since have been interpretations and elaborations of
the architectural rules set down during antiquity.[12]
0.1. CLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE 3

0.1.2 Scope knowledge of stone working on their part that prevented

them from making the transition from timber to dressed
As noted above, classical styles of architecture dominated stone.
Western architecture for a very long time, roughly from
the Renaissance until the advent of Modernism. That
is to say, that classical antiquity at least in theory was 0.1.4 See also
considered the prime source of inspiration for architec-
tural endeavours in the West for much of Modern his- • Outline of classical architecture
tory. Even so, because of liberal, personal or theoreti-
cally diverse interpretations of the antique heritage, clas- 0.1.5 References
sicism covers a broad range of styles, some even so to
speak cross-referencing, like Neo-Palladian architecture, [1] Fleming, John; Honour, Hugh; Pevsner, Nikolaus (1986).
which draws its inspiration from the works of Italian Re- Dictionary of architecture (3 ed.). Penguin Books Ltd. p.
naissance architect Andrea Palladio — who himself drew 76. ISBN 0-14-051013-3.
inspiration from ancient Roman architecture.[16] Further-
[2] Watkin, David (2005). A History of Western Architecture
more, it can even be argued (as noted above) that styles
(4 ed.). Watson-Guptill Publications. pp. 6–8. ISBN 0-
of architecture not typically considered classical, like 8230-2277-3.
Gothic, can be said to contain classical elements. There-
fore, a simple delineation of the scope of classical archi- [3] Fleming, John; Honour, Hugh; Pevsner, Nikolaus (1986).
tecture is difficult to make.[17] The more or less defining Dictionary of architecture (3 ed.). Penguin Books Ltd. p.
characteristic can still be said to be a reference to ancient 76. ISBN 0-14-051013-3.
Greek or Roman architecture, and the architectural rules [4] Fleming, John; Honour, Hugh; Pevsner, Nikolaus (1986).
or theories that derived from that architecture. Dictionary of architecture (3 ed.). Penguin Books Ltd. p.
76. ISBN 0-14-051013-3.

0.1.3 Petrification [5] Watkin, David (2005). A History of Western Architecture

(4 ed.). Watson-Guptill Publications. pp. 6–8. ISBN 0-
8230-2277-3.
In the grammar of architecture, the word petrification is
often used when discussing the development of sacred [6] Summerson, John (1980). The Classical Language of Ar-
structures, such as temples, mainly with reference to de- chitecture. Thames and Hudson Ltd. pp. 7–8. ISBN 0-
velopments in the Greek world. During the Archaic and 500-20177-3.
early Classical periods (about the 6th and early 5th cen- [7] Adam, Robert (1992). Classical Architecture. Viking. p.
turies BC), the architectural forms of the earliest temples 16.
had solidified and the Doric emerged as the predominant
element. A widely accepted theory in classical studies is [8] Pevsner, Nikolaus (1964). An Outline of European Archi-
that the earliest temple structures were of wood and the tecture (7 ed.). Penguin Books Ltd. pp. 45–47.
great forms, or elements of architectural style, were codi- [9] Summerson, John (1980). The Classical Language of Ar-
fied and rather permanent by the time we see the Archaic chitecture. Thames and Hudson Ltd. pp. 7–8. ISBN 0-
emergent and established. It was during this period, at 500-20177-3.
different times and places in the Greek world, that the use
of dressed and polished stone replaced the wood in these [10] Summerson, John (1980). The Classical Language of Ar-
chitecture. Thames and Hudson Ltd. pp. 7–8. ISBN 0-
early temples, but the forms and shapes of the old wooden
500-20177-3.
styles were retained, just as if the wooden structures had
turned to stone, thus the designation petrification[18] or [11] Pevsner, Nikolaus (1964). An Outline of European Archi-
sometimes “petrified carpentry”[19] for this process. tecture (7 ed.). Penguin Books Ltd. pp. 177–178.
This careful preservation of the primitive wooden appear- [12] Evers, Bernd; Thoenes, Christof (2011). Architectural
ance in the stone fabric of the newer buildings was scrupu- Theory from the Renaissance to the Present. 1. Taschen.
lously observed and this suggests that it may have been pp. 6–19. ISBN 978-3-8365-3198-6.
dictated by religion rather than aesthetics, although the
[13] Fleming, John; Honour, Hugh; Pevsner, Nikolaus (1986).
exact reasons are now lost in the mists of antiquity. And Dictionary of architecture (3 ed.). Penguin Books Ltd. p.
not everyone within the great reach of Mediterranean civ- 76. ISBN 0-14-051013-3.
ilization made this transition. The Etruscans in Italy were,
from their earliest period, greatly influenced by their con- [14] Fleming, John; Honour, Hugh; Pevsner, Nikolaus (1986).
tact with Greek culture and religion, but they retained Dictionary of architecture (3 ed.). Penguin Books Ltd. p.
their wooden temples (with some exceptions) until their 76. ISBN 0-14-051013-3.
culture was completely absorbed into the Roman world, [15] Summerson, John (1980). The Classical Language of Ar-
with the great wooden Temple of Jupiter on the Capitol in chitecture. Thames and Hudson Ltd. p. 114. ISBN 0-
Rome itself being a good example. Nor was it the lack of 500-20177-3.
4 CONTENTS

[16] Fleming, John; Honour, Hugh; Pevsner, Nikolaus (1986).

Dictionary of architecture (3 ed.). Penguin Books Ltd. p.
234. ISBN 0-14-051013-3.

[17] Summerson, John (1980). The Classical Language of Ar-

chitecture. Thames and Hudson Ltd. pp. 7–8. ISBN 0-
500-20177-3.

[18] Gagarin, Michael. The Oxford encyclopedia of ancient

Greece and Rome. Vol. 1. Oxford [u.a.: Oxford Univ.
Press, 2010. 210. ISBN 0195170725

[19] Watkin, David. A history of Western architecture. 4th ed.

London: Laurence King, 2005. 25. ISBN 1856694593

0.1.6 Further reading

• Sir John Summerson (rev 1980) The Classical Lan-

guage of Architecture ISBN 978-0-500-20177-0.

• Gromort Georges (Author), Richard Sammons (In-

troductory Essay). The Elements of Classical Archi-
tecture (Classical America Series in Art and Architec-
ture), 2001, ISBN 0-393-73051-4.

0.2 Classical order

“An Order in architecture is a certain assemblage of parts An illustration of the Five Architectural Orders engraved for
subject to uniform established proportions, regulated by the Encyclopédie, vol. 18, showing the Tuscan and Doric or-
the office that each part has to perform”.[1] The Archi- ders (top row); two versions of the Ionic order (center row);
tectural Orders are the ancient styles of classical archi- Corinthian and Composite orders (bottom row).
tecture, each distinguished by its proportions and char-
acteristic profiles and details, and most readily recogniz-
able by the type of column employed. Three ancient or- 0.2.1 Elements
ders of architecture—the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian—
originated in Greece. To these the Romans added, in
practice if not in name, the Tuscan, which they made
simpler than Doric, and the Composite, which was more
ornamental than the Corinthian. The Architectural Or-
der of a classical building is akin to the mode or key
of classical music, the grammar or rhetoric of a written
composition. It is established by certain modules like the
intervals of music, and it raises certain expectations in an
audience attuned to its language.[2]
Whereas the orders were essentially structural in Greek
architecture, which made little use of the arch until its
late period, in Roman architecture where the arch was of-
ten dominant, the orders became increasingly decorative
elements except in porticos and similar uses. Columns
shrank into half-columns emerging from walls or turned
into pilasters. This treatment continued after the con-
scious and “correct” use of the orders, initially following
exclusively Roman models, returned in the Italian Renais-
sance.[3] Greek Revival architecture, inspired by increas-
ing knowledge of Greek originals, returned to more au-
thentic models, including ones from relatively early peri-
ods. Table of architecture, Cyclopaedia, 1728
0.2. CLASSICAL ORDER 5

Each style has distinctive capitals at the top of columns
and horizontal entablatures which it supports, while the
rest of the building does not in itself vary between the
orders. The column shaft and base also varies with the
order, and is sometimes articulated with vertical hollow
grooves known as fluting. The shaft is wider at the bottom
than at the top, because its entasis, beginning a third of the
way up, imperceptibly makes the column slightly more
slender at the top, although some Doric columns, espe-
cially early Greek ones, are visibly “flared”, with straight
profiles that narrow going up the shaft.
The capital rests on the shaft. It has a load-bearing func-
tion, which concentrates the weight of the entablature on
the supportive column, but it primarily serves an aesthetic
purpose. The necking is the continuation of the shaft, but
is visually separated by one or many grooves. The echinus
lies atop the necking. It is a circular block that bulges out-
wards towards the top to support the abacus, which is a
square or shaped block that in turn supports the entabla-
ture. The entablature consists of three horizontal layers,
all of which are visually separated from each other us-
ing moldings or bands. In Roman and post-Renaissance
work, the entablature may be carried from column to col-
umn in the form of an arch that springs from the column
that bears its weight, retaining its divisions and sculptural
enrichment, if any. There are names for all the many parts
of the orders.
0.2.3 Greek orders
There are three distinct orders in Ancient Greek archi-
tecture: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. These three were
adopted by the Romans, who modified their capitals. The
Roman adoption of the Greek orders took place in the 1st
century BC. The three Ancient Greek orders have since
been consistently used in neo-classical European archi-
tecture.
Sometimes the Doric order is considered the earliest or-
der, but there is no evidence to support this. Rather, the
Doric and Ionic orders seem to have appeared at around
the same time, the Ionic in eastern Greece and the Doric
in the west and mainland.
Both the Doric and the Ionic order appear to have origi-
nated in wood. The Temple of Hera in Olympia is the
oldest well-preserved temple of Doric architecture. It
was built just after 600 BC. The Doric order later spread
across Greece and into Sicily where it was the chief order
for monumental architecture for 800 years.

0.2.2 Measurement

Greek orders with full height

The height of columns are calculated in terms of a ra-

tio between the diameter of the shaft at its base and the
height of the column. A Doric column can be described
as seven diameters high, an Ionic column as eight diam-
eters high and a Corinthian column nine diameters high,
although the actual ratios used vary considerably in both
ancient and revived examples, but keeping to the trend of The Doric order of the Parthenon
increasing slimness between the orders. Sometimes this
is phrased as “lower diameters high”, to establish which
part of the shaft has been measured.
6 CONTENTS

Doric order with an egg-and-dart motif. The Ionic shaft comes with
four more flutes than the Doric counterpart (totalling 24).
Main article: Doric order The Ionic base has two convex moldings called tori which
are separated by a scotia.
The Doric order originated on the mainland and western The Ionic order is also marked by an entasis, a curved
Greece. It is the simplest of the orders, characterized by tapering in the column shaft. A column of the ionic or-
short, faceted, heavy columns with plain, round capitals der is nine times its lower diameter. The shaft itself is
(tops) and no base. With a height that is only four to eight eight diameters high. The architrave of the entablature
times its diameter, the columns are the most squat of all commonly consists of three stepped bands (fasciae). The
orders. The shaft of the Doric order is channeled with frieze comes without the Doric triglyph and metope. The
20 flutes. The capital consists of a necking which is of frieze sometimes comes with a continuous ornament such
a simple form. The echinus is convex and the abacus is as carved figures instead.
square.
Above the capital is a square abacus connecting the cap-
ital to the entablature. The Entablature is divided into
three horizontal registers, the lower part of which is ei-
ther smooth or divided by horizontal lines. The upper
half is distinctive for the Doric order. The frieze of the
Doric entablature is divided into triglyphs and metopes.
A triglyph is a unit consisting of three vertical bands
which are separated by grooves. Metopes are the plain
or carved reliefs between two triglyphs.
The Greek forms of the Doric order come without an in-
dividual base. They instead are placed directly on the
stylobate. Later forms, however, came with the conven-
tional base consisting of a plinth and a torus. The Roman
versions of the Doric order have smaller proportions. As
a result, they appear lighter than the Greek orders.

Corinthian order

Ionic order
Corinthian order

Ionic order Main article: Corinthian order

Main article: Ionic order
The Ionic order came from eastern Greece, where its ori-
gins are entwined with the similar but little known Aeolic
order. It is distinguished by slender, fluted pillars with a
large base and two opposed volutes (also called scrolls) in
the echinus of the capital. The echinus itself is decorated
The Corinthian order is the most ornate of the Greek or-
ders, characterized by a slender fluted column having an
ornate capital decorated with two rows of acanthus leaves
and four scrolls. It is commonly regarded as the most el-
egant of the three orders. The shaft of the Corinthian or-
der has 24 flutes. The column is commonly ten diameters
high.
0.2. CLASSICAL ORDER
The Roman writer Vitruvius credited the invention of
the Corinthian order to Callimachus, a Greek sculptor of
the 5th century BC. The oldest known building built ac-
cording to this order is the Choragic Monument of Lys-
icrates in Athens, constructed from 335 to 334 BC. The
Corinthian order was raised to rank by the writings of
Vitruvius in the 1st century BC.
0.2.4 Roman orders
The Romans adapted all the Greek orders and also devel-
oped two orders of their own, basically modifications of
Greek orders. However, it was not until the Renaissance
that these were named and formalized as the Tuscan and
Composite, respectively the plainest and most ornate of
the orders. The Romans also invented the superposed or-
der. A superposed order is when successive stories of a
building have different orders. The heaviest orders were
at the bottom, whilst the lightest came at the top. This
means that the Doric order was the order of the ground
floor, the Ionic order was used for the middle story, while
the Corinthian or the Composite order was used for the
top story.
The Colossal order was invented by architects in the
Renaissance. The Colossal order is characterized by
columns that extend the height of two or more stories. Composite order
The Tuscan order in Andrea Palladio, Quattro Libri di Architet- the only architectural writing that survived from Antiq-
tura, 1570
Tuscan order
Main article: Tuscan order
The Tuscan order has a very plain design, with a plain The term order, as well as the idea of redefining the
7
shaft, and a simple capital, base, and frieze. It is a sim-
plified adaptation of the Doric order by the Greeks. The
Tuscan order is characterized by an unfluted shaft and a
capital that only consists of an echinus and an abacus. In
proportions it is similar to the Doric order, but overall it
is significantly plainer. The column is normally seven di-
ameters high. Compared to the other orders, the Tuscan
order looks the most solid.
Composite order
Main article: Composite order
The Composite order is a mixed order, combining the vo-
lutes of the Ionic with the leaves of the Corinthian order.
Until the Renaissance it was not ranked as a separate or-
der. Instead it was considered as a late Roman form of the
Corinthian order. The column of the Composite order is
typically ten diameters high.
0.2.5 Historical development of the orders
The Renaissance period saw renewed interest in the liter-
ary sources of the ancient cultures of Greece and Rome,
and the fertile development of a new architecture based
on classical principles. The treatise De architectura by
Roman theoretician, architect and engineer Vitruvius, is
uity. Rediscovered in the 15th century, Vitruvius was
instantly hailed as the authority on architecture. How-
ever, in his text the word order is not to be found. To
describe the four species of columns (he only mentions:
Tuscan, Doric, Ionic and Corinthian) he uses, in fact, var-
ious words such as: genus (gender), mos (habit, fashion,
manner), opera (work).
8 CONTENTS
The St-Gervais-et-St-Protais Church in Paris presents columns of
the three orders : Doric at the ground floor, Ionic at the second
floor, Corinthian at the third floor
canon started circulating in Rome, at the beginning of
the 16th century, probably during the studies of Vit-
ruvius’ text conducted and shared by Peruzzi, Raphael
and Sangallo.[4] Ever since, the definition of the canon
has been a collective endeavor that involved several gen-
erations of European architects, from Renaissance and
Baroque periods, basing their theories both on the study
of Vitruvius’ writings and the observation of Roman ruins
(the Greek ruins became available only after Greek Inde-
pendence, 1821–23). What was added were rules for the
use of the Architectural Orders, and the exact proportions
of them down to the most minute detail. Commentary on
the appropriateness of the orders for temples devoted to
particular deities (Vitruvius I.2.5) were elaborated by Re-
naissance theorists, with Doric characterized as bold and
manly, Ionic as matronly, and Corinthian as maidenly.[5]
0.2.6 Vignola defining the concept of “or-
der”
Main article: The Five Orders of Architecture
Following the examples of Vitruvius and the five books of
the Regole generali di architettura sopra le cinque maniere
de gli edifici by Sebastiano Serlio, published from 1537
onwards, Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola produced an ar-
chitecture rule book that was not only more practical than
the previous two treatises, but also was systematically and In America, The American Builder’s Companion,[8] writ-
consistently adopting, for the first time, the term order to ten in the early 19th century by the architect Asher Ben-
The Tower of The Five Orders at the Bodleian Library at Oxford
University, completed in 1619, includes Tuscan through Com-
posite orders.
define each of the five different species of columns in-
herited from Antiquity. A first publication of the vari-
ous plates, as separate sheets, appeared in Rome in 1562,
with the title: Regola delli Cinque Ordini di Architettura
(Canon of the Five Orders of Architecture [6] ). As David
Watkin has pointed out, Vignola’s book “was to have an
astonishing publishing history of over 500 editions in 400
years in ten languages, Italian, Dutch, English, Flemish,
French, German, Portuguese, Russian, Spanish, Swedish,
during which it became perhaps the most influential book
of all times”.[7] The book consisted simply of an intro-
duction followed by 32 annotated plates, highlighting the
proportional system with all the minute details of the Five
Architectural Orders. According to Christof Thoenes,
the main expert of Renaissance architectural treatises,
“in accordance with Vitruvius’s example, Vignola chose
a “module” equal to a half-diameter which is the base of
the system. All the other measurements are expressed
in fractions or in multiples of this module. The result
is an arithmetical model, and with its help each order,
harmoniously proportioned, can easily be adapted to any
given height, of a façade or an interior. From this point
of view, Vignola’s Regola is a remarkable intellectual
achievement”.
0.2. CLASSICAL ORDER
jamin, influenced many builders in the eastern states, par-
ticularly those who developed what became known as the
Federal style. The last American re-interpretation of Vi-
gnola’s Regola, was edited in 1904 by William Robert
Ware.[9]
The break from the classical mode came first with the
Gothic revival, then the development of modernism dur-
ing the 19th century. The Bauhaus promoted pure func-
tionalism, stripped of superfluous ornament, and that has
become one of the defining characteristics of modern ar-
chitecture. There are some exceptions. Postmodernism
introduced an ironic use of the orders as a cultural refer-
ence, divorced from the strict rules of composition. On
the other hand, a few practitioners e.g. Quinlan Terry and
Stuart Martin still work in a traditional classical idiom.
Corn capital at the Litchfield Villa Prospect Park (Brooklyn) (A.J.
Davis, architect)
0.2.7 Nonce orders
Several orders, usually based upon the composite order
and only varying in the design of the capitals, have been
invented under the inspiration of specific occasions, but
have not been used again. Thus they may be termed
“nonce orders” on the analogy of nonce words. Robert
Adam's brother James was in Rome in 1762, drawing an-
tiquities under the direction of Clérisseau; he invented
a British Order, of which his ink-and-wash rendering
with red highlighting is at the Avery Library, Columbia
University. Adam published an engraving of it. In its
capital the heraldic lion and unicorn take the place of
the Composite’s volutes, a Byzantine/Romanesque con-
ception, but expressed in terms of neoclassical realism.
In 1789 George Dance invented an Ammonite Order, a
variant of Ionic substituting volutes in the form of fossil
ammonites for John Boydell's Shakespeare Gallery in Pall
Mall, London.
In the United States Benjamin Latrobe, the architect of
the Capitol building in Washington DC, designed a se-
ries of botanically American orders. Most famous is
the order substituting corncobs and their husks, which
9
was executed by Giuseppe Franzoni and employed in the
small domed Vestibule of the Supreme Court. Only the
Supreme Court survived the fire of August 24, 1814,
nearly intact. With peace restored, Latrobe designed an
American order that substituted for the acanthus tobacco
leaves, of which he sent a sketch to Thomas Jefferson
in a letter, November 5, 1816. He was encouraged to
send a model of it, which remains at Monticello. In
the 1830s Alexander Jackson Davis admired it enough to
make a drawing of it. In 1809 Latrobe invented a second
American order, employing magnolia flowers constrained
within the profile of classical mouldings, as his drawing
demonstrates. It was intended for “the Upper Columns in
the Gallery of the Entrance of the Chamber of the Sen-
ate” (United States Capitol exhibit).
The “Delhi order” at Rashtrapati Bhavan, New Delhi
Edwin Lutyens, who from 1912 laid out New Delhi as
the new seat of government for the British Empire in In-
dia,[10] designed a Delhi Order having a capital display-
ing a band of vertical ridges, and with bells hanging at
each corner as a replacement for volutes.[11] His design
for the new city’s central palace, Viceroy’s House, now the
Presidential residence Rashtrapati Bhavan, was a thor-
ough integration of elements of Indian architecture into a
building of classical forms and proportions,[12] and made
use of the order throughout.[11] The Delhi Order reap-
pears in some later Lutyens buildings including Campion
Hall, Oxford.[13]
These nonce orders all express the “speaking architec-
ture” (architecture parlante) that was taught in the Paris
courses, most explicitly by Étienne-Louis Boullée, in
which sculptural details of classical architecture could
be enlisted to speak symbolically, the better to express
the purpose of the structure and enrich its visual mean-
ing with specific appropriateness. This idea was taken
up strongly in the training of Beaux-Arts architecture, ca
1875-1915.
0.2.8 See also
• Temple (Greek)
• Temple (Roman)
• De architectura by Vitruvius
10 CONTENTS

• Five Orders of Periwigs • Barozzi da Vignola, Giacomo, Canon of the Five

Orders, Translated by John Leeke (1669), with an
• Persian column introduction by David Watkin, Dover Publications,
N.Y., 2011
0.2.9 Notes • Chitham, Robert (2005). The Classical Orders Of
Architecture. Elsevier/Architectural Press. ISBN
[1] Joseph Gwilt, The Encyclopedia of Architecture
978-0-7506-6124-9.
[2] Summerson, 7-15
• James Stevens Curl (2003). Classical Architecture:
[3] Summerson, 19-21 An Introduction to Its Vocabulary and Essentials,
With a Select Glossary of Terms. W. W. Norton &
[4] H. Burns and H. Gunthers, 24éme Colloque International
Company. ISBN 978-0-393-73119-4.
d'Etude Humanistes, Tours 1981

[5] Julian Small, “The five orders of classical architecture”.

[6] The most recent English translation is the one, with an
introduction and commentary by Branko Mitrovic, N.Y.
1999
[7] David Watkin, Introduction to the Canon of the Five Or-
ders of Architecture, translated by John Leeke, reprint of
the 1699 edition, N.Y., 2011
[8] Benjamin, Asher (1827). The American Builder’s Com-
panion: Or, a System of Architecture Particularly Adapted
to the Present Style of Building. Dover Publications. ISBN
978-0-486-22236-3.
• John Newenham Summerson (1963). The Classical
Language of Architecture. The MIT Press. ISBN
978-0-262-69012-6.
• Tzonis, Alexander.; Lefaivre, Liane. (1986). Classi-
cal architecture: the poetics of order. The MIT Press.
ISBN 978-0-262-70031-3.
• Gromort, Georges (2001). The Elements of Classi-
cal Architecture. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN
978-0-393-73051-7.

[9] Ware, William R. (1994). The American Vignola: a guide

0.3 Outline of classical architec-
to the making of classical architecture. Courier Dover Pub- ture
lications. p. 160. ISBN 978-0-486-28310-4.

[10] Gradidge, Roderick (1981). Edwin Lutyens: Architect
Laureate. London: George Allen and Unwin. p. 69.
ISBN 0-04-720023-5.
[11] Gradidge, Roderick (1981). Edwin Lutyens: Architect
Laureate. London: George Allen and Unwin. p. 151.
ISBN 0-04-720023-5.
[12] Wilhide, Elizabeth (2012). Sir Edwin Lutyens: Designing
in the English Tradition. London: National Trust Books. can be described as classical architecture. This broad use
pp. 41–42. ISBN 9781907892271.
[13] Gradidge, Roderick (1981). Edwin Lutyens: Architect
Laureate. London: George Allen and Unwin. p. 161.
ISBN 0-04-720023-5.
0.2.10 References
Classical architecture can be described as all of the fol-
• Summerson, John, The Classical Language of Ar- lowing:
chitecture, 1980 edition, Thames and Hudson World
of Art series, ISBN 0500201773
0.2.11 Further reading
• Barletta, Barbara A., The Origins of the Greek Archi-
tectural Orders (Cambridge University Press) 2001
• Barozzi da Vignola, Giacomo, Canon of the Five
Orders, Translated into English, with an introduc-
tion and commentary by Branko Mitrovic, Acanthus
Press, N.Y., 1999
The following outline is provided as an overview of and
topical guide to classical architecture:
Classical architecture – architecture of classical an-
tiquity, that is, ancient Greek architecture and the
architecture of ancient Rome. It also refers to the style or
styles of architecture influenced by those. For example,
most of the styles originating in post-renaissance Europe
of the term is employed by Sir John Summerson in The
Classical Language of Architecture.
0.3.1 What type of thing is classical archi-
tecture?
• Architecture – both the process and product of
planning, designing and construction. Architectural
works, in the material form of buildings, are of-
ten perceived as cultural and political symbols and
as works of art. Historical civilizations are often
identified with their surviving architectural achieve-
ments.
• Architectural style – classification of architec-
ture in terms of the use of form, techniques,
materials, time period, region and other stylis-
tic influences.
0.3. OUTLINE OF CLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE 11

• Art – aesthetic expression for presentation or per- • Temple of Hephaestus

formance, and the work produced from this activity. • Samothrace temple complex
The word “art” is therefore both a verb and a noun, • Parthenon
as is the term “classical architecture”.
• Acropolis of Athens
• Work of art – aesthetic physical item or artistic • Ancient Agora of Athens
creation.
• One of the arts – as an art form, classical archi- Ancient Roman architectural structures
tecture is an outlet of human expression, that is
usually influenced by culture and which in turn • Ancient Roman architecture –
helps to change culture. Classical architecture
is a physical manifestation of the internal hu- • De architectura – treatise on architecture writ-
man creative impulse. ten by the Roman architect Vitruvius and ded-
icated to his patron, the emperor Caesar Au-
• A branch of the visual arts – visual arts
gustus, as a guide for building projects. The
is a class of art forms, including painting,
work is one of the most important sources of
sculpture, photography, architecture and
modern knowledge of Roman building meth-
others, that focus on the creation of works
ods, planning, and design.
which are primarily visual in nature.
• Herodian architecture
• Form of classicism – high regard in the arts for clas- • Public architecture
sical antiquity, as setting standards for taste which
the classicists seek to emulate. • Amphitheatre
• Basilica
• Classicism in architecture – places emphasis • Circus (building)
on symmetry, proportion, geometry and the
• Forum (Roman)
regularity of parts as they are demonstrated in
the architecture of Classical antiquity and in • Insulae
particular, the architecture of Ancient Rome, • Temple (Roman)
of which many examples remained. • Roman theatre
• Thermae
• Triumphal arch
0.3.2 Classical architectural structures
• Public buildings
• List of ancient architectural records • List of Roman amphitheatres
• Baths of Trajan
Ancient Greek architectural structures • Baths of Diocletian
• Baths of Caracalla
• Ancient Greek architecture – architecture produced • Colosseum
by the Greek-speaking people (Hellenic people) • Trajan’s Column, in Rome
whose culture flourished on the Greek mainland and
• Circus Maximus, in Rome
Peloponnesus, the Aegean Islands, and in colonies in
Asia Minor and Italy for a period from about 900 BC • Curia Hostilia (Senate House), in Rome
until the 1st century AD, with the earliest remaining • Domus Aurea (former building)
architectural works dating from around 600 BC. • Roman Forum
• Pantheon
• Classical orders –
• Tower of Hercules
• Doric order –
• Tropaeum Traiani
• Ionic order –
• Hadrian’s Villa
• Corinthian order –
• Roman lighthouse
• Hellenistic architecture – • Roman watermill
• Ancient Greek roofs • Private architecture
• Buildings • Roman gardens
• Ancient Greek temple • Alyscamps, a necropolis in Arles, France
• List of Ancient Greek temples • Domus
• Temple of Artemis • Catacombs of Rome
• Temple of Zeus • Roman villa
12
• Architectural elements
• Hypocaust
• Mosaics
• Roman brick
• Roman roofs
• Roman spiral stairs
• Roman domes
0.3.3 Classical architectural styles
• Byzantine architecture –
• Pre-Romanesque architecture –
• Romanesque architecture –
• Gothic architecture –
• Renaissance architecture –
• Baroque architecture –
• Palladian architecture – European style of architec-
ture derived from the designs of the Venetian archi-
tect Andrea Palladio (1508–1580). Palladio’s work
was strongly based on the symmetry, perspective
and values of the formal classical temple architec-
ture of the Ancient Greeks and Romans.
• Georgian architecture – set of architectural styles
current between 1720 and 1840. In the main-
stream of Georgian style were both Palladian
architecture— and its whimsical alternatives,
Gothic and Chinoiserie, which were the English-
speaking world’s equivalent of European Rococo.
• Neoclassical architecture – architectural style pro-
duced by the neoclassical movement that began in
the mid-18th century, manifested both in its details
as a reaction against the Rococo style of natural-
istic ornament, and in its architectural formulas as
an outgrowth of some classicizing features of Late 0.3.4 Classical architectural concepts
Baroque. In its purest form it is a style principally
derived from the architecture of Classical Greece Building elements
and the architecture of the Italian architect Andrea
Palladio.
• Empire style – sometimes considered the sec-
ond phase of Neoclassicism, is an early-19th-
century design movement in architecture, fur-
niture, other decorative arts, and the visual arts • Apollarium
followed in Europe and America until around
1830, although in the U. S. it continued in
popularity in conservative regions outside the
major metropolitan centers well past the mid-
19th century.
• Biedermeier architecture – neoclassical archi-
tecture in Central Europe between 1815 and
1848.
CONTENTS
• Resort architecture (Bäderarchitektur) – a spe-
cific neoclassical style that came up at the end
of the 18th century in German seaside resorts
and is widely used in the region until today.
• Federal architecture – classicizing architec-
ture built in the United States between c. 1780
and 1830, and particularly from 1785 to 1815.
This style shares its name with its era, the Fed-
eral Period.
• Regency architecture – buildings built in
Britain during the period in the early 19th cen-
tury when George IV was Prince Regent, and
also to later buildings following the same style.
The style corresponds to the Biedermeier style
in the German-speaking lands, Federal style
in the United States and to the French Empire
style.
• Greek Revival architecture – architectural
movement of the late 18th and early 19th cen-
turies, predominantly in Northern Europe and
the United States. A product of Hellenism, it
may be looked upon as the last phase in the
development of Neoclassical architecture.
• Neoclassical architecture in Poland
• Nordic Classicism – style of architecture that briefly
blossomed in the Nordic countries (Sweden, Den-
mark, Norway and Finland) between 1910 and
1930.
• New Classical Architecture – Architectural move-
ment to revive, and embrace classical architecture
as a legitimate form of architecture for the 20th and
21st Centuries. Beginning first with Postmodern
architecture's criticism of modernist architectural
movements like International Style, New Classical
architecture seeks to be an alternative to the ongo-
ing dominance of modernist architecture.
• Acroterion – ornament mounted at the apex of the
pediment of a building
• Aedicule – small inset shrine
• Aegis
• Apse
• Arch
• Architrave
• Archivolt
0.3. OUTLINE OF CLASSICAL ARCHITECTURE 13

• Ante-Fixae • Pediment

• Amphiprostyle • Peristyle

• Atlas (architecture) – male figure support • Pilaster

• Bracket (architecture) • Plinth

• Capital • Portico

• Caryatid - female figure support • Portico types – tetrastyle, hexastyle, octastyle,

decastyle
• Cella
• Pronaos
• Coffer
• Prostyle
• Coin
• Quoin
• Colonnade
• Rustication (architecture)
• Column
• Stoa
• Cornice
• Suspensura
• Crepidoma
• Term (architecture)
• Crocket
• Tracery
• Cupola • Triglyph
• Decastyle • Sima
• Diocletian (thermal) window • Stylobate
• Dome • Volute
• Eisodos
Classical orders
• Entablature - superstructure resting on the column
capitals • Classical orders
• Epistyle - see Architrave • Composite order
• Euthynteria • Corinthian order
• Exedra • Doric order
• Finial • Ionic order
• Frieze • Tuscan order
• Gutta
Types of building
• Imbrex and tegula - interlocking roof tiles used in
ancient Greek and Roman architecture • Agora
• Keystone • Amphitheatre
• Metope (architecture) • Heroon
• Naos - see Cella • Odeion
• Nave • Orchestra
• Opisthodomos - rear porch of a temple • Skênê
• Ornament (architecture) • Stoa
• Orthostates • Temple
14 CONTENTS

• Theatre
• Tholos
• Treasury

0.3.5 Classical architecture organizations

• The Institute of Classical Architecture & Classical
America

0.3.6 Classical architecture publications

• De Re Aedificatoria – classic architectural treatise
written by Leon Battista Alberti between 1443 and
1452.[1] Although largely dependent on Vitruvius'
De architectura, it was the first theoretical book on
the subject written in the Italian Renaissance and in
1485 became the first printed book on architecture.
• The Classical Language of Architecture

0.3.7 Persons influential in classical archi-

tecture
• John Summerson – one of the leading British archi-
tectural historians of the 20th century.

0.3.8 See also

• Architectural glossary

0.3.9 References
• "Greek Temple.” The Macmillan Visual Dictio-
nary. Unabridged Compact ed. 1995. ISBN 0-02-
860810-0
• The Elements of Classical Architecture (Classical
America Series in Art and Architecture). Gromort
Georges (Author), Richard Sammons (Introductory
Essay), W. W. Norton & Co. (June 20, 2001); ISBN
0-393-73051-4

[1] Cecil Grayson, in Kunstkronik 213 (1960:359ff, and

Münchener Jahrbuch der Bildenden Kunst 11 (1960),
demonstrated that the bulk of the composition was car-
ried out between these dates.

0.3.10 External links

• This outline displayed as a mindmap, at wiki-
mindmap.com
• Illustrated Glossary of Classical Architecture
• Classical architecture – article from Encyclopædia
Britannica online
Chapter 1

Greek

1.1 Ancient Greek architecture
The Parthenon under restoration in 2008
of the [Greek] temple.....placed before us with a physical
presence more intense, more alive than that of any later
building”.[3]
The formal vocabulary of ancient Greek architecture, in
particular the division of architectural style into three
defined orders: the Doric Order, the Ionic Order and
the Corinthian Order, was to have profound effect on
Western architecture of later periods. The architecture of
ancient Rome grew out of that of Greece and maintained
its influence in Italy unbroken until the present day. From
the Renaissance, revivals of Classicism have kept alive
not only the precise forms and ordered details of Greek
architecture, but also its concept of architectural beauty
based on balance and proportion. The successive styles of
Neoclassical architecture and Greek Revival architecture
followed and adapted Ancient Greek styles closely.

1.1.1 Influences
The architecture of ancient Greece is the architecture
produced by the Greek-speaking people (Hellenic peo-
Geography
ple) whose culture flourished on the Greek mainland,
the Peloponnese, the Aegean Islands, and in colonies in The mainland and islands of Greece are rocky, with
Anatolia and Italy for a period from about 900 BC until deeply indented coastline, and rugged mountain ranges
the 1st century AD, with the earliest remaining architec-
with few substantial forests. The most freely available
tural works dating from around 600 BC.[1] building material is stone. Limestone was readily avail-
Ancient Greek architecture is best known from its tem- able and easily worked.[4] There is an abundance of high
ples, many of which are found throughout the region, quality white marble both on the mainland and islands,
mostly as ruins but many substantially intact. The sec- particularly Paros and Naxos. This finely grained mate-
ond important type of building that survives all over the rial was a major contributing factor to precision of de-
Hellenic world is the open-air theatre, with the earli- tail, both architectural and sculptural, that adorned an-
est dating from around 525-480 BC. Other architectural cient Greek architecture.[5] Deposits of high quality pot-
forms that are still in evidence are the processional gate- ter’s clay were found throughout Greece and the Islands,
way (propylon), the public square (agora) surrounded with major deposits near Athens. It was used not only
by storied colonnade (stoa), the town council building for pottery vessels, but also roof tiles and architectural
(bouleuterion), the public monument, the monumental decoration.[6]
tomb (mausoleum) and the stadium. The climate of Greece is maritime, with both the cold-
Ancient Greek architecture is distinguished by its highly ness of winter and the heat of summer tempered by sea
formalised characteristics, both of structure and decora- breezes. This led to a lifestyle where many activities took
tion. This is particularly so in the case of temples where place outdoors. Hence temples were placed on hilltops,
each building appears to have been conceived as a sculp- their exteriors designed as a visual focus of gatherings
tural entity within the landscape, most often raised on and processions, while theatres were often an enhance-
high ground so that the elegance of its proportions and ment of a naturally occurring sloping site where people
the effects of light on its surfaces might be viewed from could sit, rather than a containing structure. Colonnades
all angles.[2] Nikolaus Pevsner refers to “the plastic shape encircling buildings, or surrounding courtyards provided

15
16 CHAPTER 1. GREEK

shelter from the sun and from sudden winter storms.[5] History
The light of Greece may be another important factor in
the development of the particular character of ancient
Historians divide ancient Greek civilization into two eras,
Greek architecture. The light is often extremely bright,
the Hellenic period (from around 900 BC to the death
with both the sky and the sea vividly blue. The clear light
of Alexander the Great in 323 BC), and the Hellenistic
and sharp shadows give a precision to the details of land-
period (323 BC to 30 AD).[7] During the earlier Hel-
scape, pale rocky outcrops and seashore. This clarity is
lenic period, substantial works of architecture began to
alternated with periods of haze that varies in colour to the
appear around 600 BC. During the later (Hellenistic) pe-
light on it. In this characteristic environment, the ancient
riod, Greek culture spread widely, initially as a result of
Greek architects constructed buildings that were marked
Alexander’s conquest of other lands, and later as a result
by precision of detail.[5] The gleaming marble surfaces
of the rise of the Roman Empire, which adopted much of
were smooth, curved, fluted, or ornately sculpted to re-
Greek culture.[1][8]
flect the sun, cast graded shadows and change in colour
with the ever-changing light of day. Before the Hellenic era, two major cultures had domi-
nated the region: the Minoan (c. 2800–1100 BC), and
the Mycenaean (c. 1500–1100 BC). Minoan is the name
given by modern historians to the culture of the people
of ancient Crete, known for its elaborate and richly dec-
orated palaces, and for its pottery painted with floral and
marine motifs. The Mycenaean culture, which flourished
on the Peloponnesus, was quite different in character. Its
people built citadels, fortifications and tombs rather than
palaces, and decorated their pottery with bands of march-
The rugged ing soldiers rather than octopus and seaweed. Both these
indented coastline at Rhamnous, Attica civilizations came to an end around 1100 BC, that of
Crete possibly because of volcanic devastation, and that
of Mycenae because of an invasion by the Dorian peo-
ple who lived on the Greek mainland.[9] Following these
events, there was a period from which few signs of cul-
ture remain. This period is thus often referred to as a
Dark Age.

The Theatre and

Temple of Apollo in mountainous country at Delphi

Art

The Acropolis,
Athens, is high above the city on a natural prominence.

The Islands of the Black figure Amphora,

Aegean from Cape Sounion Atalante painter (500-490 BC), shows proportion and
style that are hallmarks of ancient Greek art
1.1. ANCIENT GREEK ARCHITECTURE 17

Religion and philosophy

above:
Modern model of ancient Olympia with the Temple of
The Kritios Boy, (c.480 BC), typifies Zeus at the centre
the tradition of free-standing figures right: Recreation of the colossal statue of Athena, once
housed in the Parthenon, with sculptor Alan LeQuire

The art history of the Hellenic era is generally subdivided

into four periods: the Protogeometric (1100–900 BC),
the Geometric (900–700 BC), the Archaic (700 – 500
BC) and the Classical (500 – 323 BC)[10] with sculpture
being further divided into Severe Classical, High Classi-
cal and Late Classical.[1] The first signs of the particular
artistic character that defines ancient Greek architecture
are to be seen in the pottery of the Dorian Greeks from
the 10th century BC. Already at this period it is created
with a sense of proportion, symmetry and balance not ap-
parent in similar pottery from Crete and Mycenae. The
decoration is precisely geometric, and ordered neatly into
zones on defined areas of each vessel. These qualities
were to manifest themselves not only through a millen-
nium of Greek pottery making, but also in the architec-
ture that was to emerge in the 6th century.[11] The major
development that occurred was in the growing use of the The religion of ancient Greece was a form of nature
human figure as the major decorative motif, and the in- worship that grew out of the beliefs of earlier cultures.
creasing surety with which humanity, its mythology, ac- However, unlike earlier cultures, man was no longer per-
tivities and passions were depicted.[1] ceived as being threatened by nature, but as its sublime
product.[8] The natural elements were personified as gods
The development in the depiction of the human form in of completely human form, and very human behaviour.[5]
pottery was accompanied by a similar development in
sculpture. The tiny stylised bronzes of the Geometric The home of the gods was thought to be Olympus, the
period gave way to life-sized highly formalised mono- highest mountain in Greece. The most important deities
lithic representation in the Archaic period. The Classi- were: Zeus, the supreme god and ruler of the sky; Hera,
cal period was marked by a rapid development towards his wife and goddess of marriage; Athena, goddess of
idealised but increasingly lifelike depictions of gods in wisdom; Poseidon, god of the sea; Demeter, goddess
human form.[12] This development had a direct effect on of the earth; Apollo, god of the sun, law, reason, mu-
the sculptural decoration of temples, as many of the great- sic and poetry; Artemis, goddess of the moon, the hunt
est extant works of ancient Greek sculpture once adorned and the wilderness; Aphrodite, goddess of love; Ares,
temples,[13] and many of the largest recorded statues of God of war; Hermes, god of commerce and medicine,
the age, such as the lost chryselephantine statues of Zeus Hephaestus, god of fire and metalwork, [5]
and Dionysus,
at the Temple of Zeus at Olympia and Athena at the god of wine and fruit-bearing plants. Worship, like
Parthenon, Athens, both over 40 feet high, were once many other activities, was done in community, in the
housed in them. [14] open. However, by 600 BC, the gods were often rep-
resented by large statues and it was necessary to provide
a building in which each of these could be housed. This
led to the development of temples.[15]
The ancient Greeks perceived order in the universe, and
in turn, applied order and reason to their creations. Their
18 CHAPTER 1. GREEK

humanist philosophy put mankind at the centre of things, which rose a low pitched gable or pediment.[7] This form
and promoted well-ordered societies and the develop- is thought to have contributed to temple architecture.
ment of democracy.[8] At the same time, the respect for
human intellect demanded reason, and promoted a pas-
sion for enquiry, logic, challenge, and problem solving.
The architecture of the ancient Greeks, and in particular,
temple architecture, responds to these challenges with a
passion for beauty, and for order and symmetry which is
the product of a continual search for perfection, rather
than a simple application of a set of working rules.

Plan of the
1.1.2 Architectural character House of Colline, 2nd century BC

Early development

There is a clear division between the architecture of the

preceding Mycenaean culture and Minoan cultures and
that of the ancient Greeks, the techniques and an under-
standing of their style being lost when these civilisations
fell.[4]
Mycenaean art is marked by its circular structures and The House of
tapered domes with flat-bedded, cantilevered courses.[9] Masks, Delos, 3rd century BC
This architectural form did not carry over into the ar-
chitecture of ancient Greece, but reappeared about 400
BC in the interior of large monumental tombs such as
the Lion Tomb at Cnidos (c. 350 BC). Little is known
of Mycenaean wooden or domestic architecture and any
continuing traditions that may have flowed into the early
buildings of the Dorian people.
The Minoan architecture of Crete, was of trabeated form
like that of ancient Greece. It employed wooden columns
The House of
with capitals, but the columns were of very different form
Masks
to Doric columns, being narrow at the base and splaying
[9]
upward. The earliest forms of columns in Greece seem
to have developed independently. As with Minoan ar-
chitecture, ancient Greek domestic architecture centred
on open spaces or courtyards surrounded by colonnades.
This form was adapted to the construction of hypostyle
halls within the larger temples. The evolution that oc-
curred in architecture was towards public building, first
and foremost the temple, rather than towards grand do-
mestic architecture such as had evolved in Crete.[2] The mosaic floor
of a house at Delos

Types of buildings
Main articles: Ancient Greek temple, Ancient Greek
theatre, Acropolis, Agora, Stoa, and List of Ancient
Greek temples
Domestic buildings The Greek word for the family
or household, oikos, is also the name for the house.
Houses followed several different types. It is probable
that many of the earliest houses were simple structures Many houses centred on a wide passage or “pasta” which
of two rooms, with an open porch or “pronaos” above
The construction of many houses employed walls of sun
dried clay bricks or wooden framework filled with fibrous
material such as straw or seaweed covered with clay or
plaster, on a base of stone which protected the more vul-
nerable elements from damp.[4] The roofs were probably
of thatch with eaves which overhung the permeable walls.
Many larger houses, such as those at Delos, were built of
stone and plastered. The roofing material for substantial
house was tile. Houses of the wealthy had mosaic floors
and demonstrated the Classical style.
1.1. ANCIENT GREEK ARCHITECTURE
ran the length of the house and opened at one side onto
a small courtyard which admitted light and air. Larger
houses had a fully developed peristyle courtyard at the
centre, with the rooms arranged around it. Some houses
had an upper floor which appears to have been reserved
for the use of the women of the family.[16]
City houses were built with adjoining walls and were di-
vided into small blocks by narrow streets. Shops were
sometimes located in the rooms towards the street. City
houses were inward-facing, with major openings looking at Priene
onto the central courtyard, rather than the street.[7]
Public buildings The rectangular temple is the most
common and best-known form of Greek public architec-
ture. The temple did not serve the same function as a
modern church, since the altar stood under the open sky
in the temenos or sacred precinct, often directly before
the temple. Temples served as the location of a cult image
and as a storage place or strong room for the treasury as-
sociated with the cult of the god in question, and as a place
for devotees of the god to leave their votive offerings,
such as statues, helmets and weapons. Some Greek tem-
ples appear to have been oriented astronomically.[17] The
temple was generally part of a religious precinct known
as the acropolis. According to Aristotle, '"the site should
be a spot seen far and wide, which gives good elevation
to virtue and towers over the neighbourhood”.[2] Small
circular temples, tholos were also constructed, as well as
small temple-like buildings that served as treasuries for
specific groups of donors.[18]
Porta Rosa, a
street (3rd century BCE) Velia, Italy
Greek towns of substantial size also had a palaestra or a
gymnasium, the social centre for male citizens which in-
The reconstructed cluded spectator areas, baths, toilets and club rooms.[22]
Stoa of Attalos, the Agora, Athens
19
The Bouleuterion,
The Stadium at
Epidauros
During the late 5th and 4th centuries BC, town planning
became an important consideration of Greek builders,
with towns such as Paestum and Priene being laid out
with a regular grid of paved streets and an agora or cen-
tral market place surrounded by a colonnade or stoa.
The completely restored Stoa of Attalos can be seen in
Athens. Towns were also equipped with a public foun-
tain where water could be collected for household use.
The development of regular town plans is associated with
Hippodamus of Miletus, a pupil of Pythagoras.[19][20][21]
Public buildings became “dignified and gracious struc-
tures”, and were sited so that they related to each other
architecturally.[20] The propylon or porch, formed the en-
trance to temple sanctuaries and other significant sites
with the best-surviving example being the Propylaea on
the Acropolis of Athens. The bouleuterion was a large
public building with a hypostyle hall that served as a court
house and as a meeting place for the town council (boule).
Remnants of bouleuterion survive at Athens, Olympia
and Miletus, the latter having held up to 1200 people.[22]
Every Greek town had an open-air theatre. These were
used for both public meetings as well as dramatic perfor-
mances. The theatre was usually set in a hillside outside
the town, and had rows of tiered seating set in a semi-
circle around the central performance area, the orchestra.
Behind the orchestra was a low building called the skênê,
which served as a store-room, a dressing-room, and also
as a backdrop to the action taking place in the orchestra.
A number of Greek theatres survive almost intact, the
best known being at Epidaurus, by the architect Polyk-
leitos the Younger.[19]
20 CHAPTER 1. GREEK

Other buildings associated with sports include the hippo-

drome for horse racing, of which only remnants have sur-
vived, and the stadium for foot racing, 600 feet in length,
of which examples exist at Olympia, Delphi, Epidarus
and Ephesus, while the Panathinaiko Stadium in Athens,
which seats 45,000 people, was restored in the 19th cen-
tury and was used in the 1896, 1906 and 2004 Olympic
Games.[22][23]

The
Palaestra at Olympia, used for boxing and wrestling

The Theatre of
Dionysus, Athens

Pebble mosaic Parts of an Ancient Greek temple of the Doric Order:

floor of a house at Olynthos, depicting Bellerophon 1. Tympanum, 2. Acroterium, 3. Sima 4. Cornice 5. Mutules 7.
Frieze 8. Triglyph 9. Metope
10. Regula 11. Gutta 12. Taenia 13. Architrave 14. Capital 15.
Abacus 16. Echinus 17. Column 18. Fluting 19. Stylobate

tal beams (lintels). Although the existent buildings of the

era are constructed in stone, it is clear that the origin of
the style lies in simple wooden structures, with vertical
posts supporting beams which carried a ridged roof. The
The Altar of posts and beams divided the walls into regular compart-
Hiero II at Syracuse ments which could be left as openings, or filled with sun
dried bricks, lathes or straw and covered with clay daub or
plaster. Alternately, the spaces might be filled with rub-
ble. It is likely that many early houses and temples were
Structure
constructed with an open porch or “pronaos” above which
[7]
Column and lintel The architecture of ancient Greece rose a low pitched gable or pediment.
is of a trabeated or “post and lintel” form, i.e. it is The earliest temples, built to enshrine statues of deities,
composed of upright beams (posts) supporting horizon- were probably of wooden construction, later replaced by
1.1. ANCIENT GREEK ARCHITECTURE 21

the more durable stone temples many of which are still tion on the exterior of the building.
in evidence today. The signs of the original timber na-
ture of the architecture were maintained in the stone
buildings.[24]
A few of these temples are very large, with several, such
as the Temple of Zeus Olympus and the Olympians at
Athens being well over 300 feet in length, but most were Masonry Every temple rested on a masonry base
less than half this size. It appears that some of the called the crepidoma, generally of three steps, of which
large temples began as wooden constructions in which the the upper one which carried the columns was the stylo-
columns were replaced piecemeal as stone became avail- bate. Masonry walls were employed for temples from
able. This, at least was the interpretation of the historian about 600 BC onwards. Masonry of all types was used for
Pausanias looking at the Temple of Hera at Olympia in ancient Greek buildings, including rubble, but the finest
the 2nd century AD.[2] ashlar masonry was usually employed for temple walls, in
The stone columns are made of a series of solid stone regular courses and large sizes to minimise the joints.[7]
cylinders or “drums” that rest on each other without mor- The blocks were rough hewn and hauled from quarries
tar, but were sometimes centred with a bronze pin. The to be cut and bedded very precisely, with mortar hardly
columns are wider at the base than at the top, tapering ever being used. Blocks, particularly those of columns
with an outward curve known as “entasis”. Each column and parts of the building bearing loads were sometimes
has a capital of two parts, the upper, on which rests the fixed in place or reinforced with iron clamps, dowels and
lintels, being square and called the “abacus”. The part rods of wood, bronze or iron fixed in lead to minimise
of the capital that rises from the column itself is called corrosion.[4]
the “echinus”. It differs according to the order, being
plain in the Doric Order, fluted in the Ionic and foliate in
the Corinthian. Doric and usually Ionic capitals are cut
with vertical grooves known as “fluting”. This fluting or
grooving of the columns is a retention of an element of
the original wooden architecture.[24]
Openings Door and window openings were spanned
with a lintel, which in a stone building limited the possi-
ble width of the opening. The distance between columns
Entablature and pediment The columns of a tem- was similarly affected by the nature of the lintel, columns
ple support a structure that rises in two main stages, the on the exterior of buildings and carrying stone lintels be-
entablature and the pediment. ing closer together than those on the interior, which car-
The entablature is the major horizontal structural element ried wooden lintels.[25][26] Door and window openings
supporting the roof and encircling the entire building. It narrowed towards the top.[26] Temples were constructed
is composed of three parts. Resting on the columns is the without windows, the light to the naos entering through
architrave made of a series of stone “lintels” that spanned the door. It has been suggested that some temples were
the space between the columns, and meet each other at a lit from openings in the roof.[25] A door of the Ionic Order
joint directly above the centre of each column. at the Erechtheion (17 feet high and 7.5 feet wide at the
top) retains many of its features intact, including mould-
Above the architrave is a second horizontal stage called
ings, and an entablature supported on console brackets.
the “frieze”. The frieze is one of the major decorative
(See Architectural Decoration, below)[26][27][28]
elements of the building and carries a sculptured relief.
In the case of Ionic and Corinthian architecture, the relief Structure, masonry, openings and roof of Greek temples
decoration runs in a continuous band, but in the Doric
Order, it is divided into sections called “metopes” which
fill the spaces between vertical rectangular blocks called
“triglyphs”. The triglyphs are vertically grooved like the
Doric columns, and retain the form of the wooden beams
that would once have supported the roof.
The upper band of the entablature is called the "cornice",
which is generally ornately decorated on its lower edge.
The cornice retains the shape of the beams that would
once have supported the wooden roof at each end of
the building. At the front and rear of each temple, The
the entablature supports a triangular structure called the Parthenon, shows the common structural features of
"pediment". The triangular space framed by the cornices Ancient Greek architecture: crepidoma, columns, entab-
is the location of the most significant sculptural decora- lature, pediment.
22 CHAPTER 1. GREEK

and hypostyle, rather than on a trussed wooden frame,

which came into use in Greek architecture only in the
3rd century BC.[7]
Ancient Greek buildings of timber, clay and plaster con-
struction were probably roofed with thatch. With the
rise of stone architecture came the appearance of fired
ceramic roof tiles. These early roof tiles showed an S-
shape, with the pan and cover tile forming one piece.
They were much larger than modern roof tiles, being up
to 90 cm (35.43 in) long, 70 cm (27.56 in) wide, 3–4 cm
Temple (1.18–1.57 in) thick and weighing around 30 kg (66 lb)
of Hephaestos, fluted Doric columns with abacuses sup- apiece.[29][30] Only stone walls, which were replacing the
porting double beams of the architrave earlier mudbrick and wood walls, were strong enough to
support the weight of a tiled roof.[31]
The earliest finds of roof tiles of the Archaic pe-
riod in Greece are documented from a very restricted
area around Corinth, where fired tiles began to replace
thatched roofs at the temples of Apollo and Poseidon be-
tween 700 and 650 BC.[32] Spreading rapidly, roof tiles
were within fifty years in evidence for a large number of
sites around the Eastern Mediterranean, including Main-
land Greece, Western Asia Minor, Southern and Cen-
tral Italy.[32] Being more expensive and labour-intensive
Erechtheion: masonry, door, to produce than thatch, their introduction has been ex-
stone lintels, coffered ceiling panels plained by the fact that their fireproof quality would have
given desired protection to the costly temples.[32] As a
side-effect, it has been assumed that the new stone and
tile construction also ushered in the end of overhanging
eaves in Greek architecture, as they made the need for an
extended roof as rain protection for the mudbrick walls
obsolete.[31]
Vaults and arches were not generally used, but begin to
appear in tombs (in a “beehive” or cantilevered form such
as used in Mycenaea) and occasionally, as an external
feature, exedrae of voussoired construction from the 5th
At the century BC. The dome and vault never became significant
Temple of Aphaia, the hypostyle columns rise in two structural features, as they were to become in ancient Ro-
tiers, to a height greater than the walls, to support a roof man architecture.[7]
without struts.

Temple plans Further information: List of Ancient

Roof Further information: List of Greco-Roman roofs
The widest span of a temple roof was across the cella,
or internal space. In a large building, this space contains
columns to support the roof, the architectural form being
known as hypostyle. It appears that, although the archi-
tecture of ancient Greece was initially of wooden con-
struction, the early builders did not have the concept of
the diagonal truss as a stabilising member. This is evi-
denced by the nature of temple construction in the 6th
century BC, where the rows of columns supporting the
roof the cella rise higher than the outer walls, unneces-
sary if roof trusses are employed as an integral part of
the wooden roof. The indication is that initially all the
rafters were supported directly by the entablature, walls
Greek temples
Most ancient Greek temples were rectangular, and were
approximately twice as long as they were wide, with
some notable exceptions such as the enormous Temple of
Olympian Zeus, Athens with a length of nearly 2½ times
its width. A number of surviving temple-like structures
are circular, and are referred to as tholos.[33] The small-
est temples are less than 25 metres (approx. 75 feet) in
length, or in the case of the circular tholos, in diameter.
The great majority of temples are between 30–60 me-
tres (approx. 100–200 feet) in length. A small group of
Doric temples, including the Parthenon, are between 60–
80 metres (approx. 200–260 feet) in length. The largest
temples, mainly Ionic and Corinthian, but including the
Doric Temple of the Olympian Zeus, Agrigento, were be-
tween 90–120 metres (approx. 300–390 feet) in length.
1.1. ANCIENT GREEK ARCHITECTURE 23

• Peripteral octastyle describes a temple with a single

naos
row of columns around the naos, (figure 7.) with
naos naos
(cella)
(cella) naos
eight columns across the front, like the Parthenon,
pronaos
Athens. (figs. 6 and 9.) [33]
anta double prostyle amphiprostyle
anta tholos

[posticum]

opisthodomos
• Dipteral decastyle describes the huge temple of
opistho-
domos
Apollo at Didyma, with the naos surrounded by a
naos
naos
(cella)
double row of columns, (figure 6.) with ten columns
(cella) naos
(cella) across the entrance front.[33]

peripteral pseudoperipteral

pseudodipteral
• The Temple of Zeus Olympius at Agrigentum, is
dipteral

termed Pseudo-periteral heptastyle, because its en-

Plans of Ancient Greek Temples circling colonnade has pseudo columns that are at-
Top: 1. distyle in antis, 2. amphidistyle in antis, 3. tholos, 4. tached to the walls of the naos. (figure 8.) Heptastyle
prostyle tetrastyle, 5. amphiprostyle tetrastyle, means that it has seven columns across the entrance
Bottom: 6. dipteral octastyle, 7. peripteral hexastyle, 8. front.[33]
pseudoperipteral hexastyle, 9. pseudodipteral octastyle

The temple rises from a stepped base or "stylobate",

which elevates the structure above the ground on which Proportion and optical illusion The ideal of propor-
it stands. Early examples, such as the Temple of Zeus tion that was used by ancient Greek architects in design-
at Olympus, have two steps, but the majority, like the ing temples was not a simple mathematical progression
Parthenon, have three, with the exceptional example of using a square module. The math involved a more com-
the Temple of Apollo at Didyma having six.[34] The core plex geometrical progression, the so-called Golden mean.
of the building is a masonry-built “naos” within which is The ratio is similar to that of the growth patterns of many
a cella, a windowless room originally housing the statue spiral forms that occur in nature such as rams’ horns,
of the god. The cella generally has a porch or “pronaos” nautilus shells, fern fronds, and vine tendrils and which
before it, and perhaps a second chamber or “antenaos” were a source of decorative motifs employed by ancient
serving as a treasury or repository for trophies and gifts. Greek architects as particularly in evidence in the volutes
The chambers were lit by a single large doorway, fitted of capitals of the Ionic and Corinthian Orders.[35]
with a wrought iron grill. Some rooms appear to have
been illuminated by skylights.[34]
On the stylobate, often completely surrounding the naos, √
stand rows of columns. Each temple is defined as be- 1 1+ 5
= φ − 1; φ = ≈ 1.618
ing of a particular type, with two terms: one describing φ 2
the number of columns across the entrance front, and the
other defining their distribution.[34]
The ancient Greek architects took a philosophic approach
Examples: to the rules and proportions. The determining factor in
the mathematics of any notable work of architecture was
• Distyle in antis describes a small temple with two its ultimate appearance. The architects calculated for per-
columns at the front, which are set between the pro- spective, for the optical illusions that make edges of ob-
jecting walls of the pronaos or porch, like the Tem- jects appear concave and for the fact that columns that are
ple of Nemesis at Rhamnus. (see left, figure 1.) [33] viewed against the sky look different from those adjacent
that are viewed against a shadowed wall. Because of these
• Amphiprostyle tetrastyle describes a small temple
factors, the architects adjusted the plans so that the ma-
that has columns at both ends which stand clear of
jor lines of any significant building are rarely straight.[35]
the naos. Tetrastyle indicates that the columns are
The most obvious adjustment is to the profile of columns,
four in number, like those of the Temple on the Ilis-
which narrow from base to top. However, the narrowing
sus in Athens. (figure 4.) [33]
is not regular, but gently curved so that each columns ap-
• Peripteral hexastyle describes a temple with a sin- pears to have a slight swelling, called entasis below the
gle row of peripheral columns around the naos, with middle. The entasis is never sufficiently pronounced as
six columns across the front, like the Theseion in to make the swelling wider than the base; it is controlled
Athens. (figure 7.) [33] by a slight reduction in the rate of decrease of diameter.[7]
24 CHAPTER 1. GREEK

both slightly wider than their neighbours and are slightly

closer than any of the others.[37]

1.1.3 Style

Orders of ancient Greek architecture

The main lines of the

Parthenon are all curved.

Diagram showing
the optical corrections made by the architects of the
Parthenon

ab
A sectioned nautilus Capital of the Ionic Order showing volutes and orna-
shell. These shells may have provided inspiration for mented echinus
voluted Ionic capitals. left: Architectural elements of the Doric Order showing
simple curved echinus of capital

The growth
of the nautilus corresponds to the Golden Mean

The Parthenon, the Temple to the Goddess Athena on

the Acropolis in Athens, is the epitome of what Nikolaus
Pevsner called “the most perfect example ever achieved
of architecture finding its fulfilment in bodily beauty”.[3]
Helen Gardner refers to its “unsurpassable excellence”, to
be surveyed, studied and emulated by architects of later
ages. Yet, as Gardner points out, there is hardly a straight above: Capital
line in the building.[36] Banister Fletcher calculated that of the Corinthian Order showing foliate decoration and
the stylobate curves upward so that its centres at either vertical volutes.
end rise about 2.6 inches above the outer corners, and 4.3
inches on the longer sides. A slightly greater adjustment
has been made to the entablature. The columns at the
ends of the building are not vertical but are inclined to- Orders
wards the centre, with those at the corners being out of
plumb by about 2.6 inches.[7] These outer columns are Ancient Greek architecture of the most formal type, for
temples and other public buildings, is divided stylistically
1.1. ANCIENT GREEK ARCHITECTURE 25

into three "orders", first described by the Roman archi-

tectural writer Vitruvius. These are: the Doric Order, the
Ionic Order and the Corinthian Order, the names reflect-
ing their regional origins within the Greek world. While
the three orders are most easily recognizable by their
capitals, the orders also governed the form, proportions,
details and relationships of the columns, entablature,
pediment and the stylobate.[2] The different orders were
applied to the whole range of buildings and monuments.
The Doric Order developed on mainland Greece and
spread to Magna Graecia (Italy). It was firmly established
and well-defined in its characteristics by the time of the entablature showing the architrave, frieze with triglyphs
building of the Temple of Hera at Olympia, c. 600 BC. and metopes and the overhanging cornice
The Ionic order co-existed with the Doric, being favoured
by the Greek cites of Ionia, in Asia Minor and the Aegean
Islands. It did not reach a clearly defined form until the
mid 5th century BC.[24] The early Ionic temples of Asia
Minor were particularly ambitious in scale, such as the
Temple of Artemis at Ephesus.[11] The Corinthian Order
was a highly decorative variant not developed until the
Hellenistic period and retaining many characteristics of
the Ionic. It was popularised by the Romans.[7] The tapered
fluted columns, constructed in drums, rest directly on the
stylobate.

Doric Order The Doric order is recognised by its cap-

The Doric entablature is in three parts, the architrave, the
ital, of which the echinus is like a circular cushion rising
frieze and the cornice. The architrave is composed of the
from the top of the column to the square abacus on which
stone lintels which span the space between the columns,
rest the lintels. The echinus appears flat and splayed in
with a joint occurring above the centre of each abacus.
early examples, deeper and with greater curve in later,
On this rests the frieze, one of the major areas of sculp-
more refined examples, and smaller and straight-sided in
tural decoration. The frieze is divided into triglyphs and
Hellenistc examples.[38] A refinement of the Doric col-
metopes, the triglyphs, as stated elsewhere in this article,
umn is the entasis, a gentle convex swelling to the pro-
are a reminder of the timber history of the architectural
file of the column, which prevents an optical illusion of
style. Each triglyph has three vertical grooves, similar
concavity.[38] This is more pronounced in earlier exam-
to the columnar fluting, and below them, seemingly con-
ples.
nected, are guttae, small strips that appear to connect the
Doric columns are almost always cut with grooves, known triglyphs to the architrave below.[38] A triglyph is located
as “fluting”, which run the length of the column and are above the centre of each capital, and above the centre of
usually 20 in number, although sometimes fewer. The each lintel. However, at the corners of the building, the
flutes meet at sharp edges called arrises. At the top of the triglyphs do not fall over the centre the column. The an-
columns, slightly below the narrowest point, and cross- cient architects took a pragmatic approach to the appar-
ing the terminating arrises, are three horizontal grooves ent “rules”, simply extending the width of the last two
known as the hypotrachelion. Doric columns have no metopes at each end of the building.
bases, until a few examples in the Hellenistic period.[38]
The cornice is a narrow jutting band of complex mould-
The columns of an early Doric temple such as the Temple ing which overhangs and protects the ornamented frieze,
of Apollo at Syracuse, Sicily, may have a height to base like the edge of an overhanging wooden-framed roof. It
diameter ratio of only 4:1 and a column height to entab- is decorated on the underside with projecting blocks, mu-
lature ratio of 2:1, with relatively crude details. A col- tules, further suggesting the wooden nature of the proto-
umn height to diameter of 6:1 became more usual, while type. At either end of the building the pediment rises
the column height to entablature ratio at the Parthenon is from the cornice, framed by moulding of similar form.[38]
about 3:1. During the Hellenistic period, Doric conven-
The pediment is decorated with figures that are in relief
tions of solidity and masculinity dropped away, with the
in the earlier examples, though almost freestanding by
slender and unfluted columns reaching a height to diam-
the time of the sculpture on the Parthenon. Early ar-
eter ratio of 7.5:1.[38]
chitectural sculptors found difficulty in creating satisfac-
The Doric Order tory sculptural compositions in the tapering triangular
The Temple of Hephaestos, Athens, is a well-preserved space.[39] By the Early Classical period, with the deco-
temple of peripteral hexastyle plan.
26 CHAPTER 1. GREEK

ration of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, (486-460 BC) the same time reinforcing the load-bearing strength of the
the sculptors had solved the problem by having a standing lintel itself. Likewise, the columns always have bases, a
central figure framed by rearing centaurs and fighting men necessity in wooden architecture to spread the load and
who are falling, kneeling and lying in attitudes that fit the protect the base of a comparatively thin upright.[40] The
size and angle of each part of the space.[36] The famous columns are fluted with narrow, shallow flutes that do not
sculptor Phidias fills the space at the Parthenon (448-432 meet at a sharp edge but have a flat band or fillet between
BC) with a complex array of draped and undraped figures them. The usual number of flutes is twenty-four but there
of deities who appear in attitudes of sublime relaxation may be as many as forty-four. The base has two convex
and elegance. mouldings called torus, and from the late Hellenic period
stood on a square plinth similar to the abacus.[40]
The architrave of the Ionic Order is sometimes undec-
Ionic Order The Ionic Order is recognised by its orated, but more often rises in three outwardly-stepped
voluted capital, in which a curved echinus of similar shape
bands like overlapping timber planks. The frieze, which
to that of the Doric Order, but decorated with stylised or-
runs in a continuous band, is separated from the other
nament, is surmounted by a horizontal band that scrolls members by rows of small projecting blocks. They are
under to either side, forming spirals or volutes similar to
referred to as dentils, meaning “teeth”, but their origin is
those of the nautilus shell or ram’s horn. In plan, the cap-
clearly in narrow wooden slats which supported the roof
of a timber structure.[40] The Ionic Order is altogether
ital is rectangular. It is designed to be viewed frontally
but the capitals at the corners of buildings are modified lighter in appearance than the Doric, with the columns,
with an additional scroll so as to appear regular on two including base and capital, having a 9:1 ratio with the di-
adjoining faces. In the Hellenistic period, four-fronted ameter, while the whole entablature was also much nar-
Ionic capitals became common.[40] rower and less heavy than the Doric entablature. There
The Ionic Order was some variation in the distribution of decoration. For-
The Erechtheion, Acropolis, Athens: a building of malised bands of motifs such as alternating forms known
asymmetrical plan, for the display of offerings to Athena as “egg and dart” were a feature of the Ionic entablatures,
along with the bands of dentils. The external frieze often
contained a continuous band of figurative sculpture or or-
nament, but this was not always the case. Sometimes a
decorative frieze occurred around the upper part of the
naos rather than on the exterior of the building. These
Ionic-style friezes around the naos are sometimes found
on Doric buildings, notably the Parthenon. Some tem-
ples, like the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, had friezes
of figures around the lower drum of each column, sepa-
rated from the fluted section by a bold moulding.[40]
Caryatids, draped female figures used as supporting
members to carry the entablature, were a feature of
Corner
the Ionic order, occurring at several buildings including
capital with a diagonal volute, showing also details of the the Siphnian Treasury at Delphi in 525 BC and at the
fluting separated by fillets. Erechtheion, about 410 BC.[41]
The Corinthian Order
The Temple of Zeus Olympia, Athens, (“the
Olympieion”)

Frieze of stylised
alternating palms and reeds, and a cornice decorated
with “egg and dart” moulding.

Like the Doric Order, the Ionic Order retains signs of

having its origins in wooden architecture. The horizontal
spread of a flat timber plate across the top of a column is
a common device in wooden construction, giving a thin tall capital combines both semi-naturalistic leaves and
upright a wider area on which to bear the lintel, while at
1.1. ANCIENT GREEK ARCHITECTURE 27

highly stylised tendrils forming volutes.

Corinthian Order The Corinthian Order does not

have its origin in wooden architecture. It grew directly
The lion’s head
out of the Ionic in the mid 5th century BC, and was
gargoyle is fixed to a revetment on which elements of a
initially of much the same style and proportion, but
formal frieze have been painted.
distinguished by its more ornate capitals.[42] The capi-
tal was very much deeper than either the Doric or the
Ionic capital, being shaped like a large krater, a bell- Early wooden structures, particularly temples, were or-
shaped mixing bowl, and being ornamented with a dou- namented and in part protected by fired and painted clay
ble row of acanthus leaves above which rose voluted ten- revetments in the form of rectangular panels, and orna-
drils, supporting the corners of the abacus, which, no mental discs. Many fragments of these have outlived the
longer perfectly square, splayed above them. According buildings that they decorated and demonstrate a wealth
to Vitruvius, the capital was invented by a bronze founder, of formal border designs of geometric scrolls, overlap-
Callimachus of Corinth, who took his inspiration from a ping patterns and foliate motifs.[43] With the introduction
basket of offerings that had been placed on a grave, with of stone-built temples, the revetments no longer served
a flat tile on top to protect the goods. The basket had been a protective purpose and sculptured decoration became
placed on the root of an acanthus plant which had grown more common.
up around it.[42] The ratio of the column height to diame- The clay ornaments were limited to the roof of buildings,
ter is generally 10:1, with the capital taking up more than decorating the cornice, the corners and surmounting the
1/10 of the height. The ratio of capital height to diameter pediment. At the corners of pediments they were called
is generally about 1.16:1.[42] acroteria and along the sides of the building, antefixes.
The Corinthian Order was initially used internally, as at Early decorative elements were generally semi-circular,
the Temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassae (c.450-425 but later of roughly triangular shape with moulded orna-
BC). In 334 BC it appeared as an external feature on the ment, often palmate.[43][44] Ionic cornices were often set
Choragic Monument of Lysicrates in Athens, and then on with a row of lion’s masks, with open mouths that ejected
a huge scale at the Temple of Zeus Olympia in Athens, rainwater.[25][44] From the Late Classical period, acrote-
(174 BC - AD 132).[42] It was popularised by the Ro- ria were sometimes sculptured figures.See “Architectural
mans, who added a number of refinements and decora- sculpture”[45]
tive details. During the Hellenistic period, Corinthian In the three orders of ancient Greek architecture, the
columns were sometimes built without fluting.[42] sculptural decoration, be it a simple half round astragal,
a frieze of stylised foliage or the ornate sculpture of the
pediment, is all essential to the architecture of which it
is a part. In the Doric order, there is no variation in its
placement. Reliefs never decorate walls in an arbitrary
way. The sculpture is always located in several predeter-
Decoration mined areas, the metopes and the pediment.[43] In later
Ionic architecture, there is greater diversity in the types
and numbers of mouldings and decorations, particularly
Architectural ornament Architectural ornament of
around doorways, where voluted brackets sometimes oc-
fired and painted clay
cur supporting an ornamental cornice over a door, such
as that at the Erechtheion.[25][27][43] A much applied nar-
row moulding is called “bead and reel” and is symmet-
rical, stemming from turned wooden prototypes. Wider
mouldings include one with tongue-like or pointed leaf
shapes, which are grooved and sometimes turned upward
at the tip, and “egg and dart” moulding which alternates
ovoid shapes with narrow pointy ones.[25][43][46]

This Archaic
gorgon’s head antefix has been cast in a mould, fired and
painted. Architectural sculpture
28 CHAPTER 1. GREEK

the Parthenon, are the lifelike products of the High Clas-

sical style (450 – 400 BC) and were created under the di-
rection of the sculptor Phidias.[49] The pedimental sculp-
ture represents the Gods of Olympus, while the frieze
shows the Panathenaic procession and ceremonial events
that took place every four years to honour the titular God-
dess of Athens.[49] The frieze and remaining figures of the
eastern pediment show a profound understanding of the
human body, and how it varies depending upon its posi-
The tion and the stresses that action and emotion place upon it.
Archaic Gorgon of the western pediment from the Benjamin Robert Haydon described the reclining figure
Artemis Temple of Corfu, Archaeological Museum of of Dionysus as "....the most heroic style of art, combined
Corfu with all the essential detail of actual life”.[50]
The names of many famous sculptors are known from
the Late Classical period (400 – 323 BC), including
Timotheos, Praxiteles, Leochares and Skopas, but their
works are known mainly from Roman copies.[1] Little ar-
chitectural sculpture of the period remains intact. The
Temple of Asclepius at Epidauros had sculpture by Tim-
otheos working with the architect Theodotos. Fragments
of the eastern pediment survive, showing the Sack of
Troy. The scene appears to have filled the space with
Classical
figures carefully arranged to fit the slope and shape avail-
figurative sculpture from the eastern pediment of the
able, as with earlier east pediment of the Temple of Zeus
Parthenon, British Museum
at Olympus. But the figures are more violent in action, the
central space taken up, not with a commanding God, but
Architectural sculpture showed a development from early with the dynamic figure of Neoptolemos as he seizes the
Archaic examples through Severe Classical, High Classi- aged king Priam and stabs him. The remaining fragments
cal, Late Classical and Hellenistic.[1] Remnants of Ar- give the impression of a whole range of human emotions,
chaic architectural sculpture (700 - 500 BC) exist from fear, horror, cruelty and lust for conquest.[45] The acrote-
the early 6th century BC with the earliest surviving pedi- ria were sculptured by Timotheus, except for that at the
mental sculpture being fragments of a Gorgon flanked by centre of the east pediment which is the work of the archi-
heraldic panthers from the centre of the pediment of the tect. The palmate acroteria have been replaced here with
Artemis Temple of Corfu.[47] A metope from a temple small figures, the eastern pediment being surmounted by
known as “Temple C” at Selinus, Sicily, shows, in a better a winged Nike, poised against the wind.[45]
preserved state, Perseus slaying the Gorgon Medusa.[39]
Hellenistic architectural sculpture (323 – 31 BC) was to
Both images parallel the stylised depiction of the Gorgons
become more flamboyant, both in the rendering of ex-
on the black figure name vase decorated by the Nessos
pression and motion, which is often emphasised by flow-
painter (c. 600 BC), with the face and shoulders turned
ing draperies, the Nike Samothrace which decorated a
frontally, and the legs in a running or kneeling position.
monument in the shape of a ship being a well-known
At this date images of terrifying monsters have predomi-
example. The Pergamon Altar (c. 180–160 BC) has a
nance over the emphasis on the human figure that devel-
frieze (120 metres long by 2.3 metres high) of figures
oped with Humanist philosophy.[47]
in very high relief. The frieze represents the battle for
The Severe Classical style (500 – 450 BC) is represented supremacy of Gods and Titans, and employs many dra-
by the pedimental sculptures of the Temple of Zeus at matic devices: frenzy, pathos and triumph, to convey the
Olympia, (470 – 456 BC). The eastern pediment shows sense of conflict.[51]
a moment of stillness and “impending drama” before the
Metopes, friezes and caryatid
beginning of a chariot race, the figures of Zeus and the
competitors being severe and idealised representations of
the human form.[48] The western pediment has Apollo as
the central figure, “majestic” and “remote”, presiding over
a battle of Lapiths and Centaurs, in strong contrast to that
of the eastern pediment for its depiction of violent action,
and described by D. E. Strong as the “most powerful piece
of illustration” for a hundred years.[48]
The shallow reliefs and three-dimensional sculpture
which adorned the frieze and pediments, respectively, of
1.1. ANCIENT GREEK ARCHITECTURE 29

Archaic metope: Hellenistic frieze: Bat-

Perseus and Medusa, Temple C at Selinunte. tle of Gods and Titans, the Pergamon Altar.

Severe Classical Ionic caryatid from the

metope: Labours of Hercules, Temple of Zeus, Olympus Erechtheion

1.1.4 See also

Media related to Ancient Greek architecture at Wikime-
dia Commons

• List of Ancient Greek temples

• List of ancient architectural records
• Ancient Greek temple
• Art in ancient Greece
High Classical frieze:
Panathenaic Ritual, Parthenon, Athens • Greek technology
• Greek culture
• Byzantine architecture

1.1.5 References
[1] Boardman, Dorig, Fuchs and Hirmer

[2] Helen Gardner, pp. 126-132

[3] Nikolaus Pevsner, An Outline of European Architecture, p.

19
30
[4] John Boardman, pp. 10-14
[5] Banister Fletcher pp. 89-91
[6] Higgins, chapter 3
[7] Banister Fletcher pp. 93-97
[8] Helen Gardner, pp. 110-114
[9] Helen Gardner, pp. 90-109
[10] Fletcher, Gardner etc.
[11] Donald E. Strong, p. 35
[12] Donald E. Strong, pp.33 - 102
[13] Donald E. Strong, pp. 39-40, 62-66
[14] Banister Fletcher, pp. 119-121
[15] Donald E. Strong, pp. 35-36
[16] Banister Fletcher, pp 151-153
[17] Penrose, pp. 42-43
[18] Boardman, pp. 49-50
[19] Donald E. Strong, pp. 74-75
[20] Banister Fletcher, p.97
[21] Moffett, Fazio, Wodehouse, pp. 62-64
[22] Banister Fletcher pp. 147-148
[23] 2004 Summer Olympics official report. Volume 2. pp.
237, 242, 244.
[24] Donald E. Strong, pp. 38-40
[25] Banister Fletcher, p.107
[26] Banister Fletcher, p. 155
[27] Banister Fletcher, p. 159
[28] Boardman, p. 25
[29] Boardman, p. 12
[30] William Rostoker; Elizabeth Gebhard, p. 212
[31] Marilyn Y. Goldberg, p305-309
[32] Örjan Wikander, p.285-289
[33] Banister Fletcher pp. 107-109
[34] Banister Fletcher
[35] Banister Fletcher p.126
[36] Helen Gardner, pp. 138-148
[37] Moffett, Fazio, Wodehouse, pp. 50-53
[38] Banister Fletcher pp. 108-112
[39] Donald E. Strong, pp. 58-60
[40] Banister Fletcher pp. 125-129
CHAPTER 1. GREEK
[41] Boardman p.45, 49
[42] Banister Fletcher pp. 137-139
[43] Boardman, pp. 22-25
[44] Banister Fletcher, p. 163
[45] Jose Dorig in Boardman, Dorig, Fuchs and Hirmer, pp.
435
[46] Banister Fletcher, p. 164
[47] Donald E. Strong, pp. 39-40
[48] Donald E. Strong, pp. 61-62
[49] Helen Gardner, pp. 143 – 148
[50] Helen Gardner, p. 145
[51] Werner Fuchs in Boardman, Dorig, Fuchs and Hirmer,
pp.509-510
1.1.6 Bibliography
• John Boardman, Jose Dorig, Werner Fuchs and
Max Hirmer, “The Art and Architecture of Ancient
Greece”, Thames and Hudson, London (1967)
• Banister Fletcher, A History of Architecture on the
Comparative method (2001). Elsevier Science &
Technology. ISBN 0-7506-2267-9.
• Helen Gardner; Fred S. Kleiner, Christin J.
Mamiya, Gardner’s Art through the Ages. Thomson
Wadsworth, (2004) ISBN 0-15-505090-7.
• Michael and Reynold Higgins, A Geological Com-
panion to Greece and the Aegean, Cornell University
Press, (1996) ISBN 978-0-8014-3337-5
• Marian Moffett, Michael Fazio, Lawrence Wode-
house, A World History of Architecture, Lawrence
King Publishing, (2003), ISBN 1-85669-353-8.
• Athanasios Sideris A., “Re-contextualized Antiq-
uity: Interpretative VR Visualisation of Ancient
Art and Architecture” in Mikropoulos T. A. and
Papachristos N. M. (eds.), Proceedings: Interna-
tional Symposium on “Information and Communica-
tion Technologies in Cultural Heritage” October 16–
18, 2008, University of Ioannina 2008, ISBN 978-
960-98691-0-2, pp. 159-176
• Donald E. Strong, The Classical World, Paul Ham-
lyn, London (1965)
• Henri Stierlin, Greece: From Mycenae to the
Parthenon, Taschen, 2004
• Marilyn Y. Goldberg, “Greek Temples and Chinese
Roofs,” American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 87,
No. 3. (Jul., 1983), pp. 305–310
1.2. ANCIENT GREEK TEMPLE 31

• Penrose, F.C., (communicated by Joseph Norman Stylistically, they were governed by the regionally spe-
Lockyer), The Orientation of Geek Temples, Nature, cific architectural orders. Whereas the distinction was
v.48, n.1228, May 11. originally between the Doric and Ionic orders, a third al-
ternative arose in late 3rd century BC with the Corinthian
• Örjan Wikander, “Archaic Roof Tiles the First Gen- order. A multitude of different ground plans were devel-
erations,” Hesperia, Vol. 59, No. 1. (Jan. - Mar., oped, each of which could be combined with the super-
1990), pp. 285–290 structure in the different orders. From the 3rd century
• William Rostoker; Elizabeth Gebhard, “The Repro- BC onwards, the construction of large temples became
duction of Rooftiles for the Archaic Temple of Po- less common; after a short 2nd century BC flourish, it
seidon at Isthmia, Greece,” Journal of Field Archae- ceased nearly entirely in the 1st century BC. Thereafter,
ology, Vol. 8, No. 2. (Summer, 1981), pp. 211–2 only smaller structures were newly begun, while older
temples continued to be renovated or brought to comple-
tion if in an unfinished state.
1.2 Ancient Greek temple Greek temples were designed and constructed according
to set proportions, mostly determined by the lower diam-
eter of the columns or by the dimensions of the foun-
See also: List of ancient Greek temples
dation levels. The nearly mathematical strictness of the
Greek temples (Ancient Greek: Ναός, Naós “dwelling”,
basic designs thus reached was lightened by optical re-
finements. In spite of the still widespread idealised im-
age, Greek temples were painted, so that bright reds and
blues contrasted with the white of the building stones or
of stucco. The more elaborate temples were equipped
with very rich figural decoration in the form of reliefs
and pedimental sculpture. The construction of temples
was usually organised and financed by cities or by the
administrations of sanctuaries. Private individuals, es-
pecially Hellenistic rulers, could also sponsor such build-
ings. In the late Hellenistic period, their decreasing fi-
nancial wealth, along with the progressive incorporation
of the Greek world within the Roman State, whose offi-
The Parthenon, on the Acropolis of Athens, Greece cials and rulers took over as sponsors, led to the end of
Greek temple construction. New temples now belonged
semantically distinct from Latin templum ("temple") to the tradition of Roman architecture, which, in spite of
were structures built to house deity statues within Greek the Greek influence on it, aimed for different goals and
sanctuaries in ancient Greek religion. The temple in- followed different aesthetic principles.
teriors did not serve as meeting places, since the sacri-
fices and rituals dedicated to the respective deity took
place outside them. Temples were frequently used to
store votive offerings. They are the most important and
most widespread building type in Greek architecture. In
1.2.2 Development
the Hellenistic kingdoms of Southwest Asia and of North
Africa, buildings erected to fulfill the functions of a tem-
ple often continued to follow the local traditions. Even
where a Greek influence is visible, such structures are
not normally considered as Greek temples. This ap-
plies, for example, to the Graeco-Parthian and Bactrian
temples, or to the Ptolemaic examples, which follow
Egyptian tradition. Most Greek temples were oriented
astronomically.[1]

1.2.1 Overview
Between the 9th century BC and the 6th century BC,
the ancient Greek temples developed from the small
Model of a typical Doric temple, the Temple of Aphaia on Aegina
mudbrick structures into double porched monumental (Glyptothek, Munich).
buildings with colonnade on all sides, often reaching
more than 20 metres in height (not including the roof).
32 CHAPTER 1. GREEK

ing holding it, the naos was equipped with a canopy, sup-
ported by columns. The resulting set of porticos sur-
rounding the temple on all sides (the peristasis) was ex-
clusively used for temples in Greek architecture.[6]
The combination of the temple with porticos (ptera) on
all sides posed a new aesthetic challenge for the archi-
tects and patrons: the structures had to be built to be
viewed from all directions. This led to the development
of the peripteros, with a frontal pronaos (porch), mirrored
by a similar arrangement at the back of the building, the
opisthodomos, which became necessary for entirely aes-
thetic reasons.

Temple of Isthmia, Greece. Constructed between 690-650 BC.

Origins

The Mycenaean Megaron (15th to the 13th century BCE)

was the precursor for later Archaic and Classical Greek
temples, but during the Greek dark age the buildings be-
came smaller and less monumental.[2][3] The basic prin-
ciples for the development of Greek temple architecture
have their roots between the 10th century BC and the 7th
century BC. In its simplest form as a naos, the temple
was a simple rectangular shrine with protruding side walls
(antae), forming a small porch. Until the 8th century BC,
there were also apsidal structures with more or less semi-
circular back walls, but the rectangular type prevailed. By The Temple of Apollo at Corinth, one of the earliest stone-built
adding columns to this small basic structure, the Greeks Doric temples. Note the monolithic columns.
triggered the development and variety of their temple ar-
chitecture.
The Temple of Isthmia, built in 690 - 650 BC was perhaps
the first true Archaic Temple with its monumental size,
sturdy colonnade of columns and tile roof set the Isthmian Introduction of stone architecture: Archaic and
temple apart from contemporary buildings [4] Classical

Wooden architecture: Early Archaic After the reintroduction of stone architecture, the essen-
tial elements and forms of each temple, such as the num-
The first temples were mostly mud, brick, and marble ber of columns and of column rows, underwent constant
structures on stone foundations. The columns and super- change throughout Greek antiquity.
structure (entablature) were wooden, door openings and
In the 6th century BC, Ionian Samos developed the
antae were protected with wooden planks. The mud brick double-colonnaded dipteros as an alternative to the single
walls were often reinforced by wooden posts, in a type peripteros. This idea was later copied in Didyma, Ephesos
of half-timbered technique. The elements of this simple and Athens. Between the 6th and the late 4th century BC,
and clearly structured wooden architecture produced all innumerable temples were built; nearly every polis, every
the important design principles that were to determine the colony contained one or several. There were also temples
development of Greek temples for centuries. at extra-urban sites and at major sanctuaries like Olympia
Near the end of the 7th century BC, the dimensions of and Delphi.
these simple structures were increased considerably.[5] The observable change of form indicates the search for a
Temple C at Thermos is the first of the hekatompedoi, harmonious form of all architectural elements: the devel-
temples with a length of 100 feet (30 m). Since it was opment led from simpler early forms which often appear
not technically possible to roof broad spaces at that time,coarse and bulky up to the aesthetic perfection and refine-
these temples remained very narrow, at 6 to 10 metres in ment of the later structures; from simple experimentation
width. to the strict mathematical complexity of ground plans and
To stress the importance of the cult statue and the build- superstructures.
1.2. ANCIENT GREEK TEMPLE
The temple of Zeus in Cyrene.
Temple of Concord in Agrigento
Temple of Hera in Segesta
Decline of Greek temple building: Hellenistic period
From the early Hellenistic period onwards, the Greek
peripteral temple lost much of its importance. With
very few exceptions, Classical temple construction ceased
both in Hellenistic Greece and in the Greek colonies of
Magna Graecia. Only the west of Asia Minor maintained
a low level of temple construction during the 3rd century
BC. The construction of large projects, such as the tem-
ple of Apollo at Didyma near Miletus and the Artemision
at Sardis did not make much progress.
33
The 2nd century BC saw a revival of temple architec-
ture, including peripteral temples. This is partially due
to the influence of the architect Hermogenes of Priene,
who redefined the principles of Ionic temple construc-
tion both practically and through theoretical work.[7] At
the same time, the rulers of the various Hellenistic king-
doms provided copious financial resources. Their self-
aggrandisation, rivalry, desires to stabilise their spheres
of influence, as well as the increasing conflict with Rome
(partially played out in the field of culture), combined to
release much energy into the revival of complex Greek
temple architecture.[8] During this phase, Greek temples
became widespread in southern Asia Minor, Egypt and
Northern Africa.
But in spite of such examples and of the positive con-
ditions produced by the economic upturn and the high
degree of technical innovation in the 3rd and 2nd cen-
turies BC,[9] Hellenistic religious architecture is mostly
represented by a multitude of small temples in antis and
prostyle temples, as well as tiny shrines (naiskoi). The
latter had been erected in important places, on market
squares, near springs and by roads, since the Archaic pe-
riod, but reached their main flourish now. This limitation
to smaller structures led to the development of a special
form, the pseudoperipteros, which uses engaged columns
along the cella walls to produce the illusion of a peripteral
temple. An early case of this is temple L at Epidauros,
followed by many prominent Roman examples, such as
the Maison Carrée at Nîmes.[10]
End of Greek temple construction: Roman Greece
In the early 1st century BC, the Mithridatic Wars led to
changes of architectural practice. The role of sponsor was
increasingly taken by Roman magistrates of the Eastern
provinces,[11] who rarely demonstrated their generosity
by building temples.[12] Nevertheless, some temples were
erected at this time, e.g. the Temple of Aphrodite at
Aphrodisias.[13]
The introduction of the principate lead to few new build-
ings, mostly temples for the imperial cult[14] or to Roman
deities, e.g. the temple of Jupiter at Baalbek.[15] Although
new temples to Greek deities still continued to be con-
structed, e.g. the Tychaion at Selge[16] they tend to follow
the canonical forms of the developing Roman imperial
style of architecture[17] or to maintain local non-Greek id-
iosyncrasies, like the temples in Petra[18] or Palmyra.[19]
The increasing romanisation of the east[20] entailed the
end of Greek temple architecture, although work con-
tinued on the completion of unfinished large structures
like the temple of Apollo at Didyma or the Olympieion
at Athens into the later 2nd century AD.[21]
34 CHAPTER 1. GREEK

called the opisthodomos. There is no door connecting the

opisthodomos with the cella; its existence is necessitated
entirely by aesthetic considerations: to maintain the con-
sistency of the peripteral temple and to ensure its viewa-
bility from all sides, the execution of the front has to be
repeated at the rear. A restricted space, the adyton, may
be included at the far end of the cella, backing up on the
opisthodomos.

Peristasis The complex formed by the naos, pronaos,

opistodomos and possibly the adyton is enclosed on all
four sides by the peristasis, usually a single row, rarely
a double one, of columns. This produces a surrounding
Syracuse (Sicily): The 5th-century BC Doric temple of Athena,
transformed into a Christian church during the Middle Ages.
portico, the pteron, which offered shelter to visitors of the
sanctuary and room for cult processions.

Abandonment and conversion of temples: Late An-

tiquity • Elements of the floor plan

The edicts of Theodosius I and his successors on the

throne of the Roman Empire, banning pagan cults, led to
the gradual closure of Greek temples, or their conversion
into Christian churches.
Thus ends the history of the Greek temple, although many
of them remained in use for a long time afterwards. For
example, the Athenian Parthenon, first reconsecrated as a
church was turned into a mosque after the Ottoman con- • Pronaos
quest and remained structurally unharmed until the 17th
century AD. Only the unfortunate impact of a Venetian
cannonball into the building, then used to store gunpow-
der, led to the destruction of much of this important tem-
ple, more than 2,000 years after it was built.

1.2.3 Structure

Canonical Greek temples maintained the same basic • Cella or naos

structure throughout many centuries. The Greeks used
a limited number of spatial components, influencing the
plan, and of architectural members, determining the
elevation.

Floor plan

Naos The central cult structure of the temple is the naos

or Cella, which usually contained a cult statue of the deity. • Adyton
In Archaic temples, a separate room, the so-called adyton (exceptional)
was sometimes included after the cella for this purpose.
In Sicily, this habit continued into the Classical period.

Pronaos and opisthodomos In front of the cella, there

is a porch, the pronaos, created by the protruding side
walls of the cella (the antae), and two columns placed be- • Opisthodomos (some-
tween them. A door allows the cella to be accessed from times omitted)
the pronaos. A similar room at the back of the cella is
1.2. ANCIENT GREEK TEMPLE 35

• Opisthodomos + Adyton +
Naos + Pronaos

Different temple plans

form of this shape is the pseudoperipteros, where the side

columns of the peristasis are indicated only by engaged
columns or pilasters directly attached to the external cella
walls.
A dipteros or dipteral is equipped with a double colon-
nade on all four sides, sometimes with further rows of
columns at the front and back. A pseudodipteros has en-
gaged columns in the inner row of columns at the sides.
The Athenian Treasury in Delphi with two antae framing two
columns. Circular temples form a special type. If they are sur-
rounded by a colonnade, they are known as peripteral
Plan types These components allowed the realisation tholoi. Although of sacred character, their function as
of a variety of different plan types in Greek temple ar- a temple can often not be asserted. A comparable struc-
chitecture. The simplest example of a Greek temple is ture is the monopteros, or cyclostyle which, however, lacks
the templum in antis, a small rectangular structure shel- a cella.
tering the cult statue. In front of the cella, a small porch To clarify ground plan types, the defining terms can be
or pronaos was formed by the protruding cella walls, the combined, producing terms such as: peripteral double
antae. The pronaos was linked to the cella by a door. To anta temple, prostyle in antis, peripteral amphiprostyle,
support the superstructure, two columns were placed be- etc.
tween the antae (distyle in antis). When equipped with an
opisthodomos with a similar distyle in antis design, this is
called a double anta temple. A variant of that type has the
opisthodomos at the back of the cella indicated merely by
half-columns and shortened antae, so that it can be de- Column number terminology An additional defini-
scribed as a pseudo-opisthodomos. tion, already used by Vitruvius (IV, 3, 3) is determined
If the porch of a temple in antis has a row of usually four by the number of columns at the front. Modern scholar-
or six columns in front of its whole breadth, the temple ship uses the following terms:
is described as a prostylos or prostyle temple. The whole The term dodekastylos is only used for the 12-column hall
pronaos may be omitted in this case or just leave the an- at the Didymaion. No temples with facades of that width
tae without columns. An amphiprostylos or amphiprostyle are known.
repeats the same column setting at the back. Very few temples had an uneven number of columns at
In contrast, the term peripteros or peripteral designates a the front. Examples are Temple of Hera I at Paestum,
temple surrounded by ptera (colonnades) on all four sides, Temple of Apollo A at Metapontum, both of which have
each usually formed by a single row of columns. This pro- a width of nine columns (enneastyle), and the Archaic
duces an unobstructed surrounding portico, the peristasis, temple at Thermos with a width of five columns (pen-
on all four sides of the temple. A Hellenistic and Roman tastyle).
36
Elevation of the Temple of Concordia at Agrigentum.
Elevation
The elevation of Greek temples is always subdivided
in three zones: the crepidoma, the columns and the
entablature.
Foundations and crepidoma Stereobate, euthynteria
and crepidoma form the substructure of the temple. The
underground foundation of a Greek temple is known as
the stereobate. It consists of several layers of squared
stone blocks. The uppermost layer, the euthynteria, par-
tially protrudes above the ground level. Its surface is care-
fully smoothed and levelled. It supports a further founda-
tion of three steps, the crepidoma. The uppermost level of
the crepidoma provides the surface on which the columns
and walls are placed; it is called stylobate.
Illustration of Doric (first three), Ionic (next three) and
Corinthian (final two) columns.
Columns Placed on the stylobate are the vertical col-
umn shafts, tapering towards the top. They are normally
made of several separately cut column drums. Depending
on the architectural order, a different number of flutings
are cut into the column shaft: Doric columns have 18
to 20 flutings, Ionic and Corinthian ones normally have
24. Early Ionic columns had up to 48 flutings. While
Doric columns stand directly on the stylobate, Ionic and
Corinthian ones possess a base, sometimes additionally
placed atop a plinth.
In Doric columns, the top is formed by a concavely diate member, e.g. the dentil of the Ionic or Corinthian
CHAPTER 1. GREEK
curved neck, the hypotrachelion, and the capital, in Ionic
columns, the capital sits directly on the shaft. In the Doric
order, the capital consists of a circular torus bulge, origi-
nally very flat, the so-called echinus, and a square slab, the
abacus. In the course of their development, the echinus
expands more and more, culminating in a linear diagonal,
at 45° to the vertical. The echinus of Ionic columns is dec-
orated with an egg-and-dart band followed by a sculpted
pillow forming two volutes, supporting a thin abacus. The
eponymous Corinthian capital of the Corinthian order is
crowned by rings of stylised acanthus leaves, forming ten-
drils and volutes that reach to the corners of the abacus.
Entablature on the west side of the Parthenon.
Entablature The capitals support the entablature. In
the Doric order, the entablature always consists of two
parts, the architrave and the Doric frieze (or triglyph
frieze). The Ionic order of Athens and the Cyclades also
used a frieze above an architrave, whereas the frieze re-
mained unknown in the Ionic architecture of Asia Minor
until the 4th century BC. There, the architrave was di-
rectly followed by the dentil. The frieze was originally
placed in front of the roof beams, which were exter-
nally visible only in the earlier temples of Asia Minor.
The Doric frieze was structured by triglyphs. These were
placed above the axis of each column, and above the cen-
tre of each intercolumniation. The spaces between the
triglyphs contained metopes, sometimes painted or dec-
orated with relief sculpture. In the Ionic or Corinthian
orders, the frieze possesses no triglyphs and is simply left
flat, sometimes decorated with paintings or reliefs. With
the introduction of stone architecture, the protection of
the porticos and the support of the roof construction was
moved upwards to the level of the geison, depriving the
frieze of its structural function and turning it into an en-
tirely decorative feature. Frequently, the cella is also dec-
orated with architrave and frieze, especially at the front
of the pronaos.
Cornice and geison Above the frieze, or an interme-
1.2. ANCIENT GREEK TEMPLE 37

the number of columns per side, they also determined

the dimensions of stylobate and peristasis, as well as of
the naos proper. The rules regarding vertical proportions,
especially in the Doric order, also allow for a deduction
of the basic design options for the entablature from the
same principles. Alternatives to this very rational system
were sought in the temples of the late 7th and early 6th
centuries BC, when it was attempted to develop the ba-
sic measurements from the planned dimensions of cella
or stylobate, i.e. to reverse the system described above
and deduce the smaller units from the bigger ones. Thus,
for example, the cella length was sometimes set at 100
feet (30 m) (100 is a sacred number, also known from
Geison block from the temple at Lykosoura.
the hecatomb, a sacrifice of 100 animals), and all further
measurements had to be in relation to this number, lead-
orders, the cornice protrudes notably. It consists of the ing to aesthetically quite unsatisfactory solutions.
geison (on the sloped sides or pediments of the narrow
walls a sloped geison), and the sima. On the long side,
the sima, often elaborately decorated, was equipped with Naos-peristasis relationship
water spouts, often in the shape of lions’ heads. The
pedimental triangle or tympanon on the narrow sides of
the temple was created by the Doric introduction of the Another determining design feature was the relationship
gabled roof, earlier temples often had hipped roofs. The linking naos and peristasis. In the original temples, this
tympanon was usually richly decorated with sculptures of would have been subject entirely to practical necessities,
mythical scenes or battles. The corners and ridges of the and always based on axial links between cella walls and
roof were decorated with acroteria, originally geometric, columns, but the introduction of stone architecture broke
later floral or figural decorations. that connection. Nevertheless, it did survive through-
out Ionic architecture. In Doric temples, however, the
wooden roof construction, originally placed behind the
Aspect frieze, now started at a higher level, behind the geison.
This ended the structural link between frieze and roof;
As far as topographically possible, the temples were free- the structural elements of the latter could now be placed
standing and designed to be viewed from all sides. They independent of axial relationships. As a result, the cella
were not normally designed with consideration for their walls lost their fixed connection with the columns for a
surroundings, but formed autonomous structures. This is long time and could be freely placed within the peristasis.
a major difference from Roman temples which were of- Only after a long phase of developments did the archi-
ten designed as part of a planned urban area or square and tects choose the alignment of the outer wall face with the
had a strong emphasis on being viewed frontally. adjacent column axis as the obligatory principle for Doric
temples. Doric temples in Greater Greece rarely follow
this system.
1.2.4 Design and measurements
Proportions
Column number formula
The foundations of Greek temples could reach dimen-
sions of up to 115 by 55 m, i.e. the size of an aver- The basic proportions of the building were determined
age soccer field. Columns could reach a height of 20 m. by the numeric relationship of columns on the front and
To design such large architectural bodies harmoniously, a back to those on the sides. The classic solution chosen
number of basic aesthetic principles were developed and by Greek architects is the formula “frontal columns : side
tested already on the smaller temples. The main measure- columns = n : (2n+1)", which can also be used for the
ment was the foot, varying between 29 and 34 cm from number of intercolumniations. As a result, numerous
region to region. This initial measurement was the basis temples of the Classical period in Greece (circa 500 to
for all the units that determined the shape of the tem- 336 BC) had 6 x 13 columns or 5 x 11 intercolumnitions.
ple. Important factors include the lower diameter of the The same proportions, in a more abstract form, deter-
columns and the width of their plinths. The distance be- mine most of the Parthenon, not only in its 8 x 17 col-
tween the column axes (intercolumniation or bay) could umn peristasis, but also, reduced to 4:9, in all other basic
also be used as a basic unit. These measurements were measurements, including the intercolumniations, the sty-
in set proportions to other elements of design, such as lobate, the width-height proportion of the entire building,
column height and column distance. In conjunction with and the geison (here reversed to 9:4).[22]
38 CHAPTER 1. GREEK

Exaggerated sketch of the curvature of a Doric temple.

naked eye, was introduced. The ancient architects had

Proportion of column diameter to intercolumnium.
Column spacing
Since the turn of the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, the pro-
portion of column width to the space between columns,
the intercolumnium, played an increasingly important
role in architectural theory, reflected, for example, in the
works of Vitruvius. According to this proportion, Vitru-
vius (3, 3, 1 ff) distinguished between five different design
concepts and temple types:
• Pyknostyle, tight-columned: intercolumnium = 1 ½
lower column diameters
• Systyle, close-columned: intercolumnium = 2 lower
column diameters
• Eustyle, well-columned: intercolumnium = 2 ¼
lower column diameters
• Diastyle, board-columned: interkolumnium = 3
lower column diameters
• Araeostyle, light-columned: intercolumnium = 3 ½
lower column diameters
The determination and discussion of these basic princi-
ples went back to Hermogenes, whom Vitruvius cred-
its with the invention of the eustylos. The Temple of
Dionysos at Teos, normally ascribed to Hermogenes, does 1.2.6 Decoration
indeed have intercolumnia measuring 2 ⅙ of the lower
column diameters.[23] Coloring
realised that long horizontal lines tend to make the opti-
cal impression of sagging towards their centre. To pre-
vent this effect, the horizontal lines of stylobate and/or
entablature were raised by a few centimetres towards the
middle of a building. This avoidance of mathematically
straight lines also included the columns, which did not ta-
per in a linear fashion, but were refined by a pronounced
“swelling” (entasis) of the shaft. Additionally, columns
were placed with a slight inclination towards the centre
of the building. Curvature and entasis occur from the
mid 6th century BC onwards. The most consistent use
of these principles is seen in the Classical Parthenon on
the Athenian Acropolis. Its curvature affects all horizon-
tal elements up to the sima, even the cella walls reflect
it throughout their height. The inclination of its columns
(which also have a clear entasis), is continued by archi-
trave and triglyph frieze, the external walls of the cella
also reflect it. Not one block of the building, not a single
architrave or frieze element could be hewn as a simple
rectilinear block. All architectural elements display slight
variations from the right angle, individually calculated
for each block. As a side effect, each preserved build-
ing block from the Parthenon, its columns, cella walls or
entablature, can be assigned its exact position today. In
spite of the immense extra effort entailed in this perfec-
tion, the Parthenon, including its sculptural decoration,
was completed in the record time of sixteen years (447 to
431 BC).[24]

Only three basic colors were used: white, blue and red,
1.2.5 Optical refinements occasionally also black. The crepidoma, columns and ar-
chitrave were mostly white. Only details, like the hori-
To loosen up the mathematical strictness and to coun- zontally cut grooves at the bottom of Doric capitals (an-
teract distortions of human visual perception, a slight uli), or decorative elements of Doric architraves (e.g.
curvature of the whole building, hardly visible with the taenia and guttae) might be painted in different colours.
1.2. ANCIENT GREEK TEMPLE
Original Doric polychromy.
The frieze was clearly structured by use of colours. In
a Doric triglyph frieze, blue triglyphs alternated with red
metopes, the latter often serving as a background for indi-
vidually painted sculptures. Reliefs, ornaments and ped-
imental sculptures were executed with a wider variety of
colours and nuances. Recessed or otherwise shaded el-
ements, like mutules or triglyph slits could be painted
black. Paint was mostly applied to parts that were not
load-bearing, whereas structural parts like columns or the
horizontal elements of architrave and geison were left un-
painted (if made of high quality limestone or marble) or
covered with a white stucco.
Architectural sculpture
Greek temples were often enhanced with figural decora-
tions. especially the frieze areas offered space for reliefs
and relief slabs; the pedimental triangles often contained
scenes of free-standing sculpture. In Archaic times, even
the architrave could be relief-decorated on Ionic tem-
ples, as demonstrated by the earlier temple of Apollo
at Didyma. Here, the architrave corners bore gorgons,
surrounded by lions and perhaps other animals. On the
other hand, the Ionic temples of Asia Minor did not pos- Pediments Special attention was paid to the decoration
sess a separate frieze to allow space for relief decoration. of the pedimental triangles, not least because of their size
39
A centaur struggling with a Lapith - Metope from the Parthenon.
The most common area for relief decoration remained
the frieze, either as a typical Doric triglyph frieze, with
sculpted metopes, or as a continuous frieze on Cycladic
and later on Eastern Ionic temples.
Metopes The metopes, separate individual tableaux
that could usually not contain more than three figures
each, usually depicted individual scenes belonging to a
broader context. It is rare for scenes to be distributed
over several metopes; instead, a general narrative context,
usually a battle, is created by the combination of multi-
ple isolated scenes. Other thematical contexts could be
depicted in this fashion. For example, the metopes at the
front and back of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia depicted
the Twelve Labours of Heracles. Individual mythologi-
cal scenes, like the abduction of Europa or a cattle raid
by the Dioscuri could be thus depicted, as could scenes
from the voyage of the Argonauts or the Trojan War. The
battles against the centaurs and Amazons, as well as the
gigantomachy, all three depicted on the Parthenon, were
recurring themes on many temples.
Friezes Battle scenes of all kinds were also a common
theme of Ionic friezes, e.g. the Gigantomachy on the tem-
ple of Hekate at Lagina, or the Amazonomachy on the
temple of Artemis at Magnesia on the Maeander, both
from the late 2nd century BC. Complex compositions vi-
sualised the back and forth of fighting for the viewer.
Such scenes were contrasted by more quiet or peaceful
ones: The Assembly of the gods and a procession dom-
inate the 160 m long frieze that is placed on top of the
naos walls of the Parthenon.
40
Part of the Parthenon Frieze, in situ on the west side of the naos.
Reconstruction of the west pediment on the Parthenon, Athens,
Acropolis Museum.
and frontal position. Originally, the pediments were filled
with massive reliefs, e.g. shortly after 600 BC on the tem-
ple of Artemis at Kerkyra, where the west pediment is
taken up by the gorgon Medusa and her children at the
centre, flanked by panthers. Smaller scenes are displayed
in the low corners of the pediments, e.g. Zeus with a
thunderbolt, fighting a Giant. The pedimental sculpture
of the first peripteral temple on the Athenian Acropolis,
from circa 570 BC, is nearly free-standing sculpture, but
remains dominated by a central scene of fighting lions.
Statue of Apollo from the west pediment of the Temple of Zeus
at Olympia.
Again, the corners contain separate scenes, including
Heracles fighting Triton. After the mid-6th century BC,
the compositional scheme changes: animal scenes are
now placed in the corners, soon they disappear entirely.
The central composition is now taken over by mytholog-
ical fights or by rows of human figures. The high re-
gard in which the Greeks held pedimental sculptures in
CHAPTER 1. GREEK
demonstrated by the discovery of the sculptures from the
Late Archaic temple of Apollo at Delphi, which had re-
ceived a veritable burial after the temple’s destruction
in 373 BC.[25] The themes of the individual pedimen-
tal scenes are increasingly dominated by myths connected
with the locality. Thus, the east pediment at Olympia de-
picts the preparations for a chariot race between Pelops
and Oinomaos, the mythical king of nearby Pisa. It is the
foundation myth of the sanctuary itself, displayed here in
its most prominent position. A similarly direct associa-
tion is provided by the birth of Athena on the east pedi-
ment of the Parthenon, or the struggle for Attica between
her and Poseidon on its west pediment. The pediment of
the later temple of the Kabeiroi at Samothrace, late 3rd
century BC, depicted a probably purely local legend, of
no major interest to Greece as a whole.
Mounted nereid; corner acroterion from the temple of Asklepios
at Epidauros.
Roofs Further information: List of Greco-Roman
roofs
The roofs were crowned by acroteria, originally in the
form of elaborately painted clay disks, from the 6th cen-
tury BC onwards as fully sculpted figures placed on the
corners and ridges of the pediments. They could depict
bowls and tripods, griffins, spinxes, and especially myth-
ical figures and deities. For example, depictions of the
running Nike crowned the Alcmaeonid temple of Apollo
at Delphi, and mounted amazons formed the corner akro-
teria of the temple of Asklepios in Epidauros. Pausanias
(5, 10, 8) describes bronze tripods forming the corner
akroteria and statues of Nike by Paeonios forming the
ridge ones on the Temple of Zeus at Olympia.
1.2. ANCIENT GREEK TEMPLE
Columns For the sake of completeness, a further po-
tential bearer of sculptural decoration should be men-
tioned here: the columnae celetae of the Ionic temples at
Ephesos and Didyma. Here, already on the Archaic tem-
ples, the lower parts of the column shafts were decorated
by protruding relief decorations, originally depicting rows
of figures, replaced on their late Classical and Hellenistic
successors with mythological scenes and battles.[26]
1.2.7 Function and design
Cult statue and cella
The functions of the temple mainly concentrated on the
cella, the “dwelling” of the cult statue. The elaboration of
the temple’s external aspects served to stress the dignity
of the cella. In contrast, the cella itself was often fin-
ished with some moderation. The only source of light for
cella and cult statue was the cella's frontal door. Thus, the
interior only received a limited amount of light. Excep-
tions are found in the temples of Apollo at Bassae and of
Athena at Tegea, where the southern cella wall had a door,
potentially allowing more light into the interior. A special
situation applies to the temples of the Cyclades, where the
roof was usually of marble tiles. Marble roofs also cov-
ered the temple of Zeus at Olympia and the Parthenon
at Athens. As marble is not entirely opaque, those cel-
las may have been permeated with a distinctive diffused
light. For cultic reasons, but also to use the light of the
rising sun, virtually all Greek temples were oriented to the
east. Some exceptions existed, e.g. the west-facing tem-
ples of Artemis at Ephesos and at Magnesia on the Mae-
ander, or the north-south oriented temples of Arcadia.
Such exceptions are probably connected with cult prac-
tice. Study of the soils around temple sites, is evidence
that temple sites were chosen with regard to particular
deities: for example, amid arable soils for the agricultural
deities Dionysos and Demeter, and near rocky soils for
the hunter gatherer deities Apollo and Artemis.[27]
Temple of Aphaia (Aegina): The interior of the cella was embel-
lished with two tiers of Doric columns.
41
Refinements The cult statue was often oriented to-
wards an altar, placed axially in front of the temple. To
preserve this connection, the single row of columns often
found along the central axis of the cella in early temples
was replaced by two separate rows towards the sides. The
central one of the three aisles thereby created was often
emphasised as the main one. The dignity of the central
aisle of the cella could be underlined by the use of spe-
cial elements of design. For example, the oldest known
Corinthian capitals are from the naoi of Doric temples.
The impressiveness of the internal aisle could be empha-
sised further by having a third row of columns along the
back, as is the case at the Parthenon and at the temple
of Zeus in Nemea. The Parthenon cella, also had another
impressive feature, namely two tiers of columns atop each
other, as did the temple of Aphaia on Aegina. The tem-
ple of Athena at Tegea shows another variation, where
the two column rows are indicated by half-columns pro-
truding from the side walls and crowned with Corinthian
capitals. An early form of this solution can be seen at
Bassae, where the central column of the back portico re-
mains free-standing, while the columns along the sides are
in fact semi-columns connected with the walls by curved
protrusions.
Plan and interior reconstruction of the Temple of Apollo Epikou-
rios at Bassae. Note the side entrance to the cella and the single
Corinthian column.
Restricted access The cella of a Greek temple was en-
tered only rarely and by very few visitors. Generally, en-
try to the room, except during important festivals or other
special occasions, was limited to the priests. Sometimes,
the divine character of the cult image was stressed even
more by removing it further into a separate space within
the cella, the adyton. Especially in Magna Graecia, this
tradition continued for a long time. Over the decades and
centuries, numerous votive offerings could be placed in
the cella, giving it a museum-like character (Pausanias 5,
17).
42 CHAPTER 1. GREEK

Opisthodomos Organization

The back room of the temple, the opisthodomos, usu-
ally served as a storage space for cult equipment. It
could also hold the temple treasury. For some time, the
opisthodomus of the Athenian Parthenon contained the
treasury of the Delian League, thus directly protected by
the deity. Pronaos and opisthodomos were often closed
off from the peristasis by wooden barriers or fences.
Peristasis
Like the cella, the peristasis could serve the display and
storage of votives, often placed between the columns. In
some cases, votive offerings could also be directly af-
fixed to the columns, as is visible e.g. on the Temple of
Hera at Olympia. The peristasis could also be used for
cult processions, or simply as shelter from the elements,
a function emphasised by Vitruvius (III 3, 8f).
1.2.8 Sponsors, construction and costs
Public and private sponsors
Building contracts were advertised after a popular or
elected assembly had passed the relevant motion. An ap-
pointed committee would choose the winner among the
submitted plans. Afterwards, another committee would
supervise the building process. Its responsibilities in-
cluded the advertising and awarding of individual con-
tracts, the practical supervision of the construction, the
inspection and acceptance of completed parts, and the
paying of wages. The original advert contained all the
information necessary to enable a contractor to make a
realistic offer for completing the task. Contracts were
normally awarded to the competitor offering the most
complete service for the cheapest price. In the case of
public buildings, the materials were normally provided by
the public sponsor, exceptions were clarified in the con-
tract. Contractors were usually only responsible for spe-
cific parts of the overall construction, as most businesses
were small. Originally, payment was by person and day,
but from the 5th century BC onwards, payment by piece
or construction stage became common.[29]
Costs
The costs could be immense. For example, surviving re-
ceipts show that in the rebuilding of the Artemision of
Ephesos, a single column cost 40,000 drachmas. Con-
sidering that a worker was paid about two drachmas, that
equals nearly 2 million Euro (on a modern west Euro-
pean wage scale). Since the overall number of columns
required for the design was 120, even this aspect of the
building would have caused costs equivalent to those of
major projects today (circa 360 million Euro).[30]

1.2.9 Temples of the different architec-

tural orders
In the late 6th century BC, the Alcmaeonidae family strongly sup-
One of the criteria by which Greek temples are classi-
ported the rebuilding of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi, so as to
fied is the Classical order chosen as their basic aesthetic
improve their standing in Athens and Greece.
principle. This choice, which was rarely entirely free, but
normally determined by tradition and local habit, would
The sponsors of Greek temples usually belonged to one lead to widely differing rules of design. According to the
of two groups: on the one hand public sponsors, includ- three major orders, a basic distinction can be made be-
ing the bodies and institutions that administrated impor- tween the Doric, the Ionic and the Corinthian Temple.
tant sanctuaries; on the other hand influential and afflu-
ent private sponsors, especially Hellenistic kings. The
financial needs were covered by income from taxes or Doric temples
special levies, or by the sale of raw materials like silver.
The collection of donations also occurred, especially for The modern image of Greek temple architecture is
supra-regional sanctuaries like Delphi or Olympia. Hel- strongly influenced by the numerous reasonably well-
lenistic monarchs could appear as private donors in cities preserved temples of the Doric order. Especially the ru-
outside their immediate sphere of influence and sponsor ins of Southern Italy and Sicily were accessible to western
public buildings, as exemplified by Antiochos IV, who travellers quite early in the development of Classical stud-
ordered the rebuilding of the Olympieion at Athens. In ies, e.g. the temples at Paestum, Akragas or Segesta,[31]
such cases, the money came from the private treasury of but the Hephaisteion and the Parthenon of Athens also in-
the donor.[28] fluenced scholarship and Neoclassical architecture from
1.2. ANCIENT GREEK TEMPLE
The Temple of Hephaistos in Athens, the best-preserved Doric
temple in Greece.
an early point onwards.
Beginnings The beginnings of Greek temple construc-
tion in the Doric order can be traced to early in the
7th century BC. With the transition to stone architecture
around 600 BC, the order was fully developed; from then
on, only details were changed, developed and refined,
mostly in the context of solving the challenges posed by
the design and construction of monumental temples.
First monumental temples Apart from early forms,
occasionally still with apsidal backs and hipped roofs, the
first 100-foot (30 m) peripteral temples occur quite soon,
before 600 BC. An example is Temple C at Thermos,
circa 625 BC,[32] a 100-foot-long (30 m) hekatompedos,
surrounded by a peristasis of 5 x 15 columns, its cella
divided in two aisles by a central row of columns. Its
entirely Doric entablature is indicated by painted clay
plaques, probably early example of metopes, and clay
triglyphs.[33] It appears to be the case that all temples
erected within the spheres of influence of Corinth and
Argos in the 7th century BC were Doric peripteroi. The
earliest stone columns did not display the simple squat-
ness of the high and late Archaic specimens, but rather
mirror the slenderness of their wooden predecessors. Al-
ready around 600 BC, the demand of viewability from
all sides was applied to the Doric temple, leading to the
mirroring of the frontal pronaos by an opisthodomos at
the back. This early demand continued to affect Doric
temples especially in the Greek motherland. Neither the
Ionic temples, nor the Doric specimens in Magna Graecia
followed this principle.[34] The increasing monumentali-
sation of stone buildings, and the transfer of the wooden
roof construction to the level of the geison removed the
fixed relationship between the naos and the peristasis.
This relationship between the axes of walls and columns,
almost a matter of course in smaller structures, remained
undefined and without fixed rules for nearly a century: the
position of the naos “floated” within the peristasis.
43
Doric capital in the Heraion of Olympia.
Stone-built temples
The Heraion at Olympia (c. 600 BC) The Heraion
of Olympia[35] (circa 600 BC) exemplifies the transition
from wood to stone construction. This building, ini-
tially constructed entirely of wood and mudbrick, had
its wooden columns gradually replaced with stone ones
over time. Like a museum of Doric columns and Doric
capitals, it contains examples of all chronological phases,
up to the Roman period. One of the columns in the
opisthodomos remained wooden at least until the 2nd cen-
tury AD, when Pausanias described it. This 6 by 16
columns temple already called for a solution to the Doric
corner conflict. It was achieved through a reduction of
the corner intercolumniations the so-called corner con-
traction. The Heraion is most advanced in regards to the
relationship between naos and peristasis, as it uses the so-
lution that became canonical decades later, a linear axis
running along the external faces of the outer naos walls
and through the central axis of the associated columns. Its
differentiation between wider intercolumnia on the nar-
row sides and narrower ones on the long sides was also an
influential feature, as was the positioning of the columns
within the cella, corresponding with those on the outside,
a feature not repeated until the construction of the temple
at Bassae 150 years later.[36]
Temple of Artemis, Kerkyra (early 6th century BC)
The oldest Doric temple entirely built of stone is repre-
sented by the early 6th century BC Artemis Temple in
Kerkyra (modern Corfu).[37] All parts of this building are
bulky and heavy, its columns reach a height of barely five
times their bottom diameter and were very closely spaced
with an intercolumniation of a single column width. The
individual members of its Doric orders all differ consid-
erably from the later canon, although all essential Doric
features are present. Its ground plan of 8 by 17 columns,
probably pseudoperipteral, is unusual.
44 CHAPTER 1. GREEK

Archaic Olympieion, Athens Among the Doric tem- x 12 columns or 5 x 11 intercolumniations occurs as fre-
ples, the Peisistratid Olympieion at Athens has a spe- quently.
cial position.[38] Although this building was never com-
pleted, its architect apparently attempted to adapt the
Ionic dipteros. Column drums built into the later foun-
dations indicate that it was originally planned as a Doric 0 5 10 15 20 m
temple. Nonetheless, its ground plan follows the Ionic ex-
amples of Samos so closely that it would be hard to rec-
oncile such a solution with a Doric triglyph frieze. After
the expulsion of Hippias in 510 BC, work on this struc-
ture was stopped: Democratic Athens had no desire to
continue a monument of tyrannical self-aggrandisation.

Classical period: canonisation Apart from this ex-

ception and some examples in the more experimental
poleis of Greater Greece, the Classical Doric temple type
remained the peripteros. Its perfection was a priority of
artistic endeavour throughout the Classical period.

Ruin of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia.

Temple of Zeus, Olympia (460 BC) The canonical so-

lution was found fairly soon by the architect Libon of Elis,
who erected the Temple of Zeus at Olympia around 460
BC. With its 6 x 13 columns or 5 x 12 intercolumniations,
this temple was designed entirely rationally. Its column
bays (axis to axis) measured 16 feet (4.9 m), a triglyph +
metope 8 feet (2.4 m), a mutulus plus the adjacent space
(via) 4 feet (1.2 m), the tile width of the marble roof was
2 feet (0.61 m). Its columns are powerful, with only a
slight entasis; the echinus of the capitals is already nearly
linear at 45°. All of the superstructure is affected by cur-
vature. The cella measures exactly 3 x 9 column distances
(axis to axis), its external wall faces are aligned with the
axes of the adjacent columns.
Other canonical Classical temples 6 x 13 columns,
the Classical proportion, is taken up by numerous tem-
ples, e.g. the Temple of Apollo on Delos (circa 470 BC),
the Temple of Hephaistos at Athens and the temple of
Poseidon on Cape Sounion.[39] A slight variation, with 6
Plan of the Parthenon, note triple colonnade in the cella and pil-
lared room at back.
The Parthenon (450 BC) The Parthenon[40] maintains
the same proportion at a larger scale of 8 x 17 columns,
but follows the same principles. In spite of the eight
columns on its front, the temple is a pure peripteros, its
external cella walls align with the axes of the 2nd and
7th columns. In other regards, the Parthenon is distin-
guished as an exceptional example among the mass of
Greek peripteroi by many distinctive aesthetic solutions
in detail. For example, the antae of pronaos
and opisthodomos are shortened so as to form simple pil-
lars. Instead of longer antae, there are prostyle colon-
nades inside the peristasis on the front and back, reflecting
Ionic habits. The execution of the naos, with a western
room containing four columns, is also exceptional. The
Parthenon’s Archaic predecessor already contained such
1.2. ANCIENT GREEK TEMPLE 45

The Parthenon.

a room. All measurements in the Parthenon are deter-

mined by the proportion 4:9. It determines column width
to column distance, width to length of the stylobate, and
of the naos without antae. The temple’s width to height
up to the geison is determined by the reverse proportion
9:4, the same proportion squared, 81:16, determines tem-
ple length to height. All of this mathematical rigour is re-
laxed and loosened by the optical refinements mentioned
above, which affect the whole building, from layer to
layer, and element to element. 92 sculpted metopes dec-
orate its triglyph frieze: centauromachy, amazonomachy The temple of Zeus at Nemea.
and gigantomachy are its themes. The external walls of
the naos are crowned with a figural frieze surrounding
the entire cella and depicting the Panathenaic procession The increasing reduction of the number of columns along
as well as the Assembly of the Gods. Large format fig- the long sides, clearly visible on Ionic temples, is mirrored
ures decorate the pediments on the narrow sides. This in Doric constructions. A small temple at Kournó has a
conjunction of strict principles and elaborate refinements peristasis of merely 6 x 7 columns, a stylobate of only
makes the Parthenon the paradigmatic Classical temple. 8 x 10 m and corners executed as pilasters towards the
The Temple of Hephaistos at Athens, erected shortly af- front.[45] The peristasis of monumental Doric temples is
ter the Parthenon, uses the same aesthetic and propor- merely hinted at here; the function as a simple canopy for
tional principles, without adhering as closely to the 4:9 the shrine of the cult statue is clear.
proportion.[41]

Late Classical and Hellenistic: changing proportions

In the 4th century BC, a few Doric temples were erected
with 6 x 15 or 6 x 14 columns, probably referring to lo-
cal Archaic predecessors, e.g. the Temple of Zeus in
Nemea[42] and that of Athena in Tegea.[43] Generally,
Doric temples followed a tendency to become lighter in
their superstructures. Columns became narrower, inter-
columniations wider. This shows a growing adjustment to
the proportion and weight of Ionic temples, mirrored by
a progressive tendency among Ionic temples to become
somewhat heavier. In the light of this mutual influence
it is not surprising that in the late 4th century BC temple Temple of Apollo at Paestum.
of Zeus at Nemea, the front is emphasised by a pronaos
two intercolumniations deep, while the opisthodomos is Doric temples in Magna Graecia Sicily and South-
suppressed.[44] Frontality is a key feature of Ionic tem- ern Italy hardly participated in these developments. Here,
ples. The emphasis on the pronaos already occurred in most temple construction took place during the 6th and
the slightly older temple of Athena at Tegea, but there 5th centuries BC.[46] Later, the Western Greeks showed
it was repeated in the opisthodomos. Both temples con- a pronounced tendency to develop unusual architectural
tinued the tendency towards more richly equipped inte- solutions, more or less unthinkable in the mother poleis
riors, in both cases with engaged or full columns of the of their colonies. For example, there are two examples
Corinthian order. of temples with uneven column numbers at the front,
46 CHAPTER 1. GREEK

Temple of Hera I at Paestum[34] and Temple of Apollo ing ever to be completed. If the colonies showed remark-
A at Metapontum.[47] Both temples had fronts of nine able independence and will to experiment in basic terms,
columns. they did so even more in terms of detail. For example,
the lower surfaces of Doric geisa could be decorated with
coffers instead of mutuli.
Although a strong tendency to emphasize the front, e.g.
through the addition of ramps or stairs with up to eight
steps (at Temple C in Selinus), or a pronaos depth of
3.5 column distances (temple of Apollo at Syracuse)[50]
had been become a key principle of design, this was rela-
tivised by the broadening of column distances on the long
sides, e.g. Temple of Hera I at Paestum. Only in the
colonies could the Doric corner conflict be ignored. If
South Italian architects tried to solve it, they used a va-
riety of solutions: broadening of the corner metopes or
Temple G, Selinus, with well-defined adyton. triglyphs, variation of column distance or metopes. In
some cases, different solutions were used on the broad
The technical possibilities of the western Greeks, which and narrow sides of the same building.
had progressed beyond those in the motherland, permit-
ted many deviations. For example, innovations regard-
ing the construction of the entablature developed in the
west allowed the spanning of much wider spaces than be-
fore, leading to some very deep peristaseis and broad naoi.
The peristasis often had a depth of two column distances,
e.g. at Temple of Hera I, Paestum, and temples C, F and
G at Selinus,[48] classifying them as pseudodipteroi. The
opisthodomos only played a subsidiary role, but did occur
sometimes, e.g. at the temple of Poseidon in Paestum.
Much more frequently, the temples included a separate
room at the back end of the cella, entrance to which was
usually forbidden, the adyton. In some cases, the adyton
was a free-standing structure within the cella, e.g. temple
G in Selinus. If possible, columns inside the cella were
avoided, allowing for open roof constructions of up to 13
m width.

Model of the Olympieion at Akragas.

The largest such structure was the Olympieion of

Akragas, an 8 x 17 columns peripteros, but in many re-
gards an absolutely “un-Greek” structure, equipped with
details such as engaged, figural pillars (Telamons), and a
Typical proportions of the Ionic order.
peristasis partially closed off by walls.[49] With external
dimensions of 56 x 113 m, it was the largest Doric build-
1.2. ANCIENT GREEK TEMPLE 47

Ionic temples

Origins For the early period, before the 6th century

BC, the term Ionic temple can, at best, designate a temple
in the Ionian areas of settlement. No fragments of archi-
tecture belonging to the Ionic order have been found from
this time. Nonetheless, some early temples in the area al-
ready indicate the rational system that was to characterise
the Ionic system later on, e.g. the Heraion II of Samos.[51]
Thus, even at an early point, the axes of the cella walls
aligned with the column axes, whereas in Doric architec-
ture, the external wall faces do so. The early temples also
show no concern for the typical Doric feature of viewa-
bility from all sides, they regularly lack an opisthodomos;
the peripteros only became widespread in the area in the
4th century BC. In contrast, from an early point, Ionic
temples stress the front by using double porticos. Elon-
gated peristaseis became a determining element. At the
same time, the Ionic temples were characterised by their
tendency to use varied and richly decorated surfaces, as
well as the widespread use of light-shade contrasts.

Monumental Ionic temples

The Heraion of Samos As soon as the Ionic order

becomes recognisable in temple architecture, it is in-
creased to monumental sizes. The temple in the Heraion
of Samos, erected by Rhoikos around 560 BC, is the
first known dipteros, with outside dimensions of 52 x 105
m.[52] A double portico of 8 x 21 columns enclosed the
naos, the back even had ten columns. The front used dif-
fering column distances, with a wider central opening. In
proportion to the bottom diameter, the columns reached
three times the height of a Doric counterpart. 40 flut-
ings enriched the complex surface structure of the col-
umn shafts. Samian column bases were decorated with a
sequence of horizontal flutings, but in spite of this play-
fulness they weighed 1,500 kg a piece. The capitals of
this structure were probably still entirely of wood, as was
the entablature. Ionic volute capitals survive from the
outer peristasis of the later rebuilding by Polycrates. The
columns of the inner peristasis had leaf decoration and no
volutes.
Cycladic Ionic In the Cyclades, there were early tem-
ples entirely built of marble. Volute capitals have not
been found associated with these, but their marble entab-
latures belonged to the Ionic order.[53]
The Artemision of Ephesos Roughly beginning with
the erection of the older Artemision of Ephesos around
550 BC[54] the quantity of archaeological remains of
Ionic temples increases. The Artemision was planned as
a dipteros, its architect Theodoros had been one of the
builders of the Samian Heraion. With a substructure of
55 x 115 m, the Artemision outscaled all precedents. Its
Plan of the Artemision at Ephesos.
cella was executed as unroofed internal peristyle court-
yard, the so-called sekos. The building was entirely of
marble. The temple was considered as one of the seven
wonders of the ancient world, which may be justified,
considering the efforts involved in its construction.
The columns stood on ephesian bases, 36 of them were
decorated with life-sized friezes of human figures at the
bottom of the shaft, the so-called columnae caelatae.[55]
The columns had between 40 and 48 flutings, some of
them cut to alternate between a wider and a narrower
fluting. The oldest marble architraves of Greek archi-
tecture, found at the Artemision, also spanned the widest
distances ever achieved in pure stone. The middle archi-
trave block was 8.74 m long and weighed 24 metric tons;
it had to be lifted to its final position, 20 m above ground,
with a system of pulleys. Like its precedents, the temple
used differentiated column widths in the front, and had
a higher number of columns at the back. According to
ancient sources, Kroisos was one of the sponsors. An in-
scription referring to his sponsorship was indeed found
on one of the columns. The temple was burnt down by
Herostratos in 356 BC and reerected soon thereafter. For
the replacement, a crepidoma of ten or more steps was
erected. Older Ionic temples normally lacked a specific
visible substructure. This emphasised basis had to be bal-
48 CHAPTER 1. GREEK

anced out be a heightened entablature, producing not only

a visual contrast to, but also a major weight upon the slen-
der columns.

Remains of the temple of Apollo at Didyma.

Temple of Apollo at Didyma The temple of Apollo at

Didyma near Miletus, begun around 540 BC, was another
dipteros with open internal courtyard.[56] The interior was
structured with powerful pilasters, their rhythm reflect-
ing that of the external peristasis. The columns, with 36
flutings, were executed as columnae caelatae with figural
decoration, like those at Ephesos. Construction ceased
around 500 BC, but was restarted in 331 BC and finally
completed in the 2nd century BC. The enormous costs
involved may have been one of the reasons for the long
period of construction. The building was the first Ionic
temple to follow the Attic tradition of uniform column
distances, the frontal diffentiation was not practised any
more.

Ruins of the temple of Athena at Priene

Temple of Athena Polias, Priene Ionic peripteroi

Columna caelata from the Artemision. were usually somewhat smaller and shorter in their di-
mensions than Doric ones. E.g., the temple of Zeus at
Labraunda had only 6 × 8 columns,[57] the temple of
Aphrodite in Samothrace only 6 × 9.[58] The temple of
1.2. ANCIENT GREEK TEMPLE 49

Athena Polias at Priene,[59] already considered in antiq-

uity as the classical example of an Ionic temple, has par-
tially survived. It was the first monumental peripteros of
Ionia, erected between 350 and 330 BC by Pytheos. It
is based on a 6-by-6-foot (1.8 m × 1.8 m) grid (the ex-
act dimensions of its plinths). The temple had 6 × 11
columns, i.e. a proportion of 5:10 or 1:2 intercolum-
nia. Walls and columns were aligned axially, according
to Ionic tradition. The peristasis was of equal depth on
all sides, eliminating the usual emphasis on the front, an
opisthodomos, integrated into the back of the cella, is
the first proper example in Ionic architecture. The evi-
dent rational-mathematical aspect to the design suits Ionic
Greek culture, with its strong tradition of natural philoso-
phy. Pytheos was to be of major influence far beyond his The Erechtheion at Athens.
lifetime. Hermogenes, who probably came from Priene,
was a deserving successor and achieved the final flourish
Attic Ionic Although Athens and Attica were also eth-
of Ionic architecture around 200 BC.
nically Ionian, the Ionic order was of minor importance
in this area. The Temple of Nike Aptera on the Acropo-
lis, a small amphiprostyle temple completed around 420
BC, with Ionic columns on plinthless Attic bases, a triple-
layered architrave and a figural frieze, but without the typ-
ical Ionic dentil, is notable. The east and north halls of
the Erechtheion, completed in 406 BC, follow the same
succession of elements.

Epidauros An innovative Ionic temple was that of

Asklepios in Epidaurus, one of the first of the pseu-
doperipteros type. This small ionic prostyle temple had
engaged columns along the sides and back, the peris-
tasis was thus reduced to a mere hint of a full portico
facade.[64]

Capital from the Artemision of Magnesia on the Maeander
(Berlin, Pergamonmuseum).
The Artemision of Magnesia One of the projects
led by Hermogenes was the Artemision of Magnesia on
the Maeander, one of the first pseudodipteroi.[60] other
early pseudodipteroi include the temple of Aphrodite at
Messa on Lesbos, belonging to the age of Hermogenes or
earlier,[61] the temple of Apollo Sminthaios on Chryse[62]
and the temple of Apollo at Alabanda.[63] The arrange-
ment of the pseudodipteros, omitting the interior row of
columns while maintaining a peristasis with the width of
two column distances, produces a massively broadened
portico, comparable to the contemporaneous hall archi-
tecture. The grid of the temple of Magnesia was based
on a 12-by-12-foot (3.7 m × 3.7 m) square. The peristasis
was surrounded by 8 × 15 columns or 7 × 14 intercolum-
nia, i.e. a 1:2 proportion. The naos consisted of a pronaos
of four column depths, a four columns cella, and a 2 col-
umn opisthodomos. Above the architrave of the peristasis,
there was a figural frieze of 137 m length, depicting the
amazonomachy. Above it lay the dentil, the Ionic geison
and the sima.
Magna Graecia There is very little evidence of Ionic
temples in Magna Graecia. One of the few exceptions
is the early Classical Temple D, an 8 x 20 columns
peripteros, at Metapontum. Its architect combined the
dentil, typical of Asia Minor, with an Attic frieze, thus
proving that the colonies were quite capable of partaking
in the developments of the motherland.[65] A small Ionic
Hellenistic prostyle temple was found on the Poggetto San
Nicola at Agrigento.
Hellenistic India Main article: Jandial
A Ionic temple with a design very similar with that of a
Greek Temple is known from Jandial in the northwest-
ern Indian subcontinent, today Pakistan. The Temple is
considered as a semi-Classical temple. Its design is essen-
tially that of a Greek Temple, with a naos, pronaos and an
opisthodomos at the back.[66] Two Ionic columns at the
front are framed by two anta walls as in a Greek distyle in
antis layout. It seems that the temple had an outside wall
with windows or doorways, in a layout similar to that of a
Greek encircling row of columns (peripteral design).[67]
50 CHAPTER 1. GREEK

175 and 146 BC. This mighty dipteros with its 110 ×
44 m substructure and 8 × 20 columns was to be one
of the largest Corinthian temples ever. Donated by
Antiochus IV Epiphanes, it combined all elements of
the Asian/Ionic order with the Corinthian capital. Its
Asian elements and its conception as a dipteros made the
temple an exception in Athens.[70]

Olba Around the middle of the 2nd century BC, a 6

× 12 columns Corinthian peripteros was built in Olba-
Diokaisarea in Rugged Cilicia.[71] Its columns, mostly
still upright, stand on Attic bases without plinths, excep-
The Hellenistic temple with Ionic columns at Jandial, Taxila, tional for the period. The 24 flutings of the columns are
Pakistan. only indicated by facets in the lower third. Each of the
Corinthian capitals is made of three separate parts, an ex-
It has been called “the most Hellenic structure yet found ceptional form. The entablature of the temple was prob-
on Indian soil”.[68] ably in the Doric order, as is suggested by fragments of
mutuli scattered among the ruins. All of these details sug-
gest an Alexandrian workshop, since Alexandria showed
Corinthian temples the greatest tendency to combine Doric entablatures with
Corinthian capitals and to do without the plinth under At-
tic bases.[72]

Temple of Hekate at Lagina A further plan option is

shown by the temple of Hekate at Lagina, a small pseu-
doperipteros of 8 × 11 columns.[73] Its architectural mem-
bers are entirely in keeping with the Asian/Ionic canon.
Its distinctive feature, a rich figural frieze, makes this
building, erected around 100 BC, an architectural gem.
Further late Greek temples in the Corinthian order are
known e.g. at Mylasa[74] and, on the middle gymnasium
terrace at Pergamon.[75]

The Olympieion at Athens.

Beginnings The youngest of the three Classical Greek

orders, the Corinthian order came to be used for the ex-
ternal design of Greek temples quite late. After it had
proved its adequacy, e.g. on a mausoleum of at modern-
day Belevi (near Ephesos), it appears to have found in-
creasing popularity in the 2nd half of the 3rd century
BC. Early examples probably include the Serapeum of
Alexandria and a temple at Hermopolis Magna, both
erected by Ptolemaios III. A small temple of Athena Lim-
nastis at Messene, definitely Corinthian, is only attested
through drawings by early travellers and very scarce frag-
ments. It probably dates to the late 3rd century BC.[69]
The Maison Carrée at Nîmes (France), from 16 BC, a typical
Roman temple, is a Corinthian hexaystyle pseudoperipteros.
Examples
Distinctive uses of Corinthian temples, influence
The few Greek temples in the Corinthian order are al-
Hellenistic Temple of Olympian Zeus, Athens most always exceptional in form or ground plan and are
The first dateable and well-preserved presence of the initially usually an expression of royal patronage. The
Corinthian temple is the Hellenistic rebuilding of the Corinthian order permitted a considerable increase of
Olympieion of Athens, planned and started between the material and technical effort invested in a building,
1.2. ANCIENT GREEK TEMPLE 51

1.2.11 References
[1] Penrose, F.C., (communicated by Joseph Norman Lock-
yer), The Orientation of Greek Temples, Nature, v.48,
n.1228, May 11, 1893, pp.42-43

[2] https://myportal.bsd405.org/personal/beckere/art910/
Shared%20Documents/Art%20History.pptx.

[3] http://muellercain.weebly.com/uploads/1/6/2/0/
16208714/minoan_and_mycenaean_civilization_
comparison_lesson.pdf.

[4] http://lucian.uchicago.edu/blogs/isthmia/publications/
archaic-temple/

[5] Heinrich Drerup: Griechische Baukunst in geometrischer

Zeit. Göttingen 1969.

[6] Heinrich Drerup: Zur Entstehung der griechischen Ring-

halle. In: Nikolaus Himmelmann-Wildschütz & Hagen
Pandyan Kingdom coin depicting a temple between hill symbols Biesantz (eds.): Festschrift für Friedrich Matz. Mainz
and elephant, Pandyas, Sri Lanka, 1st century CE. 1962, p. 32-38.

which made its use attractive for the purposes of roy-
als self-aggrandisement. The demise of the Hellenistic
monarchies and the increasing power of Rome and her
allies placed mercantile elites and sanctuary administra-
tions in the positions of building sponsors. The construc-
tion of Corinthian temples became a typical expression
of self-confidence and independence.[76] As an element
of Roman architecture, the Corinthian temple came to
be widely distributed in all of the Graeco-Roman world,
especially in Asia Minor, until the late Imperial period.
[7] Ralf Schenk: Der korinthische Tempel bis zum Ende des
Prinzipats des Augustus. Internationale Archäologie Vol.
45, 1997, p. 41-47.
[8] Klaus Bringmann & Barbara Schmidt-Dounas: Schenkun-
gen hellenistischer Herrscher an griechische Städte und
Heiligtümer. Historische und archäologische Auswertung.
Ed. by Hans von Steuben & Klaus Bringman. Akademie
Verlag Berlin, Berlin 2000.
[9] Astrid Schürman: Griechische Mechanik und antike
Gesellschaft. Stuttgart 1991, p. 5.

[10] Hans Lauter: Die Architektur des Hellenismus. Wiss.

1.2.10 See also Buchges., Darmstadt 1986, p. 180-194; Gottfried
Gruben: : Die Tempel der Griechen. Hirmer, München
• Ancient Greek architecture 2001 (5th edn.), p. 33-44.

• Classical order [11] Friedemann Quaß: Die Honoratiorenschicht in den Städten

des griechischen Ostens. Untersuchungen zur politischen
• Entablature und sozialen Entwicklung in hellenistischer und römischer
Zeit. Stuttgart 1993.
• Glossary of architecture
[12] Klaus Tuchelt: Frühe Denkmäler Roms in Kleinasien. 23.
• Greek technology
Beiheft Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen In-
• Greek theatre stituts Abteilung Istanbul. 1979, p. 119-122.

• Greek culture [13] Charlotte Roueché & Kenan T. Erim (Hrsg.): Aphrodisias
Papers: Recent Work on Architecture and Sculpture. In:
• Ancient Greek religion Journal or Roman Archaeology. Supplementary series
Vol. 1. 1990, p. 37 ff.
• Art in ancient Greece
• List of Ancient Greek temples [14] Heidi Hänlein-Schäfer: Veneratio Augusti. Eine Studie zu
den Tempeln des ersten römischen Kaisers. Rome 1985.
• List of Greek mythological figures
[15] Margarete van Ess & Thomas Weber (Hrsg.): Baalbek.
• List of Greco-Roman roofs Im Bann römischer Monumentalarchitektur. 1999; Klaus
Stefan Freyberger: Im Licht des Sonnengottes. Deutung
• List of ancient architectural records und Funktion des sogenannten Bacchus-Tempels im Heilig-
• Roman temple tum des Jupiter Heliopolitanus in Baalbek. In: Mitteilun-
gen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts Abteilung
• Greek Revival architecture Damaskus. Vol. 12. 2000, p. 95-133.
52
[16] Alois Machatschek - Mario Schwarz: Bauforschungen
in Selge. Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften
Philosophisch – Historische Klasse Denkschriften. 152.
Band. Ergänzungsbände zu den Tituli Asiae Mi-
noris. Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wis-
senschaften, Wien 1981, p. 96 Taf. 4 Fig. 70; J. Nollé &
F. Schindler: Die Inschriften von Selge. 1991, p. 89 No.
17.
[17] John B. Ward-Perkins: Roman Imperial Architecture.
1983.
[18] Klaus Stefan Freyberger & Martha Sharp Joukowsky:
Blattranken, Greifen und Elefanten. Sakrale Architektur
in Petra. In: Thomas Weber & Robert Wenning (eds.):
Petra: antike Felsstadt zwischen arabischer Tradition und
griechischer Norm. Sonderheft Antike Welt. Zabern,
Mainz 1997, p. 71 ff.
[19] Pierre Collart: Le sanctuaire de Baalshamin à Palmyre.
1969.
[20] Elizabeth Fentress (Ed.): Romanization and the City. Cre-
ation, Transformation, and Failures. In: Proceedings of
a conference held at the American Academy in Rome to
celebrate the 50th anniversary of the excavations at Cosa,
14–16 May 1998. Journal of Roman Archaeology. Sup-
plementary series Vol. 38. Portsmouth 2000.
[21] Regarding Roman period and financing, using the
province of Asia as an example, see Stefan Cramme: Die
Bedeutung des Euergetismus für die Finanzierung städtis-
cher Aufgaben in der Provinz Asia. Köln 2001. (Online
Archived April 9, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.).
[22] The same basic proportion occurs, less purely, in the
Temple of Hephaestus of Athens. Wolfgang Müller-
Wiener: Griechisches Bauwesen in der Antike. C. H. Beck,
München 1988, p. 27-32.
[23] Wolfram Hoepfner in: Wolfram Hoepfner & Ernst-
Ludwig Schwandner (eds.): Hermogenes und die hochhel-
lenistische Architektur. Internationales Kolloquium in
Berlin vom 28. bis 29. Juli 1988 im Rahmen des XIII.
Internationalen Kongresses für Klassische Archäologie.
Mainz 1990. p. 12; Meral Ortac: Die hellenistischen und
römischen Propyla in Kleinasien. 2001, p. 115 (Online
Archived April 9, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.).
[24] Lothar Haselberg: Old Issues, New Research, Latest Dis-
coveries: Curvature and Other Classical Refinements. In:
Lothar Haselberger (ed.): Appearance and Essence. Re-
finements of Classical Architecture: Curvature. University
of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia 1999, p. 1-68.
[25] Charles Picard – Pierre de La Coste-Messelière: Fouilles
de Delphes. Bd. IV 3, 1931, S. 15 ff.
[26] About architectural sculpture: M. Oppermann: Vom
Medusabild zur Athenageburt. Bildprogramme griechis-
cher Tempelgiebel archaischer und klassischer Zeit. 1990;
Heiner Knell: Mythos und Polis. Bildprogramme griechis-
cher Bauskulptur. The column was constructed of drums,
the round core, and finished with flutes, making the outer
area look rippled. Slight swelling of the column is known
as entasis. 1990.
CHAPTER 1. GREEK
[27] Retallack, G.J., 2008, Rocks, views, soils and plants at the
temples of ancient Greece. Antiquity 82, 640-657
[28] K. Bringmann & H. von Steuben, Schenkungen hellenis-
tischer Herrscher an griechische Städte und Heiligtümer.
1995; Hildegard Schaaf: Untersuchungen zu Gebäudes-
tiftungen hellenistischer Zeit. 1992.
[29] Hans Lauter: Die Architektur des Hellenismus. Wiss.
Buchges., Darmstadt 1986, p. 12-27; Wolfgang Müller-
Wiener: Griechisches Bauwesen in der Antike. C. H. Beck,
München 1988, p. 15-25, 33-39.
[30] Albert Rehm: Die Inschriften. In: Theodor Wiegand:
Didyma. 2. Teil (ed. by Richard Harder). Berlin 1958. p.
13–103. The calculation is based on a low skilled crafts-
man’s daily pay of circa 150 Euro in modern Germany.
[31] Dieter Mertens: Der Tempel von Segesta und die dorische
Tempelbaukunst des griechischen Westens in klassischer
Zeit. 1984.
[32] Georg Kawerau & Georgios Soteriades: Der Apollotem-
pel zu Thermos. In: Antike Denkmäler. Bd. 2, 1902/08.
(Online).
[33] H. Koch: Zu den Metopen von Thermos. In: Mitteilungen
des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts Abteilung Athen.
Bd. 39, 1914, S. 237 ff.
[34] Dieter Mertens: Der alte Heratempel in Paestum und die
archaische Baukunst in Unteritalien. 1993.
[35] Alfred Mallwitz: Das Heraion von Olympia und seine
Vorgänger. In: Jahrbuch des Deutschen Archäologischen
Instituts. Bd. 81, 1966, p. 310-376.
[36] Frederick A. Cooper: The Temple of Apollo Bassitas. Vol.
1-4. 1992-1996.
[37] Gerhard Rodenwaldt: Korkyra. Bd. 1 - Der Artemistem-
pel. 1940.
[38] Renate Tölle-Kastenbein: Das Olympieion in Athen. Böh-
lau, Köln 1994.
[39] Gottfried Gruben: Die Tempel der Griechen. Hirmer,
München 2001 (5. edn.), p. 212-216.
[40] Michael B. Cosmopoulos (ed.): The Parthenon and its
sculptures. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2004.
[41] Homer A. Thompson & Richard E. Wycherley : The
Agora of Athens. The History, Shape and Uses of an an-
cient City Center. The Athenian Agora. Vol 14, 1972, p.
140 ff.
[42] Frederick A. Cooper et al.: The Temple of Zeus at Ne-
mea. Perspectives and Prospects. Catalogue Benaki Mu-
seum Athens 1983. Athens 1983
[43] C. Dugas; J. Berchamans & M. Clemmensen: Le sanctu-
aire d'Aléa Athéna à Tégée au IVe siècle. 1924.
[44] Frederick A. Cooper e.a.: The Temple of Zeus at Nemea.
Perspectives and Prospects. Ausstellungskatalog Benaki
Museum Athen 1983. Athen 1983.
1.2. ANCIENT GREEK TEMPLE
[45] Hans Lauter: Die Architektur des Hellenismus. Wiss.
Buchges., Darmstadt 1986, S. 187. 195 Abb. 65. 66a.
[46] Dieter Mertens: Städte und Bauten der Westgriechen. Von
der Kolonisationszeit bis zur Krise um 400 vor Christus.
Hirmer Verlag, München 2006.
[47] Dieter Mertens: Städte und Bauten der Westgriechen. Von
der Kolonisationszeit bis zur Krise um 400 vor Christus.
Hirmer Verlag, München 2006, p. 157-158.
[48] Luca Giuliani: Die archaischen Metopen von Selinunt.
Zabern, Mainz 1979; Dieter Mertens: Selinus I. Die Stadt
und ihre Mauern. Zabern, Mainz 2003; Dieter Mertens:
Städte und Bauten der Westgriechen. Von der Kolonisa-
tionszeit bis zur Krise um 400 vor Christus. Hirmer Verlag,
München 2006, p. 117-124, 227-228, 231-235.
[49] Dieter Mertens: Städte und Bauten der Westgriechen. Von
der Kolonisationszeit bis zur Krise um 400 vor Christus.
Hirmer Verlag, München 2006, p. 198.
[50] see Dieter Mertens: Städte und Bauten der Westgriechen.
Von der Kolonisationszeit bis zur Krise um 400 vor Christus.
Hirmer Verlag, München 2006, p. 104-110.
[51] Hermann J. Kienast: Die rechteckigen Peristasenstützen am
samischen Hekatompedos. In: Ernst-Ludwig Schwand-
ner (ed.): Säule und Gebälk. Zu Struktur und
Wandlungsprozeß griechisch-römischer Architektur. Bau-
forschungskolloquium in Berlin vom 16.−18. Juni 1994.
Diskussionen zur Archäologischen Bauforschung. Bd. 6,
1996, p. 16-24.
[52] Christof Hendrich: Die Säulenordnung des ersten Dipteros
von Samos. Habelt, Bonn 2007.
[53] Gottfried Gruben: Naxos und Delos. Studien zur ar-
chaischen Architektur der Kykladen: In: Jahrbuch des
Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts. Vol. 112, 1997, p.
261–416.
[54] Anton Bammer: Das Heiligtum der Artemis von Ephesos.
1984; Anton Bammer - Ulrike Muss: Das Artemision von
Ephesos. Sonderheft Antike Welt. Vol. 20, 1996.
[55] Ulrike Muss: Die Bauplastik des archaischen Artemi-
sions von Ephesos. Sonderschriften des Österreichischen
Archäologischen Institutes. Vol. 25. Wien 1994.
[56] Peter Schneider: Neue Funde vom archaischen Apollon-
tempel in Didyma. In: Ernst-Ludwig Schwandner (Hrsg.):
Säule und Gebälk. Zu Struktur und Wandlungsprozeß
griechisch-römischer Architektur. Bauforschungskollo-
quium in Berlin vom 16.−18. Juni 1994. Diskussionen
zur Archäologischen Bauforschung. Vol. 6, 1996, p. 78-
83.
[57] Pontus Hellström - Thomas Thieme: The temple of Zeus.
In: Labraunda - Swedish excavations and researches. Vol
1, 3. Lund 1982.
[58] Ibrahim Hakan Mert: Untersuchungen zur hellenistis-
chen und kaiserzeitlichen Bauornamentik von Stratonikeia.
Köln 1999, p 261-301 (Online Archived April 9, 2008, at
the Wayback Machine.).
53
[59] Frank Rumscheid: Untersuchungen zur kleinasiatischen
Bauornamentik des Hellenismus. 1994, p 42–47.
[60] Carl Humann: Magnesia am Mäander. 1904, p 55; also
see in: Wolfram Hoepfner & Ernst-Ludwig Schwandner
(Eds.): Hermogenes und die hochhellenistische Architek-
tur. Internationales Kolloquium in Berlin vom 28. bis
29. Juli 1988 im Rahmen des XIII. Internationalen Kon-
gresses für Klassische Archäologie. Mainz 1990; more
generally: W. Hoepfner in: Wolfram Hoepfner & Ernst-
Ludwig Schwandner (Eds.): Hermogenes und die hochhel-
lenistische Architektur. Internationales Kolloquium in
Berlin vom 28. bis 29. Juli 1988 im Rahmen des XIII.
Internationalen Kongresses für Klassische Archäologie.
Mainz 1990, p. 2 ff. 30 ff.
[61] Hakan Mert: Untersuchungen zur hellenistischen und
kaiserzeitlichen Bauornamentik von Stratonikeia. Köln
1999, p. 26 (Online Archived April 9, 2008, at the
Wayback Machine.).
[62] Ibrahim Hakan Mert: Untersuchungen zur hellenistis-
chen und kaiserzeitlichen Bauornamentik von Stratonikeia.
Köln 1999, p. 26 (Online Archived April 9, 2008, at the
Wayback Machine.).
[63] Frank Rumscheid: Untersuchungen zur kleinasiatischen
Bauornamentik. Bd. I. Zabern, Mainz 1994, p. 141-143.
[64] Temple L in Epidauros; see Hans Lauter: Die Architek-
tur des Hellenismus. Wiss. Buchges., Darmstadt 1986, p.
189-190.
[65] See Dieter Mertens: Der ionische Tempel von Metapont.
In: Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts.
Römische Abteilung. Bd. 86, 1979, p. 103 ff.
[66] “The Hellenistic Settlements in the East from Armenia
and Mesopotamia to Bactria and India” Getzel M. Cohen,
Univ of California Press, 2013, p.327
[67] Rowland, p.492
[68] “The Dynastic Arts of the Kushans”, John M. Rosenfield,
University of California Press, 1 janv. 1967 p.129
[69] Ralf Schenk: Der korinthische Tempel bis zum Ende des
Prinzipats des Augustus. Internationale Archäologie 45,
1997, p. 16-21.
[70] See Renate Tölle-Kastenbein: Das Olympieion in Athen.
Böhlau, Köln 1994.
[71] Theodora S. MacKay: Olba in Rough Cilicia. 1968;
Detlev Wannagat: Neue Forschungen in Diokaisareia /
Uzuncaburç, Bericht über die Arbeiten 2001-2004. In:
Archäologischer Anzeiger. 2005, p. 117-166.
[72] See Hildegard Schaaf: Untersuchungen zu Gebäudes-
tiftungen hellenistischer Zeit. 1992; Ralf Schenk: Der
korinthische Tempel bis zum Ende des Prinzipats des Au-
gustus. Internationale Archäologie 45, 1997, p. 26-27;
Detlev Wannagat: Zur Säulenordnung des Zeustempels von
Olba-Diokaisareia. In: Olba II. First International Sym-
posium on Cilician Archaeology, Mersin 1.−4.6. 1998,
Mersin 1999, p. 355-368.
54 CHAPTER 1. GREEK

[73] See Ulrich Junghölter: Zur Komposition der Laginafriese • The dictionary definition of Temple at Wiktionary
und zur Deutung des Nordfrieses. 1989; Frank Rum-
scheid: Untersuchungen zur kleinasiatischen Bauornamen- • University of Chicago: Gallery with images of
tik. Bd. I, 1994, p. 132 ff.; Ralf Schenk: Der korinthische Greek Temples
Tempel bis zum Ende des Prinzipats des Augustus. Interna-
tionale Archäologie 45, 1997, p. 28 ff.

[74] Walter Voigtländer in: Adolf Hoffmann; Ernst-Ludwig

1.3 List of Ancient Greek temples
Schwandner; Wolfram Höpfner & Gunnar Brands (eds.):
Bautechnik der Antike. Kolloquium Berlin 1990. Diskus- Main article: Ancient Greek temple
sionen zur Archäologischen Bauforschung. Bd. 5. 1991, This list of ancient Greek temples covers temples built
p. 247-248; Ralf Schenk: Der korinthische Tempel bis
zum Ende des Prinzipats des Augustus. Internationale
Archäologie 45, 1997, p. 37-39 (late 2nd century BC).

[75] P. Schazmann: Das Gymnasium. In: Altertümer von Perg-

amon. Bd. VI. 1923, p. 40 ff.; Ralf Schenk: Der ko-
rinthische Tempel bis zum Ende des Prinzipats des Augus-
tus. Internationale Archäologie 45, 1997, p. 39-41.

[76] See Ralf Schenk: Der korinthische Tempel bis zum Ende
des Prinzipats des Augustus. Internationale Archäologie
45, 1997, p. 41-47.

1.2.12 Bibliography
• Gottfried Gruben: Die Tempel der Griechen.
Hirmer, München 2001 (5. edn.), ISBN 3-7774- The Temple of Olympian Zeus, Athens, (174 BC-132 AD), with
8460-1 the Parthenon (447-432 BC) in the background
• Manfred Bietak (ed.): Archaische Griechische Tem-
by the Hellenic people from the 6th century BC until
pel und Altägypten. Österreichische Akademie der
the 2nd century AD on mainland Greece and in Hel-
Wissenschaften, Wien 2001, ISBN 3-7001-2937-8
lenic towns in the Aegean Islands, Asia Minor, Sicily
• Ralf Schenk: Der korinthische Tempel bis zum and Italy, wherever there were Greek colonies, and the
Ende des Prinzipats des Augustus. Internationale establishment of Greek culture. Ancient Greek archi-
Archäologie Vol. 45, 1997, ISBN 978-3-89646- tecture was of very regular form, the construction being
317-3 "post and lintel". There are three clearly defined styles:
the Doric Order, found throughout Greece, Sicily and
• Dieter Mertens: Der alte Heratempel in Paestum und Italy; the Ionic Order, from Asia Minor, with examples
die archaische Baukunst in Unteritalien. 1993. in Greece; and the more ornate Corinthian Order, used
initially only for interiors, becoming more widely used
• Wolfgang Müller-Wiener: Griechisches Bauwesen in
during the Hellenistic period from the 1st century BC on-
der Antike. C. H. Beck, München 1988, ISBN 3-
wards and used extensively by Roman architects.
406-32993-4
Each ancient Greek temple was dedicated to a specific
• Heiner Knell: Architektur der Griechen: Grundzüge. god within the pantheon and was used in part as a store-
Wiss. Buchges., Darmstadt 1988, ISBN 3-534- house for votive offerings. Unlike a church, the interior
80028-1 space was not used as a meeting place, but held trophies
• Hans Lauter: Die Architektur des Hellenismus. Wiss. and a large cult statue of the deity.
Buchges., Darmstadt 1986, ISBN 3-534-09401-8
• Werner Fuchs: Die Skulptur der Griechen. Hirmer, 1.3.1 Terminology
München 1983 (3. edn.), ISBN 3-7774-3460-4
Most ancient Greek temples were rectangular, and were
approximately twice as long as they were wide, with
1.2.13 External links some notable exceptions such as the enormous Temple
of Olympian Zeus, Athens with a length of nearly 2 1/2
• Media related to Ancient Greek temples at Wikime- times its width. A number of surviving temple-like struc-
dia Commons tures are circular, and are referred to as tholos.[1]
• Media related to Schematic plans of ancient Greek The smallest temples are less than 25 metres (approx.
temples at Wikimedia Commons 75 feet) in length, or in the case of the circular tholos,
1.3. LIST OF ANCIENT GREEK TEMPLES
naos
naos
(cella)
(cella)
pronaos
anta double
anta tholos
[posticum]
opistho-
domos
naos
naos
(cella)
(cella)
peripteral
dipteral
Plans of Ancient Greek Temples
Top: 1. distyle in antis, 2. amphidistyle in antis, 3. tholos, 4.
prostyle tetrastyle, 5. amphiprostyle tetrastyle,
Bottom: 6. dipteral octastyle, 7. peripteral hexastyle, 8.
pseudoperipteral hexastyle, 9. pseudodipteral octastyle
in diameter. The great majority of temples are between
30–60 metres (approx. 100–200 feet) in length. A small
group of Doric temples, including the Parthenon, are be-
tween 60–80 metres (approx. 200–260 feet) in length. Note:
The largest temples, mainly Ionic and Corinthian, but in-
cluding the Doric Temple of the Olympian Zeus, Agri-
gento, were between 90–120 metres (approx. 300–390
feet) in length.
The temple rises from a stepped base or "stylobate",
which elevates the structure above the ground on which
it stands. Early examples, such as the Temple of Zeus,
Olympia, have two steps, but the majority, like the
Parthenon, have three, with the exceptional example of
[2]
the Temple of Apollo, Didyma, having six. The core
of the building is a masonry-built “naos” within which is
a cella, a windowless room originally housing the statue
of the god. The cella generally has a porch or “pronaos”
before it, and perhaps a second chamber or “antenaos”
serving as a treasury or repository for trophies and gifts.
The chambers were lit by a single large doorway, fitted 1.3.2 The list
with a wrought iron grill. Some rooms appear to have
been illuminated by skylights.[2]
On the stylobate, often completely surrounding the naos,
stand rows of columns. Each temple is defined as be-
ing of a particular type, with two terms: one describing
the number of columns across the entrance front, and the
other defining their distribution.[2]
Examples:
• Distyle in antis describes a small temple with two
columns at the front, which are set between the pro-
jecting walls of the pronaos or porch, like the Tem-
ple of Nemesis at Rhamnus.(see left, figure 1.)[2]
• Amphiprostyle tetrastyle describes a small temple
55
that has columns at both ends which stand clear of
the naos. Tetrastyle indicates that the columns are
naos
naos
four in number, like those of the Temple on the Ilis-
sus in Athens.(Figure 4.)[2]
prostyle amphiprostyle
• Peripteral hexastyle describes a temple with a sin-
gle row of peripheral columns around the naos, with
opisthodomos
six columns across the front, like the Theseion in
Athens. (Figure 7.) [2]
naos
• Peripteral octastyle describes a temple with a single
(cella)
row of columns around the naos, (Figure 7.) with
eight columns across the front, like the Parthenon,
pseudoperipteral Athens.(Figs. 6 and 9.)[2]
pseudodipteral
• Dipteral decastyle describes the huge temple of
Apollo at Didyma, with the naos surrounded by a
double row of columns, (Figure 6.) with ten columns
across the entrance front.[2]
• The Temple of the Olympian Zeus, Agrigento, is
termed Pseudo-periteral heptastyle, because its en-
circling colonnade has pseudo columns that are at-
tached to the walls of the naos. (Figure 8.) Heptastyle
means that it has seven columns across the entrance
front.[2]
Precise measurements are not available for all
buildings. Some have foundations that are in-
tact and have been well surveyed so that the di-
mensions can be stated with accuracy. For oth-
ers the size can only be estimated from scant
remains. In these cases, in converting, mea-
surements are stated to the nearest whole num-
ber. Some measurements may have been made
originally in feet, converted to metres for pub-
lication, and converted back to feet for this ar-
ticle, with slight differences from some older
publication.
Sorting behaviour (by column #):
1. Towns’ alphabetical order
2. Towns by region (A-Greece, B-Turkey, C-Italy, D-
Italy/Sicily)
3. By coordinates
4. By the deity’s name
5. By date
6. By area size
7. By temple style (1-Doric, 2-Doric with Ionic or
Corinthian elements, 3-Ionic, 4-Corinthian)
56 CHAPTER 1. GREEK

1.3.3 See also [21] Banister Fletcher (1963), p. 129 (list of Ionic temples
with dates).
• Ancient Greek architecture
[22] Banister Fletcher (1963), p. 131.
• Ancient Greek temple
[23] Boardman, Art and Architecture..., p. 38.
• List of Greek mythological figures
[24] Banister Fletcher (1963). pp. 123-5.
• Art in Ancient Greece [25] Banister Fletcher (1963), p. 139 (list of Corinthian tem-
ples, with dates).
• Greek culture
[26] Banister Fletcher (1963), pp. 119-23.
• List of Greco-Roman roofs
[27] “Sounion, Temple of Poseidon”. Perseus Digital Library.
• List of ancient architectural records Retrieved 30 June 2011.
• Greek technology [28] Copplestone (1968), pp. 47-8.
• Greek theatre [29] Banister Fletcher (1963), p. 133.

[30] Banister Fletcher (1963), pp. 133-7.

1.3.4 References
[1] Banister Fletcher (1963), pp. 107-9.
[2] Banister Fletcher (1963).
[3] Banister Fletcher (1963), p. 112 (list of Doric temples,
with dates).
[4] Boardman, Art and Architecture...., p.33.
[5] Briers, William R. 1996. The Archaeology of Greece 2nd
Edition. New York: Cornell University, pages 132–3.
[6] Darling, Janina K. Architecture of Greece. Westport CT:
Greenwood. ISBN 0-313-32152-3.
[7] Cruickshank, Dan (2000). Architecture: 150 Masterpieces
of Western Architecture. New York City: Watson-Guptill.
ISBN 0-8230-0289-6.
[8] Boardman, Art and Architecture...., pp. 31-2.
[9] Copplestone (1968), p. 45.
[10] “Delphi, Temple of Apollo”. Perseus Digital Library. Re-
trieved 30 June 2011.
[11] “Temple of Apollo at Delphi”. Ancient Greece. org,. Re-
trieved 27 June 2011.
[31] Copplestone (1968), p. 46.
[32] Boardman, Greek Art, pp. 138-9.
[33] “Delphi Tholos plan”. Ancient Greece.org. Retrieved 27
June 2011.
[34] Dinsmoor (1973), p. 218.
[35] Jose Dorig in Boardman, Art and Architecture...., p. 435.
[36] Banister Fletcher (1963), p. 106.
[37] Banister Fletcher (1963), p. 109.
[38] “The Delian Temple of Apollo”. Perseus Digital Library.
Retrieved 27 July 2011.
[39] Boardman, Art and Architecture..., p. 48.
[40] Banister Fletcher (1963), pp. 109, 140.
[41] Boardman, Art and Architecture... pp. 39-41.
[42] Strong (1965), pp. 159-60.
[43] “Rebuilding the Temple of Hera”. Perseus Project. Re-
trieved 30 June 2011.
[44] Moffett, Fazio, Wodehouse (2003), p. 48.

[12] Transferred from Wikipedia article page, unreferenced. [45] Banister Fletcher (1963), pp. 114-5.

[13] Banister Fletcher (1963), pp. 115-9. [46] Boardman, Greek Art, p. 61.

[14] Copplestone (1968), p. 48. [47] “Temple of Athen”. Perseus Digital Library. Retrieved 30
June 2011.
[15] Strong (1965), p. 59.
[48] Copplestone (1968), p. 49.
[16] Copplestone (1968), p. 44.
[49] Boardman, Art and Architecture.... p. 40.
[17] Strong (1965), p. 61.
[50] Banister Fletcher (1963), p. 128 (list of Ionic temples,
[18] Banister Fletcher (1963), p.119. with dates).

[19] Boardman, Art and Architecture... p. 34. [51] Banister Fletcher (1963), pp. 129-31.

[20] No photos of the remains of the temple are available. [52] Boardman, Art and Architecture...., p. 42.
1.4. THEATRE OF ANCIENT GREECE 57

[53] “Temple of Artems, Sardis”. Sacred destinations. Re-

trieved 27 July 2011.

[54] Boardman, Art and Architecture...., pp. 46-7.

[55] Transferred from Wikipedia’s Hermogenes of Priene

page, unreferenced.

[56] Dinsmoor (1973), p. 274.

1.3.5 Bibliography

Major source for this list: Banister Fletcher, A History of

Architecture on the Comparative method, Seventeenth edi-
tion, revised by R.A. Cordingley, Athlone Press, (1963)
Chapter III, Greek Architecture, pp. 89 – 165.

Additional references

• Boardman, John (1964). Greek Art. Thames and

Hudson. ISBN 0-500-18036-9.

• Boardman, John; Dorig, Jose; Fuchs, Werner;

Hirmer, Max (1967). The Art and Architecture of
Ancient Greece. London: Thames and Hudson.
Bronze statue of a Greek actor. The half-mask over the eyes
and nose identifies the figure as an actor. He wears a man’s
• Trewin Copplestone (editor), Lloyd, Rice, Lynton, conical cap but female garments, following the Greek custom of
Boyd, Carden, Rawson, Jacobus, World Architec- men playing the roles of women. 150-100 BCE.
ture: an Illustrated History, Paul Hamlyn, (1968);
Seton Lloyd, Chapter 1: Ancient & Classical Archi-
tecture 1.4 Theatre of ancient Greece
• William Bell Dinsmoor, William James Anderson,
The Architecture of Ancient Greece: an account of The ancient Greek drama, is a theatrical culture that
its historic development, Biblo and Tannen, (1973) flourished in ancient Greece from c. 700 BC. The city-
ISBN 0-8196-0283-3 state of Athens, which became a significant cultural, po-
litical, and military power during this period, was its cen-
• Banister Fletcher, A History of Architecture on the ter, where it was institutionalised as part of a festival
Comparative method (2001). Elsevier Science & called the Dionysia, which honoured the god Dionysus.
Technology. ISBN 0-7506-2267-9. Tragedy (late 500 BC), comedy (490 BC), and the satyr
play were the three dramatic genres to emerge there.
Athens exported the festival to its numerous colonies and
• Helen Gardner; Fred S. Kleiner, Christin J.
allies in order to promote a common cultural identity.
Mamiya, Gardner’s Art through the Ages. Thomson
Wadsworth, (2004) ISBN 0-15-505090-7.

• Marian Moffett, Michael Fazio, Lawrence Wode- 1.4.1 Etymology

house, A World History of Architecture, Lawrence
King Publishing, (2003), ISBN 1-85669-353-8. The word τραγῳδία (tragoidia), from which the word
"tragedy" is derived, is a compound of two Greek words:
• Donald E. Strong, The Classical World, Paul Ham- τράγος (tragos) or “goat” and ᾠδή (ode) meaning “song”,
lyn, London (1965) ISBN 978-0-600-02302-9 from ἀείδειν (aeidein), “to sing”.[1] This etymology indi-
cates a link with the practices of the ancient Dionysian
• Henri Stierlin, Greece: From Mycenae to the cults. It is impossible, however, to know with certainty
Parthenon, Taschen, (2004), ISBN 978-3-8228- how these fertility rituals became the basis for tragedy
1226-6 and comedy.[2]
58 CHAPTER 1. GREEK

1.4.2 Origins quered by the Persians. Herodotus reports that “the Athe-
nians made clear their deep grief for the taking of Mile-
Main article: Greek tragedy tus in many ways, but especially in this: when Phrynichus
The classical Greeks valued the power of spoken word, wrote a play entitled “The Fall of Miletus” and produced
it, the whole theatre fell to weeping; they fined Phrynichus
a thousand drachmas for bringing to mind a calamity that
affected them so personally and forbade the performance
of that play forever.”[6] He is also thought to be the first to
use female characters (though not female performers).[7]
Until the Hellenistic period, all tragedies were unique
pieces written in honour of Dionysus and played only
Panoramic view of the theatre at Epidaurus. once, so that today we primarily have the pieces that were
still remembered well enough to have been repeated when
and it was their main method of communication and sto- the repetition of old tragedies became fashionable (the ac-
rytelling. Bahn and Bahn write, “To Greeks the spoken cidents of survival, as well as the subjective tastes of the
word was a living thing and infinitely preferable to the Hellenistic librarians later in Greek history, also played a
dead symbols of a written language.” Socrates himself role in what survived from this period).
believed that once something was written down, it lost its
ability for change and growth. For these reasons, among
many others, oral storytelling flourished in Greece.[3] 1.4.3 New inventions during the Classical
Greek tragedy as we know it was created in Athens Period
around the time of 532 BC, when Thespis was the ear-
liest recorded actor. Being a winner of the first the-
atrical contest held in Athens, he was the exarchon, or
leader,[4] of the dithyrambs performed in and around At-
tica, especially at the rural Dionysia. By Thespis’ time,
the dithyramb had evolved far away from its cult roots.
Under the influence of heroic epic, Doric choral lyric and
the innovations of the poet Arion, it had become a narra-
tive, ballad-like genre. Because of these, Thespis is often
called the “Father of Tragedy"; however, his importance
is disputed, and Thespis is sometimes listed as late as 16th
in the chronological order of Greek tragedians; the states-
man Solon, for example, is credited with creating poems
in which characters speak with their own voice, and spo-
ken performances of Homer's epics by rhapsodes were
popular in festivals prior to 534 BC.[5] Thus, Thespis’s
true contribution to drama is unclear at best, but his name
has been given a longer life, in English, as a common term
for performer — i.e., a “thespian.”
Theater of Dionysius, Athens, Greece. Brooklyn Museum
The dramatic performances were important to the Athe- Archives, Goodyear Archival Collection
nians – this is made clear by the creation of a tragedy
competition and festival in the City Dionysia. This was After the Great Destruction of Athens by the Persian Em-
organized possibly to foster loyalty among the tribes of pire in 480 BCE, the town and acropolis were rebuilt,
Attica (recently created by Cleisthenes). The festival was and theatre became formalized and an even greater part
created roughly around 508 BC. While no drama texts ex- of Athenian culture and civic pride. This century is nor-
ist from the sixth century BC, we do know the names of mally regarded as the Golden Age of Greek drama. The
three competitors besides Thespis: Choerilus, Pratinas, centre-piece of the annual Dionysia, which took place
and Phrynichus. Each is credited with different innova- once in winter and once in spring, was a competition be-
tions in the field. tween three tragic playwrights at the Theatre of Dionysus.
More is known about Phrynichus. He won his first com- Each submitted three tragedies, plus a satyr play (a comic,
petition between 511 BC and 508 BC. He produced burlesque version of a mythological subject). Beginning
tragedies on themes and subjects later exploited in the in a first competition in 486 BC each playwright submit-
golden age such as the Danaids, Phoenician Women and ted a comedy.[8] Aristotle claimed that Aeschylus added
Alcestis. He was the first poet we know of to use a his- the second actor (deuteragonist), and that Sophocles in-
torical subject – his Fall of Miletus, produced in 493-2, troduced the third (tritagonist). Apparently the Greek
chronicled the fate of the town of Miletus after it was con- playwrights never used more than three actors based on
1.4. THEATRE OF ANCIENT GREECE
what is known about Greek theatre.[9]
Tragedy and comedy were viewed as completely separate
genres, and no plays ever merged aspects of the two. Satyr
plays dealt with the mythological subject matter of the
tragedies, but in a purely comedic manner.
1.4.4 Hellenistic period
Roman, Republican or Early Imperial, Relief of a seated poet
(Menander) with masks of New Comedy, 1st century B.C. –
early 1st century A.D., Princeton University Art Museum
The power of Athens declined following its defeat in the
Peloponnesian War against the Spartans. From that time
on, the theatre started performing old tragedies again. Al-
though its theatrical traditions seem to have lost their vi-
tality, Greek theatre continued into the Hellenistic period
(the period following Alexander the Great's conquests in
the fourth century BCE). However, the primary Hellenis-
tic theatrical form was not tragedy but 'New Comedy',
comic episodes about the lives of ordinary citizens. The
only extant playwright from the period is Menander. One
of New Comedy’s most important contributions was its
influence on Roman comedy, an influence that can be
seen in the surviving works of Plautus and Terence.
1.4.5 Characteristics of the buildings
The plays had a chorus from 12 to 15[10] people, who
performed the plays in verse accompanied by music, be-
ginning in the morning and lasting until the evening. The
performance space was a simple circular space, the or-
chestra, where the chorus danced and sang. The orches-
tra, which had an average diameter of 78 feet, was situ-
ated on a flattened terrace at the foot of a hill, the slope
of which produced a natural theatron, literally “seeing
place”. Later, the term “theatre” came to be applied to
the whole area of theatron, orchestra, and skené. The
coryphaeus was the head chorus member who could enter
the story as a character able to interact with the characters
of a play.
59
The Ancient Theatre of Delphi.
A drawing of an ancient theatre. Terms are in Greek language
and Latin letters.
The theatres were originally built on a very large scale
to accommodate the large number of people on stage, as
well as the large number of people in the audience, up
to fourteen thousand. Mathematics played a large role in
the construction of these theatres, as their designers had
to be able to create acoustics in them such that the actors’
voices could be heard throughout the theatre, including
the very top row of seats. The Greek’s understanding of
acoustics compares very favourably with the current state
of the art. The first seats in Greek theatres (other than
just sitting on the ground) were wooden, but around 499
BCE the practice of inlaying stone blocks into the side of
the hill to create permanent, stable seating became more
common. They were called the “prohedria” and reserved
for priests and a few most respected citizens.
In 465 BCE, the playwrights began using a backdrop or
scenic wall, which hung or stood behind the orchestra,
which also served as an area where actors could change
their costumes. It was known as the skênê (from which
the word "scene" derives). The death of a character was
always heard behind the skênê, for it was considered inap-
propriate to show a killing in view of the audience. Con-
versely, there are scholarly arguments that death in Greek
60
tragedy was portrayed off stage primarily because of dra-
matic considerations, and not prudishness or sensitivity
of the audience.[11] In 425 BC a stone scene wall, called
a paraskenia, became a common supplement to skênê in
the theatres. A paraskenia was a long wall with project-
ing sides, which may have had doorways for entrances
and exits. Just behind the paraskenia was the proskenion.
The proskenion (“in front of the scene”) was beautiful,
and was similar to the modern day proscenium.
Greek theatres also had tall arched entrances called
parodoi or eisodoi, through which actors and chorus
members entered and exited the orchestra. By the end
of the 5th century BC, around the time of the Pelopon-
nesian War, the skênê, the back wall, was two stories high. time of Aeschylus and considered to be one of the iconic
The upper story was called the episkenion. Some theatres
also had a raised speaking place on the orchestra called Masks were also made for members of the chorus, who
the logeion.
Scenic elements
There were several scenic elements commonly used in
Greek theatre:
• mechane, a crane that gave the impression of a flying
actor (thus, deus ex machina).
• ekkyklêma, a wheeled platform often used to bring
dead characters into view for the audience
• Pinakes, pictures hung to create scenery
• Thyromata, more complex pictures built into the
second-level scene (3rd level from ground)
• Phallic props were used for satyr plays, symbolizing
fertility in honour of Dionysus.
1.4.6 Masks
Masks
Tragic Comic Masks Hadrian’s Villa mosaic.
CHAPTER 1. GREEK
The Ancient Greek term for a mask is prosopon (lit.,
“face”),[12] and was a significant element in the worship
of Dionysus at Athens, likely used in ceremonial rites and
celebrations. Most of the evidence comes from only a
few vase paintings of the 5th century BC, such as one
showing a mask of the god suspended from a tree with
decorated robe hanging below it and dancing and the
Pronomos vase,[13] which depicts actors preparing for a
Satyr play.[14] No physical evidence remains available to
us, as the masks were made of organic materials and
not considered permanent objects, ultimately being ded-
icated at the altar of Dionysus after performances. Nev-
ertheless, the mask is known to have been used since the
conventions of classical Greek theatre.[15]
play some part in the action and provide a commentary
on the events in which they are caught up. Although there
are twelve or fifteen members of the tragic chorus, they
all wear the same mask because they are considered to be
representing one character.
Mask details
Mask dating from the 4th/3rd century BC, Stoa of Attalos
Illustrations of theatrical masks from 5th century dis-
play helmet-like masks, covering the entire face and head,
with holes for the eyes and a small aperture for the mouth,
as well as an integrated wig. These paintings never show
actual masks on the actors in performance; they are most
often shown being handled by the actors before or after
a performance, that liminal space between the audience
and the stage, between myth and reality.[14] This demon-
strates the way in which the mask was to 'melt' into the
1.4. THEATRE OF ANCIENT GREECE 61

face and allow the actor to vanish into the role.[16] Effec- called a sock. For this reason, dramatic art is sometimes
tively, the mask transformed the actor as much as mem- alluded to as "Sock and Buskin.”
orization of the text. Therefore, performance in ancient Melpomene is the muse of tragedy and is often depicted
Greece did not distinguish the masked actor from the the- holding the tragic mask and wearing cothurni. Thalia is
atrical character. the muse of comedy and is similarly associated with the
The mask-makers were called skeuopoios or “maker of mask of comedy and the comedic “socks”.
the properties,” thus suggesting that their role encom-
passed multiple duties and tasks. The masks were most
likely made out of light weight, organic materials like 1.4.7 See also
stiffened linen, leather, wood, or cork, with the wig con-
sisting of human or animal hair.[17] Due to the visual • List of ancient Greek playwrights
restrictions imposed by these masks, it was imperative
• List of ancient Greek theatres
that the actors hear in order to orient and balance them-
selves. Thus, it is believed that the ears were covered by • History of theatre
substantial amounts of hair and not the helmet-mask it-
self. The mouth opening was relatively small, prevent- • Representation of women in Athenian tragedy
ing the mouth to be seen during performances. Vervain
• Agôn
and Wiles posit that this small size discourages the idea
that the mask functioned as a megaphone, as originally • Ancient Greek comedy
presented in the 1960s.[14] Greek mask-maker, Thanos
Vovolis, suggests that the mask serves as a resonator for • Archon
the head, thus enhancing vocal acoustics and altering its
quality. This leads to increased energy and presence, al- • Aulos
lowing for the more complete metamorphosis of the actor • Buskin
into his character.[18]
• Chorêgos

Mask functions • Chorus

• Chorus of the elderly in classical Greek drama

In a large open-air theatre, like the Theatre of Dionysus
in Athens, the classical masks were able to create a sense • Comedy
of dread in the audience creating large scale panic, espe-
cially since they had intensely exaggerated facial features • Coryphaeus
and expressions.[18] They enabled an actor to appear and • Deus ex machina
reappear in several different roles, thus preventing the au-
dience from identifying the actor to one specific charac- • Deuteragonist
ter. Their variations help the audience to distinguish sex,
age, and social status, in addition to revealing a change • Didascaliae
in a particular character’s appearance, e.g. Oedipus after
• Didaskalos
blinding himself.[19] Unique masks were also created for
specific characters and events in a play, such as The Furies • Dionysia festivals
in Aeschylus' Eumenides and Pentheus and Cadmus in
Euripides' The Bacchae. Worn by the chorus, the masks • Dithyramb
created a sense of unity and uniformity, while represent-
• Eisodos
ing a multi-voiced persona or single organism and simul-
taneously encouraged interdependency and a heightened • Ekkyklêma
sensitivity between each individual of the group. Only 2-
3 actors were allowed on the stage at one time, and masks • Episode
permitted quick transitions from one character to another.
There were only male actors, but masks allowed them to • Epode
play female characters. • Kommós

• Mêchanê
Other costume details
• Melpomene
The actors in these plays that had tragic roles wore boots • Monody
called cothurni that elevated them above the other actors.
The actors with comedic roles only wore a thin soled shoe • Ode
62 CHAPTER 1. GREEK

• Onomastì komodèin • The Origins and Early Forms of Greek

Tragedy, Cambridge, MA 1965.
• Orchêstra
• The Origins of ΤΡΑΓΩΙΔΙΑ, Hermes 85,
• Parabasis 1957, pp. 17–46.

• Párodos • Flickinger, Roy Caston, The Greek theater and its

drama, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1918
• Phlyax play
• Freund, Philip, The Birth of Theatre, London: Peter
• Protagonist Owen, 2003. ISBN 0-7206-1170-9
• Rhapsode • Haigh, A. E., The Attic Theatre, 1907.
• Satyr play • Harsh, Philip Whaley, A handbook of Classical
Drama, Stanford University, California, Stanford
• Skênê
University Press; London, H. Milford, Oxford Uni-
• Sparagmos versity Press, 1944.

• Stásimon • Lesky, A. Greek Tragedy, trans. H.A., Frankfurt,

London and New York 1965.
• Stichomythia
• Ley, Graham. A Short Introduction to the Ancient
• Strophê Greek Theatre. University of Chicago, Chicago:
2006
• Thalia (Muse)
• Ley, Graham. Acting Greek Tragedy. University of
• Theatre of ancient Rome Exeter Press, Exeter: 2015
• Theatre of Dionysus • Loscalzo, Donato, Il pubblico a teatro nella Grecia
• Theoric fund antica, Roma 2008

• Thespis • McDonald, Marianne, Walton, J. Michael (editors),

• Tragedy
• Tritagonist
• List of films based on Greek drama
1.4.8 Further reading
• Buckham, Philip Wentworth, Theatre of the Greeks,
London 1827.
• Davidson, J.A., Literature and Literacy in Ancient
Greece, Part 1, Phoenix, 16, 1962, pp. 141–56.
• Davidson, J.A., Peisistratus and Homer, TAPA, 86,
1955, pp. 1–21.
• Easterling, P.E. (editor) (1997). The Cambridge
Companion to Greek Tragedy. Cambridge, U.K.:
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-41245-5.
• Easterling, Patricia Elizabeth; Hall, Edith (eds.),
Greek and Roman Actors: Aspects of an Ancient Pro-
fession, Cambridge University Press, 2002. ISBN
0-521-65140-9
• Else, Gerald F.
• Aristotle’s Poetics: The Argument, Cambridge,
MA 1967.
The Cambridge companion to Greek and Roman the-
atre, Cambridge ; New York: Cambridge University
Press, 2007. ISBN 0-521-83456-2
• Moulton, Richard Green, The ancient classical
drama; a study in literary evolution intended for
readers in English and in the original, Oxford, The
Clarendon Press, 1890.
• Padilla, Mark William (editor), “Rites of Passage
in Ancient Greece: Literature, Religion, Society”,
Bucknell University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8387-
5418-X
• Pickard-Cambridge, Sir Arthur Wallace
• Dithyramb, Tragedy, and Comedy , Oxford
1927.
• The Theatre of Dionysus in Athens, Oxford
1946.
• The Dramatic Festivals of Athens, Oxford
1953.
• Rabinowitz, Nancy Sorkin (2008). Greek Tragedy.
Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers. ISBN 978-1-
4051-2160-6.
• Riu, Xavier, Dionysism and Comedy, 1999. review
• Ross, Stewart. Greek Theatre. Wayland Press,
Hove: 1996
1.4. THEATRE OF ANCIENT GREECE 63

• Rozik, Eli, The roots of theatre: rethinking ritual [15] Varakis (2004)
and other theories of origin, Iowa City: University
of Iowa Press, 2002. ISBN 0-87745-817-0 [16] Vervain & Wiles (2004), p. 256

[17] Brooke (1962), p. 76

• Schlegel, August Wilhelm, Lectures on Dramatic Art
and Literature, Geneva 1809. [18] Vovolis & Zamboulakis (2007)
• Sommerstein, Alan H., Greek Drama and Drama- [19] Brockett & Ball (2000), p. 70
tists, Routledge, 2002.

• Sourvinou-Inwood, Christiane, Tragedy and Athe- Bibliography

nian Religion, Oxford:University Press 2003.
• Tsitsiridis, Stavros, “Greek Mime in the Roman
Empire (P.Oxy. 413: Charition and Moicheutria",
Logeion 1 (2011) 184-232.
• Wiles, David. Greek Theatre Performance: An
Introduction. Cambridge University Press, Cam-
bridge: 2000
• Wiles, David. The Masks of Menander: Sign and
Meaning in Greek and Roman Performance, Cam-
bridge, 1991.
• Wiles, David. Mask and Performance in Greek
Tragedy: from ancient festival to modern experimen-
tation, Cambridge, 1997.
• Wise, Jennifer, Dionysus Writes: The Invention of
Theatre in Ancient Greece, Ithaca 1998. review
• Zimmerman, B., Greek Tragedy: An Introduction,
trans. T. Marier, Baltimore 1991.
1.4.9 References
[1] Merriam-Webster definition of tragedy
• Brockett, Oscar G. (1999). History of the Theatre
(8th ed.). Allyn and Bacon. ISBN 9780205290260.
• Brockett, Oscar G.; Ball, Robert (2000). The Essen-
tial Theatre (7th ed.). Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace.
• Brooke, Iris (1962). Costume in Greek Classical
Drama. London: Methuen.
• Jansen, Jan (2000). Lebensqualität im Theater
des demokratischen Athen: Kult, Politik und Alte
Komödie [Quality of life in the theatre of Democratic
Athens: cults, politics and ancient comedy] (PDF)
(in German). Munich, Germany: GRIN. ISBN
9783638291873.
• Kuritz, Paul (1988). The Making of Theatre His-
tory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN
9780135478615.
• Pathmanathan, R. Sri (1965). “Death in Greek
tragedy”. Greece and Rome. 12 (1): 2–14. JSTOR
642398.
• Ridgeway, William (1910). Origin of Tragedy with
Special Reference to the Greek Tragedians.

[2] Ridgeway (1910), p. 83 • Varakis, Angie (2004). “Research on the Ancient

Mask”. Didaskalia. 6 (1).
[3] Bahn, Eugene & Margaret L. Bahn (1970). A History of
Oral Interpretation. Minneapolis, MN: Burgess Publishing • Vervain, Chris; Wiles, David (2004). The Masks
Company. p. 3. of Greek Tragedy as Point of Departure for Modern
Performance. New Theatre Quarterly. 67. Cam-
[4] Aristotle, Poetics
bridge: Cambridge University Press.
[5] Brockett (1999), pp. 16–17
• Vovolis, Thanos; Zamboulakis, Giorgos (2007).
[6] Herodotus, Histories, 6/21 “The acoustical mask of Greek tragedy”. Di-
daskalia. 7 (1).
[7] Brockett (1999), p. 17

[8] Kuritz (1988), p. 21

1.4.10 External links
[9] Kuritz (1988), p. 24
• Ancient Greek theatre history and articles
[10] Jansen (2000)
• Drama lesson 1: The ancient Greek theatre
[11] Pathmanathan (1965)
• Ancient Greek Theatre
[12] Liddell & Scott via Perseus @ UChicago

[13] Tufts.edu
• The Ancient Theatre Archive, Greek and Roman
theatre architecture – Dr. Thomas G. Hines, De-
[14] Vervain & Wiles (2004), p. 255 partment of Theatre, Whitman College
64 CHAPTER 1. GREEK

• Greek and Roman theatre glossary

• Illustrated Greek Theater – Dr. Janice Siegel, De-

partment of Classics, Hampden–Sydney College,
Virginia

• Searchable database of monologues for actors from

Ancient Greek Theatre

• Logeion: A Journal of Ancient Theatre with free ac-

cess which publishes original scholarly articles in-
cluding its reception in modern theatre, literature,
cinema and the other art forms and media, as well View of the Acropolis of Pergamon in the background, as seen
from Via Tecta at the entrance to the Asclepeion.
as its relation to the theatre of other periods and ge-
ographical regions.

1.5 Acropolis
For the most famous example of an acropolis, see
Acropolis of Athens. For the Greek newspaper, see
Akropolis (newspaper). For other uses, see Acropolis
(disambiguation).
An acropolis (Ancient Greek: ἀκρόπολις, tr. Akrópo-

Acropolis of Assos

The Acropolis of Athens as seen from Mount Lycabettus

The wooded Hill of the Nymphs is half-visible on its right,
and Philopappos Hill on the left, immediately behind. The
Philopappos Monument stands where, in the distant background,
the coast of Peloponnese meet the waters of the Saronic Gulf.

lis; from ákros (άκρος) or ákron (άκρον) “highest, top-

most, outermost” and pólis “city"; plural in English:
acropoles, acropoleis or acropolises)[1][2] is a settlement,
especially a citadel, built upon an area of elevated
ground—frequently a hill with precipitous sides, chosen
for purposes of defense. In many parts of the world,
acropoleis became the nuclei of large cities of classical
antiquity, such as ancient Rome, and for this reason they
are sometimes prominent landmarks in modern cities
with ancient pasts, such as modern Rome.

1.5.1 Use in antiquity

The word acropolis literally means in Greek “upper city,”
and though associated primarily with the Greek cities View of the Acropolis in Athens, Greece
Athens, Argos ( with Larissa), Thebes (with Cadmea),
and Corinth (with its Acrocorinth), may be applied gener-
ically to all such citadels, including Rome, Jerusalem, Cashel. Acropolis is also the term used by archaeologists
Celtic Bratislava, many in Asia Minor, or even Castle and historians for the urban Castro culture settlements lo-
Rock in Edinburgh. An example in Ireland is the Rock of cated in Northwestern Iberian hilltops.
1.6. AGORA 65

The most famous example is the Acropolis of Athens,[3] 1.6 Agora

which, by reason of its historical associations and the sev-
eral famous buildings erected upon it (most notably the
Parthenon), is known without qualification as the Acrop- This article is about the ancient marketplace. For other
olis. Although originating in the mainland of Greece, use uses, see Agora (disambiguation).
of the acropolis model quickly spread to Greek colonies The agora (/ˈæɡərə/; Ancient Greek: Ἀγορά Agorá)
such as the Dorian Lato on Crete during the Archaic Pe-
riod.

1.5.2 Metaphorical use in modern times

Because of its classical Hellenistic style, the ruins of

Mission San Juan Capistrano’s Great Stone Church in
California, United States has been called the “American
Acropolis”.
Other parts of the world developed other names for the
high citadel or alcázar, which often reinforced a naturally
strong site. In Central Italy, many small rural communes
still cluster at the base of a fortified habitation known as
La Rocca of the commune.
Stoa of the ancient agora of Thessaloniki
The term acropolis is also used to describe the cen-
tral complex of overlapping structures, such as plazas
and pyramids, in many Maya cities, including Tikal and
Copán.

1.5.3 References

[1] Harper, Douglas. “acropolis”. Online Etymology Dictio-

nary.

[2] acropolis, akros, akron. Liddell, Henry George; Scott,

Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.

[3] World Heritage: Acropolis, Athens

1.5.4 External links

• Media related to Acropolis at Wikimedia Commons

• The Acropolis of Athens (Greek Government web-

site)

• The Acropolis Restoration Project (Greek Govern-

ment website)

• UNESCO World Heritage Centre — Acropolis,

Athens Agora of Tyre

• Acropolis Museum
was a central spot in ancient Greek city-states. The literal
• The Parthenon Frieze (Hellenic Ministry of Culture meaning of the word is “gathering place” or “assembly”.
web site) The agora was the center of athletic, artistic, spiritual and
political life of the city.[1] The Ancient Agora of Athens
• Acropolis: description, photo album was the best-known example.
66 CHAPTER 1. GREEK

1.6.1 Origins
Early in Greek history (18th century–8th century BC),
free-born citizens would gather in the agora for military
duty or to hear statements of the ruling king or coun-
cil. Later, the agora also served as a marketplace where
merchants kept stalls or shops to sell their goods amid
colonnades. This attracted artisans who built workshops
nearby.[2]
From this twin function of the agora as a political and
commercial space came the two Greek verbs ἀγοράζω,
agorázō, “I shop”, and ἀγορεύω, agoreúō, “I speak in
public”.
The term agoraphobia denotes a phobic condition in The restored Stoa of Attalos in Athens
which the sufferer becomes anxious in environments that
are unfamiliar—for instance, places where he or she per-
ceives that they have little control. Such anxiety may be Doric order, lining the side of the building; they created
triggered by wide open spaces, by crowds, or by some a safe, enveloping, protective atmosphere.
public situations, and the psychological term derives from Later examples were built as two stories, with a roof sup-
the agora as a large and open gathering place. porting the inner colonnades where shops or sometimes
offices were located. They followed Ionic architecture.
These buildings were open to the public; merchants could
1.6.2 See also
sell their goods, artists could display their artwork, and
• Agorism religious gatherings could take place. Stoas usually sur-
rounded the marketplaces or agora of large cities and
• Platonic Academy were used as a framing device. [3]
The name of the Stoic school of philosophy derives from
1.6.3 References “stoa”.

[1] Ring, Trudy; Salkin, Robert; Boda, Sharon (January 1,

1996). International Dictionary of Historic Places: South- 1.7.1 Famous stoae
ern Europe. Routledge. p. 66. ISBN 978-1-884964-02-2.
Main article: List of stoae
[2] Peppas, Lynn (2005). Life in Ancient Greece. Crabtree
Publishing Company. p. 12. ISBN 0778720357. Re-
trieved 6 January 2017.

1.6.4 External links

• Media related to Agoras at Wikimedia Commons
• Official Athenian agora excavations
• Agora in Athens: photos

1.7 Stoa
This article is about an architectural feature. For the
album by Nik Bärtsch, see Stoa (album). For the EU The Stoa of Attalos, with busts of historical philosophers. (Pic-
technology assessment bureau, see Science and Technol- ture by Massimo Pigliucci).
ogy Options Assessment. For the high school forensics
league, see Stoa USA.
A stoa (/ˈstoʊə/; plural, stoas,[1] stoai,[1] or stoae • Stoa Poikile, “Painted Porch”, from which the phi-
/ˈstoʊ.iː/[2] ), in ancient Greek architecture, is a covered losophy Stoicism takes its name
walkway or portico, commonly for public use. Early stoas
were open at the entrance with columns, usually of the • Stoa of Attalos
1.7. STOA 67

• Stoa Basileios (Royal Stoa)

• Stoa of Zeus at Athens

• Stoa Amphiaraion

• Stoa of the Athenians

1.7.2 See also

• Arcade (architecture)

1.7.3 References
[1] “stoa”, Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd Ed., 1989

[2] “stoa”. Retrieved 2010-12-29.

[3] Jeffrey Becker. “Introduction to Greek architecture”.

Khanacademy.org. Retrieved 10 March 2016.

1.7.4 External links

• YASOU

• "Stoa". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.

Chapter 2

Roman

2.1 Ancient Roman architecture

“Roman architecture” redirects here. For the architec-
ture of the city, see Architecture of Rome.
Ancient Roman architecture adopted the external

The Pont du Gard aqueduct in southern France

The Colosseum in Rome, Italy; the classical orders are used, but
purely for aesthetic effect.

The Baths of Diocletian, Rome

majority of surviving buildings were constructed. It used

new materials, particularly concrete, and newer technolo-
gies such as the arch and the dome to make buildings that
were typically strong and well-engineered. Large num-
The Maison Carrée at Nîmes in France, one of the best preserved bers remain in some form across the empire, sometimes
Roman temples. A mid-sized Augustan provincial temple of the
complete and still in use.
Imperial cult.
Roman Architecture covers the period from the estab-
language of classical Greek architecture for the purposes lishment of the Roman Republic in 509 BC to about the
of the ancient Romans, but grew so different from Greek 4th century AD, after which it becomes reclassified as
buildings as to become a new architectural style. The two Late Antique or Byzantine architecture. Almost no sub-
styles are often considered one body of classical archi- stantial examples survive from before about 100 BC, and
tecture. Roman architecture flourished in the Roman Re- most of the major survivals are from the later empire, af-
public and even more so under the Empire, when the great ter about 100 AD. Roman architectural style continued

68
2.1. ANCIENT ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 69

The Severan Basilica in Leptis Magna

“Roman baroque”, Leptis Magna, Arch of Septimus Severus

works of civil engineering, and were responsible for sig-

An area at the Ostia Antica archaeological site: at one time, shops
were located here nificant developments in housing and public hygiene,
for example their public and private baths and latrines,
under-floor heating in the form of the hypocaust, mica
to influence building in the former empire for many cen- glazing (examples in Ostia Antica), and piped hot and
turies, and the style used in Western Europe beginning cold water (examples in Pompeii and Ostia).
about 1000 is called Romanesque architecture to reflect
this dependence on basic Roman forms.
The Romans only began to achieve significant original- 2.1.1 Overview
ity in architecture around the beginning of the Imperial
period, after they had combined aspects of their original Despite the technical developments of the Romans,
which took their buildings far away from the basic Greek
Etruscan architecture with others taken from Greece, in-
cluding most elements of the style we now call classical conception where columns were needed to support heavy
beams and roofs, they were very reluctant to abandon the
architecture. They moved from trabeated construction
mostly based on columns and lintels to one based on mas- classical orders in formal public buildings, even though
sive walls, punctuated by arches, and later domes, both these had become essentially decorative. However, they
of which greatly developed under the Romans. The clas- did not feel entirely restricted by Greek aesthetic con-
sical orders now became largely decorative rather than cerns, and treated the orders with considerable freedom.
structural, except in colonnades. Stylistic developments Innovation started in the 3rd or 2nd century BC with the
included the Tuscan and Composite orders; the first be- development of Roman concrete as a readily available ad-
ing a shortened, simplified variant on the Doric order and junct to, or substitute for, stone and brick. More dar-
the Composite being a tall order with the floral decora- ing buildings soon followed, with great pillars supporting
tion of the Corinthian and the scrolls of the Ionic. The broad arches and domes. The freedom of concrete also
period from roughly 40 BC to about 230 AD saw most of inspired the colonnade screen, a row of purely decorative
the greatest achievements, before the Crisis of the Third columns in front of a load-bearing wall. In smaller-scale
Century and later troubles reduced the wealth and orga- architecture, concrete’s strength freed the floor plan from
nizing power of the central government. rectangular cells to a more free-flowing environment.
The Romans produced massive public buildings and Factors such as wealth and high population densities in
70 CHAPTER 2. ROMAN

cities forced the ancient Romans to discover new archi-

tectural solutions of their own. The use of vaults and
arches, together with a sound knowledge of building ma-
terials, enabled them to achieve unprecedented successes
in the construction of imposing infrastructure for public
use. Examples include the aqueducts of Rome, the Baths
of Diocletian and the Baths of Caracalla, the basilicas and
Colosseum. These were reproduced at a smaller scale in
most important towns and cities in the Empire. Some sur-
viving structures are almost complete, such as the town
walls of Lugo in Hispania Tarraconensis, now northern
Spain. The administrative structure and wealth of the
empire made possible very large projects even in loca-
tions remote from the main centres,[1] as did the use of
slave labour, both skilled and unskilled. The Roman Pantheon was the largest dome in the world for more
than a millennium.[3] It is the largest unreinforced solid concrete
Especially under the empire, architecture often served a
dome to this day[4]
political function, demonstrating the power of the Roman
state in general, and of specific individuals responsible for
building. Roman architecture perhaps reached its peak in materials of stone and brick.[8]
the reign of Hadrian, whose many achievements include
rebuilding the Pantheon in its current form and leaving his These enabled the building of the many aqueducts
mark on the landscape of northern Britain with Hadrian’s throughout the empire, such as the Aqueduct of Segovia,
Wall. the Pont du Gard, and the eleven aqueducts of Rome.
The same concepts produced numerous bridges, some of
which are still in daily use, for example the Puente Ro-
Origins mano at Mérida in Spain, and the Pont Julien and the
bridge at Vaison-la-Romaine, both in Provence, France.
While borrowing much from the preceding Etruscan ar- The dome permitted construction of vaulted ceilings
chitecture, such as the use of hydraulics and the construc- without crossbeams and made possible large covered
tion of arches, Roman prestige architecture remained public space such as public baths and basilicas, such as
firmly under the spell of Ancient Greek architecture and Hadrian’s Pantheon, the Baths of Diocletian and the Baths
the classical orders.[2] This came initially from Magna of Caracalla, all in Rome.
Graecia, the Greek colonies in southern Italy, and indi-
rectly from Greek influence on the Etruscans, but after The Romans first adopted the arch from the Etruscans,
the Roman conquest of Greece directly from the best and implemented it in their own building. The use of
classical and Hellenistic examples in the Greek world. arches that spring directly from the tops of columns was a
The influence is evident in many ways; for example, in the Roman development, seen from the 1st century AD, that
introduction and use of the Triclinium in Roman villas as was very widely adopted in medieval Western, Byzantine
a place and manner of dining. Roman builders employed and Islamic architecture.
Greeks in many capacities, especially in the great boom
in construction in the early Empire.
Domes

Roman Architectural Revolution Main article: History of Roman and Byzantine domes
Further information: List of Roman domes
The Roman Architectural Revolution, also known as the The Romans were the first builders in the history of ar-
Concrete Revolution,[5][6][7] was the widespread use in Ro- chitecture to realize the potential of domes for the cre-
man architecture of the previously little-used architec- ation of large and well-defined interior spaces.[9] Domes
tural forms of the arch, vault, and dome. For the first time were introduced in a number of Roman building types
in history, their potential was fully exploited in the con- such as temples, thermae, palaces, mausolea and later
struction of a wide range of civil engineering structures, also churches. Half-domes also became a favoured archi-
public buildings, and military facilities. These included tectural element and were adopted as apses in Christian
amphitheatres, aqueducts, baths, bridges, circuses, dams, sacred architecture.
domes, harbours, and temples. Monumental domes began to appear in the 1st century
A crucial factor in this development, which saw a trend BC in Rome and the provinces around the Mediterranean
toward monumental architecture, was the invention of Sea. Along with vaults, they gradually replaced the tradi-
Roman concrete (opus caementicium), which led to the tional post and lintel construction which makes use of the
liberation of shapes from the dictates of the traditional column and architrave. The construction of domes was
2.1. ANCIENT ROMAN ARCHITECTURE
Dome of the Pantheon, inner view
greatly facilitated by the invention of concrete, a process
which has been termed the Roman Architectural Revo-
lution.[10] Their enormous dimensions remained unsur-
passed until the introduction of structural steel frames
in the late 19th century (see List of the world’s largest
domes).[9][11][12]
2.1.2 Influence on later architecture
Palladian Stowe House, by William Kent
Roman architecture supplied the basic vocabulary of Pre-
Romanesque and Romanesque architecture, and spread
across Christian Europe well beyond the old frontiers of
the empire, to Ireland and Scandinavia for example. In
the East, Byzantine architecture developed new styles of
churches, but most other buildings remained very close
to Late Roman forms. The same can be said in turn of
Islamic architecture, where Roman forms long contin- Frigidarium of Baths of Diocletian, today Santa Maria degli An-
ued, especially in private buildings such as houses and the geli
Turkish bath, and civil engineering such as fortifications
and bridges.
In Europe the Italian Renaissance saw a conscious revival
of correct classical styles, initially purely based on Ro-
man examples. Vitruvius was respectfully reinterpreted
by a series of architectural writers, and the Tuscan and
Composite orders formalized for the first time, to give
five rather than three orders. After the flamboyance of
71
Baroque architecture, the Neoclassical architecture of the
18th century revived purer versions of classical style, and
for the first time added direct influence from the Greek
world.
Numerous local classical styles developed, such as
Palladian architecture, Georgian architecture and
Regency architecture in the English-speaking world,
Federal architecture in the United States, and later
Stripped Classicism and PWA Moderne.
Roman influences may be found around us today, in
banks, government buildings, great houses, and even
small houses, perhaps in the form of a porch with Doric
columns and a pediment or in a fireplace or a mosaic
shower floor derived from a Roman original, often from
Pompeii or Herculaneum. The mighty pillars, domes and
arches of Rome echo in the New World too, where in
Washington DC we see them in the Capitol Building, the
White House, the Lincoln Memorial and other govern-
ment buildings. All across the US the seats of regional
government were normally built in the grand traditions of
Rome, with vast flights of stone steps sweeping up to tow-
ering pillared porticoes, with huge domes gilded or dec-
orated inside with the same or similar themes that were
popular in Rome.
In Britain, a similar enthusiasm has seen the construc-
tion of thousands of neo-Classical buildings over the last
five centuries, both civic and domestic, and many of the
grandest country houses and mansions are purely Clas-
sical in style, an obvious example being Buckingham
Palace.
2.1.3 Materials
Stone
Marble is not found especially close to Rome, and was
only rarely used there before Augustus, who famously
boasted that he had found Rome made of brick and left
it made of marble, though this was mainly as a facing
72
for brick or concrete. The Temple of Hercules Victor
of the late 2nd century BC is the earliest surviving ex-
ception in Rome. From Augustus’ reign the quarries at
Carrara were extensively developed for the capital, and
other sources around the empire exploited,[13] especially
the prestigious Greek marbles like Parian. Travertine
limestone was found much closer, around Tivoli, and was
used from the end of the Republic; the Colosseum is
mainly built of this stone, which has good load-bearing
capacity, with a brick core.[14] Other more or less local
stones were used around the empire.[15]
The Romans were extremely fond of luxury imported
coloured marbles with fancy veining, and the interiors of
the most important buildings were very often faced with
slabs of these, which have usually now been removed even
where the building survives. Imports from Greece for this
purpose began in the 2nd century BC.[16]
Roman brick
Main article: Roman brick
The Romans made fired clay bricks from about the be-
Close-up view of the wall of the Roman shore fort at Burgh Cas-
tle, Norfolk, showing alternating courses of flint and brickwork.
ginning of the Empire, replacing earlier sun-dried mud-
brick. Roman brick was almost invariably of a lesser
height than modern brick, but was made in a variety of
different shapes and sizes.[17] Shapes included square,
rectangular, triangular and round, and the largest bricks
found have measured over three feet in length.[18] Ancient
Roman bricks had a general size of 1½ Roman feet by 1
Roman foot, but common variations up to 15 inches ex-
isted. Other brick sizes in ancient Rome included 24” x
12” x 4”, and 15” x 8” x 10”. Ancient Roman bricks found
in France measured 8” x 8” x 3”. The Constantine Basil-
ica in Trier is constructed from Roman bricks 15” square
by 1½" thick.[19] There is often little obvious difference
(particularly when only fragments survive) between Ro-
man bricks used for walls on the one hand, and tiles used
for roofing or flooring on the other, so archaeologists
sometimes prefer to employ the generic term ceramic
CHAPTER 2. ROMAN
building material (or CBM).
The Romans perfected brick-making during the first cen-
tury of their empire and used it ubiquitously, in public and
private construction alike. The Romans took their brick-
making skills everywhere they went, introducing the craft
to the local populations.[19] The Roman legions, which
operated their own kilns, introduced bricks to many parts
of the empire; bricks are often stamped with the mark
of the legion that supervised their production. The use
of bricks in southern and western Germany, for example,
can be traced back to traditions already described by the
Roman architect Vitruvius. In the British Isles, the in-
troduction of Roman brick by the ancient Romans was
followed by a 600–700 year gap in major brick produc-
tion.
Roman concrete
Example of opus caementicium on a tomb on the ancient Appian
Way in Rome. The original covering has been removed.
Main article: Roman concrete
Concrete quickly supplanted brick as the primary build-
ing material, and more daring buildings soon followed,
with great pillars supporting broad arches and domes
rather than dense lines of columns suspending flat
architraves. The freedom of concrete also inspired the
colonnade screen, a row of purely decorative columns
in front of a load-bearing wall. In smaller-scale ar-
chitecture, concrete’s strength freed the floor plan from
rectangular cells to a more free-flowing environment.
Most of these developments are described by Vitruvius,
writing in the first century AD in his work De Architec-
tura.
Although concrete had been used on a minor scale in
Mesopotamia, Roman architects perfected Roman con-
crete and used it in buildings where it could stand on its
own and support a great deal of weight. The first use of
concrete by the Romans was in the town of Cosa some-
time after 273 BC. Ancient Roman concrete was a mix-
2.1. ANCIENT ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 73

ture of lime mortar, aggregate, pozzolana, water, and built by the Romans throughout their empire. Many Eu-
stones, and was stronger than previously-used concretes. ropean towns, such as Turin, preserve the remains of
The ancient builders placed these ingredients in wooden these schemes, which show the very logical way the Ro-
frames where they hardened and bonded to a facing of mans designed their cities. They would lay out the streets
stones or (more frequently) bricks. The aggregates used at right angles, in the form of a square grid. All roads
were often much larger than in modern concrete, amount- were equal in width and length, except for two, which
ing to rubble. were slightly wider than the others. One of these ran
When the framework was removed, the new wall was very east–west, the other, north–south, and they intersected
in the middle to form the center of the grid. All roads
strong, with a rough surface of bricks or stones. This
surface could be smoothed and faced with an attractive were made of carefully fitted flag stones and filled in with
smaller, hard-packed rocks and pebbles. Bridges were
stucco or thin panels of marble or other coloured stones
called revetment. Concrete construction proved to be constructed where needed. Each square marked off by
four roads was called an insula, the Roman equivalent of
more flexible and less costly than building solid stone
buildings. The materials were readily available and not a modern city block.
difficult to transport. The wooden frames could be used Each insula was 80 yards (73 m) square, with the land
more than once, allowing builders to work quickly and within it divided. As the city developed, each insula
efficiently. Concrete is arguably the Roman contribution would eventually be filled with buildings of various shapes
most relevant to modern architecture. and sizes and crisscrossed with back roads and alleys.
Most insulae were given to the first settlers of a Roman
city, but each person had to pay to construct his own
2.1.4 City design house.
The city was surrounded by a wall to protect it from in-
vaders and to mark the city limits. Areas outside city lim-
its were left open as farmland. At the end of each main
road was a large gateway with watchtowers. A portcullis
covered the opening when the city was under siege, and
additional watchtowers were constructed along the city
walls. An aqueduct was built outside the city walls.
The development of Greek and Roman urbanization is
relatively well-known, as there are relatively many writ-
ten sources, and there has been much attention to the
subject, since the Romans and Greeks are generally re-
garded as the main ancestors of modern Western culture.
It should not be forgotten, though, that the Etruscans had
many considerable towns and there were also other cul-
tures with more or less urban settlements in Europe, pri-
The Temple of Claudius to the south (left) of the Colosseum marily of Celtic origin.[25]
(model of Imperial Rome at the Museo della Civilta Romana in
Rome)

Further information: Centuriation, Decumanus Max- 2.1.5 Building types

imus, and Cardo
The ancient Romans employed regular orthogonal struc-
tures on which they molded their colonies.[20][21] [22] They
probably were inspired by Greek and Hellenic examples,
as well as by regularly planned cities that were built by
the Etruscans in Italy.[23] (see Marzabotto)
The Romans used a consolidated scheme for city plan-
ning, developed for military defense and civil conve-
nience. The basic plan consisted of a central forum with
city services, surrounded by a compact, rectilinear grid
of streets, and wrapped in a wall for defense. To re-
duce travel times, two diagonal streets crossed the square
grid, passing through the central square. A river usually
flowed through the city, providing water, transport, and
sewage disposal.[24] Hundreds of towns and cities were
Amphitheatre
Main article: Roman amphitheatre
Further information: List of Roman amphitheatres
The amphitheatre was, with the triumphal arch and basil-
ica, the only major new type of building developed by the
Romans.[26] Some of the most impressive secular build-
ings are the amphitheatres, over 200 being known and
many of which are well preserved, such as that at Arles,
as well as its progenitor, the Colosseum in Rome. They
were used for gladiatorial contests, public displays, pub-
lic meetings and bullfights, the tradition of which still
survives in Spain. Their typical shape, functions and
name distinguish them from Roman theatres, which are
more or less semicircular in shape; from the circuses
(akin to hippodromes) whose much longer circuits were
74 CHAPTER 2. ROMAN

The Aula Palatina of Trier, Germany (then part of the Roman

Roman theatre of Aspendos, Turkey province of Gallia Belgica), built during the reign of Constantine
I (r. 306-337 AD)

designed mainly for horse or chariot racing events; and

from the smaller stadia, which were primarily designed The Roman basilica was a large public building where
for athletics and footraces.[27] business or legal matters could be transacted. They were
The earliest Roman amphitheatres date from the middle normally where the magistrates held court, and used for
of the first century BC, but most were built under Im- other official ceremonies, having many of the functions
perial rule, from the Augustan period (27 BC–14 AD) of the modern town hall. The first basilicas had no reli-
onwards.[28] Imperial amphitheatres were built through- gious function at all. As early as the time of Augustus, a
out the Roman empire; the largest could accommodate public basilica for transacting business had been part of
40,000–60,000 spectators, and the most elaborate fea- any settlement that considered itself a city, used in the
tured multi-storeyed, arcaded façades and were elabo- same way as the late medieval covered market houses of
rately decorated with marble, stucco and statuary.[29] Af- northern Europe, where the meeting room, for lack of ur-
ter the end of gladiatorial games in the 5th century and ban space, was set above the arcades, however. Although
of animal killings in the 6th, most amphitheatres fell into their form was variable, basilicas often contained interior
disrepair, and their materials were mined or recycled. colonnades that divided the space, giving aisles or arcaded
Some were razed, and others converted into fortifications. spaces on one or both sides, with an apse at one end (or
A few continued as convenient open meeting places; in less often at each end), where the magistrates sat, often
some of these, churches were sited.[30] on a slightly raised dais. The central aisle tended to be
wide and was higher than the flanking aisles, so that light
Architecturally, they are typically an example of the Ro- could penetrate through the clerestory windows.
man use of the classical orders to decorate large concrete
walls pierced at intervals, where the columns have noth- The oldest known basilica, the Basilica Porcia, was built
ing to support. Aesthetically, however, the formula is suc- in Rome in 184 BC by Cato the Elder during the time
cessful. he was Censor. Other early examples include the basil-
ica at Pompeii (late 2nd century BC). After Christianity
became the official religion, the basilica shape was found
Basilica appropriate for the first large public churches, with the at-
traction of avoiding reminiscences of the Greco-Roman
temple form.

Circus

The Roman circus was a large open-air venue used for

Northern aisle of the Basilica of Maxentius in Rome
public events in the ancient Roman Empire. The circuses
were similar to the ancient Greek hippodromes, although
circuses served varying purposes and differed in design
and construction. Along with theatres and amphitheatres,
Circuses were one of the main entertainment sites of the
time. Circuses were venues for chariot races, horse races,
and performances that commemorated important events
of the empire were performed there. For events that
involved re-enactments of naval battles, the circus was
2.1. ANCIENT ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 75

flooded with water.

The performance space of the Roman circus was nor-
mally, despite its name, an oblong rectangle of two lin-
ear sections of race track, separated by a median strip
running along the length of about two thirds the track,
joined at one end with a semicircular section and at the
other end with an undivided section of track closed (in
most cases) by a distinctive starting gate known as the
carceres, thereby creating a circuit for the races.

panoramic view of the Forum Trajanum, with the

Trajan’s Column on the far left.
Forum

Further information: Roman Forum and List of monu-

ments of the Roman Forum Horreum
A forum was a central public open space in a Roman
A horreum was a type of public warehouse used during
the ancient Roman period. Although the Latin term is of-
ten used to refer to granaries, Roman horrea were used to
store many other types of consumables; the giant Horrea
Galbae in Rome were used not only to store grain but also
olive oil, wine, foodstuffs, clothing and even marble.[32]
By the end of the imperial period, the city of Rome had
nearly 300 horrea to supply its demands.[33] The biggest
were enormous, even by modern standards; the Horrea
Galbae contained 140 rooms on the ground floor alone,
covering an area of some 225,000 square feet (21,000
m²).[34]
The first horrea were built in Rome towards the end of the
2nd century BC,[35] with the first known public horreum
being constructed by the ill-fated tribune, Gaius Gracchus
The Roman Forum in 123 BC.[36] The word came to be applied to any place
designated for the preservation of goods; thus it was of-
municipium, or any civitas, primarily used as a market- ten used refer to cellars (horrea subterranea), but it could
place, along with the buildings used for shops and the also be applied to a place where artworks were stored,[37]
stoas used for open stalls. Other large public buildings or even to a library.[38] Some public horrea functioned
were often sited at the edges or close by. Many forums somewhat like banks, where valuables could be stored,
were constructed at remote locations along a road by the but the most important class of horrea were those where
magistrate responsible for the road, in which case the fo- foodstuffs such as grain and olive oil were stored and dis-
rum was the only settlement at the site and had its own tributed by the state.[39]
name, such as Forum Popili or Forum Livi.[31]
Every city had at least one forum of varying size. In addi- Insula
tion to its standard function as a marketplace, a forum was
a gathering place of great social significance, and often Main article: Insula (building)
the scene of diverse activities, including political discus-
sions and debates, rendezvous, meetings, etc. Much the Multi-story apartment blocks called insulae catered to a
best known example is the Roman Forum, the earliest of range of residential needs. The cheapest rooms were at
several in Rome. the top owing to the inability to escape in the event of a
In new Roman towns the forum was usually located at, fire and the lack of piped water. Windows were mostly
or just off, the intersection of the main north-south and small, facing the street, with iron security bars. Insulae
east-west streets (the cardo and decumanus). All forums were often dangerous, unhealthy, and prone to fires be-
would have a Temple of Jupiter at the north end, and cause of overcrowding and haphazard cooking arrange-
would also contain other temples, as well as the basilica; ments. There are examples in the Roman port town of
a public weights and measures table, so customers at the Ostia, that date back to the reign of Trajan, but they seem
market could ensure they were not being sold short mea- to have been found only in Rome and a few other places.
sures; and would often have the baths nearby. Elsewhere writers report them as something remarkable,
76 CHAPTER 2. ROMAN

Lighthouses

Main article: Roman lighthouse

Many lighthouses were built around the Mediterranean

Insula in Ostia Antica

but Livy and Vituvius refer to them in Rome.[40] External

walls were in “Opus Reticulatum” and interiors in “Opus
Incertum”, which would then be plastered and sometimes
painted.
To lighten up the small dark rooms, tenants able to afford
a degree of painted colourful murals on the walls. Exam-
ples have been found of jungle scenes with wild animals
and exotic plants. Imitation windows (trompe l'oeil) were
sometimes painted to make the rooms seem less confined.
Ancient Rome had elaborate and luxurious houses owned The Tower of Hercules, a Roman lighthouse in Spain
by the elite. The average house, or in cities apartment, of
a commoner or plebe did not contain many luxuries. The and the coasts of the empire, including the Tower of Her-
domus, or single-family residence, was only for the well- cules at A Coruña in northern Spain, a structure which
off in Rome, with most having a layout of the closed unit, survives to this day. A smaller lighthouse at Dover, Eng-
consisting of one or two rooms. Between 312 and 315 land also exists as a ruin about half the height of the orig-
A.D. Rome had 1781 domus and 44,850 of insulae.[41] inal. The light would have been provided by a fire at the
Insulae have been the subject of great debate for histori- top of the structure.
ans of Roman culture, defining the various meanings of
the word.[42] Insula was a word used to describe apart- Thermae
ment buildings, or the apartments themselves,[43] mean-
ing apartment, or inhabitable room, demonstrating just Main article: Thermae
how small apartments for Plebes were. Urban divisions Further information: List of Roman public baths
were originally street blocks, and later began to divide
into smaller divisions, the word insula referring to both
blocks and smaller divisions. The insula contained cenac- All Roman cities had at least one Thermae, a popular fa-
ula, tabernae, storage rooms under the stairs, and lower cility for public bathing, exercising and socializing. Exer-
floor shops. Another type of housing unit for Plebes was cise might include wrestling and weight-lifting, as well as
a cenaculum, an apartment, divided into three individ- swimming. Bathing was an important part of the Roman
ual rooms: cubiculum, exedra, and medianum. Com- day, where some hours might be spent, at a very low cost
mon Roman apartments were mainly masses of smaller subsidized by the government. Wealthier Romans were
and larger structures, many with narrow balconies that often accompanied by one or more slaves, who performed
present mysteries as to their use, having no doors to access any required tasks such as fetching refreshment, guarding
them, and they lacked the excessive decoration and dis- valuables, providing towels, and at the end of the session,
play of wealth that aristocrats’ houses contained. Luxury applying olive oil to their masters’ bodies which was then
in houses was not common, as the life of the average per- scraped off with a strigil, a scraper made of wood or bone.
son did not consist of being in their houses, as they instead Romans did not wash with soap and water as we do now.
would go to public baths, and engage in other communal Roman bath-houses were also provided for private villas,
activities. town houses and forts. They were normally supplied with
2.1. ANCIENT ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 77

water from an adjacent river or stream, or by aqueduct. which generally gave equal treatment to all sides of the
The design of thermae is discussed by Vitruvius in De temple, which could be viewed and approached from all
Architectura. directions, the sides and rear of Roman temples might
be largely undecorated (as in the Pantheon, Rome and
Vic), inaccessible by steps (as in the Maison Carrée and
Temples Vic), and even back on to other buildings. As in the Mai-
son Carrée, columns at the side might be half-columns,
emerging from (“engaged with” in architectural termi-
nology) the wall.[44] The platform on which the temple
sat was typically raised higher in Roman examples than
Greek, with up ten or twelve or more steps rather than the
three typical in Greek temples; the Temple of Claudius
was raised twenty steps. These steps were normally only
at the front, and typically not the whole width of that.
The Greek classical orders in all their details were closely
followed in the façades of temples, as in other presti-
gious buildings. However the idealized proportions be-
tween the different elements set out by the only signifi-
cant Roman writer on architecture to survive, Vitruvius,
and subsequent Italian Renaissance writers, do not re-
flect actual Roman practice, which could be very variable,
“Roman Baroque” Temple of Bacchus at Baalbek, Lebanon though always aiming at balance and harmony. Follow-
ing a Hellenistic trend, the Corinthian order and its vari-
Main article: Roman temple ant the Composite order were most common in surviving
Roman temples, but for small temples like that at Alcán-
[45]
Roman temples were among the most important and rich- tara, a simple Tuscan order could be used.
est buildings in Roman culture, though only a few sur- There was considerable local variation in style, as Roman
vive in any sort of complete state. Their construction architects often tried to incorporate elements the popu-
and maintenance was a major part of ancient Roman re- lation expected in its sacred architecture. This was espe-
ligion, and all towns of any importance had at least one cially the case in Egypt and the Near East, where different
main temple, as well as smaller shrines. The main room traditions of large stone temples were already millennia
(cella) housed the cult image of the deity to whom the old. The Romano-Celtic temple was a simple style for
temple was dedicated, and often a small altar for incense small temples found in the Western Empire, and by far
or libations. Behind the cella was a room or rooms used the most common type in Roman Britain. It often lacked
by temple attendants for storage of equipment and offer- any of the distinctive classical features, and may have had
ings. considerable continuity with pre-Roman temples of the
Some remains of many Roman temples survive, above all Celtic religion.
in Rome itself, but the relatively few near-complete ex-
amples were nearly all converted to Christian churches
(and sometimes subsequently to mosques), usually a con- Theatres
siderable time after the initial triumph of Christianity un-
der Constantine. The decline of Roman religion was rel- Roman theatres were built in all areas of the empire from
atively slow, and the temples themselves were not appro- Spain, to the Middle East. Because of the Romans’ ability
priated by the government until a decree of the Emperor to influence local architecture, we see numerous theatres
Honorius in 415. Some of the oldest surviving temples around the world with uniquely Roman attributes.[46]
include the Temple of Hercules Victor (mid 2nd century These buildings were semi-circular and possessed certain
BC) and Temple of Portunus (120-80 BC), both standing inherent architectural structures, with minor differences
within the Forum Boarium. depending on the region in which they were constructed.
The form of the Roman temple was mainly derived from The scaenae frons was a high back wall of the stage floor,
the Etruscan model, but using Greek styles. Roman tem- supported by columns. The proscaenium was a wall that
ples emphasised the front of the building, which followed supported the front edge of the stage with ornately deco-
Greek temple models and typically consisted of wide rated niches off to the sides. The Hellenistic influence is
steps leading to a portico with columns, a pronaos, and seen through the use of the proscaenium. The Roman the-
usually a triangular pediment above, which was filled with atre also had a podium, which sometimes supported the
statuary in the most grand examples; this was as often in columns of the scaenae frons. The scaenae was originally
terracotta as stone, and no examples have survived ex- not part of the building itself, constructed only to provide
cept as fragments. However, unlike the Greek models, sufficient background for the actors. Eventually, it be-
78 CHAPTER 2. ROMAN

came a part of the edifice itself, made out of concrete.
The theatre itself was divided into the stage (orchestra)
and the seating section (auditorium). Vomitoria or en-
trances and exits were made available to the audience.[47]
Villa
las might be lacking in luxuries. By the 4th century,
villa could simply mean an agricultural estate or hold-
ing: Jerome translated the Gospel of Mark (xiv, 32)
chorion, describing the olive grove of Gethsemane, with
villa, without an inference that there were any dwellings
there at all (Catholic Encyclopedia “Gethsemane”).
With the colossal Diocletian’s Palace, built in the coun-
tryside but later turned into a fortified city, a form of res-
idential castle emerges, that anticipates the Middle Ages.

Watermills

Further information: List of ancient watermills

The initial invention of the watermill appears to have

occurred in the hellenized eastern Mediterranean in the
wake of the conquests of Alexander the Great and the
rise of Hellenistic science and technology.[50][51][52] In the
subsequent Roman era, the use of water-power was diver-
sified and different types of watermills were introduced.
These include all three variants of the vertical water wheel
Villa of the Mysteries just outside Pompeii, seen from above as well as the horizontal water wheel.[53][54] Apart from
its main use in grinding flour, water-power was also ap-
Main article: Roman villa plied to pounding grain,[55][56][57] crushing ore,[58] saw-
See also: Villa rustica, List of Roman villas in England, ing stones[59] and possibly fulling and bellows for iron
and List of Roman villas in Belgium furnaces.[60]

A Roman villa was a country house built for the up-

2.1.6 Decorative structures
per class, while a domus was a wealthy family’s house
in a town. The Empire contained many kinds of villas,
Monoliths
not all of them lavishly appointed with mosaic floors and
frescoes. In the provinces, any country house with some
Further information: List of ancient Greek and Roman
decorative features in the Roman style may be called
monoliths
a “villa” by modern scholars.[48] Some were pleasure
palaces such as those— like Hadrian’s Villa at Tivoli—
that were situated in the cool hills within easy reach of In architecture, a monolith is a structure which has been
Rome or— like the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum— excavated as a unit from a surrounding matrix or outcrop-
on picturesque sites overlooking the Bay of Naples. Some ping of rock.[61] Monoliths are found in all types of Ro-
villas were more like the country houses of England or man buildings. They were either: quarried without be-
Poland, the visible seat of power of a local magnate, ing moved; or quarried and moved; or quarried, moved
such as the famous palace rediscovered at Fishbourne in and lifted clear off the ground into their position (e.g.
Sussex. architraves); or quarried, moved and erected in an upright
position (e.g. columns).
Suburban villas on the edge of cities were also known,
such as the Middle and Late Republican villas that en- Transporting was done by land or water (or a combina-
croached on the Campus Martius, at that time on the edge tion of both), in the later case often by special-built ships
of Rome, and which can be also seen outside the city such as obelisk carriers.[62] For lifting operations, ancient
walls of Pompeii, including the Villa of the Mysteries, fa- cranes were employed since ca. 515 BC,[63] such as in the
mous for its frescos. These early suburban villas, such as construction of Trajan’s Column.[64]
the one at Rome’s Auditorium site[49] or at Grottarossa
in Rome, demonstrate the antiquity and heritage of the
Obelisks
villa suburbana in Central Italy. It is possible that these
early, suburban villas were also in fact the seats of power
Further information: List of obelisks in Rome
(maybe even palaces) of regional strongmen or heads of An obelisk is a tall, four-sided, narrow tapering monu-
important families (gentes). ment which ends in a pyramid-like shape at the top. These
A third type of villa provided the organizational center were originally called “tekhenu” by the builders, the an-
of the large farming estates called latifundia; such vil- cient Egyptians. The Greeks who saw them used the
2.1. ANCIENT ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 79

1st century AD, 5.80 m

• Rome – there are five ancient Roman obelisks in

Rome.

Roman gardens

Gardens in Conimbriga, Portugal

Roman gardens were influenced by Egyptian, Persian,

and Greek gardening techniques. In Ancient Latium, a
garden was part of every farm. According to Cato the El-
der, every garden should be close to the house and should
have flower beds and ornamental trees.[68] Horace wrote
that during his time flower gardens became a national
indulgence.[69]
Gardens were not reserved for the extremely wealthy. Ex-
cavations in Pompeii show that gardens attaching to res-
idences were scaled down to meet the space constraints
of the home of the average Roman. Modified versions
of Roman garden designs were adopted in Roman settle-
ments in Africa, Gaul, and Britannia. As town houses
were replaced by tall insula (apartment buildings), these
urban gardens were replaced by window boxes or roof
gardens.

Triumphal arch
Obelisco Sallustiano in front of the church of Trinità dei Monti
in Rome Further information: List of Roman triumphal arches

Greek 'obeliskos’ to describe them, and this word passed

into Latin and then English.[65] The Romans commis-
sioned obelisks in an ancient Egyptian style. Examples
include:

• Arles, France – the Arles Obelisk, in Place de la

République, a 4th-century obelisk of Roman origin
• Benevento, Italy – three Roman obelisks[66][67]
The Arch of
• Munich – obelisk of Titus Sextius Africanus, Titus in Rome, an early Roman imperial triumphal arch
Staatliches Museum Ägyptischer Kunst, Kunstareal, with a single archway
80 CHAPTER 2. ROMAN

arches were built elsewhere in the Roman Empire.[73] The

single arch was the most common, but many triple arches
were also built, of which the Triumphal Arch of Orange
(circa AD 21) is the earliest surviving example. From the
2nd century AD, many examples of the arcus quadrifrons
– a square triumphal arch erected over a crossroads, with
arched openings on all four sides – were built, especially
in North Africa. Arch-building in Rome and Italy dimin-
ished after the time of Trajan (AD 98-117) but remained
widespread in the provinces during the 2nd and 3rd cen-
Titus' tri-
turies AD; they were often erected to commemorate im-
umphal procession depicted on the Arch of Titus,
perial visits.[74]
showing the loot captured from Jerusalem in 81 AD
The ornamentation of an arch was intended to serve as a
constant visual reminder of the triumph and triumphator.
A triumphal arch is a monumental structure in the shape
The façade was ornamented with marble columns, and
of an archway with one or more arched passageways, of-
the piers and attics with decorative cornices. Sculpted
ten designed to span a road. The origins of the Roman
panels depicted victories and achievements, the deeds of
triumphal arch are unclear. There were precursors to
the triumphator, the captured weapons of the enemy or
the triumphal arch within the Roman world; in Italy, the
the triumphal procession itself. The spandrels usually
Etruscans used elaborately decorated single bay arches as
depicted flying Victories, while the attic was often in-
gates or portals to their cities. Surviving examples of Etr-
scribed with a dedicatory inscription naming and prais-
uscan arches can still be seen at Perugia and Volterra.[70]
ing the triumphator. The piers and internal passageways
The two key elements of the triumphal arch – a round-
were also decorated with reliefs and free-standing sculp-
topped arch and a square entablature – had long been in
tures. The vault was ornamented with coffers. Some tri-
use as separate architectural elements in ancient Greece.
umphal arches were surmounted by a statue or a currus
The innovation of the Romans was to these elements in triumphalis, a group of statues depicting the emperor or
a single free-standing structure. The columns became general in a quadriga.[70][74]
purely decorative elements on the outer face of arch,
Inscriptions on Roman triumphal arches were works of
while the entablature, liberated from its role as a building
art in themselves, with very finely cut, sometimes gilded
support, became the frame for the civic and religious mes-
letters. The form of each letter and the spacing between
sages that the arch builders wished to convey.[71] Little is
them was carefully designed for maximum clarity and
known about how the Romans viewed triumphal arches.
simplicity, without any decorative flourishes, emphasiz-
Pliny the Elder, writing in the first century AD, was the
ing the Roman taste for restraint and order. This concep-
only ancient author to discuss them.[72] He wrote that they
tion of what later became the art of typography remains
were intended to “elevate above the ordinary world” an
of fundamental importance down to the present day.[75]
image of an honoured person usually depicted in the form
of a statue with a quadriga.[72]
The first recorded Roman triumphal arches were set up in Victory columns
the time of the Roman Republic.[73] Generals who were
granted a triumph were termed triumphators and would Further information: List of Roman victory columns
erect fornices or honorific arches bearing statues to com-
memorate their victories.[74] Roman triumphal practices
changed significantly at the start of the imperial period
when the first Roman Emperor Augustus decreed that 2.1.7 Infrastructure
only emperors would be granted triumphs. The triumphal
arch changed from being a personal monument to being Roads
an essentially propagandistic one, serving to announce
and promote the presence of the ruler and the laws of the Roman roads were vital to the maintenance and devel-
state.[70] Arches were not necessarily built as entrances, opment of the Roman state, and were built from about
but – unlike many modern triumphal arches – they were 500 BC through the expansion and consolidation of the
often erected across roads and were intended to be passed Roman Republic and the Roman Empire.[76] They pro-
through, not round.[75] vided efficient means for the overland movement of
armies, officials and civilians, and the inland carriage of
Most Roman triumphal arches were built during the im- official communications and trade goods.[77] At the peak
perial period. By the fourth century AD there were 36 of Rome’s development, no fewer than 29 great military
such arches in Rome, of which three have survived – the highways radiated from the capital, and the Late Em-
Arch of Titus (AD 81), the Arch of Septimius Severus pire’s 113 provinces were interconnected by 372 great
(203-205) and the Arch of Constantine (312). Numerous road links.[78][79] Roman road builders aimed at a reg-
2.1. ANCIENT ROMAN ARCHITECTURE
A Roman street in Pompeii
ulation width (see Laws and standards above), but actual
widths have been measured at between 3.6 ft (1.1 m) and
more than 23 ft (7.0 m). Today, the concrete has worn
from the spaces around the stones, giving the impression
of a very bumpy road, but the original practice was to
produce a surface that was no doubt much closer to being
flat.
Aqueduct
Main article: Roman aqueduct
Further information: List of aqueducts in the Roman Em- Bridges
pire
The Romans constructed numerous aqueducts in order
The Aqueduct of Segovia, Spain
81
to bring water from distant sources into their cities and
towns, supplying public baths, latrines, fountains and pri-
vate households. Waste water was removed by complex
sewage systems and released into nearby bodies of water,
keeping the towns clean and free from effluent. Aque-
ducts also provided water for mining operations, milling,
farms and gardens.
Aqueducts moved water through gravity alone, being con-
structed along a slight downward gradient within conduits
of stone, brick or concrete. Most were buried beneath the
ground, and followed its contours; obstructing peaks were
circumvented or, less often, tunnelled through. Where
valleys or lowlands intervened, the conduit was carried
on bridgework, or its contents fed into high-pressure lead,
ceramic or stone pipes and siphoned across. Most aque-
duct systems included sedimentation tanks, sluices and
distribution tanks to regulate the supply at need.
Rome's first aqueduct supplied a water-fountain sited at
the city’s cattle market. By the third century AD, the city
had eleven aqueducts, sustaining a population of over a
million in a water-extravagant economy; most of the wa-
ter supplied the city’s many public baths. Cities and mu-
nicipalities throughout the Roman Empire emulated this
model, and funded aqueducts as objects of public inter-
est and civic pride, “an expensive yet necessary luxury to
which all could, and did, aspire.”[80]
Most Roman aqueducts proved reliable, and durable;
some were maintained into the early modern era, and a
few are still partly in use. Methods of aqueduct survey-
ing and construction are noted by Vitruvius in his work
De Architectura (1st century BC). The general Frontinus
gives more detail in his official report on the problems,
uses and abuses of Imperial Rome’s public water sup-
ply. Notable examples of aqueduct architecture include
the supporting piers of the Aqueduct of Segovia, and the
aqueduct-fed cisterns of Constantinople.
The Alcántara Bridge, Spain, a masterpiece of ancient bridge
building
82 CHAPTER 2. ROMAN

Main article: Roman bridge

Further information: List of Roman bridges

Roman bridges, built by ancient Romans, were the first

large and lasting bridges built.[81] Roman bridges were
built with stone and had the arch as the basic structure
(see arch bridge). Most utilized concrete as well, which
the Romans were the first to use for bridges.
Roman arch bridges were usually semicircular, although
a few were segmental (such as Alconétar Bridge). A seg-
mental arch is an arch that is less than a semicircle.[82] The
advantages of the segmental arch bridge were that it al-
lowed great amounts of flood water to pass under it, which The Basilica Cistern in Constantinople provided water for the
would prevent the bridge from being swept away during Imperial Palace.
floods and the bridge itself could be more lightweight.
Generally, Roman bridges featured wedge-shaped pri-
mary arch stones (voussoirs) of the same in size and
shape. The Romans built both single spans and lengthy mini of aqueducts and their branch lines, supplying ur-
multiple arch aqueducts, such as the Pont du Gard and ban households, agricultural estates, imperial palaces,
Segovia Aqueduct. Their bridges featured from an early thermae or naval bases of the Roman navy.[84]
time onwards flood openings in the piers, e.g. in the Pons
Fabricius in Rome (62 BC), one of the world’s oldest ma-
jor bridges still standing. Roman engineers were the first
and until the industrial revolution the only ones to con-
struct bridges with concrete, which they called Opus cae- Dams
menticium. The outside was usually covered with brick
or ashlar, as in the Alcántara bridge.
Further information: List of Roman dams and reservoirs
The Romans also introduced segmental arch bridges into
bridge construction. The 330 m long Limyra Bridge in
Roman dam construction began in earnest in the early im-
southwestern Turkey features 26 segmental arches with
perial period.[85] For the most part, it concentrated on the
an average span-to-rise ratio of 5.3:1,[83] giving the bridge
semi-arid fringe of the empire, namely the provinces of
an unusually flat profile unsurpassed for more than a mil-
North Africa, the Near East, and Hispania.[86] [87][88] The
lennium. Trajan’s bridge over the Danube featured open-
relative abundance of Spanish dams below is due partly to
spandrel segmental arches made of wood (standing on 40
more intensive field work there; for Italy only the Subiaco
m high concrete piers). This was to be the longest arch
Dams, created by emperor Nero (54–68 AD) for recre-
bridge for a thousand years both in terms of overall and
ational purposes, are attested.[89][85] These dams are note-
individual span length, while the longest extant Roman
worthy, though, for their extraordinary height, which re-
bridge is the 790 m long Puente Romano at Mérida.
mained unsurpassed anywhere in the world until the Late
Middle Ages.[85]
Canals The most frequent dam types were earth- or rock-filled
embankment dams and masonry gravity dams.[90] These
Further information: List of Roman canals served a wide array of purposes, such as irrigation, flood
control, river diversion, soil-retention, or a combina-
tion of these functions.[91] The impermeability of Roman
Roman canals were typically multi-purpose structures,
dams was increased by the introduction of waterproof hy-
intended for irrigation, drainage, land reclamation, flood
draulic mortar and especially opus caementicium in the
control and navigation where feasible. Some navigational
Concrete Revolution. These materials also allowed for
canals were recorded by ancient geographers and are still
bigger structures to be built,[92] like the Lake Homs Dam,
traceable by modern archaeology. Channels which served
possibly the largest water barrier today,[93] and the sturdy
the needs of urban water supply are covered at the List of
Harbaqa Dam, both of which consist of a concrete core.
aqueducts in the Roman Empire.
Roman builders were the first to realize the stabilizing ef-
fect of arches and buttresses, which they integrated into
Cisterns their dam designs. Previously unknown dam types intro-
duced by the Romans include arch-gravity dams,[88][94]
Further information: List of Roman cisterns arch dams,;[95][96][97] [98][99] buttress dams,[100] and
Freshwater reservoirs were commonly set up at the ter- multiple-arch buttress dams.[101][102][94][103]
2.1. ANCIENT ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 83

Servian Wall around Rome was an ambitious project of

the early 4th century BC. The wall was up to 10 metres
(32.8 ft) in height in places, 3.6 metres (12 ft) wide at its
base, 11 km (7 mi) long,[104] and is believed to have had
16 main gates, though many of these are mentioned only
from writings, with no other known remains. Some of it
had a fossa or ditch in front, and an agger behind, and it
was enough to deter Hannibal. Later the Aurelian Wall
replaced it, enclosing an expanded city, and using more
sophisticated designs, with small forts at intervals.
The Romans walled major cities and towns in areas they
saw as vulnerable, and parts of many walls remain in-
corporated in later defences, as at Córdoba (2nd century
BC), Chester (earth and wood in the 70s AD, stone from
c. 100), and York (from 70s AD). Strategic walls across
open country were far rarer, and Hadrian’s Wall (from
122) and the Antonine Wall (from 142, abandoned only
8 years after completion) are the most significant exam-
ples, both on the Pictish frontier.

2.1.8 Architectural features

Mosaics
Section of the Servian Wall
On his return from campaigns in Greece, the general Sulla
brought back what is probably the most well-known ele-
ment of the early imperial period, the mosaic, a deco-
ration made of colourful chips of stone inserted into ce-
ment. This tiling method took the empire by storm in the
late first century and the second century and in the Roman
home joined the well known mural in decorating floors,
walls, and grottoes with geometric and pictorial designs.
There were two main techniques in Greco-Roman mo-
saic: opus vermiculatum used tiny tesserae, typically
cubes of 4 millimeters or less, and was produced in
workshops in relatively small panels which were trans-
ported to the site glued to some temporary support. The
tiny tesserae allowed very fine detail, and an approach
to the illusionism of painting. Often small panels called
The Porta Nigra of Trier, Germany, capital of the Roman emblemata were inserted into walls or as the highlights
province of Gallia Belgica, constructed between 186 and 200 AD of larger floor-mosaics in coarser work. The normal
technique, however, was opus tessellatum, using larger
tesserae, which were laid on site.[105] There was a distinct
Defensive walls
native Italian style using black on a white background,
which was no doubt cheaper than fully coloured work.[106]
Main article: Ancient Roman defensive walls
A specific genre of Roman mosaic obtained the name
asaroton (Greek “unswept floor”). It represented an op-
The Romans generally fortified cities, rather than
tical illusion of the leftovers from a feast on the floor of
fortresses, but there are some fortified camps, such as the
reach houses.[107]
Saxon Shore forts like Porchester Castle in England. City
walls were already significant in Etruscan architecture,
and in the struggle for control of Italy under the early Re- Hypocaust
public many more were built, using different techniques.
These included tightly-fitting massive irregular polygonal A hypocaust was an ancient Roman system of underfloor
blocks, shaped to fit exactly in a way reminiscent of later heating, used to heat houses with hot air. The Roman ar-
Inca work. The Romans called a simple rampart wall an chitect Vitruvius, writing about the end of the 1st century
agger; at this date great height was not necessary. The B.C., attributes their invention to Sergius Orata. Many
84 CHAPTER 2. ROMAN

Spiral stairs

Further information: List of ancient spiral stairs

The spiral stair is a type of stairway which, due to its

complex helical structure, was introduced relatively late
into architecture. Although the oldest example dates
back to the 5th century BC,[110] it was only in the wake
of the influential design of Trajan’s Column that this
space-saving new type permanently caught hold in Ro-
man architecture.[111]
Apart from the triumphal columns in the imperial cities
of Rome and Constantinople, other types of buildings
Part-excavated hypocaust under the floor in a Roman villa in such as temples, thermae, basilicas and tombs were also
Vieux-la-Romaine, near Caen, France fitted with spiral stairways.[111] Their notable absence in
the towers of the Aurelian Wall indicates that although
used in medieval castles, they did not yet figure promi-
[111]
remains of Roman hypocausts have survived through- nently in Roman military engineering. By late antiq-
out Europe, western Asia, and northern Africa. The uity, separate stair towers were constructed adjacent to
hypocaust was an invention which improved the hygiene the main buildings, as in the Basilica of San Vitale.
and living conditions of citizens, and was a forerunner of The construction of spiral stairs passed on both to
modern central heating. Christian and Islamic architecture.
Hypocausts were used for heating hot baths (thermae),
houses and other buildings, whether public or private.
The floor was raised above the ground by pillars, called 2.1.9 Significant buildings and areas
pilae stacks, with a layer of tiles, then a layer of concrete,
then another of tiles on top; and spaces were left inside
the walls so that hot air and smoke from the furnace would
pass through these enclosed areas and out of flues in the
roof, thereby heating but not polluting the interior of the
room.

Roman roofs

Further information: List of ancient Greek and Roman

roofs

In Sicily truss roofs presumably appeared as early as 550

BC.[108] Their potential was fully realized in the Roman Hadrian’s Wall
period, which saw trussed roofs over 30 wide spanning
the rectangular spaces of monumental public buildings
such as temples, basilicas, and later churches. Such spans Public buildings
were three times as wide as the widest prop-and-lintel
roofs and only surpassed by the largest Roman domes.[109] • Baths of Trajan – these were a massive thermae, a
The largest truss roof by span of ancient Rome covered bathing and leisure complex, built in ancient Rome
the Aula Regia (throne room) built for emperor Domitian starting from 104 AD and dedicated during the
(81–96 AD) on the Palatine Hill, Rome. The timber truss Kalends of July in 109.
roof had a width of 31.67 m, slightly surpassing the pos-
• Baths of Diocletian – in ancient Rome, these were
tulated limit of 30 m for Roman roof constructions. Tie-
the grandest of the public baths (thermae), built by
beam trusses allowed for much larger spans than the older
successive emperors
prop-and-lintel system and even concrete vaulting. Nine
out of the ten largest rectangular spaces in Roman archi- • Baths of Caracalla
tecture were bridged this way, the only exception being
the groin vaulted Basilica of Maxentius.[109] • Colosseum
2.1. ANCIENT ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 85

• Trajan’s Column, in Rome 2.1.11 References

• Circus Maximus, in Rome Footnotes

• Curia Hostilia (Senate House), in Rome [1] Henig, 26

• Domus Aurea (former building) [2] Henig, 27

[3] “BUILDING BIG: Pantheon”. PBS. Retrieved 17

• Pantheon September 2014.

• Tower of Hercules [4] “The Roman Pantheon: The Triumph of Concrete”. Ro-
man Concrete. Retrieved 16 September 2014.
• Tropaeum Traiani
[5] DeLaine 1990, p. 407.
• Hadrian’s Villa [6] Rook 1992, pp. 18f..

• Verona Arena, in Verona [7] Gardner 2005, p. 170.

[8] Ward-Perkins 1956.

Private architecture [9] Rasch 1985, p. 117.

• Alyscamps – a necropolis in Arles, France, one of [10] Lechtman & Hobbs 1986.
the most famous necropolises of the ancient world [11] Mark & Hutchinson 1986, p. 24.
• Domus [12] Heinle & Schlaich 1996, p. 27.

• Catacombs of Rome [13] Henig, 28

[14] Henig, 32
• Roman villa
[15] Favro, (ii) Materials and construction techniques
• Pompeii and Herculaneum
[16] Henig, 22; Favro, (ii) Materials and construction tech-
niques, which lists major quarries
Civil engineering [17] Juracek 1996, p. 310.

• Roman engineering – Romans are famous for their [18] Peet 1911, p. 35–36.
advanced engineering accomplishments, although
[19] Walters & Birch 1905, p. 330–40.
some of their own inventions were improvements on
older ideas, concepts and inventions. [20] Morris 1972, pp. 39-41, 51-60.

• Roman watermill [21] Kolb 1984, pp. 169-238.

[22] Benevolo 1993, pp. 256-267.

Military engineering [23] Harris 1989, pp. 375–392: “The Etruscans were, in their
turn, probably also influenced in this respect by Greek and
• Antonine Wall, in Scotland Hellenic culture.”

[24] Vitrivius 1914.

• Hadrian’s Wall
[25] Demandt 1998: “In fact, many sites where the Romans
• Limes Germanicus created towns, such as Paris, Vienna and Bratislava, had
previously been Celtic settlements of more or less urban
character.”
2.1.10 See also [26] Henig, 26. Blagg also mentions baths, granaries, insulae
and large villas.
• Outline of ancient Rome
[27] Bomgardner 2000, p. 37.
• Outline of architecture
[28] Bomgardner 2000, p. 59.
• Architecture of Mesopotamia [29] Bomgardner 2000, p. 62.

• Persian architecture [30] Bomgardner 2000, p. 201–223.

86 CHAPTER 2. ROMAN

[31] Abbott & Johnson 1926, p. 12. [67] “Three Obelisks in Benevento”. Retrieved 4 October
2014.
[32] Richardson 1992, p. 193.
[68] Semple 1929, pp. 435.
[33] Lampe 2006, p. 61.
[69] Semple 1929, pp. 436.
[34] Potter & Mattingly 1999, p. 180.
[70] Zaho 2004, p. 18–25.
[35] Patrich 1996, p. 149.
[71] Sullivan 2006, p. 133–134.
[36] Métreaux 1998, p. 14-15.
[72] Fürst & Grundmann 1998, p. 43.
[37] Pliny, Epist. VIII.18
[73] Triumphal Arch at Encyclopædia Britannica
[38] Seneca, Epist. 45
[74] F. B. Sear and Richard John. “Triumphal arch.” Grove
[39] Schmitz 1875, p. 618. Art Online. Oxford Art Online. 30 Jul. 2010

[40] EERA, 134 [75] Honour & Fleming 2005.

[41] Hermansen 1970. [76] Forbes 1993, p. 146.

[42] Storey 2002. [77] Kaszynski 2000, p. 9.

[43] Storey 2004. [78] Bunson 2009, p. 195.

[44] Wheeler, 89 [79] O'Flaherty 2002, p. 2.

[45] Summerson, 8-13 [80] Gagarin & Fantham 2010, p. 145.

[46] Wilson Jones 2000. [81] O'Connor 1993, p. 1.

[47] Ros 1996. [82] Beall, Christine (1988). “Designing the segmental arch”
(PDF). ebuild.com. Retrieved 8 May 2010.
[48] Ward-Perkins 2000, p. 333.
[83] O'Connor 1993, p. 126.
[49] La Villa Romana dell'Auditorium
[84] Döring 2002, pp. 310–319.
[50] Wikander 2000a, pp. 396f..
[85] Hodge 1992, p. 87.
[51] Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002, p. 11.
[86] Schnitter 1978, p. 28, fig. 7.
[52] Wilson 2002, pp. 7f..
[87] Hodge 1992, p. 80.
[53] Wikander 2000a, pp. 373–378.
[88] Hodge 2000, p. 332.
[54] Donners, Waelkens & Deckers 2002, pp. 12–15.
[89] Smith 1970, pp. 60f..
[55] Wikander 1985, p. 158.
[90] Hodge 2000, pp. 331f..
[56] Wikander 2000b, p. 403.
[91] Hodge 1992, pp. 86f..
[57] Wilson 2002, p. 16.
[92] Smith 1971, p. 49.
[58] Wikander 2000b, p. 407.
[93] Smith 1971, p. 42.
[59] Ritti, Grewe & Kessener 2007.
[94] James & Chanson 2002.
[60] Wikander 2000b, pp. 406f..
[95] Smith 1971, pp. 33–35.
[61] Michael D. Gunther. “Glossary and Index of (mostly)
[96] Schnitter 1978, pp. 31f..
Asian Art”. Old Stones: The Monuments of Art History.
Retrieved 24 September 2014. [97] Schnitter 1987a, p. 12.
[62] Wirsching 2000. [98] Schnitter 1987c, p. 80.
[63] Coulton 1974, pp. 7, 16. [99] Hodge 2000, p. 332, fn. 2.

[64] Lancaster 1999, pp. 419–439. [100] Schnitter 1987b, pp. 59–62.

[65] Baker & Baker 2001, p. 69. [101] Schnitter 1978, p. 29.

[66] “Museo del Sannio”. Retrieved 4 October 2014. [102] Schnitter 1987b, pp. 60, table 1, 62.
 2.1. ANCIENT ROMAN ARCHITECTURE
[103] Arenillas & Castillo 2003.
[104] Fields, Nic; Peter Dennis The Walls of Rome Osprey Pub-
lishing; 10 Mar 2008 ISBN 978-1-84603-198-4 p.10
[105] Smith 1983, pp. 116–119.
[106] Smith 1983, pp. 121–123.
[107] Miller 1972.
[108] Hodge 1960, p. 38–44.
[109] Ulrich 2007, pp. 148f.
[110] Beckmann 2002.
[111] Beckmann 2002, p. 353–356.
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90
2.1.13 External links
• Traianus – Technical investigation of Roman public
works
• Housing and apartments in Rome – A look at various
aspects of housing in ancient Rome, apartments and
villas.
• Rome Reborn − A Video Tour through Ancient
Rome based on a digital model
2.2 Dome
For other uses, see Dome (disambiguation).
“Domal” redirects here. For “domal consonants”, see
Retroflex consonant.
A dome (from Latin: domus) is an architectural element
Jameh mosque of Yazd in Iran
The dome of St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome
that resembles the hollow upper half of a sphere. The pre-
cise definition has been a matter of controversy. There
are also a wide variety of forms and specialized terms to
describe them. A dome can rest upon a rotunda or drum,
and can be supported by columns or piers that transition
to the dome through squinches or pendentives. A lantern
may cover an oculus and may itself have another dome.
Domes have a long architectural lineage that extends back
into prehistory and they have been constructed from mud,
CHAPTER 2. ROMAN
St. Stephen’s Basilica in Budapest
Fiberglass dome cottage in Davis, California. This dome was
built in 1972 and is part of the Baggin’s End student housing
cooperative.
snow, stone, wood, brick, concrete, metal, glass, and plas-
tic over the centuries. The symbolism associated with
domes includes mortuary, celestial, and governmental
traditions that have likewise developed over time.
Domes have been found from early Mesopotamia, which
may explain the form’s spread. They are found in Per-
sian, Hellenistic, Roman, and Chinese architecture in the
Ancient world, as well as among a number of contem-
porary indigenous building traditions. They were pop-
ular in Byzantine and medieval Islamic architecture, and
there are numerous examples from Western Europe in the
Middle Ages. The Renaissance style spread from Italy in
the Early modern period. Advancements in mathemat-
ics, materials, and production techniques since that time
resulted in new dome types. The domes of the modern
world can be found over religious buildings, legislative
chambers, sports stadiums, and a variety of functional
structures.
2.2. DOME
2.2.1 Etymology
The English word “dome” ultimately derives from the
Latin domus (“house”)—which, up through the Renais-
sance, labeled a revered house, such as a Domus Dei, or
“House of God”, regardless of the shape of its roof. This
is reflected in the uses of the Italian word duomo, the
German/Icelandic/Danish word dom (“cathedral”), and
the English word dome as late as 1656, when it meant
a “Town-House, Guild-Hall, State-House, and Meeting-
House in a city.” The French word dosme came to acquire
the meaning of a cupola vault, specifically, by 1660. This
French definition gradually became the standard usage of
the English dome in the eighteenth century as many of
the most impressive Houses of God were built with mon-
umental domes, and in response to the scientific need for
more technical terms.[1]
2.2.2 Terminology
Comparison of a generic “true” arch (left) and a corbel arch
(right).
A dome is a rounded vault made of either curved seg-
ments or a shell of revolution, meaning an arch rotated
around its central vertical axis.[2] The terminology used
has been a source of controversy, with inconsistency be-
tween scholars and even within individual texts, but the
term “dome” may be considered a “blanket-word to de-
scribe an hemispherical or similar spanning element.”[3]
Sometimes called “false” domes, corbel domes achieve
their shape by extending each horizontal layer of stones
inward slightly farther than the lower one until they meet
at the top.[4] A “false” dome may also refer to a wooden
dome.[5] “True” domes are said to be those whose struc-
ture is in a state of compression, with constituent ele-
ments of wedge-shaped voussoirs, the joints of which
align with a central point. The validity of this is unclear,
as domes built underground with corbelled stone layers
are also in compression from the surrounding earth.[6]
As with arches, the “springing” of a dome is the level from
which the dome rises. The top of a dome is the “crown”.
The inner side of a dome is called the “intrados” and the
outer side is called the “extrados”.[7] The “haunch” is the
91
part of an arch that lies roughly halfway between the base
and the top.[8]
The word “cupola” is another word for “dome”, and is
usually used for a small dome upon a roof or turret.[9]
“Cupola” has also been used to describe the inner side of
a dome.[10]
Drums, also called tholobates, are cylindrical or polygo-
nal walls with or without windows that support a dome.
A tambour or lantern is the equivalent structure over a
dome’s oculus, supporting a cupola.[11]
2.2.3 Characteristics
Internal forces
A masonry dome produces thrusts down and outward.
They are thought of in terms of two kinds of forces at
right angles from one another. Meridional forces (like
the meridians, or lines of longitude, on a globe) are
compressive only, and increase towards the base, while
hoop forces (like the lines of latitude on a globe) are in
compression at the top and tension at the base, with the
transition in a hemispherical dome occurring at an an-
gle of 51.8 degrees from the top.[12] The thrusts gener-
ated by a dome are directly proportional to the weight of
its materials.[2] Grounded hemispherical domes generate
significant horizontal thrusts at their haunches.[13]
Unlike voussoir arches, which require support for each
element until the keystone is in place, domes are stable
during construction as each level is made a complete and
self-supporting ring.[5] The upper portion of a masonry
dome is always in compression and is supported laterally,
so it does not collapse except as a whole unit and a range
of deviations from the ideal in this shallow upper cap are
equally stable.[14] Because voussoir domes have lateral
support, they can be made much thinner than correspond-
ing arches of the same span. For example, a hemispher-
ical dome can be 2.5 times thinner than a semicircular
arch, and a dome with the profile of an equilateral arch
can be thinner still.[15] The optimal shape for a masonry
dome of equal thickness is a revolved catenary curve, sim-
ilar to the curve of a parabola. This shape provides for
perfect compression, with none of the tension or bend-
ing forces that masonry is weak against.[13] The pointed
profiles of many Gothic domes more closely approximate
this optimal shape than do hemispheres, which were fa-
vored by Roman and Byzantine architects due to the cir-
cle being considered the most perfect of forms. Adding a
weight to the top of the pointed dome, such as the heavy
cupola at the top of Florence Cathedral, changes the opti-
mal shape to perfectly match the actual pointed shape of
the dome.[16]
The outward thrusts in the lower portion of a hemispher-
ical masonry dome can be counteracted with the use of
chains incorporated around the circumference or with ex-
ternal buttressing, although cracking along the meridians
92 CHAPTER 2. ROMAN

is natural.[12] For small or tall domes with less horizontal Acoustics

thrust, the thickness of the supporting arches or walls can
be enough to resist deformation, which is why drums tend Because domes are concave from below, they can re-
to be much thicker than the domes they support.[17]
Zone of transition
A compound dome (red) with pendentives (yellow) from a sphere
of greater radius than the dome.
flect sound and create echoes.[26] A dome may have a
"whispering gallery" at its base that at certain places
transmits distinct sound to other distant places in the
gallery.[11] The half-domes over the apses of Byzantine
churches helped to project the chants of the clergy.[27] Al-
though this can compliment music, it may make speech
less intelligible, leading Francesco Giorgi in 1535 to rec-
ommend vaulted ceilings for the choir areas of a church,
but a flat ceiling filled with as many coffers as possible
for where preaching would occur.[28]
Cavities in the form of jars built into the inner surface of
a dome may serve to compensate for this interference by
diffusing sound in all directions, eliminating echoes while
creating a “divine effect in the atmosphere of worship.”
This technique was written about by Vitruvius in his Ten
Books on Architecture, which describes bronze and earth-
enware resonators.[26] The material, shape, contents, and
placement of these cavity resonators determine the effect
they have: reinforcing certain frequencies or absorbing
them.[29]

When the base of the dome does not match the plan of the
supporting walls beneath it (for example, a dome’s circu- Materials
lar base over a square bay), techniques are employed to
transition between the two.[18] The simplest technique is The earliest domes in the Middle East were built with
to use diagonal lintels across the corners of the walls to mud-brick and, eventually, with baked brick and stone.
create an octagonal base. Another is to use arches to span Domes of wood allowed for wide spans due to the rela-
the corners, which can support more weight.[19] A variety tively light and flexible nature of the material and were the
of these techniques use what are called "squinches".[20] normal method for domed churches by the 7th century,
A squinch can be a single arch or a set of multiple pro- although most domes were built with the other less flex-
jecting nested arches placed diagonally over an internal ible materials. Wooden domes were protected from the
corner.[21] Squinches can take a variety of other forms, as weather by roofing, such as copper or lead sheeting.[30]
well, including trumpet arches and niche heads, or half- Domes of cut stone were more expensive and never as
domes.[20] large, and timber was used for large spans where brick
was unavailable.[31] Brick domes were the favored choice
The invention of pendentives superseded the squinch
technique.[19] Pendentives are triangular sections of a for large-space monumental coverings until the Industrial
Age, due to their convenience and dependability.[32] Ties
sphere, like concave spandrels between arches, and tran-
sition from the corners of a square bay to the circular and chains of iron or wood could be used to resist
stresses.[33]
base of a dome. The curvature of the pendentives is that
of a sphere with a diameter equal to the diagonal of the The new building materials of the 19th century and a
square bay.[22] The precise definition of “pendentive” has better understanding of the forces within structures from
been a source of contention among academics, including the 20th century has opened up new possibilities. Iron
whether or not corbelling is permitted under the defini- and steel beams, steel cables, and pre-stressed concrete
tion and whether or not the lower portions of a sail vault have eliminated the need for external buttressing and en-
should be considered pendentives.[23] abled far thinner domes. Whereas earlier masonry domes
Domes with pendentives can be divided into two kinds: may have had a radius to thickness ratio of 50, the ratio
simple and compound.[24] In the case of the simple dome, for modern domes can be in excess of 800. The lighter
the pendentives are part of the same sphere as the dome weight of these domes has not only permitted far greater
itself; however, such domes are rare.[25] In the case of the spans, but also allowed for the creation
[34]
of large movable
more common compound dome, the pendentives are part domes over modern sports stadiums.
of the surface of a larger sphere below that of the dome Experimental rammed earth domes were made as part of
itself and form a circular base for either the dome or a work on sustainable architecture at the University of Kas-
drum section.[24] sel in 1983.[35]
2.2. DOME 93

Symbolism

Main article: Symbolism of domes

According to E. Baldwin Smith, from the late Stone Age

the dome-shaped tomb was used as a reproduction of the
ancestral, god-given shelter made permanent as a ven-
erated home of the dead. The instinctive desire to do
this resulted in widespread domical mortuary traditions
across the ancient world, from the stupas of India to the
tholos tombs of Iberia. By Hellenistic and Roman times,
the domical tholos had become the customary cemetery A corbel dome
symbol.[36]
Domes and tent-canopies were also associated with the naean Treasury of Atreus from the late Bronze Age.[43]
heavens in Ancient Persia and the Hellenistic-Roman
world. A dome over a square base reflected the geomet-
Braced dome
ric symbolism of those shapes. The circle represented
perfection, eternity, and the heavens. The square rep-
A single layer space frame in the form of a dome, a
resented the earth. An octagon was intermediate be-
braced dome is a generic term that includes ribbed,[44]
tween the two.[37] The distinct symbolism of the heav-
Schwedler,[44] three-way grid,[44] lamella or Kiewitt,[45]
enly or cosmic tent stemming from the royal audience
lattice,[46] and geodesic domes.[47] The different terms
tents of Achaemenid and Indian rulers was adopted by
reflect different arrangements in the surface members.
Roman rulers in imitation of Alexander the Great, be-
Braced domes often have a very low weight and are usu-
coming the imperial baldachin. This probably began with
ally used to cover spans of up to 150 meters.[48]
Nero, whose "Golden House" also made the dome an es-
sential feature of palace architecture.[38]
The dual sepulchral and heavenly symbolism was adopted
by early Christians in both the use of domes in architec-
ture and in the ciborium, a domical canopy like the bal-
dachin used as a ritual covering for relics or the church
altar. The celestial symbolism of the dome, however, was
the preeminent one by the Christian era.[39] In the early
centuries of Islam, domes were closely associated with
royalty. A dome built in front of the mihrab of a mosque,
for example, was at least initially meant to emphasize the
place of a prince during royal ceremonies. Over time
such domes became primarily focal points for decoration
or the direction of prayer. The use of domes in mau-
soleums can likewise reflect royal patronage or be seen as
representing the honor and prestige that domes symbol-
ized, rather than having any specific funerary meaning.[40] A domical vault
The wide variety of dome forms in medieval Islam re-
flected dynastic, religious, and social differences as much
as practical building considerations.[30] Cloister vault

Main article: Cloister vault

2.2.4 General types
Beehive dome
See also: Beehive tomb
Also called a corbelled dome,[41] or false dome,[42] these
are different from a 'true dome' in that they consist of
purely horizontal layers. As the layers get higher, each is
slightly cantilevered, or corbeled, toward the center until
meeting at the top. A monumental example is the Myce-
Called domical vaults (a term sometimes also applied to
sail vaults),[49][50] polygonal domes,[51] coved domes,[52]
gored domes,[53] segmental domes[54] (a term sometimes
also used for saucer domes), paneled vaults,[55] or pavil-
ion vaults,[56] these are domes that maintain a polygo-
nal shape in their horizontal cross section. The earli-
est known examples date to the first century BC, such
as the Tabularium of Rome from 78 BC. Others in-
clude the Baths of Antoninus in Carthage (145–160) and
the Palatine Chapel at Aachen (13th – 14th century).[57]
94
The most famous example is the Renaissance octagonal
dome of Filippo Brunelleschi over the Florence Cathe-
dral. Thomas Jefferson, the third president of the United
States, installed an octagonal dome above the West front
of his plantation house, Monticello.[58]
A compound dome
Compound dome
Also called domes on pendentives[59] or pendentive
domes[60] (a term also applied to sail vaults), compound
domes have pendentives that support a smaller diameter
dome immediately above them, as in the Hagia Sophia,
or a drum and dome, as in many Renaissance and post-
Renaissance domes, with both forms resulting in greater
height.[24]
A crossed-arch dome
Crossed-arch dome
One of the earliest types of ribbed vault, the first known
examples are found in the Great Mosque of Córdoba
in the 10th century. Rather than meeting in the center
of the dome, the ribs characteristically intersect one an- A hemispherical dome
other off-center, forming an empty polygonal space in the
CHAPTER 2. ROMAN
center. Geometry is a key element of the designs, with
the octagon being perhaps the most popular shape used.
Whether the arches are structural or purely decorative re-
mains a matter of debate. The type may have an eastern
origin, although the issue is also unsettled. Examples are
found in Spain, North Africa, Armenia, Iran, France, and
Italy.[61]
A geodesic dome
Geodesic dome
Main article: Geodesic dome
Geodesic domes are the upper portion of geodesic spheres.
They are composed of a framework of triangles in a
polyhedron pattern.[62] The structures are based upon
octahedrons or tetrahedrons.[5] Such domes can be cre-
ated using a limited number of simple elements and joints
and efficiently resolve a domes internal forces. Their
efficiency is said to increase with size.[63] Although not
first invented by Buckminster Fuller, they are associated
with him because he designed many geodesic domes and
patented them in the United States.[64]
2.2. DOME 95

Hemispherical dome

The hemispherical dome is half of a sphere. According

to E. Baldwin Smith, it was a shape likely known to the
Assyrians, defined by Greek theoretical mathematicians,
and standardized by Roman builders.[65]

An oval dome

“egg”. The earliest oval domes were used by convenience

in corbelled stone huts as rounded but geometrically un-
defined coverings, and the first examples in Asia Minor
date to around 4000 B.C. The geometry was eventually
defined using combinations of circular arcs, transition-
ing at points of tangency. If the Romans created oval
An onion dome domes, it was only in exceptional circumstances. The Ro-
man foundations of the oval plan Church of St. Gereon in
Cologne point to a possible example. Domes in the Mid-
Onion dome dle Ages also tended to be circular, though the church of
Santo Tomás de las Ollas in Spain has an oval dome over
Main article: Onion dome its oval plan. Other examples of medieval oval domes
can be found covering rectangular bays in churches. Oval
plan churches became a type in the Renaissance and pop-
Bulbous domes bulge out beyond their base diameters, of-
ular in the Baroque style.[68] The dome built for the basil-
fering a profile greater than a hemisphere.[5] An onion
ica of Vicoforte by Francesco Gallo was one of the largest
dome is a greater than hemispherical dome with a pointed
and most complex ever made.[69]
top in an ogee profile.[5] They are found in the Near East,
Middle East, Persia, and India and may not have had a
single point of origin. Their appearance in northern Rus- Parabolic dome
sian architecture predates the Tatar occupation of Rus-
sia and so is not easily explained as the result of that A parabolic dome is a unique structure in which bend-
influence.[66] They became popular in the second half ing stress due to the uniformly distributed load of its
of the 15th century in the Low Countries of Northern dead load is zero. Hence it was widely used in buildings
Europe, possibly inspired by the finials of minarets in in ancient times, before the advent of composite struc-
Egypt and Syria, and developed in the 16th and 17th cen- tures. However, if a point load is applied on the apex
turies in the Netherlands before spreading to Germany, of a parabolic dome, the bending stress becomes infinite.
becoming a popular element of the baroque architecture Hence it is found in most ancient structures, the apex of
of Central Europe. German bulbous domes were also the dome is stiffened or the shape modified to avoid the
influenced by Russian and Eastern European domes.[67] infinite stress.
The examples found in various European architectural
styles are typically wooden.[5] Examples include Kazan
Church in Kolomenskoye and the Brighton Pavilion by Sail dome
John Nash.[5] In Islamic architecture, they are typically
[70]
made of masonry, rather than timber, with the thick and Also called sail vaults, handkerchief vaults,[71] dom-
heavy bulging portion serving to buttress against the ten- ical vaults (a term sometimes also applied to cloister
[50]
dency of masonry domes to spread at their bases. The Taj vaults), pendentive domes[72] (a term that has also
Mahal is a famous example.[5] been applied to compound domes), Bohemian vaults,[73]
or Byzantine domes, this type can be thought of as
pendentives that, rather than merely touching each other
Oval dome to form a circular base for a drum or compound dome,
smoothly continue their curvature to form the dome itself.
An oval dome is a dome of oval shape in plan, profile, The dome gives the impression of a square sail pinned
or both. The term comes from the Latin ovum, meaning down at each corner and billowing upward.[18] These can
96 CHAPTER 2. ROMAN

An umbrella dome

A sail vault
also be thought of as saucer domes upon pendentives.[54]
curve of the elevation.[18] “Fluted” may refer specifically
to this pattern as an external feature, such as was com-
mon in Mamluk Egypt.[5] The “ribs” of a dome are the
radial lines of masonry that extend from the crown down
to the springing.[7] The central dome of the Hagia Sophia
uses the ribbed method, which accommodates a ring of
windows between the ribs at the base of the dome. The
central dome of St. Peter’s Basilica also uses this method.

2.2.5 History

Early history and simple domes

A large saucer dome

Saucer dome

Also called segmental domes[74] (a term sometimes also

used for cloister vaults), or calottes,[18] these have profiles
of less than half a circle. Because they reduce the portion
of the dome in tension, these domes are strong but have
increased radial thrust.[74] Many of the largest existing
domes are of this shape.
Masonry saucer domes, because they exist entirely in
compression, can be built much thinner than other dome
shapes without becoming unstable. The trade-off be- Apache wigwam, by Edward S. Curtis, 1903
tween the proportionately increased horizontal thrust at
their abutments and their decreased weight and quantity Main article: History of early and simple domes
of materials may make them more economical, but they
are more vulnerable to damage from movement in their
supports.[75] Cultures from pre-history to modern times constructed
domed dwellings using local materials. Although it is
not known when the first dome was created, sporadic ex-
Umbrella dome amples of early domed structures have been discovered.
The earliest discovered may be four small dwellings made
Also called gadrooned,[76] fluted,[76] organ-piped,[76] of Mammoth tusks and bones. The first was found by
pumpkin,[18] melon,[18] ribbed,[76] parachute,[18] scal- a farmer in Mezhirich, Ukraine, in 1965 while he was
loped,[77] or lobed domes,[78] these are a type of dome di- digging in his cellar and archaeologists unearthed three
vided at the base into curved segments, which follow the more.[79] They date from 19,280 – 11,700 BC.[80]
2.2. DOME 97

In modern times, the creation of relatively simple dome-

like structures has been documented among various in-
digenous peoples around the world. The wigwam was
made by Native Americans using arched branches or
poles covered with grass or hides. The Efé people of
central Africa construct similar structures, using leaves as
shingles.[81] Another example is the igloo, a shelter built
from blocks of compact snow and used by the Inuit peo-
ple, among others. The Himba people of Namibia con-
struct “desert igloos” of wattle and daub for use as tempo-
rary shelters at seasonal cattle camps, and as permanent
homes by the poor.[82] Extraordinarily thin domes of sun-
baked clay 20 feet in diameter, 30 feet high, and nearly
parabolic in curve, are known from Cameroon.[83]
The historical development from structures like these to Sheikh Lotfallah Mosque, Isfahan, Iran.
more sophisticated domes is not well documented. That
the dome was known to early Mesopotamia may explain
the existence of domes in both China and the West in the The area of north-eastern Iran was, along with Egypt,
first millennium BC.[84] Another explanation, however, one of two areas notable for early developments in Is-
is that the use of the dome shape in construction did not lamic domed mausoleums, which appear in the tenth
have a single point of origin and was common in virtu- century.[96] The Samanid Mausoleum in Transoxiana
ally all cultures long before domes were constructed with dates to no later than 943 and is the first to have squinches
enduring materials.[85] create a regular octagon as a base for the dome, which
Corbelled stone domes have been found from the then became the standard practice. Cylindrical or polyg-
Neolithic period in the ancient Near East, and in the Mid- onal plan tower tombs with conical roofs over domes also
[93]
dle East to Western Europe from antiquity. [86][87] The exist beginning in the 11th century.
kings of Achaemenid Persia held audiences and festivals The Seljuq Turks built tower tombs, called “Turkish Tri-
in domical tents derived from the nomadic traditions of angles”, as well as cube mausoleums covered with a va-
central Asia.[88] Simple domical mausoleums existed in riety of dome forms. Seljuk domes included conical,
the Hellenistic period.[89] The remains of a large domed semi-circular, and pointed shapes in one or two shells.
circular hall in the Parthian capital city of Nyssa has been Shallow semi-circular domes are mainly found from the
dated to perhaps the first century AD, showing "...the Seljuk era. The double-shell domes were either discon-
existence of a monumental domical tradition in Central tinuous or continuous.[97] The domed enclosure of the
Asia that had hitherto been unknown and which seems to Jameh Mosque of Isfahan, built in 1086-7 by Nizam al-
have preceded Roman Imperial monuments or at least to Mulk, was the largest masonry dome in the Islamic world
have grown independently from them.”[90] It likely had a at that time, had eight ribs, and introduced a new form of
wooden dome.[91] corner squinch with two quarter domes supporting a short
barrel vault. In 1088 Tāj-al-Molk, a rival of Nizam al-
Mulk, built another dome at the opposite end of the same
Persian domes mosque with interlacing ribs forming five-pointed stars
and pentagons. This is considered the landmark Seljuk
Main article: History of Persian domes dome, and may have inspired subsequent patterning and
See also: Gonbad the domes of the Il-Khanate period. The use of tile and of
Persian architecture likely inherited an architectural plain or painted plaster to decorate dome[93] interiors, rather
tradition of dome-building dating back to the earliest than brick, increased under the Seljuks.
Mesopotamian domes.[92] Due to the scarcity of wood in Beginning in the Ilkhanate, Persian domes achieved their
many areas of the Iranian plateau, domes were an im- final configuration of structural supports, zone of transi-
portant part of vernacular architecture throughout Per- tion, drum, and shells, and subsequent evolution was re-
sian history.[93] The Persian invention of the squinch, a stricted to variations in form and shell geometry. Charac-
series of concentric arches forming a half-cone over the teristic of these domes are the use of high drums and sev-
corner of a room, enabled the transition from the walls of eral types of discontinuous double-shells, and the devel-
a square chamber to an octagonal base for a dome in a way opment of triple-shells and internal stiffeners occurred at
reliable enough for large constructions and domes moved this time. The construction of tomb towers decreased.[98]
to the forefront of Persian architecture as a result.[94] Pre- The 7.5 meter wide double dome of Soltan Bakht Agha
Islamic domes in Persia are commonly semi-elliptical, Mausoleum (1351–1352) is the earliest known example
with pointed domes and those with conical outer shells in which the two shells of the dome have significantly
being the majority of the domes in the Islamic periods.[95] different profiles, which spread rapidly throughout the
98 CHAPTER 2. ROMAN

region.[99] The development of taller drums also contin- “cross-joint dome” (siyuxuanjinshi) was developed under
ued into the Timurid period.[93] The large, bulbous, fluted the Wu and Western Jin dynasties south of the Yangtze
domes on tall drums that are characteristic of 15th cen- River, with arcs building out from the corners of a square
tury Timurid architecture were the culmination of the room until they met and joined at the center. These
Central Asian and Iranian tradition of tall domes with domes were stronger, had a steeped angle, and could
glazed tile coverings in blue and other colors.[30] cover larger areas than the relatively shallow cloister
The domes of the Safavid dynasty (1501–1732) are char- vaults. Over time, they were made taller and wider. There
acterized by a distinctive bulbous profile and are consid- were also corbel vaults, called diese, although these are
the weakest type.[106] Some tombs of the Song Dynasty
ered the last generation of Persian domes. They are gen-
erally thinner than earlier domes and are decorated with (960–1279) have beehive domes.[103]
a variety of colored glazed tiles and complex vegetal pat-
terns, and they were influential on those of other Islamic Roman and Byzantine domes
styles, such as the Mughal architecture of India.[100] An
exaggerated style of onion dome on a short drum, as can Main article: History of Roman and Byzantine domes
be seen at the Shah Cheragh (1852–1853), first appeared See also: List of Roman domes
in the Qajar period. Domes have remained important in Roman domes are found in baths, villas, palaces, and
modern mausoleums, and domed cisterns and icehouses
remain common sights in the countryside.[93]

Chinese domes

Model of the Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb (25 AD – 220 AD).

Very little has survived of ancient Chinese architecture,

due to the extensive use of timber as a building mate-
rial. Brick and stone vaults used in tomb construction
have survived, and the corbeled dome was used, rarely, in
Painting by Giovanni Paolo Pannini of the Pantheon in Rome.
tombs and temples.[101] The earliest true domes found in
Chinese tombs were shallow cloister vaults, called simian
tombs. Oculi are common features.[107] They are cus-
jieding, derived from the Han use of barrel vaulting. Un- tomarily hemispherical in shape and partially or totally
like the cloister vaults of western Europe, the corners are concealed on the exterior. To buttress the horizontal
rounded off as they rise.[102] thrusts of a large hemispherical masonry dome, the sup-
A model of a tomb found with a shallow true dome from porting walls were built up beyond the base to at least the
the late Han Dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD) can be seen at haunches of the dome, and the dome was then also some-
the Guangzhou Museum (Canton).[103] Another, the Lei times covered with a conical or polygonal roof.[108]
Cheng Uk Han Tomb, found in Hong Kong in 1955, has Domes reached monumental size in the Roman Imperial
a design common among Eastern Han Dynasty (25 AD – period.[109] Roman baths played a leading role in the de-
220 AD) tombs in South China: a barrel vaulted entrance velopment of domed construction in general, and mon-
leading to a domed front hall with barrel vaulted cham- umental domes in particular. Modest domes in baths
bers branching from it in a cross shape. It is the only such dating from the 2nd and 1st centuries BC are seen in
tomb that has been found in Hong Kong and is exhibited Pompeii, in the cold rooms of the Terme Stabiane and the
as part of the Hong Kong Museum of History.[104][105] Terme del Foro.[109][110] However, the extensive use of
During the Three Kingdoms period (220–280), the domes did not occur before the 1st century AD.[111] The
2.2. DOME 99

growth of domed construction increases under Emperor dows eventually became the standard style, with regional
Nero and the Flavians in the 1st century AD, and dur- characteristics.[129]
ing the 2nd century. Centrally-planned halls become In the Byzantine period, domes were normally hemi-
increasingly important parts of palace and palace villa spherical and had, with occasional exceptions, windowed
layouts beginning in the 1st century, serving as state drums. All of the surviving examples in Constantino-
banqueting halls, audience rooms, or throne rooms.[112] ple are ribbed or pumpkin domes, with the divisions
The Pantheon, a temple in Rome completed by Emperor corresponding to the number of windows. Roofing for
Hadrian as part of the Baths of Agrippa, is the most fa- domes ranged from simple ceramic tile to more expen-
mous, best preserved, and largest Roman dome.[113] Seg-
sive, more durable, and more form-fitting lead sheeting.
mented domes, made of radially concave wedges or of al- Metal clamps between stone cornice blocks, metal tie
ternating concave and flat wedges, appear under Hadrian
rods, and metal chains were also used to stabilize domed
in the 2nd century and most preserved examples of this construction.[130] The technique of using double shells for
style date from this period.[114]
domes, although revived in the Renaissance, originated in
In the 3rd century, Imperial mausoleums began to be Byzantine practice.[131]
built as domed rotundas, rather than as tumulus structures
or other types, following similar monuments by private
citizens.[115] The technique of building lightweight domes Arabic and Western European domes
with interlocking hollow ceramic tubes further developed
in North Africa and Italy in the late third and early fourth
centuries.[116] In the 4th century, Roman domes prolifer-
ated due to changes in the way domes were constructed,
including advances in centering techniques and the use of
brick ribbing.[117] The material of choice in construction
gradually transitioned during the 4th and 5th centuries
from stone or concrete to lighter brick in thin shells.[118]
Baptisteries began to be built in the manner of domed
mausoleums during the 4th century in Italy. The octago-
nal Lateran baptistery or the baptistery of the Holy Sepul-
chre may have been the first, and the style spread during
the 5th century.[119] By the 5th century, structures with
small-scale domed cross plans existed across the Chris-
tian world.[120]
With the end of the Western Roman Empire, domes The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem
became a signature feature of the church architecture
of the surviving Eastern Roman — or “Byzantine” — Main article: History of Medieval Arabic and Western
Empire.[121] 6th-century church building by the Emperor European domes
Justinian used the domed cross unit on a monumental
scale, and his architects made the domed brick-vaulted
central plan standard throughout the Roman east. This The Syria and Palestine area has a long tradition of dom-
divergence with the Roman west from the second third ical architecture, including wooden domes in shapes de-
of the 6th century may be considered the beginning of scribed as “conoid”, or similar to pine cones. When the
a “Byzantine” architecture.[122] Justinian’s Hagia Sophia Arab Muslim forces conquered the region, they employed
was an original and innovative design with no known local craftsmen for their buildings and, by the end of the
precedents in the way it covers a basilica plan with dome 7th century, the dome had begun to become an architec-
and semi-domes. Periodic earthquakes in the region have tural symbol of Islam.[132] In addition to religious shrines,
caused three partial collapses of the dome and necessi- such as the Dome of the Rock, domes were used over
tated repairs.[123] the audience and throne halls of Umayyad palaces, and
as part of porches, pavilions, fountains, towers and the
“Cross-domed units”, a more secure structural system calderia of baths. Blending the architectural features of
created by bracing a dome on all four sides with broad both Byzantine and Persian architecture, the domes used
arches, became a standard element on a smaller scale in both pendentives and squinches and were made in a va-
later Byzantine church architecture.[124][125] The Cross- riety of shapes and materials.[133] Although architecture
in-square plan, with a single dome at the crossing or five in the region would decline following the movement of
domes in a quincunx pattern, became widely popular in the capital to Iraq under the Abbasids in 750, mosques
the Middle Byzantine period (c. 843–1204).[126][127][124] built after a revival in the late 11th century usually fol-
It is the most common church plan from the tenth cen- lowed the Umayyad model.[134] Early versions of bulbous
tury until the fall of Constantinople in 1453.[128] Resting domes can be seen in mosaic illustrations in Syria dating
domes on circular or polygonal drums pierced with win- to the Umayyad period. They were used to cover large
100 CHAPTER 2. ROMAN

buildings in Syria after the eleventh century.[135] 54), are extraordinarily developed examples of muqarnas
Italian church architecture from the late sixth century to domes.[149] In the first half of the fourteenth century,
the end of the eighth century was influenced less by the stone blocks replaced bricks as the primary building ma-
trends of Constantinople than by a variety of Byzantine terial in the dome construction of Mamluk Egypt and,
provincial plans.[136] With the crowning of Charlemagne over the course of 250 years, around 400 domes were
as a new Roman Emperor, Byzantine influences were built in Cairo to cover the tombs of Mamluk sultans
largely replaced in a revival of earlier Western building and emirs.[150] Dome profiles were varied, with “keel-
traditions. Occasional exceptions include examples of shaped”, bulbous, ogee, stilted domes, and others being
used. On the drum, angles were chamfered, or some-
early quincunx churches at Milan and near Cassino.[136]
Another is the Palatine Chapel. Its domed octagon design times stepped, externally and triple windows were used in
a tri-lobed arrangement on the faces.[151] Bulbous cupolas
was influenced by Byzantine models.[137][138] It was the
largest dome north of the Alps at that time.[139] Venice, on minarets were used in Egypt beginning around 1330,
spreading to Syria in the following century.[152] In the fif-
Southern Italy and Sicily served as outposts of Middle
Byzantine architectural influence in Italy.[140] teenth century, pilgrimages to and flourishing trade re-
lations with the Near East exposed the Low Countries
The Great Mosque of Córdoba contains the first known of northwest Europe to the use of bulbous domes in the
examples of the crossed-arch dome type.[141] The use of architecture of the Orient and such domes apparently
corner squinches to support domes was widespread in Is- became associated with the city of Jerusalem. Multi-
lamic architecture by the 10th and 11th centuries.[126] story spires with truncated bulbous cupolas supporting
After the ninth century, mosques in North Africa often smaller cupolas or crowns became popular in the six-
have a small decorative dome over the mihrab. Addi- teenth century.[153]
tional domes are sometimes used at the corners of the
mihrab wall, at the entrance bay, or on the square tower
minarets.[142] Egypt, along with north-eastern Iran, was Russian domes
one of two areas notable for early developments in Is-
lamic mausoleums, beginning in the 10th century.[89] Fa-
timid mausoleums were mostly simple square buildings
covered by a dome. Domes were smooth or ribbed and
had a characteristic Fatimid “keel” shape profile.[143]
Domes in Romanesque architecture are generally
found within crossing towers at the intersection of a
church’s nave and transept, which conceal the domes
externally.[144] They are typically octagonal in plan and
use corner squinches to translate a square bay into a
suitable octagonal base.[25] They appear “in connection
with basilicas almost throughout Europe” between
1050 and 1100.[145] The Crusades, beginning in 1095,
also appear to have influenced domed architecture in
Western Europe, particularly in the areas around the
Mediterranean Sea.[146] The Knights Templar, head- Gilded onion domes of the Cathedral of the Annunciation,
quartered at the site, built a series of centrally planned Moscow Kremlin.
churches throughout Europe modeled on the Church
of the Holy Sepulchre, with the Dome of the Rock The multidomed church is a typical form of Russian
also an influence.[147] In southwest France, there are church architecture that distinguishes Russia from other
over 250 domed Romanesque churches in the Périgord Orthodox nations and Christian denominations. In-
region alone.[148] The use of pendentives to support deed, the earliest Russian churches, built just after
domes in the Aquitaine region, rather than the squinches the Christianization of Kievan Rus’, were multi-domed,
more typical of western medieval architecture, strongly which has led some historians to speculate about how
implies a Byzantine influence.[49] Gothic domes are Russian pre-Christian pagan temples might have looked.
uncommon due to the use of rib vaults over naves, Examples of these early churches are the 13-domed
and with church crossings usually focused instead by a wooden Saint Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod (989) and
tall steeple, but there are examples of small octagonal the 25-domed stone Desyatinnaya Church in Kiev (989–
crossing domes in cathedrals as the style developed from 996). The number of domes typically has a symbol-
the Romanesque.[149] ical meaning in Russian architecture, for example 13
Star-shaped domes found at the Moorish palace of the domes symbolize Christ with 12 Apostles, while 25
Alhambra in Granada, Spain, the Hall of the Abencerra- domes means the same with an additional 12 Prophets
jes (c. 1333–91) and the Hall of the two Sisters (c. 1333– of the Old Testament. The multiple domes of Rus-
sian churches were often comparatively smaller than
2.2. DOME
Saint Basil’s Cathedral (1555–61) in Moscow, Russia. Its dis-
tinctive onion domes date to the 1680s.
Byzantine domes.[154][155]
The earliest stone churches in Russia featured Byzan-
tine style domes, however by the Early Modern era the
onion dome had become the predominant form in tradi-
tional Russian architecture. The onion dome is a dome
whose shape resembles an onion, after which they are
named. Such domes are often larger in diameter than the
drums they sit on, and their height usually exceeds their
width. The whole bulbous structure tapers smoothly to
a point. Though the earliest preserved Russian domes of
such type date from the 16th century, illustrations from
older chronicles indicate they have existed since the late
13th century. Like tented roofs—which were combined
with, and sometimes replaced domes in Russian architec-
ture since the 16th century—onion domes initially were
used only in wooden churches. Builders introduced them
into stone architecture much later, and continued to make
their carcasses of either of wood or metal on top of ma-
sonry drums.[156]
Russian domes are often gilded or brightly painted. A
dangerous technique of chemical gilding using mercury
had been applied on some occasions until the mid-19th
century, most notably in the giant dome of Saint Isaac’s
Cathedral. The more modern and safe method of gold
electroplating was applied for the first time in gilding the
domes of the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour in Moscow, The eyvan mosque type (the eyvan being derived from
101
the tallest Eastern Orthodox church in the world.[157]
Ottoman domes
Selimiye Mosque dome in Edirne, Turkey
The rise of the Ottoman Empire and its spread in Asia
Minor and the Balkans coincided with the decline of the
Seljuk Turks and the Byzantine Empire. Early Ottoman
buildings, for almost two centuries after 1300, were char-
acterized by a blending of Ottoman culture and indige-
nous architecture, and the pendentive dome was used
throughout the empire.[158] The Byzantine dome form
was adopted and further developed.[30] Ottoman architec-
ture made exclusive use of the semi-spherical dome for
vaulting over even very small spaces, influenced by the
earlier traditions of both Byzantine Anatolia and Central
Asia.[159] The smaller the structure, the simpler the plan,
but mosques of medium size were also covered by sin-
gle domes.[160] The earliest Ottoman mosques were sin-
gle oblong rooms with either simple tiled pitched roofs of
wood or a wooden interior dome. Most of these wooden
domes have been lost to fires and replaced by flat ceilings.
The earliest masonry domes covered square single room
mosques, the archetype of Ottoman architecture.[161] Ex-
amples include the Mosque of Orhan Gazi in Gebze and
Karagöz Bey Mosque in Mostar.[162] This domed-square
unit is the defining element of the three basic Ottoman
mosque plans: the single unit mosque, multi-unit mosque,
and eyvan (or "iwan") mosque.[163]
The multi-unit mosque uses several domed-squares of
similar size along the length of a mosque, or across its
width, or both, with the central dome sometimes larger
than the others.[163] A style common in the Bursa period,
and known as the “Bursa type”, is like a duplication of
the single-domed square, with one long space divided by
an arch into two square bays that are each covered by a
dome. A variation of this type has the room covered by
one dome and one semi-dome, with additional side cham-
bers. A multi-domed style derived from Seljuk architec-
ture is that of the Ulu Camii, or Great Mosque, which
consists of a number of domes of the same size supported
by pillars.[164]
102 CHAPTER 2. ROMAN

Seljuk architecture) uses domed-square units in a variety Italian Renaissance domes

of sizes, heights, and details, with only the possible pair
of side units being similar sizes.[163] Main article: History of Italian Renaissance domes
Early experiments with large domes include the domed Filippo Brunelleschi's octagonal brick domical vault over
square mosques of Çine and Mudurnu under Bayezid I,
and the later domed “zawiya-mosques” at Bursa. The Üç
Şerefeli Mosque at Edirne developed the idea of the cen-
tral dome being a larger version of the domed modules
used throughout the rest of the structure to generate open
space. This idea became important to the Ottoman style
as it developed.[159]
The Beyazidiye Mosque (1501–1506) in Istanbul begins
the Classical period in Ottoman architecture, in which
the great Imperial Mosques, with variations, resemble the
former Byzantine basilica of Hagia Sophia in having a
large central dome with semi-domes of the same span
to the east and west.[165] Hagia Sophia’s central dome
arrangement is faithfully reproduced in three Ottoman
mosques in Istanbul: the Beyazidiye Mosque, the Kılıç The Cathedral of Florence with Brunelleschi's dome, Italy
Ali Pasha Mosque, and the Süleymaniye Mosque.[166]
Three other Imperial mosques in Istanbul also add semi- Florence Cathedral was built between 1420 and 1436
domes to the north and south, doing away with the basil- and the lantern surmounting the dome was completed
ica plan: Şehzade Camii, Sultan Ahmed I Camii, and in 1467. The dome is 42 meters wide and made of
Yeni Cami.[167] The peak of this classical period, which two shells.[173] The dome is not itself Renaissance in
lasted into the 17th century, came with the architecture of
style, although the lantern is closer.[174] A combination
Mimar Sinan. [168] In addition to large Imperial mosques, of dome, drum, pendentives, and barrel vaults devel-
he produced hundreds of other monuments, including oped as the characteristic structural forms of large Re-
medium-sized mosques such as the Mihrimah, Sokollu, naissance churches following a period of innovation in
and Rüstem Pasha Mosque and the tomb of Suleiman the later fifteenth century.[175] Florence was the first Ital-
the Magnificent.[169] Süleymaniye Mosque, built in Con- ian city to develop the new style, followed by Rome and
stantinople (modern Istanbul) from 1550 to 1557, has a then Venice.[176] Brunelleschi’s domes at San Lorenzo
main dome 53 meters high with a diameter of 26.5 me- and the Pazzi Chapel established them as a key element
ters. At the time it was built, the dome was the highest of Renaissance architecture.[177] His plan for the dome
in the Ottoman Empire when measured from sea level, of the Pazzi Chapel in Florence’s Basilica of Santa Croce
but lower from the floor of the building and smaller in (1430–52) illustrates the Renaissance enthusiasm for ge-
diameter than that of the nearby Hagia Sophia. ometry and for the circle as geometry’s supreme form.
Another Classical domed mosque type is, like the This emphasis on geometric essentials would be very
[178]
Byzantine church of Sergius and Bacchus, the domed influential.
polygon within a square. Octagons and hexagons were De Re Aedificatoria, written by Leon Battista Alberti
common, such as those of Üç Şerefeli Mosque (1437– around 1452, recommends vaults with coffering for
1447) and Selimiye Mosque in Edirne.[170] The Selimiye churches, as in the Pantheon, and the first design for a
Mosque was the first structure built by the Ottomans that dome at St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome is usually attributed
had a larger dome than that of the Hagia Sophia. The to him, although the recorded architect is Bernardo
dome rises above a square bay. Corner semi-domes con- Rossellino. This would culminate in Bramante's 1505–
vert this into an octagon, which muqarnas transition to a 06 projects for a wholly new St. Peter’s Basilica, marking
circular base. The dome has an average internal diameter the beginning of the displacement of the Gothic ribbed
of about 31.5 meters, while that of Hagia Sophia averages vault with the combination of dome and barrel vault,
31.3 meters.[171] Designed and built by architect Mimar which proceeded throughout the sixteenth century.[179]
Sinan between 1568 and 1574, when he finished it he was Bramante’s initial design was for a Greek cross plan with a
86 years old, and he considered the mosque his master- large central hemispherical dome and four smaller domes
piece. around it in a quincunx pattern. Work began in 1506
The first large Imperial Mosque of Istanbul in the im- and continued under a succession of builders over the
ported Baroque style was the Nuruosmaniye Mosque next 120 years.[180] The dome was completed by Giacomo
(1748–1755). One of the finest was the Laleli Mosque della Porta and Domenico Fontana.[180] The publication
of 1759–1764.[172] of Sebastiano Serlio's treatise, one of the most popular
architectural treatises ever published, was responsible for
the spread of the oval in late Renaissance and Baroque
2.2. DOME 103

architecture throughout Italy, Spain, France, and central served for royalty and square plans used for others of high
Europe.[181] rank, and the first double dome was introduced to India
[187]
The Villa Capra, also known as “La Rotunda”, was built in this period. The first major Mughal building is the
by Andrea Palladio from 1565 to 1569 near Vicenza. Its domed tomb of Humayun, built between 1562 and 1571
highly symmetrical square plan centers on a circular room by a Persian architect. The central double dome covers
covered by a dome, and it proved highly influential on the an octagonal central chamber about 15 meters wide and is
Georgian architects of 18th century England, architects accompanied by small domed chattri made of brick and
[188]
in Russia, and architects in America, Thomas Jefferson faced with stone. Chatris, the domed kiosks on pil-
lars characteristic of Mughal roofs, were adopted from
among them. Palladio’s two domed churches in Venice [189]
are San Giorgio Maggiore (1565–1610) and Il Redentore their Hindu use as cenotaphs. The fusion of Persian
and Indian architecture can be seen in the dome shape of
(1577–92), the latter built in thanksgiving for the end of
a bad outbreak of plague in the city.[182] The spread of the Taj Mahal: the bulbous shape derives from Persian
Timurid domes, and the finial with lotus leaf base is de-
the Renaissance-style dome outside of Italy began with [30]
central Europe, although there was often a stylistic delay rived from Hindu temples. The Gol Gumbaz, or Round
of a century or two.[183] Dome, is one of the largest masonry domes in the world.
It has an internal diameter of 41.15 meters and a height
of 54.25 meters.[190] The dome was the most technically
South Asian domes advanced built in the Deccan.[191] The last major Islamic
tomb built in India was the tomb of Safdar Jang (1753–
54). The central dome is reportedly triple-shelled, with
two relatively flat inner brick domes and an outer bulbous
marble dome, although it may actually be that the marble
and second brick domes are joined everywhere but under
the lotus leaf finial at the top.[192]

Early modern period domes

Main article: History of early modern period domes

In the early sixteenth century, the lantern of the Ital-
The Taj Mahal in Agra, India built by Shah Jahan.

Main article: History of South Asian domes

Islamic rule over northern and central India brought with

it the use of domes constructed with stone, brick and mor-
tar, and iron dowels and cramps. Centering was made
from timber and bamboo. The use of iron cramps to join
together adjacent stones was known in pre-Islamic India,
and was used at the base of domes for hoop reinforce-
ment. The synthesis of styles created by this introduc-
tion of new forms to the Hindu tradition of trabeate con-
struction created a distinctive architecture.[184] Domes in
pre-Mughal India have a standard squat circular shape
with a lotus design and bulbous finial at the top, derived
from Hindu architecture. Because the Hindu architec-
tural tradition did not include arches, flat corbels were
used to transition from the corners of the room to the
dome, rather than squinches.[30] In contrast to Persian and The dome of St. Paul’s Cathedral in London, England.
Ottoman domes, the domes of Indian tombs tend to be
more bulbous.[185] ian dome spread to Germany, gradually adopting the bul-
The earliest examples include the half-domes of the late bous cupola from the Netherlands.[193] Russian architec-
13th century tomb of Balban and the small dome of ture strongly influenced the many bulbous domes of the
the tomb of Khan Shahid, which were made of roughly wooden churches of Bohemia and Silesia and, in Bavaria,
cut material and would have needed covering surface bulbous domes less resemble Dutch models than Russian
finishes.[186] Under the Lodi dynasty there was a large ones. Domes like these gained in popularity in central and
proliferation of tomb building, with octagonal plans re- southern Germany and in Austria in the seventeenth and
104 CHAPTER 2. ROMAN

eighteenth centuries, particularly in the Baroque style,

and influenced many bulbous cupolas in Poland and East-
ern Europe in the Baroque period. However, many bul-
bous domes in eastern Europe were replaced over time in
the larger cities during the second half of the eighteenth
century in favor of hemispherical or stilted cupolas in the
French or Italian styles.[194] Geodesic domes of the Eden Project in United Kingdom
The construction of domes in the sixteenth and seven-
teenth centuries relied primarily on empirical techniques
and oral traditions rather than the architectural treatises being re-translations of the great domes of the past, rather
of the times, which avoided practical details. This was than further stylistic developments, especially in sacred
adequate for domes up to medium size, with diameters architecture.[203] New production techniques allowed for
in the range of 12 to 20 meters. Materials were con- cast iron and wrought iron to be produced both in larger
sidered homogeneous and rigid, with compression taken quantities and at relatively low prices during the Industrial
into account and elasticity ignored. The weight of mate- Revolution. Russia, which had large supplies of iron,
rials and the size of the dome were the key references. has some of the earliest examples of iron’s architectural
Lateral tensions in a dome were counteracted with hori- use.[204] Excluding those that simply imitated multi-shell
zontal rings of iron, stone, or wood incorporated into the masonry, metal framed domes such as the elliptical dome
structure.[195] of Royal Albert Hall in London (57 to 67 meters in diam-
Over the course of the seventeenth and eighteenth cen- eter) and the circular dome of the Halle au Blé in Paris
turies, developments in mathematics and the study of may represent the century’s chief development of the sim-
statics led to a more precise formalization of the ideas of ple domed form.[205] Cast-iron domes were particularly
the traditional constructive practices of arches and vaults, popular in France.[177]
and there was a diffusion of studies on the most stable The practice of building rotating domes for housing large
form for these structures: the catenary curve.[69] Robert telescopes was begun in the 19th century, with early
Hooke, who first articulated that a thin arch was com- examples using papier-mâché to minimize weight.[206]
parable to an inverted hanging chain, may have advised Unique glass domes springing straight from ground level
Wren on how to achieve the crossing dome of St. Paul’s were used for hothouses and winter gardens.[207] Elab-
Cathedral. Wren’s structural system became the stan- orate covered shopping arcades included large glazed
dard for large domes well into the 19th century.[196] The domes at their cross intersections.[208] The large domes
ribs in Guarino Guarini's San Lorenzo and Il Sidone were of the 19th century included exhibition buildings and
shaped as catenary arches.[197] The idea of a large oculus functional structures such as gasometers and locomotive
in a solid dome revealing a second dome originated with sheds.[209] The “first fully triangulated framed dome” was
him.[198] He also established the oval dome as a recon- built in Berlin in 1863 by Johann Wilhelm Schwedler
ciliation of the longitudinal plan church favored by the and, by the start of the 20th century, similarly triangu-
liturgy of the Counter-Reformation and the centralized lated frame domes had become fairly common.[210][211]
plan favored by idealists.[199] Because of the imprecision Vladimir Shukhov was also an early pioneer of what
of oval domes in the Rococo period, drums were prob- would later be called gridshell structures and in 1897 he
lematic and the domes instead often rested directly on employed them in domed exhibit pavilions at the All-
arches or pendentives.[200] Russia Industrial and Art Exhibition.[211]
In the eighteenth century, the study of dome structures
Domes built with steel and concrete were able to achieve
changed radically, with domes being considered as a com-
very large spans.[177] In the late 19th and early 20th cen-
position of smaller elements, each subject to mathemat-
turies, the Guastavino family, a father and son team who
ical and mechanical laws and easier to analyse individ-
worked on the eastern seaboard of the United States,
ually, rather than being considered as whole units unto
further developed the masonry dome, using tiles set flat
themselves.[69] Although never very popular in domestic
against the surface of the curve and fast-setting Portland
settings, domes were used in a number of 18th century cement, which allowed mild steel bar to be used to coun-
homes built in the Neo-Classical style.[201] In the United
teract tension forces.[212] The thin domical shell was fur-
States, most public buildings in the late 18th century were
ther developed with the construction by Walther Bauers-
only distinguishable from private residences because they
feld of two planetarium domes in Jena, Germany in the
featured cupolas.[202] early 1920s. They consisting of a triangulated frame
of light steel bars and mesh covered by a thin layer of
concrete.[213] These are generally taken to be the first
Modern period domes modern architectural thin shells.[214] These are also con-
sidered the first geodesic domes.[62] Geodesic domes have
Main article: History of modern period domes been used for radar enclosures, greenhouses, housing,
The historicism of the 19th century led to many domes and weather stations.[215] Architectural shells had their
2.2. DOME 105

heyday in the 1950s and 1960s, peaking in popularity [9] Fleming, Honour & Pevsner 1991, p. 114.
shortly before the widespread adoption of computers and
[10] Technical 1872, p. 252.
the finite element method of structural analysis.[216]
The first permanent air supported membrane domes were [11] Ching 2011, p. 63.
the radar domes designed and built by Walter Bird after [12] Hourihane 2012, p. 242.
World War II. Their low cost eventually led to the devel-
opment of permanent versions using teflon-coated fiber- [13] Robison 1991, p. 395.
glass and by 1985 the majority of the domed stadiums [14] Gye 1988, p. 141-142.
around the world used this system.[217] Tensegrity domes,
patented by Buckminster Fuller in 1962, are membrane [15] Fernández & Hernández-Ros 1989.
structures consisting of radial trusses made from steel ca-
[16] Larson & Tyas 2003, p. 32, 38.
bles under tension with vertical steel pipes spreading the
cables into the truss form. They have been made circu- [17] Gye 1988, p. 142.
lar, elliptical, and other shapes to cover stadiums from
[18] Fleming, Honour & Pevsner 1991, p. 127.
Korea to Florida.[218] Tension membrane design has de-
pended upon computers, and the increasing availability of [19] Nuttgens 1997, p. 123.
powerful computers resulted in many developments being
made in the last three decades of the 20th century.[219] [20] Ward 1915, p. 2.
The higher expense of rigid large span domes made them [21] Fleming, Honour & Pevsner 1991, p. 127, 419.
relatively rare, although rigidly moving panels is the most
popular system for sports stadiums with retractable roof- [22] Fleming, Honour & Pevsner 1991, p. 127, 329.
ing.[220][221] [23] Dodge 1984, p. 271-276, 279.

[24] Catholic.
2.2.6 See also
[25] Fletcher.
• Cupola [26] Kayili, p. 9.
• Vault (architecture) [27] Ousterhout 2008a, p. 13.

• Rotunda (architecture) [28] Baumann & Haggh 1990, p. 208-209.

• Monolithic dome [29] Baumann & Haggh 1990, p. 202.

• List of celebrated domes [30] Peterson 1996, p. 68.

[31] Mainstone 2001, p. 121.

• List of world’s largest domes
[32] Kuban 1987, p. 73.
• List of Domes in France
[33] Giustina 2003, p. 1037.
• Copper domes
[34] Denny 2010, p. 139.
• Helix
[35] Minke 2012, p. 57-59, 127.
• Dome car
[36] Smith 1950, p. 51-53.

[37] Grupico 2011, p. 3, 8.

2.2.7 References
[38] Smith 1950, p. 53.
[1] Smith 1950, p. 5.
[39] Smith 1950, p. 53-56, 79.
[2] Hourihane 2012, p. 301.
[40] Grabar 1963, p. 195, 197.
[3] Dodge 1984, p. 265-266. [41] Höcker 2000, p. 181, 183.
[4] Huerta 2007, p. 212. [42] Dror 2011, p. 163.
[5] Hourihane 2012, p. 302. [43] Wright 2009, p. 188.
[6] Wright 2009, p. 179-180, 188. [44] Chen & Lui 2005, p. 24-18.
[7] Dumser 2010, p. 436. [45] Chen & Lui 2005, p. 24-18, 24-19.

[8] Fleming, Honour & Pevsner 1991, p. 203. [46] Ramaswamy & Eekhout 2002, p. 141.
106 CHAPTER 2. ROMAN

[47] Chen & Lui 2005, p. 24-2, 24-18. [85] Smith 1950, p. 6.

[48] Saka 2007, p. 595. [86] Leick 2003, p. 64.

[49] Moffett, Fazio & Wodehouse 2003. [87] Mainstone 2001, p. 116.

[50] Dodge 1984, p. 273. [88] Smith 1950, p. 81-82.

[51] Newman & Pevnser 1972, p. 527. [89] Grabar 1963, p. 194.

[52] Dien 2007, p. 80. [90] Grabar 1963, p. 192.

[53] Ward 1915, p. 9. [91] Ashkan & Ahmad 2009, p. 99.

[54] Hourihane 2012, p. 303. [92] Spiers 1911, p. 957.

[55] Dodge 1984, p. 268. [93] O'Kane 1995.

[56] Sear 1983, p. 79. [94] Creswell 1915a, p. 148.

[57] Como 2013, p. 320. [95] Ashkan & Ahmad 2009, p. 113.

[58] Kern. [96] Grabar 1963, p. 192-194.

[59] Karydis 2012, p. 362-363. [97] Ashkan & Ahmad 2009, p. 102, 104, 105, 113.

[60] Hassan & Mazloomi 2010, p. 105. [98] Ashkan & Ahmad 2009, p. 105, 110.

[61] Fuentes & Huerta 2010, p. 346-352. [99] Ashkan & Ahmad 2009, p. 106.

[62] Langmead & Garnaut 2001, p. 131. [100] Ashkan & Ahmad 2009, p. 102, 108–109.

[63] Ambrose & Tripeny 2011, p. 36. [101] Kuiper 2011, p. 266-267.

[64] Denny 2010, p. 140. [102] Dien 2007, p. 79-80.

[65] Smith 1950, p. 8, 9. [103] Needham & Gwei-Djen 1962, p. 167.

[66] Hamilton 1983, p. 42. [104] lcsd 2014.

[67] Born 1944, p. 220-221. [105] Tsan-wing & Kin-wah 2001, p. 294.

[68] Huerta 2007, p. 231. [106] Dien 2007, p. 79.

[69] Bagliani 2009. [107] Lehmann 1945, p. 247, 254–255.

[70] Fleming, Honour & Pevsner 1991, p. 127, 463. [108] Smith 1950, p. 9.

[71] Fleming, Honour & Pevsner 1991, p. 462. [109] Lehmann 1945, p. 249.

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[135] Born 1944, p. 208. [173] Schütz 2002, p. 356–357.

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 108
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cal discoveries that have changed history (Illustrated
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• Palmer, Allison Lee (2009). The A to Z of Architec-
ture. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-810-87058-1.
• Peterson, Andrew (1996). The Dictionary of Islamic
Architecture. Routledge. ISBN 0-203-20387-9.
• Pevsner, Nikolaus (1978). Derbyshire. Revised by
Elizabeth Williamson (illustrated, reprint ed.). Yale
University Press. ISBN 978-0-140-71008-3.
• Porter, Arthur Kingsley (1928). Spanish Ro-
manesque Sculpture, Volume 1 (illustrated ed.).
Hacker Art Books.
• Ramaswany, G. S.; Eekhout, Mick (2002).
Analysis, Design and Construction of Steel Space
Frames (illustrated, reprint ed.). London, UK:
Thomas Telford, Ltd. p. 242. ISBN 978-0-727-
73014-5.
• Rasch, Jürgen (1985). “Die Kuppel in der römis-
chen Architektur. Entwicklung, Formgebung, Kon-
struktion”. Architectura. 15: 117–139.
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• Rizzoni, Giovanni (2009). “The Form of Parlia-
ments & European Identity”. In Rorato, Laura;
Saunders, Anna. The Essence and the Margin: Na-
tional Identities and Collective Memories in Con-
temporary European Culture. The Netherlands:
Rodopi. pp. 183–198. ISBN 978-9-042-02571-4.
• Robison, Elwin C. (December 1991). “Optics and
Mathematics in the Domed Churches of Guarino
Guarini”. Journal of the Society of Architectural His-
torians. University of California Press. 50 (4): 384–
401. doi:10.2307/990663.
• Rosser, John H. (2011). Historical Dictionary of
Byzantium (2 ed.). Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-
810-87477-0.
• Saka, M. P. (2007). “Optimum geometry design of
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Advances in Structural Engineering. 10 (6): 595–
606.
• Schütz, Bernhard (2002). Great Cathedrals (illus-
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810-93297-5.
• Sear, Frank (1983). Roman Architecture (revised
ed.). Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-
9245-7.
• Skempton, A. W. (2002). A biographical dictionary
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0-7277-2939-2.
• About Russian Domes and Cupolas, skypalace.org
• Smith, Earl Baldwin (1950). The Dome: A Study in
the History of Ideas. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Uni-
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• Spiers, R. Phené (1911), “Vault”, in Chisholm,
Hugh, The Encyclopædia Britannica: A Dictionary
of Arts, Sciences, Literature, and General Informa-
tion. Eleventh Edition., 27, Cambridge, England:
University Press, pp. 956–961
• Stephenson, Davis; Hammond, Victoria; Davi,
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• Stewart, Charles Anthony (2008). Domes of
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• Tabbaa, Yasser (1985). “The Muqarnas Dome: Its
Origin and Meaning”. Muqarnas. BRILL. 3: 61–
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2.3. VAULT (ARCHITECTURE) 113

Construction History, Madrid, 20th–24th January 2.3 Vault (architecture)

2003 (PDF). Madrid: I. Juan de Herrera. pp. 1941–
1952. ISBN 84-9728-070-9. For other uses, see Vault (disambiguation).
• Tsan-wing, NG; Kin-wah, LEUNG (2001). “Defor- Vault (French voûte, from Italian volta) is an
mation Survey for the Preservation of Lei Cheng Uk
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Orange, California, USA. pp. 294–301. ISBN 978-
0-86078-686-3.

• Wallis, Kendall (2010). “Bearing Bandmann’s

Meaning: A Translator’s Introduction by Kendall
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Architecture as Bearer of Meaning. Translated by
Kendall Wallis. Columbia University Press. ISBN
978-0-231-50172-9.

• Ward, Clarence (1915). Mediaeval Church Vault-

ing (illustrated ed.). Princeton: Princeton Univer-
sity Press. ISBN 978-0-404-06836-3.

• Wilkie, David S.; Morelli, Gilda A. (2000). “Forest

Foragers: A Day in the Life of Efe Pygmies in the
Democratic Republic of Congo”. Cultural Survival
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24 (3). Retrieved December 7, 2010.

• Winter, Frederick E. (2006). Studies in Hellenis-

tic Architecture (illustrated ed.). Toronto, Canada:
University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-
3914-9.

• Wittkower, Rudolf (1963), “S. Maria della Salute:

Scenographic Architecture and the Venetian Gothic rib-vault ceiling of the Saint-Séverin church in Paris
Baroque”, in Kleinbauer, W. Eugène, Modern
Perspectives in Western Art History: An Anthology
of Twentieth-Century Writings on the Visual Arts architectural term for an arched form used to provide a
(Medieval Academy Reprints for Teaching), 25, space with a ceiling or roof.[1] The parts of a vault ex-
University of Toronto Press (published 1989), pp. ert lateral thrust that requires a counter resistance. When
165–192, ISBN 0-8020-6708-5 vaults are built underground, the ground gives all the re-
sistance required. However, when the vault is built above
• Wittkower, Rudolf (1999). Art and Architecture ground, various replacements are employed to supply the
in Italy 1600–1750: III. Late Baroque. Revised needed resistance. An example is the thicker walls used
by Joseph Conners and Jennifer Montagu (6th ed.). in the case of barrel or continuous vaults. Buttresses are
Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-07941-8. used to supply resistance when intersecting vaults are em-
ployed.
• Wright, G.R.H. (2009). Ancient Building Technol-
The simplest kind of vault is the barrel vault (also called
ogy, Volume 3: Construction (2 Vols) (illustrated
a wagon or tunnel vault), which is generally semicircular
ed.). BRILL. ISBN 978-9-004-17745-1.
in shape. The barrel vault is a continuous arch, the length
• Yaghan, Mohammad Ali Jalal (2003). being greater than its diameter. As in building an arch,
“Gadrooned-Dome’s Muqarnas-Corbel: Anal- a temporary support is needed while rings of voussoirs
ysis and Decoding Historical Drawings”. Ar- are constructed and the rings placed in position. Until the
chitectural Science Review. 46 (1): 69–88. topmost voussoir, the keystone, is positioned, the vault
doi:10.1080/00038628.2003.9696966. is not self-supporting. Where timber is easily obtained,
this temporary support is provided by centering consisting
• Zagraevsky, Sergey, The shapes of domes of ancient of a framed truss with a semicircular or segmental head,
Russian churches (Russian), RusArch.ru, archived which supports the voussoirs until the ring of the whole
from the original on 2013-01-16 arch is completed. With a barrel vault, the centering can
114 CHAPTER 2. ROMAN

then be shifted on to support the next rings.[2]

2.3.1 Vault types

Dome

Main article: Dome

Amongst the earliest known examples of any form

In a pitched-brick vault the bricks lean (are pitched) against an

existing wall.

Barrel vault

Main article: Barrel vault

A barrel vault is the simplest form of a vault and resem-

Assyrian bas-relief from Nimrud showing domed structures in

the background.

of vaulting is to be found in the neolithic village of

Khirokitia on Cyprus. Dating from ca. 6000 BCE, the cir-
cular buildings supported beehive shaped corbel domed
vaults of unfired mud-bricks and also represent the first
evidence for settlements with an upper floor. Similar
Beehive tombs, called tholoi, exist in Crete and Northern
Iraq. Their construction differs from that at Khirokitia in
that most appear partially buried and make provision for
a dromos entry.
The inclusion of domes, however, represents a wider
sense of the word vault. The distinction between the two St Paul’s Cathedral Choir looking east, London
is that a vault is essentially an arch which is extruded into
the third dimension, whereas a dome is an arch revolved bles a barrel or tunnel cut lengthwise in half. The effect is
around its vertical axis. that of a structure composed of continuous semicircular
or pointed sections.[4]
The earliest known examples of barrel vaults were built
Pitched brick barrel vault
by the Sumerians, possibly under the ziggurat at Nippur
[5]
Pitched-brick vaults are named for their construction, the in Babylonia, which [2]
was built of fired bricks cemented
bricks are installed vertically (not radially) and are leaning with clay mortar.
(pitched) at an angle: This allows their construction to be The earliest barrel vaults in ancient Egypt are thought
completed without the use of centering. Examples have to be those in the granaries built by the 19th dynasty
been found in archaeological excavations in Mesopotamia Pharaoh Ramesses II, the ruins of which are behind the
dating to the 2nd and 3rd millennium BC[3] which were Ramesseum, at Thebes.[6][7][8] The span was 12 feet (3.7
set in gypsum mortar. m) and the lower part of the arch was built in horizon-
2.3. VAULT (ARCHITECTURE)
Pointed barrel vault showing direction of lateral forces.
tal courses, up to about one-third of the height, and the
rings above were inclined back at a slight angle, so that
the bricks of each ring, laid flatwise, adhered till the ring
was completed, no centering of any kind being required;
the vault thus formed was elliptic in section, arising from
the method of its construction. A similar system of con-
struction was employed for the vault over the great hall at
Groin vaults
Ctesiphon, where the' material employed was fired bricks
or tiles of great dimensions, cemented with mortar; but
Main article: Groin vault
the span was close upon 83 feet (25 m), and the thickness
So far, all the vaults mentioned have been barrel vaults,
of the vault was nearly 5 feet (1.5 m) at the top, there
being four rings of brickwork.[9]
It is probable that the great vaults of the Assyrian palaces
were constructed in the same way, but with unburnt bricks
dried only in the sun: one of the drains discovered by Sir
Austen Henry Layard at Nimrud was built as a pitched-
brick vault. From the fact that each Assyrian monarch
on his accession to the throne commenced his reign by
the erection of a palace, it is probable that, owing to the
ephemeral construction of these great vaults, half a cen-
tury was the term of their existence. This may also ac-
count for the fact that no domed structures exist of the
type shown in one of the bas-reliefs from Nimrud; the
tradition of their erection, however, would seem to have
been handed down to their successors in Mesopotamia,
viz. to the Sassanians, who in their palaces in Sarvestan
and Firouzabad built domes of similar form to those
shown in the Nimrud sculptures, the chief difference be-
ing that, constructed in rubble stone and cemented with
mortar, they still exist, though probably abandoned on the
Islamic invasion in the 7th century.[9]
In all the instances above quoted in Sumer and Egypt the
bricks, whether burnt or sun-dried, were of the descrip-
tion to which the term "tile" would now be given; the
dimensions varied from 10 inches (25 cm) to 20 inches
(51 cm) being generally square and about 2 inches (5.1
115
cm) to 4 inches (10 cm) thick, and they were not shaped
as voussoirs, the connecting medium being thicker at the
top than at the bottom. The earliest Egyptian examples of
regular voussoirs in stone belong to the XXVIth Dynasty
(ca. 650 B.C.) in the additions made then to the temple
of Medinet Habu, and here it is probable that centering of
some kind was provided, as the vaults are built in rings, so
that the same centering could be shifted on after the com-
pletion of each ring. The earliest example of regularly
shaped voussoirs, and of about the same date, is found in
the cloaca at Graviscae in Etruria, with a span of about
14 feet (4.3 m), the voussoirs of which are from 5 to 6
feet (1.8 m) long. The cloaca maxima in Rome, built by
Lucius Tarquinius Priscus (603 B.C.) to drain the marshy
ground between the Palatine and the Capitoline Hills, was
according to Commendatore Boni vaulted over in the 1st
century B.C., the vault being over 800 feet (240 m) long,
10 feet (3.0 m) in span, with three concentric rings of
voussoirs.[9]
The enormous Eyvan-e Khosro at Ctesiphon (near
present-day Baghdad) was built over 1,500 years ago dur-
ing the Persian Sasanian period as a throne room. The
arch is about 37 metres (121 ft) high, 26 metres (85 ft)
across and 50 metres (160 ft) long, built entirely with-
out centering and it was the largest vault constructed until
modern times.[10]
A groin vault viewed from the underside, showing the arris or
'groin'.
which, when not built underground, required continuous
walls of great thickness to resist their thrust; the earliest
example of the next variety, the intersecting barrel vault,
is said to be over a small hall at Pergamum, in Asia Minor,
but its first employment over halls of great dimensions is
due to the Romans. When two semicircular barrel vaults
of the same diameter cross one another their intersection
(a true ellipse) is known as a groin, down which the thrust
of the vault is carried to the cross walls; if a series of two
or more barrel vaults intersect one another, the weight is
carried on to the piers at their intersection and the thrust
116
Plan of a groin vault from above showing resultant outward
thrust.
Groin vault from above.
is transmitted to the outer cross walls; thus in the Ro-
man reservoir at Baiae, known as the Piscina Mirabilis,
a series of five aisles with semicircular barrel vaults are
intersected by twelve cross aisles, the vaults being car-
ried on 48 piers and thick external walls. The width of
these aisles being only about 13 ft. there was no great
difficulty in the construction of these vaults, but in the
Roman Baths of Caracalla the tepidarium had a span of
80 ft., more than twice that of an English cathedral, so
that its construction both from the statical and econom-
ical point of view was of the greatest importance.[9][11]
The researches of M. Choisy (L'Art de bâtir chez les Ro-
mains), based on a minute examination of those portions
of the vaults which still remain in situ, have shown that,
on a comparatively slight centering, consisting of trusses
placed about 10 ft. apart and covered with planks laid
from truss to truss, were laid - to begin with - two layers
of the Roman brick (measuring nearly 2 ft. square and
2 in. thick); on these and on the trusses transverse rings
of brick were built with longitudinal ties at intervals; on
the brick layers and embedding the rings and cross ties
concrete was thrown in horizontal layers, the haunches
CHAPTER 2. ROMAN
being filled in solid, and the surface sloped on either side
and covered over with a tile roof of low pitch laid direct
on the concrete. The rings relieved the centering from the
weight imposed, and the two layers of bricks carried the
concrete till it had set.[9]
As the walls carrying these vaults were also built in con-
crete with occasional bond courses of brick, the whole
structure was homogeneous. One of the important ingre-
dients of the mortar was a volcanic deposit found near
Rome, known as pozzolana, which, when the concrete
had set, not only made the concrete as solid as the rock
itself, but to a certain extent neutralized the thrust of the
vaults, which formed shells equivalent to that of a metal
lid; the Romans, however, do not seem to have recog-
nized the extraordinary value of this pozzolana mixture,
for they otherwise provided amply for the counteracting
of any thrust which might exist by the erection of cross
walls and buttresses. In the tepidaria of the Thermae
and in the basilica of Constantine, in order to bring the
thrust well within the walls, the main barrel vault of the
hall was brought forward on each side and rested on de-
tached columns, which constituted the principal architec-
tural decoration. In cases where the cross vaults intersect-
ing were not of the same span as those of the main vault,
the arches were either stilted so that their soffits might be
of the same height, or they formed smaller intersections
in the lower part of the vault; in both of these cases, how-
ever, the intersections or groins were twisted, for which
it was very difficult to form a centering, and, moreover,
they were of disagreeable effect: though every attempt
was made to mask this in the decoration of the vault by
panels and reliefs modelled in stucco.[9]
The widest hall vaulted by the Romans was that of the
throne room in the palace of Diocletian on the Palatine
Hill, and this had the enormous span of 100 ft., its thrust
being counteracted by other halls on either side with but-
tresses outside. In provincial towns and in other parts of
the Roman Empire, where the material pozzolana was
not procurable, the Romans had to trust to their mortar
as a cementing medium, but this, though excellent of its
kind, was not of sufficient cohesive strength to allow of
the erection of vaults of more than about 40 ft. span,
which were generally built in rubble masonry. There still
exist in Asia Minor and Syria some vaulted halls, gener-
ally attached to thermae, which are carried on walls of
great thickness. There were many varieties of the Roman
vault, whether continuous or intersected, such as those
employed over the corridors on the Colosseum and the
theatre of Marcellus, but in these cases the springing of
the vault was above the summit of the arches of the main
front, so that there was no intersection; on the other hand,
over the corridors were either elliptical or semicircular, or
over the staircases rising vaults, all of which were more
difficult to construct; there were also numerous solutions
of vault over circular halls, of which that of the Pantheon
was the most important example, having a diameter of
142 ft., and over the hemicycles, which were sometimes
2.3. VAULT (ARCHITECTURE)
of great size; that known as Canopus in Hadrian’s Villa at
Tivoli had a diameter of 75 ft., and was vaulted over with
a series of ribs, between which were alternating rampant
flat and semicircular webs and cells; in the same villa and
in Rome were octagonal halls with various other combi-
nations of vault. Another type of vault not yet referred to
is that of the Tabularium arcade where the Cloister vault
was employed. Fig. 3 compared with fig. 2 will show the
difference; in the former the angles of intersection are in-
set, and in the latter they are groins with projecting angles
at the base, which die away at the summit.[12]
Rib vault
The rib vault of Reims Cathedral, France.
Rib vault of church Sint-Niklaaskerk in Ghent, Belgium.
117
Top of the rib-vaulted ceiling over the nave of Salisbury Cathe-
dral.
Medieval vault in France
Main article: Rib vault
Reference has been made to the rib vault in Roman work,
where the intersecting barrel vaults were not of the same
diameter; their construction must at all times have been
somewhat difficult, but where the barrel vaulting was
carried round over the choir aisle and was intersected,
as in St Bartholomew-the-Great, Smithfield, London by
semicones, instead of cylinders, it became worse and the
groins more complicated; this would seem to have led to
a change of system, and to the introduction of a new fea-
ture, which completely revolutionized the construction of
the vault. Hitherto the intersecting features were geomet-
rical surfaces, of which the diagonal groins were the in-
tersections, elliptical in form, generally weak in construc-
tion and often twisting. The medieval builder reversed
the process, and set up the diagonal ribs first, which were
utilized as permanent centres, and on these he carried his
vault or web, which henceforward took its shape from the
ribs. Instead of the elliptical curve which was given by
the intersection of two semicircular barrel vaults, or cylin-
ders, he employed the semicircular arch for the diagonal
ribs; this, however, raised the centre of the square bay
vaulted above the level of the transverse arches and of the
118
The Cathedral of Cefalù contains the most ancient gothic rib
vault.
wall ribs, and thus gave the appearance of a dome to the
vault, such as may be seen in the nave of Sant'Ambrogio,
Florence. To meet this, at first the transverse and wall ribs
were stilted, or the upper part of their arches was raised,
as in the Abbaye-aux-Hommes at Caen, and the Abbey of
Lessay, in Normandy. The problem was ultimately solved
by the introduction of the pointed arch for the transverse
and wall ribs - the pointed arch had long been known and
employed, on account of its much greater strength and of
the less thrust it exerted on the walls. When employed
for the ribs of a vault, however narrow the span might
be, by adopting a pointed arch, its summit could be made
to range in height with the diagonal rib; and, moreover,
when utilized for the ribs of the annular vault, as in the
aisle round the apsidal termination of the choir, it was not
necessary that the half ribs on the outer side should be in
the same plane as those of the inner side; for when the
opposite ribs met in the centre of the annular vault, the
thrust was equally transmitted from one to the other, and
being already a broken arch the change of its direction In the earlier stage of rib vaulting, the arched ribs con-
was not noticeable.[13]
The first introduction of the pointed arch rib took place springing; the difficulty, however, of working the ribs
at Cefalù Cathedral and pre-dated the abbey of St. De- separately led to two other important changes: (1) the
nis. Whilst the pointed rib-arch is often seen as an identi- lower part of the transverse diagonal and wall ribs were
CHAPTER 2. ROMAN
fier for gothic architecture, Cefalù is a romanesque cathe-
dral whose masons experimented with the possibility of
gothic rib-arches before it was widely adopted by west-
ern church architecture.[14] It was in the church at Vezelay
(1140) that it was extended to the square bay of the porch.
Before entering into the question of the web or stone
shell of the vault carried on the ribs, the earlier devel-
opment of the great vaults which were thrown over the
naves of a cathedral, or church, before the introduction
of the pointed arch rib, shall here be noted. As has been
pointed out, the aisles had already in the early Christian
churches been covered over with groined vaults, the only
advance made in the later developments being the intro-
duction of transverse ribs’ dividing the bays into square
compartments; but when in the 12th century[15] the first
attempts were made to vault over the naves, another dif-
ficulty presented itself, because the latter were twice the
width of the aisles, so that it became necessary to include
two bays of the aisles to form one square bay in the nave.
This was an immense space to vault over, and moreover,
it followed that every alternate pier served no purpose, so
far as the support of the nave vault was concerned, and
this would seem to have suggested an alternative, viz. to
provide a supplementary rib across the church and be-
tween the transverse ribs. This resulted in what is known
as a sexpartite, or six-celled vault, of which one of the
earliest examples is found in the Abbaye-aux-Hommes (S.
Etienne) at Caen. This church, built by William the Con-
queror, was originally constructed to carry a timber roof
only, but nearly a century later the upper part of the nave
walls were partly rebuilt, in order that it might be cov-
ered with a vault. The immense size, however, of the
square vault over the nave necessitated some additional
support, so that an intermediate rib was thrown across the
church, dividing the square compartment into six cells,
and called the sexpartite vault this was adopted in the
cathedrals of Sens (1170), Laon (1195), Noyon (1190),
Paris (1223–35), and Bourges (1250). The intermediate
rib, however, had the disadvantage of partially obscuring
one side of the clerestory windows, and it threw unequal
weights on the alternate piers, so that in the cathedral of
Soissons (1205) a quadripartite or four-celled vault was
introduced, the width of each bay being half the span of
the nave, and corresponding therefore with the aisle piers.
To this there are some exceptions, in Sant' Ambrogio,
Milan, and San Michele, Pavia (the original vault), and
in the cathedrals of Speyer, Mainz and Worms, where
the quadripartite vaults are nearly square, the intermedi-
ate piers of the aisles being of much smaller dimensions.
In England sexpartite vaults exist at Canterbury (1175)
(set out by William of Sens), Rochester (1200), Lincoln
(1215), Durham (east transept), and St. Faith’s chapel,
Westminster Abbey.[13]
sisted of independent or separate voussoirs down to the
2.3. VAULT (ARCHITECTURE)
all worked out of one stone; and (2) the lower horizontal,
constituting what is known as the tas-de-charge or solid
springer. The tas-de-charge, or solid springer, had two
advantages: (1) it enabled the stone courses to run straight
through the wall, so as to bond the whole together much
better; and (2) it lessened the span of the vault, which
then required a centering of smaller dimensions. As soon
as the ribs were completed, the web or stone shell of the
vault was laid on them. In some English work each course
of stone was of uniform height from one side to the other;
but, as the diagonal rib was longer than either the trans-
verse or wall rib, the courses dipped towards the former,
and at the apex of the vault were cut to fit one another.
In the early English Gothic period, in consequence of the
great span of the vault and the very slight rise or curvature
of the web, it was thought better to simplify the construc-
tion of the web by introducing intermediate ribs between
the wall rib and the diagonal rib and between the diagonal
and the transverse ribs; and in order to meet the thrust of
these intermediate ribs a ridge rib was required, and the
prolongation of this rib to the wall rib hid the junction of
the web at the summit, which was not always very sightly,
and constituted the ridge rib. In France, on the other
hand, the web courses were always laid horizontally, and
they are therefore of unequal height, increasing towards
the diagonal rib. Each course also was given a slight rise
in the centre, so as to increase its strength; this enabled
the French masons to dispense with the intermediate rib,
which was not introduced by them till the 15th century,
and then more as a decorative than a constructive feature,
as the domical form given to the French web rendered un-
necessary the ridge rib, which, with some few exceptions,
exists only in England. In both English and French vault-
ing centering was rarely required for the building of the
web, a template (Fr. cerce) being employed to support
the stones of each ring until it was complete. In Italy,
Germany and Spain the French method of building the
web was adopted, with horizontal courses and a domical
form. Sometimes, in the case of comparatively narrow
compartments, and more especially in clerestories, the
wall rib was stilted, and this caused a peculiar twisting
of the web, where the springing of the wall rib is at K:
to these twisted surfaces the term ploughshare vaulting is
given.[16]
One of the earliest examples of the introduction of the
intermediate rib is found in the nave of Lincoln Cathe-
dral, and there the ridge rib is not carried to the wall rib.
It was soon found, however, that the construction of the
web was much facilitated by additional ribs, and conse-
quently there was a tendency to increase their number, so
that in the nave of Exeter Cathedral three intermediate
ribs were provided between the wall rib and the diagonal
rib. In order to mask the junction of the various ribs,
their intersections were ornamented with richly carved
bosses, and this practice increased on the introduction of
another short rib, known as the lierne, a term in France
given to the ridge rib. Lierne ribs are short ribs crossing
between the main ribs, and were employed chiefly as dec-
119
Rib-vault ceiling, with Lierne ribs, of the Liebfrauenkirche,
Mühlacker 1482.
orative features, as, for instance, in the Liebfrauenkirche
(1482) of Mühlacker, Germany. One of the best exam-
ples of Lierne ribs exists in the vault of the oriel win-
dow of Crosby Hall, London. The tendency to increase
the number of ribs led to singular results in some cases,
as in the choir of Gloucester Cathedral, where the ordi-
nary diagonal ribs become mere ornamental mouldings
on the surface of an intersected pointed barrel vault, and
again in the cloisters, where the introduction of the fan
vault, forming a concave-sided conoid, returned to the
principles of the Roman geometrical vault. This is further
shown in the construction of these fan vaults, for although
in the earliest examples each of the ribs above the tas-
de-charge was an independent feature, eventually it was
found easier to carve them and the web out of the solid
stone, so that the rib and web were purely decorative and
had no constructional or independent functions.[17]
Fan vault
Main article: Fan vault
The fan vault would seem to have owed its origin to the
employment of centerings of one curve for all the ribs,
instead of having separate centerings for the transverse,
diagonal wall and intermediate ribs; it was facilitated
also by the introduction of the four-centred arch, because
the lower portion of the arch formed part of the fan, or
conoid, and the upper part could be extended at pleasure
with a greater radius across the vault. The simplest ver-
sion is that found in the cloisters of Gloucester Cathe-
dral, where the fans meet one another at the summit, so
that there are only small compartments between the fans
to be filled up. In later examples, as in King’s College
Chapel, Cambridge, on account of the great dimensions
of the vault, it was found necessary to introduce trans-
verse ribs, which were required to give greater strength.
Similar transverse ribs are found in Henry VII's chapel
and in the divinity schools at Oxford, where a new de-
velopment presented itself. One of the defects of the fan
vault at Gloucester is the appearance it gives of being half
120
Fan vaulting over the nave at Bath Abbey, Bath, England
sunk in the wall; to remedy this, in the two buildings just
quoted, the complete conoid is detached and treated as a
pendant.[17]
2.3.2 Byzantine vaults and domes
Section through the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul.
The vault of the Basilica of Maxentius, completed by
Constantine, was the last great work carried out in Rome
before its fall, and two centuries pass before the next im-
portant development is found in the Church of the Holy
Wisdom (Hagia Sophia) at Constantinople. It is proba-
ble that the realization of the great advance in the science
of vaulting shown in this church owed something to the
eastern tradition of dome vaulting seen in the Assyrian
domes, which are known to us only by the representa-
tions in the bas-relief from Nimrud, because in the great
water cisterns in Istanbul, known as the Yere Batan Serai
CHAPTER 2. ROMAN
(the underground palace) and Bin bir direk (cistern with
a thousand and one columns), both built by Constantine,
we find the intersecting groin vaults of the Romans al-
ready replaced by small cupolas or domes. These domes,
however, are of small dimensions when compared with
that projected and carried out by Justinian in the Hagia
Sophia. Previous to this the greatest dome was that of
the Pantheon at Rome, but this was carried on an im-
mense wall 20 ft. thick, and with the exception of small
niches or recesses in the thickness of the wall could not
be extended, so that Justinian apparently instructed his
architect to provide an immense hemicycle or apse at the
eastern end, a similar apse at the western end, and great
arches on either side, the walls under which would be
pierced with windows.[12] Unlike the Pantheon dome, the
upper portions of which were made of concrete, Byzan-
tine domes were made of brick, which were lighter and
thinner, but more vulnerable to the forces exerted onto
them.
Neo-Byzantine vaults in portal of the Basilique du Sacré-Cœur,
Paris, France.
The diagram shows the outlines of the solution of the
problem. If a hemispherical dome is cut by four vertical
planes, the intersection gives four semicircular arches; if
cut in addition by a horizontal plane tangent to the top
of these arches, it describes a circle; that portion of the
sphere which is below this circle and between the arches,
forming a spherical spandril, is the pendentive, and its
radius is equal to the diagonal of the square on which the
four arches rest. Having obtained a circle for the base
of the dome, it is not necessary that the upper portion of
the dome should spring from the same level as the arches,
or that its domical surface should be a continuation of
that of the pendentive. The first and second dome of the
Hagia Sophia apparently fell down, so that Justinian de-
termined to raise it, possibly to give greater lightness to
the structure, but mainly in order to obtain increased light
for the interior of the church. This was effected by pierc-
ing it with forty windows - the effect of which was of
an extraordinary nature, as the light streaming through
these windows gave to the dome the appearance of be-
ing suspended in the air. The pendentive which carried
2.3. VAULT (ARCHITECTURE) 121

the dome rested on four great arches, the thrust of those ternate eight are concave cells over the angles of the oc-
crossing the church being counteracted by immense but- tagon, which externally and internally give to the roof the
tresses which traversed the aisles, and the other two partly appearance of an umbrella.[12]
by smaller arches in the apse, the thrust being carried to
the outer walls, and to a certain extent by the side walls
which were built under the arches. From the description 2.3.3 Romanesque
given by Procopius we gather that the centering employed
for the great arches consisted of a wall erected to support
them during their erection. The construction of the pen-
dentives is not known, but it is surmised that to the top of
the pendentives they were built in horizontal courses of
brick, projecting one over the other, the projecting an-
gles being cut off afterwards and covered with stucco in
which the mosaics were embedded; this was the method
employed in the erection of the Périgordian domes, to
which we shall return; these, however, were of less diam-
eter than those of the Hagia Sophia, being only about 40
to 60 ft. instead of 107 ft. The apotheosis of Byzantine
architecture, in fact, was reached in Hagia Sophia, for
although it formed the model on which all subsequent
Byzantine churches were based, so far as their plan was
concerned, no domes approaching the former in dimen-
sions were even attempted. The principal difference in
some later examples is that which took place in the form
of the pendentive on which the dome was carried. Instead
of the spherical spandril of Hagia Sophia, large niches
were formed in the angles, as in the Mosque of Damascus,
which was built by Byzantine workmen for the Al-Walid
I in A.D. 705; these gave an octagonal base on which the
hemispherical dome rested; or again, as in the Sassanian
palaces of Sarvestan and Firouzabad of the 4th and 5th
century, when a series of concentric arch rings, project-
ing one in front of the other, were built, giving also an Nave of Lisbon Cathedral with a barrel vaulted soffit. Note the
octagonal base; each of these pendentives is known as a absence of clerestory windows, all of the light being provided by
squinch.[12] the Rose window at one end of the vault.

Although the dome constitutes the principal characteris-

The dome of the Church of the Saints Sergius and Bacchus.
There is one other remarkable vault, also built by Jus-
tinian, in the Church of the Saints Sergius and Bacchus
in Constantinople. The central area of this church was
octagonal on plan, and the dome is divided into sixteen
compartments; of these eight consist of broad flat bands
rising from the centre of each of the walls, and the al-
tic of the Byzantine church, throughout Asia Minor are
numerous examples in which the naves are vaulted with
the semicircular barrel vault, and this is the type of vault
found throughout the south of France in the 11th and 12th
centuries, the only change being the occasional substitu-
tion of the pointed barrel vault, adopted not only on ac-
count of its exerting a less thrust, but because, as pointed
out by Fergusson (vol. ii. p. 46), the roofing tiles were
laid directly on the vault and a less amount of filling in at
the top was required.[12]
The continuous thrust of the barrel vault in these cases
was met either by semicircular or pointed barrel vaults
on the aisles, which had only half the span of the nave;
of this there is an interesting example in the Chapel of
Saint John in the Tower of London - and sometimes by
half-barrel vaults. The great thickness of the walls, how-
ever, required in such constructions would seem to have
led to another solution of the problem of roofing over
churches with incombustible material, viz. that which
is found throughout Périgord and La Charente, where a
series of domes carried on pendentives covered over the
122 CHAPTER 2. ROMAN

nave, the chief peculiarities of these domes being the fact protected their vaults with wooden roofs. In other words,
that the arches carrying them form part of the penden- one will not see a Gothic vault from the outside. The rea-
tives, which are all built in horizontal courses.[18] sons for this development are hypothetical, but the fact
The intersecting and groined vault of the Romans was that the roofed basilica form preceded the era when vaults
employed in the early Christian churches in Rome, but begin to be made is certainly to be taken into considera-
only over the aisles, which were comparatively of small tion. In other words, the traditional image of a roof took
span, but in these there was a tendency to raise the cen- precedence over the vault.
tres of these vaults, which became slightly domical; in all The separation between interior and exterior - and be-
these cases centering was employed.[13] tween structure and image - was to be developed very pur-
posefully in the Renaissance and beyond, especially once
the dome became reinstated in the Western tradition as a
2.3.4 Gothic survival and the renaissance key element in church design. Michelangelo's dome for
St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome, as redesigned between 1585
One of the most interesting examples of the fan vault is and 1590 by Giacomo della Porta, for example, consists
that over the staircase leading to the hall of Christ Church, of two domes of which, however, only the inner is struc-
Oxford, and here the complete conoid is displayed in its tural. Baltasar Neumann, in his baroque churches, per-
centre carried on a central column. This vault, not built fected light-weight plaster vaults supported by wooden
until 1640, is an exceptional example of the long con- frames.[20] These vaults, which exerted no lateral pres-
tinuance of traditional workmanship, probably in Oxford sures, were perfectly suited for elaborate ceiling frescoes.
transmitted in consequence of the late vaulting of the en- In St Paul’s Cathedral in London there is a highly com-
trance gateways to the colleges. Fan vaulting is peculiar plex system of vaults and faux-vaults.[21] The dome that
to England, the only example approaching it in France one sees from the outside is not a vault, but a relatively
being the pendant of the Lady-chapel at Caudebec, in light-weight wooden-framed structure resting on an in-
Normandy.[17] visible - and for its age highly original - catenary vault of
In France, Germany, and Spain the multiplication of ribs brick, below which is another dome, (the dome that one
in the 15th century led to decorative vaults of various sees from the inside), but of plaster supported by a wood
kinds, but with some singular modifications. Thus in Ger- frame. From the inside, one can easily assume that one is
many, recognizing that the rib was no longer a necessary looking at the same vault that one sees from the outside.
constructive feature, they cut it off abruptly, leaving a
stump only; in France, on the other hand, they gave still
more importance to the rib, by making it of greater depth,
piercing it with tracery and hanging pendants from it, and
the web became a horizontal stone paving laid on the top
2.3.6 India
of these decorated vertical webs. This is the characteris-
tic of the great Renaissance work in France and Spain; but There are two distinctive “other ribbed vaults” (called
it soon gave way to Italian influence, when the construc- “Karbandi” in Persian) in India which form no part of
tion of vaults reverted to the geometrical surfaces of the the development of European vaults, but are too remark-
Romans, without, however, always that economy in cen- able to be passed over; one carries the central dome of
tering to which they had attached so much importance, the Jumma Musjid at Bijapur (A.D. 1559), and the other
and more especially in small structures. In large vaults, is Gol Gumbaz, the tomb of Muhammad Adil Shah II
where it constituted an important expense, the chief boast (A.D. 1626-1660) in the same town. The vault of the lat-
of some of the most eminent architects has been that cen- ter was constructed over a hall 135 ft. square, to carry
tering was dispensed with, as in the case of the dome of a hemispherical dome. The ribs, instead of being car-
the Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence, built by Filippo ried across the angles only, thus giving an octagonal base
Brunelleschi, and Ferguson cites as an example the great for the dome, are carried across to the further pier of the
dome of the church at Mousta in Malta, erected in the first octagon and consequently intersect one another, reduc-
half of the 19th century, which was built entirely without ing the central opening to 97 ft. in diameter, and, by the
centering of any kind.[19] weight of the masonry they carry, serving as counterpoise
to the thrust of the dome, which is set back so as to leave
a passage about 12 ft. wide round the interior. The inter-
2.3.5 Vaulting and Faux Vaulting in the nal diameter of the dome is 124 ft., its height 175 ft. and
Renaissance and after the ribs struck from four centres have their springing 57
ft. from the floor of the hall. The Jumma Musjid dome
It is important to note that whereas Roman vaults, like was of smaller dimensions, on a square of 70 ft. with a
that of the Pantheon, and Byzantine vaults, like that at diameter of 57 ft., and was carried on piers only instead
Hagia Sophia, were not protected from above (i.e. the of immensely thick walls as in the tomb; but any thrust
vault from the inside was the same that one saw from which might exist was counteracted by its transmission
the outside), the European architects of the Middle Ages, across aisles to the outer wall.[22]
2.3. VAULT (ARCHITECTURE) 123

2.3.7 Modern vaults [2] Spiers 1911, p. 956.

Hyperbolic paraboloids
Hyperbolic paraboloid
The 20th century saw great advances in reinforced con-
crete design. The advent of shell construction and
the better mathematical understanding of hyperbolic
paraboloids allowed very thin, strong vaults to be con-
structed with previously unseen shapes.
• Hyperboloid structure, Concrete shell, Tensile ar-
chitecture, Tensile structure,
[3] Lynne C. Lancaster, “Early Examples of So-Called
Pitched Brick Barrel Vaulting in Roman Greece and Asia
Minor: A Question of Origin and Intention”
[4] “Glossary of Medieval Art and Architecture - barrel vault
or tunnel vault”. University of Pittsburgh. Retrieved
2007-07-17.
[5] Spiers (1911) states that the vaults under the ziggurat were
4000 BCE; more recent scholarship revises the date for-
ward considerably but imprecisely, and casts doubt on the
methodology and conclusions of the original excavations
of 1880. See Gibson, McGuire (1992). “Patterns of Oc-
cupation at Nippur”. The Oriental Institute of The Uni-
versity of Chicago. Retrieved 21 December 2016.
[6] Willockx, Sjef (2003) Building in stone in Ancient Egypt,
Part 1: Columns and Pillars
[7] Photograph of the barrel vaults at the Ramesseum
[8] Architectural elements used by ancient Egyptian builders
[9] Spiers 1911, p. 957.
[10] Iran, Seven Faces of Civilization - youtube.com
[11] Artlex Art Dictionary
[12] Spiers 1911, p. 958.
[13] Spiers 1911, p. 959.
[14] Basic architectural history course
[15] Transverse ribs under the vaulting surfaces had been em-
ployed from very early times by the Romans, and uti-
lized as permanent stone centerings for their vaults; per-
haps the earliest examples are those in the corridor of the
Tabularium in Rome, which is divided into square bays,
each vaulted with a cloister dome. Transverse ribs are also
found in the Roman Piscinae and in the Nymphaeum at
Nimes; they were not introduced by the Romanesque ma-
sons till the 11th century.
[16] Spiers 1911, pp. 959-960.
[17] Spiers 1911, p. 960.

2.3.8 See also [18] Spiers 1911, pp. 958-959.

[19] Spiers 1911, pp. 960-961.
• Arch
[20] Maren Holst. Studien zu Balthasar Neumanns Wölbfor-
• Catenary arch men (Mittenwald: Mäander, 1981).

• Dome [21] Hart, Vaughan (1995). St. Paul’s Cathedral: Sir Christo-
pher Wren. London: Phaidon Press.
• Flying buttress
[22] Spiers 1911, p. 961.
• List of architectural vaults
• Copplestone, Trewin. (ed). (1963). World architec-
• Starry vault ture - An illustrated history. Hamlyn, London.
• This article incorporates text from a publication now
2.3.9 References and sources in the public domain: Spiers, R. Phené (1911).
"Vault". In Chisholm, Hugh. Encyclopædia Britan-
[1] “Vault”. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2007-07- nica. 27 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
18. pp. 956–961.
124 CHAPTER 2. ROMAN

2.3.10 Further reading when classical styles were revived, and has been copied
many times by modern architects.[6]
• Block, Philippe, (2005) Equilibrium Systems, studies
in masonry structure.

• Severy, Ching, Francis D. K. (1995). A Visual Dic-

tionary of Architecture. Van Nostrand Reinhold
Company. p. 262. ISBN 0-442-02462-2.

2.3.11 External links 2.4.1 Etymology

• Documentation on Arches, Domes and Vaults on the

Auroville Earth Institute website Pantheon is derived from the Ancient Greek “Pantheion”
(Πάνθειον) meaning “of, relating to, or common to
all the gods": (pan- / "παν-" meaning “all” + theion /
"θεῖον"= meaning “of or sacred to a god”).[7] Cassius
2.4 Pantheon, Rome Dio, a Roman senator who wrote in Greek, specu-
lated that the name comes either from the statues of
For other uses, see Pantheon. so many gods placed around this building, or from the
Not to be confused with Parthenon. resemblance of the dome to the heavens.[8] His uncer-
tainty strongly suggests that “Pantheon” (or Pantheum)
was merely a nickname, not the formal name of the
The Pantheon (/ˈpænθiən/ or US /ˈpænθiɒn/;[1] Latin: building.[9] In fact, the concept of a pantheon dedicated
Pantheon,[nb 1] from Greek Πάνθειον Pantheion mean- to all the gods is questionable. The only definite pantheon
ing "[temple] of every god”) is a former Roman temple, recorded earlier than Agrippa’s was at Antioch in Syria,
now a church, in Rome, Italy, on the site of an earlier tem- though it is only mentioned by a sixth-century source.[10]
ple commissioned by Marcus Agrippa during the reign of Ziegler tried to collect evidence of panthea, but his list
Augustus (27 BC – 14 AD). The present building was consists of simple dedications “to all the gods” or “to the
completed by the emperor Hadrian and probably dedi- Twelve Gods,” which are not necessarily true panthea in
cated about 126 AD. He retained Agrippa’s original in- the sense of a temple housing a cult that literally worships
scription, which has confused its date of construction as all the gods.[11]
the original Pantheon burnt down so it is not certain when
the present one was built.[2] Godfrey and Hemsoll point out that ancient authors never
refer to Hadrian’s Pantheon with the word aedes, as they
The building is circular with a portico of large gran- do with other temples, and the Severan inscription carved
ite Corinthian columns (eight in the first rank and two on the architrave uses simply “Pantheum,” not “Aedes
groups of four behind) under a pediment. A rectangular Panthei” (temple of all the gods).[12] It seems highly sig-
vestibule links the porch to the rotunda, which is under a
nificant that Dio does not quote the simplest explanation
coffered concrete dome, with a central opening (oculus) for the name—that the Pantheon was dedicated to all the
to the sky. Almost two thousand years after it was built,
gods.[13] In fact, Livy wrote that it had been decreed that
the Pantheon’s dome is still the world’s largest unrein- temple buildings (or perhaps temple cellae) should only
forced concrete dome.[3] The height to the oculus and the
be dedicated to single divinities, so that it would be clear
diameter of the interior circle are the same, 43.3 metres who would be offended if, for example, the building were
(142 ft).[4]
struck by lightning, and because it was only appropriate
It is one of the best-preserved of all Ancient Roman to offer sacrifice to a specific deity (27.25.7-10).[14] God-
buildings, in large part because it has been in continu- frey and Hemsoll maintain that the word Pantheon “need
ous use throughout its history, and since the 7th century, not denote a particular group of gods, or, indeed, even all
the Pantheon has been used as a church dedicated to "St. the gods, since it could well have had other meanings….
Mary and the Martyrs” (Latin: Santa Maria ad Martyres) Certainly the word pantheus or pantheos, could be appli-
but informally known as “Santa Maria Rotonda”.[5] The cable to individual deities…. Bearing in mind also that
square in front of the Pantheon is called Piazza della Ro- the Greek word θεῖος (theios) need not mean “of a god”
tonda. The Pantheon is a state property, ruled by Italy’s but could mean “superhuman,” or even “excellent.”[12]
Ministry of Cultural Heritage and Activities and Tourism Since the French Revolution, when the church of Sainte-
through the Polo Museale del Lazio; in 2013 it was visited Geneviève in Paris was deconsecrated and turned into
by over 6 million people. the secular monument called the Panthéon of Paris, the
The Pantheon’s large circular domed cella, with a con- generic term pantheon has sometimes been applied to
ventional temple portico front, is “unique” in Roman ar- other buildings in which illustrious dead are honoured or
chitecture. Nevertheless, it became a standard exemplar buried.[1]
2.4. PANTHEON, ROME 125

The Pantheon and the Fontana del Pantheon.

2.4.2 History
Ancient
The Pantheon dome. The concrete for the coffered dome was
In the aftermath of the Battle of Actium (31 BC), Marcus poured in moulds, probably mounted on temporary scaffolding.
Agrippa started an impressive building program: the Pan- The oculus is the main source of natural light.
theon was a part of the complex created by him on his
own property in the Campus Martius in 29–19 BC, which
included three buildings aligned from south to north:
the Baths of Agrippa, the Basilica of Neptune, and the
Pantheon.[15] It seems likely that the Pantheon and the
Basilica of Neptune were Agrippa’s sacra privata, not
aedes publicae (public temples).[16] This less solemn des-
ignation would help explain how the building could have
so easily lost its original name and purpose (Ziolkowski
contends that it was originally the Temple of Mars in
Campo)[17] in such a relatively short period of time.[18]
It had long been thought that the current building was
built by Agrippa, with later alterations undertaken, and
this was in part because of the inscription on the front of The Pantheon in 2015, with notes showing the several inscriptions
the temple[19] which reads: on the pediment.

M·AGRIPPA·L·F·COS·TERTIVM·FECIT
or in full, “M[arcus] Agrippa L[ucii] f[ilius] co[n]s[ul]
tertium fecit,” meaning "Marcus Agrippa, son of Lucius,
made [this building] when consul for the third time.”[20]
However, archaeological excavations have shown that the
Pantheon of Agrippa had been completely destroyed ex-
cept for the façade. Lise Hetland argues that the present
construction began in 114, under Trajan, four years af-
ter it was destroyed by fire for the second time (Oros.
7.12). She reexamined Herbert Bloch’s 1959 paper,
which is responsible for the commonly maintained Hadri-
anic date, and maintains that he should not have ex-
cluded all of the Trajanic-era bricks from his brick-stamp
study. Her argument is particularly interesting in light of
Heilmeyer’s argument that, based on stylistic evidence,
Apollodorus of Damascus, Trajan’s architect, was the ob-
vious architect.[21]
The form of Agrippa’s Pantheon is debated. As a re-
sult of excavations in the late 19th century, archaeologist
Rodolfo Lanciani concluded that Agrippa’s Pantheon was
oriented so that it faced South, in contrast with the cur-
rent layout that faces North, and that it had a shortened
T-shaped plan with the entrance at the base of the “T”.
This description was widely accepted until the late 20th
century. While more recent archaeological diggings have
suggested that Agrippa’s building might have had a circu-
lar form with a triangular porch, and it might have also
faced North, much like the later rebuildings, Ziolkowski
complains that their conclusions were based entirely on
surmise; according to him, they did not find any new dat-
able material, yet they attributed everything they found
to the Agrippan phase, failing to account for the fact
that Domitian, known for his enthusiasm for building and
known to have restored the Pantheon after 80 CE, might
well have been responsible for everything they found. Zi-
olkowski argues that Lanciani’s initial assessment is still
supported by all of the finds to date, including theirs;
furthermore he expresses skepticism because the build-
ing they describe, “a single building composed of a huge
126
pronaos and a circular cella of the same diameter, linked
by a relatively narrow and very short passage (much thin-
ner than the current intermediate block), has no known
parallels in classical architecture and would go against ev-
erything we know of Roman design principles in general
and of Augustan architecture in particular.”[22]
The only passages referring to the decoration of the
Agrippan Pantheon written by an eyewitness are in Pliny’s
Natural History. From him we know that “the capitals,
too, of the pillars, which were placed by M. Agrippa in
the Pantheon, are made of Syracusan bronze”,[23] that
“the Pantheon of Agrippa has been decorated by Dio-
genes of Athens, and the Caryatides, by him, which form
the columns of that temple, are looked upon as master-
pieces of excellence: the same, too, with the statues that
are placed upon the roof,”[24] and that one of Cleopa-
tra’s pearls was cut in half so that each half “might serve
as pendants for the ears of Venus, in the Pantheon at
Rome”.[25]
The Augustan Pantheon was destroyed along with other
buildings in a huge fire in the year 80 AD. Domitian re-
built the Pantheon, which was burnt again in 110 AD.[26]
The degree to which the decorative scheme should be
credited to Hadrian’s architects is uncertain. Finished
by Hadrian but not claimed as one of his works, it used
the text of the original inscription on the new façade
(a common practice in Hadrian’s rebuilding projects all
over Rome; the only building on which Hadrian put his
own name was the Temple to the Deified Trajan).[27]
How the building was actually used is not known. The
Historia Augusta says that Hadrian dedicated the Pan-
theon (among other buildings) in the name of the orig-
inal builder (Hadr. 19.10), but the current inscription
could not be a copy of the original; it provides no infor-
mation as to who Agrippa’s foundation was dedicated to,
and, in Ziolkowski’s opinion, it was highly unlikely that
in 25 BC Agrippa would have presented himself as “con-
sul tertium.” On coins, the same words, “M. Agrippa L.f
cos. tertium,” were the ones used to refer to him after his
death; consul tertium serving as “a sort of posthumous
cognomen ex virtute, a remembrance of the fact that, of
all the men of his generation apart from Augustus him-
self, he was the only one to hold the consulship thrice.”[28]
Whatever the cause of the alteration of the inscription
might have been, the new inscription reflects the fact that
there was a change in the building’s purpose.[29]
Cassius Dio, a Graeco-Roman senator, consul and au-
thor of a comprehensive History of Rome, writing ap-
proximately 75 years after the Pantheon’s reconstruc-
tion, mistakenly attributed the domed building to Agrippa
rather than Hadrian. Dio appears to be the only near-
contemporaneous writer to mention the Pantheon. Even
by the year 200, there was uncertainty about the origin of
the building and its purpose:
Agrippa finished the construction of the
building called the Pantheon. It has this
CHAPTER 2. ROMAN
name, perhaps because it received among the
images which decorated it the statues of many
gods, including Mars and Venus; but my own
opinion of the name is that, because of its
vaulted roof, it resembles the heavens.
— Cassius Dio History of Rome 53.27.2
In 202, the building was repaired by the joint emperors
Septimius Severus and his son Caracalla (fully Marcus
Aurelius Antoninus), for which there is another, smaller
inscription on the architrave of the façade, under the
aforementioned larger text.[30][31] This now-barely legi-
ble inscription reads:
IMP · CAES · L · SEPTIMIVS · SEVERVS
· PIVS · PERTINAX · ARABICVS · ADI-
ABENICVS · PARTHICVS · MAXIMVS ·
PONTIF · MAX · TRIB · POTEST · X · IMP
· XI · COS · III · P · P · PROCOS ET
IMP · CAES · M · AVRELIVS · ANTONINVS
· PIVS · FELIX · AVG · TRIB · POTEST ·
V · COS ·PROCOS · PANTHEVM · VETVS-
TATE · CORRVPTVM · CVM · OMNI ·
CVLTV · RESTITVERVNT
In English, this means:
Emp[eror] Caes[ar] L[ucius] Septimius
Severus Pius Pertinax, victorious in Arabia,
victor of Adiabene, the great victor in Parthia,
Pontif[ex] Max[imus], 10 times tribune, 11
times emperor, three times consul, P[ater]
P[atriae], proconsul, and
Emp[eror] Caes[ar] M[arcus] Aurelius Anton-
inus Pius Felix Aug[ustus], five times tribune,
consul, proconsul, have carefully restored the
Pantheon ruined by age.[32]
Medieval
In 609, the Byzantine emperor Phocas gave the building
to Pope Boniface IV, who converted it into a Christian
church and consecrated it to St. Mary and the Martyrs on
13 May 609: “Another Pope, Boniface, asked the same
[Emperor Phocas, in Constantinople] to order that in the
old temple called the Pantheon, after the pagan filth was
removed, a church should be made, to the holy virgin
Mary and all the martyrs, so that the commemoration
of the saints would take place henceforth where not gods
but demons were formerly worshipped.”[33] Twenty-eight
cartloads of holy relics of martyrs were said to have been
removed from the catacombs and placed in a porphyry
basin beneath the high altar.[34]
The building’s consecration as a church saved it from the
abandonment, destruction, and the worst of the spoliation
2.4. PANTHEON, ROME
An 1836 view of the Pantheon by Jakob Alt, showing twin bell
towers, often misattributed to Bernini.
that befell the majority of ancient Rome’s buildings dur-
ing the early medieval period. Paul the Deacon records
the spoliation of the building by the Emperor Constans
II, who visited Rome in July 663:
Remaining at Rome twelve days he pulled
down everything that in ancient times had been
made of metal for the ornament of the city, to
such an extent that he even stripped off the roof
of the church [of the blessed Mary], which at
one time was called the Pantheon, and had been
founded in honour of all the gods and was now
by the consent of the former rulers the place of
all the martyrs; and he took away from there
the bronze tiles and sent them with all the other
ornaments to Constantinople.
One of the pilasters from the Pantheon in the British Museum
Much fine external marble has been removed over the
centuries - for example, capitals from some of the
pilasters are in the British Museum.[35] Two columns
were swallowed up in the medieval buildings that abutted
the Pantheon on the east and were lost. In the early 17th
127
century, Urban VIII Barberini tore away the bronze ceil-
ing of the portico, and replaced the medieval campanile
with the famous twin towers (often wrongly attributed
to Bernini[36] ) called “the ass’s ears,”[37] which were not
removed until the late 19th century.[38] The only other
loss has been the external sculptures, which adorned the
pediment above Agrippa’s inscription. The marble inte-
rior has largely survived, although with extensive restora-
tion.
Renaissance
Floor plan of the Pantheon from Georg Dehio/Gustav von Be-
zold: Kirchliche Baukunst des Abendlandes. Stuttgart: Verlag
der Cotta’schen Buchhandlung 1887–1901.
Since the Renaissance the Pantheon was the site of some
important burials. Among those buried there are the
painters Raphael and Annibale Carracci, the composer
Arcangelo Corelli, and the architect Baldassare Peruzzi.
In the 15th century, the Pantheon was adorned with paint-
ings: the best-known is the Annunciation by Melozzo
da Forlì. Filippo Brunelleschi, among other architects,
looked to the Pantheon as inspiration for their works.
Pope Urban VIII (1623 to 1644) ordered the bronze ceil-
ing of the Pantheon’s portico melted down. Most of the
bronze was used to make bombards for the fortification of
Castel Sant'Angelo, with the remaining amount used by
the Apostolic Camera for various other works. It is also
said that the bronze was used by Bernini in creating his
128 CHAPTER 2. ROMAN

The interior of the Pantheon in 2011

church for a cardinal-deacon.

On 26 May 1929, this deaconry was suppressed to estab-
lish the Cardinal Deaconry of S. Apollinare alle Terme
Neroniane-Alessandrine.

Cardinal-protectors
The interior of the Pantheon in the 18th century, painted by
Giovanni Paolo Panini.[39]
2.4.4 Structure
famous baldachin above the high altar of St. Peter’s Basil- Portico
ica, but, according to at least one expert, the Pope’s ac-
counts state that about 90% of the bronze was used for the
cannon, and that the bronze for the baldachin came from
Venice.[40] Concerning this, an anonymous contemporary
Roman satirist quipped in a pasquinade (a publicly posted
poem) that quod non fecerunt barbari fecerunt Barberini
(“What the barbarians did not do the Barberinis [Urban
VIII’s family name] did”).
In 1747, the broad frieze below the dome with its false
windows was “restored,” but bore little resemblance to
the original. In the early decades of the 20th century,
a piece of the original, as could be reconstructed from
Renaissance drawings and paintings, was recreated in one
of the panels.
Pantheon, Rome a rainy day

Modern

Two kings of Italy are buried in the Pantheon: Vittorio

Emanuele II and Umberto I, as well as Umberto’s Queen,
Margherita.
The Pantheon is in use as a Catholic church. Masses are
celebrated there on Sundays and holy days of obligation.
Weddings are also held there from time to time.

2.4.3 Cardinal deaconry

On 23 July 1725, the Pantheon was established as

Cardinal-deaconry of S. Maria ad Martyres, i.e. a titular The northwest side view.
2.4. PANTHEON, ROME 129

The building was originally approached by a flight of

steps, although later construction raised the level of the
ground leading to the portico, eliminating the steps.[5]
The pediment was decorated with relief sculpture, prob-
ably of gilded bronze. Holes marking the location of
clamps that held the sculpture suggest that its design was
likely an eagle within a wreath; ribbons extended from the
wreath into the corners of the pediment.[41]
Mark Wilson Jones has attempted to explain the design
adjustments carried out in relating the porch to the dome, 0m 10 m 20 m 30 m 40 m 50 m 60 m 70 m

arguing that the Pantheon’s porch was originally designed

for monolithic granite columns with shafts 50 Roman Cross-section of the Pantheon showing how a 43.3 m diameter
feet tall (weighing about 100 tons) and capitals 10 Ro- sphere fits under its dome.
man feet tall in the Corinthian style.[42] The taller porch
would have hidden the second pediment visible on the
the very top, tufa and pumice, both porous light stones.
intermediate block. Instead, after the intended columns
At the very top, where the dome would be at its weakest
failed to arrive, the builders made many awkward ad-
and vulnerable to collapse, the oculus actually lightens the
justments in order to use shafts 40 Roman feet tall and
load.[49]
capitals eight Roman feet tall.[43] This substitution was
probably a result of logistical difficulties at some stage
in the construction. The grey granite columns that were
actually used in the Pantheon’s pronaos were quarried in
Egypt at Mons Claudianus in the eastern mountains. Each
was 39 feet (11.9 m) tall, 5 feet (1.5 m) in diameter, and
60 tons in weight.[44] These were dragged more than 100
km (62 miles) from the quarry to the river on wooden
sledges. They were floated by barge down the Nile River
when the water level was high during the spring floods,
and then transferred to vessels to cross the Mediterranean
Sea to the Roman port of Ostia. There, they were trans-
ferred back onto barges and pulled up the Tiber River to
Rome.[45] After being unloaded near the Mausoleum of
Augustus, the site of the Pantheon was still about 700 me-
tres away.[46] Thus, it was necessary to either drag them
Beam in the dome of the Pantheon
or to move them on rollers to the construction site.
In the walls at the back of the Pantheon’s portico are
No tensile test results are available on the concrete used
niches, perhaps intended for statues of Julius Caesar,
in the Pantheon; however, Cowan discussed tests on an-
Augustus Caesar, and Agrippa, or for the Capitoline
cient concrete from Roman ruins in Libya, which gave
Triad, or another set of gods.
a compressive strength of 20 MPa (2,900 psi). An em-
The large bronze doors to the cella, once plated with gold, pirical relationship gives a tensile strength of 1.47 MPa
are ancient but not the original ones of the Pantheon. (213 psi) for this specimen.[48] Finite element analysis of
The current doors – manufactured too small for the door the structure by Mark and Hutchison[50] found a maxi-
frames – have been there since about the 15th century.[47] mum tensile stress of only 128 kPa (18.5 psi) at the point
where the dome joins the raised outer wall.[51]

Rotunda The stresses in the dome were found to be substantially

reduced by the use of successively less dense aggregate
The 4,535 metric tons (4,999 short tons) weight of the stones, such as small pots or pieces of pumice, in higher
Roman concrete dome is concentrated on a ring of layers of the dome. Mark and Hutchison estimated that,
voussoirs 9.1 metres (30 ft) in diameter that form the ocu- if normal weight concrete had been used throughout, the
lus, while the downward thrust of the dome is carried by stresses in the arch would have been some 80% greater.
eight barrel vaults in the 6.4 metres (21 ft) thick drum wall Hidden chambers engineered within the rotunda form
into eight piers. The thickness of the dome varies from a sophisticated structural system.[52] This reduced the
6.4 metres (21 ft) at the base of the dome to 1.2 metres weight of the roof, as did the elimination of the apex by
(3.9 ft) around the oculus.[48] The materials used in the means of the oculus.[53]
concrete of the dome also varies. At its thickest point, The top of the rotunda wall features a series of brick re-
the aggregate is travertine, then terracotta tiles, then at lieving arches, visible on the outside and built into the
130 CHAPTER 2. ROMAN

mass of the brickwork. The Pantheon is full of such de-

vices – for example, there are relieving arches over the
recesses inside – but all these arches were hidden by mar-
ble facing on the interior and possibly by stone revetment
or stucco on the exterior.
The height to the oculus and the diameter of the interior
circle are the same, 43.3 metres (142 ft), so the whole
interior would fit exactly within a cube (also, the interior
could house a sphere 43.3 metres (142 ft) in diameter).[54]
These dimensions make more sense when expressed in
ancient Roman units of measurement: The dome spans
150 Roman feet; the oculus is 30 Roman feet in diame-
ter; the doorway is 40 Roman feet high.[55] The Pantheon
still holds the record for the world’s largest unreinforced
concrete dome. It is also substantially larger than earlier
domes.[56]
Though often drawn as a free-standing building, there was
a building at its rear into which it abutted. While this
building helped buttress the rotunda, there was no interior
passage from one to the other.[57]

Interior

The interior of the dome was possibly intended to sym-

bolize the arched vault of the heavens.[54] The oculus at
the dome’s apex and the entry door are the only natural
sources of light in the interior. Throughout the day, the
light from the oculus moves around this space in a reverse
sundial effect.[58] The oculus also serves as a cooling and
ventilation method. During storms, a drainage system be-
low the floor handles the rain that falls through the oculus.
The dome features sunken panels (coffers), in five rings of
28. This evenly spaced layout was difficult to achieve and,
it is presumed, had symbolic meaning, either numerical,
geometric, or lunar.[59][60] In antiquity, the coffers may The tomb of Raphael.
have contained bronze stars, rosettes, or other ornaments.
Circles and squares form the unifying theme of the inte- and Child, given by Phocas to Pope Boniface IV on the
rior design. The checkerboard floor pattern contrasts with occasion of the dedication of the Pantheon for Christian
the concentric circles of square coffers in the dome. Each worship on 13 May 609. The choir was added in 1840,
zone of the interior, from floor to ceiling, is subdivided and was designed by Luigi Poletti.
according to a different scheme. As a result, the interior
decorative zones do not line up. The overall effect is im- The first niche to the right of the entrance holds a
mediate viewer orientation according to the major axis Madonna of the Girdle and St Nicholas of Bari (1686)
of the building, even though the cylindrical space topped painted by an unknown artist. The first chapel on the
by a hemispherical dome is inherently ambiguous. This right, the Chapel of the Annunciation, has a fresco of the
discordance has not always been appreciated, and the at- Annunciation attributed to Melozzo da Forlì. On the left
tic level was redone according to Neoclassical taste in the side is a canvas by Clement Maioli of St Lawrence and St
18th century.[61] Agnes (1645–1650). On the right wall is the Incredulity
of St Thomas (1633) by Pietro Paolo Bonzi.
The second niche has a 15th-century fresco of the Tus-
2.4.5 Christian modifications can school, depicting the Coronation of the Virgin. In the
second chapel is the tomb of King Victor Emmanuel II
The present high altars and the apses were commis- (died 1878). It was originally dedicated to the Holy Spirit.
sioned by Pope Clement XI (1700–1721) and designed A competition was held to decide which architect should
by Alessandro Specchi. Enshrined on the apse above the design it. Giuseppe Sacconi participated, but lost – he
high altar is a 7th-century Byzantine icon of the Virgin would later design the tomb of Umberto I in the opposite
2.4. PANTHEON, ROME 131

chapel. Savoia is in the next chapel. The chapel was originally

Manfredo Manfredi won the competition, and started dedicated to St Michael the Archangel, and then to St.
work in 1885. The tomb consists of a large bronze plaque Thomas the Apostle. The present design is by Giuseppe
surmounted by a Roman eagle and the arms of the house Sacconi, completed after his death by his pupil Guido
of Savoy. The golden lamp above the tomb burns in honor Cirilli. The tomb consists of a slab of alabaster mounted
of Victor Emmanuel III, who died in exile in 1947. in gilded bronze. The frieze has allegorical representa-
tions of Generosity, by Eugenio Maccagnani, and Munif-
The third niche has a sculpture by Il Lorenzone of St Anne icence, by Arnaldo Zocchi. The royal tombs are main-
and the Blessed Virgin. In the third chapel is a 15th- tained by the National Institute of Honour Guards to the
century painting of the Umbrian school, The Madonna Royal Tombs, founded in 1878. They also organize picket
of Mercy between St Francis and St John the Baptist. It guards at the tombs. The altar with the royal arms is by
is also known as the Madonna of the Railing, because it Cirilli.
originally hung in the niche on the left-hand side of the
portico, where it was protected by a railing. It was moved The third niche holds the mortal remains – his Ossa et
to the Chapel of the Annunciation, and then to its present cineres, “Bones and ashes”, as the inscription on the sar-
position sometime after 1837. The bronze epigram com- cophagus says – of the great artist Raphael. His fiancée,
memorated Pope Clement XI's restoration of the sanctu- Maria Bibbiena is buried to the right of his sarcopha-
ary. On the right wall is the canvas Emperor Phocas pre- gus; she died before they could marry. The sarcophagus
senting the Pantheon to Pope Boniface IV (1750) by an was given by Pope Gregory XVI, and its inscription reads
unknown. There are three memorial plaques in the floor, ILLE HIC EST RAPHAEL TIMUIT QUO SOSPITE VINCI /
one conmmemorating a Gismonda written in the vernac- RERUM MAGNA PARENS ET MORIENTE MORI, mean-
ular. The final niche on the right side has a statue of St. ing “Here lies Raphael, by whom the mother of all things
Anastasio (1725) by Bernardino Cametti.[62] (Nature) feared to be overcome while he was living, and
while he was dying, herself to die”. The epigraph was
On the first niche to the left of the entrance is an Assump- written by Pietro Bembo.
tion (1638) by Andrea Camassei. The first chapel on the
left, is the Chapel of St Joseph in the Holy Land, and The present arrangement is from 1811, designed by An-
tonio Munoz. The bust of Raphael (1833) is by Giuseppe
is the chapel of the Confraternity of the Virtuosi at the
Pantheon. This refers to the confraternity of artists and Fabris. The two plaques commemorate Maria Bibbiena
and Annibale Carracci. Behind the tomb is the statue
musicians that was formed here by a 16th-century Canon
of the church, Desiderio da Segni, to ensure that worship known as the Madonna del Sasso (Madonna of the Rock)
was maintained in the chapel. so named because she rests one foot on a boulder. It
was commissioned by Raphael and made by Lorenzetto
The first members were, among others, Antonio da San- in 1524.
gallo the younger, Jacopo Meneghino, Giovanni Man-
gone, Zuccari, Domenico Beccafumi, and Flaminio In the Chapel of the Crucifixion, the Roman brick wall is
Vacca. The confraternity continued to draw members visible in the niches. The wooden crucifix on the altar is
from the elite of Rome’s artists and architects, and among from the 15th century. On the left wall is a Descent of the
later members we find Bernini, Cortona, Algardi, and Holy Ghost (1790) by Pietro Labruzi. On the right side
many others. The institution still exists, and is now is the low relief Cardinal Consalvi presents to Pope Pius
called the Academia Ponteficia di Belle Arti (The Pon- VII the five provinces restored to the Holy See (1824) made
tifical Academy of Fine Arts), based in the palace of the by the Danish sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen. The bust is a
Cancelleria. The altar in the chapel is covered with false portrait of Cardinal Agostino Rivarola. The final niche
marble. On the altar is a statue of St Joseph and the Holy on this side has a statue[62]
of St. Rasius (S. Erasio) (1727)
Child by Vincenzo de Rossi. by Francesco Moderati.

To the sides are paintings (1661) by Francesco Cozza,

one of the Virtuosi: Adoration of the Shepherds on left
side and Adoration of the Magi on right. The stucco relief 2.4.6 Gallery
on the left, Dream of St Joseph, is by Paolo Benaglia, and
the one on the right, Rest during the flight from Egypt, is
by Carlo Monaldi. On the vault are several 17th-century
canvases, from left to right: Cumean Sibyl by Ludovico
Gimignani; Moses by Francesco Rosa; Eternal Father by
Giovanni Peruzzini; David by Luigi Garzi; and Eritrean
Sibyl by Giovanni Andrea Carlone.
The second niche has a statue of St Agnes, by Vincenzo
Felici. The bust on the left is a portrait of Baldassare Pe- • South east view of the Pantheon
ruzzi, derived from a plaster portrait by Giovanni Duprè. from Piazza della Minerva, 2006.
The tomb of King Umberto I and his wife Margherita di
132 CHAPTER 2. ROMAN

• View of the Pantheon in

Rome
•

• The dome of the Pantheon •

seen from the hill of Janiculum

• Dome by Night

• Pantheon Rome

• The Pantheon by night

2.4.7 Works modeled on, or inspired by,
the Pantheon

• Pantheon 2013

• The Rotunda designed by Thomas Jefferson at the University of

Virginia.

As the best-preserved example of an Ancient Roman

monumental building, the Pantheon has been enormously
influential in Western architecture from at least the
Renaissance on;[63] starting with Brunelleschi's 42-metre
dome of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence, completed in
• 1436.[64]
2.4. PANTHEON, ROME
Versions include the church of Santa Maria Assunta in 2.4.9 Notes
Ariccia by Gian Lorenzo Bernini (1664), which fol-
lowed his work restoring the Roman original,[65] Belle [1] Infrequently Latinized as Pantheum, as in Pliny’s Natu-
Isle House (1774) in England, and Thomas Jefferson's
library at the University of Virginia, The Rotunda (1817– embellished by Diogenes of Athens; and among the sup-
[66]
26). There is also the 19th-century Rotunda of Mosta
[67]
in Malta.
The style of the Pantheon can be detected in many build-
ings of the 19th and 20th centuries; numerous govern-
ment and public buildings, city halls, universities, and
public libraries echo its portico-and-dome structure.
The Auditorium of Southeast University, Nanjing, China
2.4.8 See also
• Romanian Athenaeum
• Panthéon, Paris
• Pantheon, Moscow (never built)
• Manchester Central Library
• Volkshalle higher (never built)
• The Rotunda (University of Virginia) USA
• Auditorium of Southeast University, Southeast Uni-
versity, China
General:
• History of Roman and Byzantine domes
• List of Roman domes
• Roman engineering
• List of the oldest buildings in the world
133
ral History (XXXVI.38): “The Pantheon of Agrippa was
porting members of this temple there are Caryatids that
are almost in a class of their own, and the same is true of
the figures on the angles of the pediment, which are, how-
ever, not so well known because of their lofty position,” as
translated by D.E. Eichholz (Agrippae Pantheum decoravit
Diogenes Atheniensis; in columnis templi eius Caryatides
probantur inter pauca operum, sicut in fastigio posita signa,
sed propter altitudinem loci minus celebrata).
2.4.10 Footnotes
[1] “Pantheon”. Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford, England:
Oxford University Press. December 2008.
[2] MacDonald 1976, pp. 12–13
[3] Moore, David (1999). “The Pantheon”. romancon-
crete.com. Retrieved September 26, 2011.
[4] Rasch 1985, p. 119
[5] MacDonald 1976, p. 18
[6] Summerson (1980), 38–39, 38 quoted
[7] Oxford English Dictionary
[8] Cassius Dio, Roman Histories 53.27, referenced in
MacDonald 1976, p. 76
[9] Ziolkowski, Adam (1994). “Was Agrippa’s Pantheon the
Temple of Mars 'In Campo'?". Papers of the British School
at Rome. 62: 271.
[10] Thomas, Edmund (2004). “From the Pantheon of the
Gods to the Pantheon of Rome”. In Richard Wrigley and
Matthew Craske, eds. Pantheons; Transformations of a
Monumental Idea. Aldershot: Ashgate. p. 17. ISBN 978-
0-7546-0808-0.
[11] Ziegler, Konrat (1949). “Pantheion”. Pauly’s Real-
Encyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft: neue
Bearbeitung (vol. XVIII ed.). Stuttgart. pp. 697–747.
[12] Godfrey, Paul; Hemsoll, David (1986). “The Pantheon:
Temple or Rotunda?". In Martin Henig and Anthony
King, eds. Pagan Gods and Shrines of the Roman Empire
(Monograph No 8 ed.). Oxford University Committee for
Archaeology. p. 199.
[13] Ziolkowski, Adam (1994). “Was Agrippa’s Pantheon the
Temple of Mars 'In Campo'?". Papers of the British School
at Rome. 62: 265.
[14] Godfrey, Paul; Hemsoll, David (1986). “The Pantheon:
Temple or Rotunda?". In Martin Henig and Anthony
King, eds. Pagan Gods and Shrines of the Roman Empire
(Monograph No 8 ed.). Oxford University Committee for
Archaeology. p. 198.
[15] Dio, Cassius. “Roman History”. p. 53.23.3.
134
[16] Ziolkowski, Adam (1999). Lexicon topographicum urbis
Romae 4. Rome: Quasar. pp. 55–56.
[17] Ziolkowski, Adam (1994). “Was Agrippa’s Pantheon the
Temple of Mars 'In Campo'?". Papers of the British School
at Rome. 62.
[18] Ziolkowski, Adam (1994). “Was Agrippa’s Pantheon the
Temple of Mars 'In Campo'?". Papers of the British School
at Rome. 62: 275.
[19] Thomas 1997, p. 165
[20] “Pantheon”. Romereborn.virginia.edu. Retrieved 2013-
03-12.
[21] Hetland, Lise (November 9–12, 2006). Graßhoff, G;
Heinzelmann, M; Wäfler, M, eds. “Zur Datierung des
Pantheon”. The Pantheon in Rome: Contributions Con-
tributions to the Conference. Bern.
[22] Ziolkowski, Adam (November 9–12, 2006). Graßhoff, G;
Heinzelmann, M; Wäfler, M, eds. “What did Agrippa’s
Pantheon Look like? New Answers to an Old Question”.
The Pantheon in Rome: Contributions to the Conference.
Bern: 31–34.
[23] Pliny, The Elder. “The Natural History”. p. 34.7.
[24] Pliny, The Elder. “The Natural History”. p. 36.4.
[25] Pliny, The Elder. “The Natural History”. p. 9.58.
[26] Kleiner 2007, p. 182
[27] Ramage & Ramage 2009, p. 236
[28] Ziolkowski, Adam (November 9–12, 2006). Graßhoff, G;
Heinzelmann, M; Wäfler, M, eds. “What did Agrippa’s
Pantheon Look like? New Answers to an Old Question”.
The Pantheon in Rome: Contributions to the Conference.
Bern: 39.
[29] Ziolkowski, Adam (2007). Leone; Palombi; Walker, eds.
Res Bene Gestae: Ricerche di storia urbana su Roma antica
in onore di Eva Margreta Steinby. Rome: Quasar.
[30] Luigi Piale; Mariano Vasi (1851). New Guide of Rome
and the Environs According to Vasi and Nibby: Containing
a Description of the Monuments, Galleries, Churches [etc.]
Carefully Revised and Enlarged, with an Account of the
Latest Antiquarian Researches. L. Piale. p. 272.
[31] Giuseppe Melchiorri (1834). Paolo Badalì, ed. “Nuova
guida metodica di Roma e suoi contorni - Parte Terza
(“New methodic guide to Rome and its suburbs - Third
Part”)". Archivio viaggiatori italiani a roma e nel lazio
- Istituto Nazionale Di Studi Romani (in Italian). Tuscia
University. Archived from the original on 2 March 2014.
[32] Emmanuel Rodocanachi (1920). Les monuments antiques
de Rome encore existants: les ponts, les murs, les voies, les
aqueducs, les enceintes de Rome, les palais, les temples, les
arcs (in French). Libr. Hachette. p. 192.
[33] John the Deacon, Monumenta Germaniae Historia (1848)
7.8.20, quoted in MacDonald 1976, p. 139
CHAPTER 2. ROMAN
[34] http://oce.catholic.com/index.php?title=Popes_
Boniface_III-VII
[35] British Museum Highlights
[36] Mormando, Franco (2011). Bernini: His Life and His
Rome. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-53851-
6. Retrieved January 3, 2012.
[37] DuTemple, Leslie A. (2003). The Pantheon. Minneapo-
lis: Lerner Publns. p. 64. ISBN 978-0-8225-0376-7.
Retrieved May 8, 2011.
[38] Marder 1991, p. 275
[39] Another view of the interior by Panini (1735), Liechen-
stein Museum, Vienna
[40] “Pantheon, The ruins and excavations of ancient Rome”.
Rodolpho Lanciani. Archived from the original on 2007-
07-01.
[41] MacDonald 1976, pp. 63, 141–2; Claridge 1998, p. 203
[42] Wilson-Jones 2003, The Enigma of the Pantheon: The
Exterior, pp. 199–210
[43] Wilson-Jones 2003, The Enigma of the Pantheon: The
Exterior, pp. 199–206
[44] Parker, Freda. “The Pantheon – Rome – 126 AD”. Mono-
lithic. Retrieved 2009-07-08.
[45] Wilson-Jones 2003, The Enigma of the Pantheon: The
Exterior, pp. 206–212
[46] Wilson-Jones 2003, The Enigma of the Pantheon: The
Exterior, pp. 206–207
[47] Claridge 1998, p. 204
[48] Cowan 1977, p. 56
[49] Wilson-Jones 2003, p. 187, Principles of ROman Archi-
tecture
[50] Mark & Hutchinson 1986
[51] Moore, David, “The Pantheon”, http://www.
romanconcrete.com/docs/chapt01/chapt01.htm, 1999
[52] MacDonald 1976, p. 33 “There are openings in it [the
rotunda] here and there, at various levels, that give on to
some of the many different chambers that honeycomb the
rotunda structure, a honeycombing that is an integral part
of a sophisticated engineering solution...”
[53] Moore, David (February 1993). “The Riddle of An-
cient Roman Concrete”. S Dept. of the Interior, Bu-
reau of Reclamation, Upper Colorado Region. www.
romanconcrete.com. Retrieved 20 May 2013.
[54] Roth 1992, p. 36
[55] Claridge 1998, pp. 204–5
[56] Lancaster 2005, pp. 44–46
[57] MacDonald 1976, p. 34, Wilson-Jones 2000, p. 191
2.4. PANTHEON, ROME
[58] Wilson-Jones 2003, The Enigma of the Pantheon: The
Interior, pp. 182–184
[59] Lancaster 2005, p. 46
[60] Wilson-Jones 2003, The Enigma of the Pantheon: The
Interior, pp. 182–183.
[61] Wilson-Jones 2003, The Enigma of the Pantheon: The
Interior, pp. 184–197
[62] Marder 1980, p. 35
[63] MacDonald 1976, pp. 94–132
[64] Ross 2000
[65] Summerson (1980), 38–39
[66] Summerson (1980), 38–39
[67] Schiavone, Michael J. (2009). Dictionary of Maltese Bi-
ographies Vol. 2 G–Z. Pietà: Pubblikazzjonijiet Indipen-
denza. pp. 989–990. ISBN 9789993291329.
2.4.11 References
• Claridge, Amanda (1998). Rome. Oxford Archae-
ological Guides. Oxford Oxfordshire: Oxford Uni-
versity Press. ISBN 0-19-288003-9.
• Cowan, Henry (1977). The Master Builders: : A His-
tory of Structural and Environmental Design From
Ancient Egypt to the Nineteenth Century. New York:
John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0-471-02740-5.
• Favro, Diane (2005). “Making Rome a World City”.
The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Augustus.
Cambridge University Press. pp. 234–263. ISBN
978-0-521-00393-3.
• Hetland, L. M. (2007). Dating the Pantheon. Jour-
nal of Roman Archaeology. 20. pp. 95–112. ISSN
1047-7594.
• King, Ross (2000). Brunelleschi’s Dome. London: 2.4.12 External links
Chatto & Windus. ISBN 0-7011-6903-6.
• Official webpage from Vicariate of Rome website
• Kleiner, Fred S. (2007). A History of Roman Art.
Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing. ISBN 0-534- • Pantheon Live Webcam, Live streaming Video of
63846-5.
• Lancaster, Lynne C. (2005). Concrete Vaulted Con-
struction in Imperial Rome: Innovations in Context.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-
521-84202-6.
• Loewenstein, Karl (1973). The Governance of
Rome. The Hague, Netherlands: Martinus Nijhof.
ISBN 978-90-247-1458-2.
• MacDonald, William L. (1976). The Pantheon: De-
sign, Meaning, and Progeny. Cambridge, MA: Har-
vard University Press. ISBN 0-674-01019-1.
135
• Marder, Tod A. (1980). Specchi’s High Altar for the
Pantheon and the Statues by Cametti and Moderati.
The Burlington Magazine. 122. The Burlington
Magazine Publications, Ltd. pp. 30–40. JSTOR
879867.
• Marder, Tod A. (1991). Alexander VII, Bernini, and
the Urban Setting of the Pantheon in the Seventeenth
Century. The Journal of the Society of Architectural
Historians. 50. Society of Architectural Histori-
ans. pp. 273–292. doi:10.2307/990615. JSTOR
990615.
• Mark, R.; Hutchinson, P. (1986). On the structure of
the Pantheon. Art Bulletin. 68. College Art Asso-
ciation. pp. 24–34. doi:10.2307/3050861. JSTOR
3050861.
• Ramage, Nancy H.; Ramage, Andrew (2009). Ro-
man art : Romulus to Constantine (5th ed.). Upper
Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN
978-0-13-600097-6.
• Rasch, Jürgen (1985). Die Kuppel in der römischen
Architektur. Entwicklung, Formgebung, Konstruk-
tion, Architectura. Architectura. 15. pp. 117–139.
• Roth, Leland M. (1992). Understanding Architec-
ture: Its Elements, History, And Meaning. Boulder:
Westview Press. ISBN 0-06-438493-4.
• Summerson, John (1980), The Classical Language
of Architecture, 1980 edition, Thames and Hudson
World of Art series, ISBN 0-500-20177-3
• Thomas, Edmund (1997). The Architectural History
of the Pantheon from Agrippa to Septimius Severus
via Hadrian. Hephaistos. 15. pp. 163–186.
• Wilson-Jones, Mark (2003). Principles of Roman
Architecture. New Haven: Yale University Press.
ISBN 0-300-10202-X.
the Pantheon
• Pantheon Rome, Virtual Panorama and photo
gallery
• Pantheon, article in Platner’s Topographical Dictio-
nary of Ancient Rome
• Pantheon Rome vs Pantheon Paris
• Tomás García Salgado, “The geometry of the Pan-
theon’s vault”
• Pantheon at Great Buildings/Architecture Week
website
136 CHAPTER 2. ROMAN

• Art & History Pantheon

• Summer solstice at the Pantheon

• Pantheon at Structurae

• Video Introduction to the Pantheon

• Panoramic Virtual Tour inside the Pantheon

• 21 best pictures of the Italian Church Pantheon

2.5 Public bathing

Alfred Laliberté's “Les petits Baigneurs,” 1915 restored 1992 at

Maisonneuve public baths, Montreal, Quebec

The Asser Levy Public Baths in Manhattan, New York City "Great Bath" of Mohenjo Daro in present-day Pakistan
(1904-1906, restored 1989-1990) was the size of 'a modest municipal swimming pool',
complete with stairs leading down to the water at each
Public baths originated from a communal need for one of its ends.[1]
cleanliness at a time when most people did not have ac-
cess to private bathing facilities. The term “public” is not The bath is housed inside a larger—more[1]elaborate—
completely accurate, as some types of public baths are building and was used for public bathing. The Great
restricted depending on membership, gender, religious Bath and the house of the priest suggest that the Indus
affiliation, or other reasons. As societies have changed, had a religion.
the need for public baths has reduced: dwellings now
have their own private bathroom. Public baths have also
Ancient Greece
become incorporated into the social system as meeting
places. As the title suggests, public bathing does not refer
In The Book of the Bath, Françoise de Bonneville wrote,
only to bathing. In ancient times public bathing included
“The history of public baths begins in Greece in the sixth
saunas, massages and relaxation therapies, comparable to
century B.C.,” where men and women washed in basins
today’s spas.
near places of exercise, physical and intellectual. Later
gymnasia had indoor basins set overhead, the open maws
2.5.1 History of marble lions offering showers, and circular pools with
tiers of steps for lounging.
See also: History of water supply and sanitation Bathing was ritualized, becoming an art – of cleansing
sands, hot water, hot air in dark vaulted “vapor baths,” a
cooling plunge, a rubdown with aromatic oils. Cities all
over Ancient Greece honored sites where “young ephebes
Indus Valley Civilization
stood and splashed water over their bodies.”
Further information: Sanitation in the Indus Valley
Civilization Roman Empire

The earliest public baths are found in the ruins in of the Main articles: Thermae and Ancient Roman bathing
Indus Valley Civilization. According to John Keay, the The first public thermae of 19 BC had a rotunda 25 me-
2.5. PUBLIC BATHING 137

steamrooms by the Turks. The Turkish baths also known

as the Hammam, was considered a place for social gather-
ing in Turkish Culture, states the official website Turkish
baths. The process of Hammam is very similar to that of
the Roman bathing.[4]

Japan

Main article: Public bathing in Japan

The origin of Japanese bathing is Misogi, ritual purifica-

tion with water.[5] After Japan imported Buddhist culture,
many temples had saunas, which were available for any-
Ruins of a Roman bath in Dion, Greece, showing the under-floor one to use for free.
heating system, or hypocaust
In the Heian period, houses of prominent families, such
as the families of court nobles or samurai, had baths. The
tres across, circled by small rooms, set in a park with arti- bath had lost its religious significance and instead be-
ficial river and pool. By AD 300 the Baths of Diocletian came leisure. Misogi became Gyōzui, to bathe in a shallow
[6]
would cover 140,000 square metres (1,500,000 sq ft), its wooden tub.
soaring granite and porphyry sheltering 3,000 bathers a In the 17th century, the first European visitors to Japan
day. Roman baths became “something like a cross be- recorded the habit of daily baths in sexually mixed
tween an aquacentre and a theme park,” with pools, game groups.[5] Before the mid-19th century, when Western
rooms, gardens, even libraries and theatres. One of the influence increased, nude communal bathing for men,
most famous public bath sites is Aquae Sulis in Bath, Eng- women, and children at the local unisex public bath, or
land. sentō, was a daily fact of life.
Dr.Garrett G Fagan, Associate Professor of Classics and In contemporary times, many, but not all administrative
Ancient Mediterranean Studies and History at The Penn- regions forbid nude mixed gender public baths. Public
sylvania State University, has named public bathing as baths using water from onsen (hot springs) are particu-
a “social event” for the Romans in his book “Bathing larly popular. Towns with hot springs are destination re-
in Public in the Roman World”. He also states that “In sorts, which are visited daily by the locals and people from
Western Europe only the Finns still practice a truly pub- other, neighboring towns.
lic bathing habit.” Dr. Fagan has done extensive research
on public bathing.[2][3]
Indonesia

Ottoman Empire

Main article: Turkish bath

During the Ottoman Empire public baths were widely

Public bathing as cleansing ritual in Tirta Empul, Bali.

Traditionally in Indonesia, bathing is almost always “pub-

lic”, in the sense that people might converge in river-
“Ancient Ruins Used as Public Baths” by Hubert Robert (1798)
banks, pools or watersprings either for bathing or wash-
used. The baths had both a religious and popular origin ing their laundry. However, for modesty purposes, some
deriving from the Qur'an (ablution ritual) and the use of sections of riverbanks for example, apply sex segregation.
138 CHAPTER 2. ROMAN

Bathing completely naked is quite uncommon, as people riod, when European bath houses were being destroyed.
might still use kain jarik (usually batik clothes or sarong)Finnish saunas remain an integral and ancient part of the
wrapped around their body to cover their genitals during way of life in Finland. They are found on the shores of
bathing. Some modest bathing springs might uses modest Finland’s numerous lakes, in private apartments, corpo-
bamboo weaved partition for privacy. This is still com- rate headquarters, at the Parliament House and even at
mon practice in villages and rural areas in Indonesia. the depth of 1,400 metres (4,600 ft) in Pyhäsalmi Mine.
[10]
The 8th-century complex of Ratu Boko contains a petir- The sauna is an important part of the national identity
taan or bathing pools structure enclosed within walled and those who have the opportunity usually take a sauna
[7] at least once a week.[11]
compound. This suggests that other than bathing in
riverbanks or springs, people of ancient Java of Medang The building of public baths in the United States began
Kingdom has developed a bathing pool, although it was in the 1890s. Notable constructions of the period include
not actually “public”, since the pool believed reserved Bathhouse Row[12] in Arkansas, and Asser Levy Public
only for royalty or people residing in this compound. The Baths in New York City. Public baths were created to
14th-century Majapahit city of Trowulan, contains sev- improve health and sanitary condition of the public before
eral bathing structures. Such as Candi Tikus bathing personal baths became commonplace.
pool, believed to be a royal bathing pool, and also Segaran
reservoir or large public pool.[8]
Britain and its empire Further information: Baths
The Hindu-majority island of Bali contains several pub-
and wash houses in Britain
lic bathing pools, some dated from the 9th century such
The first modern public baths were opened in Liverpool
as Goa Gajah. A notable public bathing pool is Tirta
Empul, which actually more linked to Balinese Hinduism
cleansing ritual than recreation of sanitation purpose.[9]
The bubbling water of is the main source of Pakerisan
river.

Modern public bathing

A bathhouse, c. 1475-1485

Roman style public baths were introduced on a limited Interior of Liverpool wash house, the first public wash house in
scale by returning crusaders in the 11th and 12th cen- England.
turies, who had enjoyed warm baths in the Middle East.
These, however, rapidly degenerated into brothels or at in 1829. The first known warm fresh-water public wash
least the reputation as such and were closed down at var- house was opened in May 1842.[13][14]
ious times. For instance, in England during the reignThe popularity of wash-houses was spurred by the news-
of Henry II, bath houses, called bagnios from the Ital-
paper interest in Kitty Wilkinson, an Irish immigrant
ian word for bath, were set up in Southwark on the river
“wife of a labourer” who became known as the Saint
Thames. They were all officially closed down by Henry of the Slums.[15] In 1832, during a cholera epidemic,
VIII in 1546 due to their negative reputation. Wilkinson took the initiative to offer the use of her
A notable exception to this trend was in Finland and house and yard to neighbours to wash their clothes, at a
Scandinavia, where the sauna remained a popular phe- charge of a penny per week,[13] and showed them how
nomenon, even expanding during the Reformation pe- to use a chloride of lime (bleach) to get them clean.
2.5. PUBLIC BATHING 139

She was supported by the District Provident Society and Hot baths Traditional Turkish baths (a variant of
William Rathbone. In 1842 Wilkinson was appointed the Roman bath) were introduced to Britain by David
baths superintendent.[16][17] Urquhart, diplomat and sometime Member of Parlia-
In Birmingham, around ten private baths were available in ment for Stafford, who for political and personal rea-
the 1830s. Whilst the dimensions of the baths were small, sons wished to popularize Turkish culture. In 1850 he
they provided a range of services.[18] A major proprietor wrote The Pillars of Hercules, a book about his travels in
of bath houses in Birmingham was a Mr. Monro who 1848 through Spain and Morocco. He described the sys-
had had premises in Lady Well and Snow Hill.[19] Private tem of dry hot-air baths used there and in the Ottoman
Empire which had changed little since Roman times. In
baths were advertised as having healing qualities and be-
ing able to cure people of diabetes, gout and all skin dis- 1856 Richard Barter read Urquhart’s book and worked
with him to construct a bath. They opened the first mod-
eases, amongst others.[19] On 19 November 1844, it was
decided that the working class members of society should ern hot water bath at St Ann’s Hydropathic Establish-
ment near Blarney, County Cork, Ireland.[24] The origi-
have the opportunity to access baths, in an attempt to ad-
dress the health problems of the public. On 22 April and nal baths were used for individual washing and men-only
swimming. It was not until 1914 that family bathing was
23 April 1845, two lectures were delivered in the town [25]
hall urging the provision of public baths in Birmingham allowed.
and other towns and cities. The following year, the first public bath of its type to be
After a period of campaigning by many committees, the built in mainland Britain since Roman times was opened
Public Baths and Wash-houses Act received royal assent in Manchester, and the idea spread rapidly. It reached
on 26 August 1846. The Act empowered local authorities London in July 1860, when Roger Evans, a member of
across the country to incur expenditure in constructing one of Urquhart’s Foreign Affairs Committees, opened a
public swimming baths out of its own funds.[20] Turkish bath at 5 Bell Street, near Marble Arch. During
the following 150 years, over 600 Turkish baths opened
The first London public baths was opened at Goulston in Britain, including those built by municipal authorities
Square, Whitechapel, in 1847 with the Prince consort lay- as part of swimming pool complexes, taking advantage of
ing the foundation stone.[21][22] the fact that water-heating boilers were already on site.
The introduction of bath houses into British culture was a Similar baths opened in other parts of the British Em-
response to the public’s desire for increased sanitary con- pire. Dr. John Le Gay Brereton opened a Turkish
ditions, and by 1915 most towns in Britain had at least bath in Sydney, Australia in 1859, Canada had one by
one.[23] 1869, and the first in New Zealand was opened in 1874.
Urquhart’s influence was also felt outside the Empire
when in 1861, Dr Charles H Shepard opened the first
Turkish baths in the United States at 63 Columbia Street,
Brooklyn Heights, New York, most probably on 3 Octo-
ber 1863.[26][27]

Russia Washing and thermal body treatments with

Baigneuses, oil on canvas, Jean-Léon Gérôme (1824-1904).
steam and accessories such as a bunch of birch branches
has been traditionally carried out in banyas. This tradi-
tions were born in rural areas, Russia being a spacious
country with farming population dominating until World
War II. Farmers did not have inside their log cabins run-
ning water supply and hot bathtubs for washing their bod-
ies, so they either used for their washing heat and space
inside their Russian ovens or built from logs, like the cot-
tage itself, a one-family banya bath outhouse behind their
dwelling on the family’s land plot. It was usually a small-
ish wooden cabin with a low entrance and no more than
one small window to keep heat inside. Traditionally, the
family washed their bodies completely once a week be-
fore the day of the Bible-prescribed rest (Sunday) as hav-
ing a (steam) bath meant having to get and bring in a
considerable amount of firewood and water and spending
time off other farmwork heating the bathhouse.
With the growth of Russian big cities since the 18th cen-
tury, public baths were opened in them and then back
140 CHAPTER 2. ROMAN

in villages. While the richer urban circles could afford

having an individual bathroom with a bathtub in their
apartments (since the late 19th century with running wa-
ter), the lower classes necessarily used public steambaths
- special big buildings which were equipped with devel-
oped side catering services enjoyed by the merchants with
farming background.
Since the first half of the 20th century running unheated
drinking water supply has been made available virtually
to all inhabitants of multy-storey apartment buildings in
cities, but if such dwellings were built during the 1930s
and not updated later, they do not have hot running water
(except for central heating) or space to accommodate a
bathtub, plumbing facilities being limited in them only to
a kitchen sink and a small toilet room with a toilet seat.
Thus the dwellers of such apartments, on a par with those
living in the part of pre-1917-built blocks of flats which
had not undergone cardinal renovation, would have no
choice but to use public bathhouses.
Since the 1950s in cities, towns and many rural areas
more comfortable dwelling became a nationally required
standard, and almost all apartments are designed with
both cold and hot water supply, and a bathroom with a
bathtub, but a percantage of people living in them still go Bathing in 1568
to public steam baths for health treatments with steam,
tree branches, aromatic oils and for social activities such
as meeting friends and having a chat, a drink (usually, [3] Fagan, Garrett G. “Bathing in Public in the Roman World
beer) and/or a snack in the dressing/cooling room, as was - Garrett G. Fagan.” Google Books. Web. 25 Oct. 2011.
archetypally shown in a 1970s New Year evergreen com- <https://books.google.com/books?id=R6tz_TzSVkAC>
edy film The Irony of Fate, or Enjoy Your Bath!. [4] “About Bath Houses, Turkish Baths and Sauna Culture
and Bath Resources”. Aquariussauna.com. Retrieved
2014-05-21.
2.5.2 See also
[5] Clark 1994, backcover Misogi
• Bathing
[6] Clark 1994, p.36 Gyōzui
• Steam shower
[7] “The Majestic Beauty of the Ratu Boko Palace ruins”.
• Water park Wonderful Indonesia. Retrieved 23 June 2014.
• By culture
[8] Sita W. Dewi (9 April 2013). “Tracing the glory of Ma-
• Gymnasium (ancient Greece) japahit”. The Jakarta Post. Retrieved 5 February 2015.

• Banya – Russian [9] “Pura Tirta Empul”. Burari Bali. Retrieved 5 October
• Sauna – Finnish 2014.
• Hammam – Turkish [10] Valtakari, P.: Finnish Sauna Culture - Not Just a Cliché.
• Hanjeungmak & Jjimjilbang – Korean The Finnish Sauna Society.
• Bathing culture in Yangzhou – China [11] Korhonen, N.: The sauna - a sacred place. Universitas
• Sweat lodge - Native American Helsingiensis, 4/1998, Helsinki University, Helsinki.

[12] “FORDYCE Bathhouse General History”.

2.5.3 References asms.k12.ar.us. Archived from the original on 2008-02-
28. Retrieved 2008-03-24.
[1] Keay, John (2001), India: A History, 13–14, Grove Press,
ISBN 0-8021-3797-0. [13] Ashpitel, Arthur (1851), Observations on baths and wash-
houses, p. 2–14, JSTOR 60239734, OCLC 501833155
[2] “Professor Garrett G. Fagan - Audio & Video Lectures |
The Great Courses®". Thegreatcourses.com. Retrieved [14] Metcalfe, Richard (1877), Sanitas Sanitatum et Omnia
2014-05-21. Sanitas, 1, Co-operative printing company, p. 3
2.6. BASILICA 141

[15] "'Slum Saint' honoured with statue”. BBC News. 4 Febru- 2.6 Basilica
ary 2010.
[16] Wohl, Anthony S. (1984), Endangered lives: public health This article is about a type of building and Christianised
in Victorian Britain, Taylor & Francis, p. 73, ISBN 978- site. For the Byzantine code of law, see Basilika. For the
0-416-37950-1 genus of moth, see Basilica (moth).
[17] Rathbone, Herbert R. (1927), Memoir of Kitty Wilkinson
of Liverpool, 1786-1860: with a short account of Thomas
Wilkinson, her husband, H. Young & Sons
[18] Topography of Warwickshire, William West, 1830
[19] The Birmingham Journal: Private Bath Advertisements,
17 May 1851
[20] “Baths and Wash-Houses”. The Times. 22 July 1846. p.
6. Yesterday the bill, as amended by the committee, for
promoting the voluntary establishment in boroughs and
parishes in England and Wales of public baths and wash-
houses was printed. External link in |newspaper= (help)
[21] “Classified Advertising”. The Times. 26 July 1847. p. 1.
Model Public Baths, Goulston-square, Whitechapel. The
BATHS for men and boys are now OPEN from 5 in the
morning till 10 at night. Charges - first-class (two towels),
cold bath 5d., warm bath 6d.; second-class (one towel), St Peter’s Basilica, Vatican City, a major basilica of the Roman
cold bath 1d, warm bath 2d. Every bath is in a private Catholic Church, is a central-plan building, enlarged by a basil-
room. External link in |newspaper= (help) ical nave

[22] Metcalfe, Richard (1877), Sanitas Sanitatum et Omnia

Sanitas, 1, Co-operative printing company, p. 7
[23] Sally Sheard* (2014-05-02). “Profit is a Dirty Word: The
Development of Public Baths and Wash-houses in Britain
1847–1915 – SHEARD 13 (1): 63 – Social History of
Medicine”. Shm.oxfordjournals.org. Retrieved 2014-05-
21.
[24] Shifrin, Malcolm (3 October 2008), “St Ann’s Hydro-
pathic Establishment, Blarney, Co. Cork”, Victorian
Turkish Baths: Their origin, development, and gradual de-
cline, retrieved 12 December 2009
[25] Port Cities: – Liverpool baths and wash houses timeline,
1789–1952
St. John in the Lateran is both an architectural and an ecclesias-
[26] The Brooklyn Daily Eagle, 3 October 1863 tical basilica
[27] To Philadelphians on behalf of the Natatorium & Physical
Institute. p. 11. Retrieved 4 December 2012. The Latin word basilica (derived from Greek βασιλικὴ
στοά, lit. “royal stoa", serving as the tribunal chamber
of a king) has three distinct applications in modern En-
2.5.4 Bibliography glish. The word was originally used to describe an ancient
Roman public building where courts were held, as well
• Clark, Scott (1994). Japan, a view from the bath. as serving other official and public functions. To a large
University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-1657-9. extent these were the town halls of ancient Roman life.
The basilica was centrally located in every Roman town,
usually adjacent to the main forum. These buildings, an
2.5.5 External links
example of which is the Basilica Ulpia, were rectangu-
• Tales of Toronto’s first Jewish shvitz lar, and often had a central nave and aisles, usually with
a slightly raised platform and an apse at each of the two
• SaunaScape A directory of public baths worldwide ends, adorned with a statue perhaps of the emperor, while
• SentoGuide – A guide to public baths in Japan the entrances were from the long sides.[1][2]
By extension the name was applied to Christian churches
• Kyoto Baths Public bath houses in Kyoto
which adopted the same basic plan and it continues to be
• Funaoka Onsen The oldest public bath in Kyoto used as an architectural term to describe such buildings,
142
which form the majority of church buildings in Western
Christianity, though the basilican building plan became
less dominant in new buildings from the later 20th cen-
tury. Later, the term came to refer specifically to a large
and important Roman Catholic church that has been given
special ceremonial rights by the Pope.
Roman Catholic basilicas are Catholic pilgrimage sites, magistrates sat, often on a slightly raised dais. The central
receiving tens of millions of visitors per year.[3][4] In De- aisle tended to be wide and was higher than the flanking
cember 2009 the Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe in
Mexico City set a new record with 6.1 million pilgrims windows.
during Friday and Saturday for the anniversary of Our The oldest known basilica, the Basilica Porcia, was built
Lady of Guadalupe.[5]
2.6.1 Architecture
Remains of the Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine in Rome.
The building’s northern aisle is all that remains.
Floor plan of the Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine
The Roman basilica was a large public building where
business or legal matters could be transacted. The first
basilicas had no religious function at all. As early as the
time of Augustus, a public basilica for transacting busi-
ness had been part of any settlement that considered itself
a city, used in the same way as the late medieval covered
CHAPTER 2. ROMAN
market houses of northern Europe, where the meeting
room, for lack of urban space, was set above the arcades,
however. Although their form was variable, basilicas of-
ten contained interior colonnades that divided the space,
giving aisles or arcaded spaces on one or both sides, with
an apse at one end (or less often at each end), where the
aisles, so that light could penetrate through the clerestory
in Rome in 184 BC by Cato the Elder during the time he
was Censor. Other early examples include the basilica at
Pompeii (late 2nd century BC).
Probably the most splendid Roman basilica (see below) is
the one begun for traditional purposes during the reign of
the pagan emperor Maxentius and finished by Constantine
I after 313 AD.
Basilicas in the Roman Forum
• Basilica Porcia: first basilica built in Rome (184
BC), erected on the personal initiative and financing
of the censor Marcus Porcius Cato (Cato the Elder)
as an official building for the tribunes of the plebs
• Aemilian Basilica, built by the censor Aemilius Lep-
idus in 179 BC
• Basilica Sempronia, built by the censor Tiberius
Sempronius Gracchus in 169 BC
• Basilica Opimia, erected probably by the consul
Lucius Opimius in 121 BC, at the same time that
he restored the temple of Concord (Platner, Ashby
1929)
• Julian Basilica, initially dedicated in 46 BC by Julius
Caesar and completed by Augustus 27 BC to 14 AD
• Basilica Argentaria, erected under Trajan, emperor
from 98 AD to 117AD
• Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine (built be-
tween 308 and 312 AD)
Palace basilicas
In the Roman Imperial period (after about 27 BCE),
a basilica for large audiences also became a feature in
palaces. In the 3rd century AD, the governing elite ap-
peared less frequently in the forums.
They now tended to dominate their cities
from opulent palaces and country villas, set a
little apart from traditional centers of public
life. Rather than retreats from public life, how-
ever, these residences were the forum made
private.(Peter Brown, in Paul Veyne, 1987)
2.6. BASILICA 143

Seated in the tribune of his basilica, the great man would

meet his dependent clientes early every morning.
A private basilica excavated at Bulla Regia (Tunisia), in
the “House of the Hunt”, dates from the first half of
the 5th century. Its reception or audience hall is a long
rectangular nave-like space, flanked by dependent rooms
that mostly also open into one another, ending in a semi-
circular apse, with matching transept spaces. Clustered
columns emphasised the “crossing” of the two axes.

Floor plan of a Christian church of basilical form, with the

Christian adoption of the basilica form transept shaded. Either the western part of the nave or the choir
may have a hall structure instead. The choir also may be aisleless
See also: Christianised sites
The remains of a large subterranean Neopythagorean

There were several variations of the basic plan of the sec-

ular basilica, always some kind of rectangular hall, but the
one usually followed for churches had a central nave with
one aisle at each side and an apse at one end opposite to
the main door at the other end. In, and often also in front
of, the apse was a raised platform, where the altar was
placed, and from where the clergy officiated. In secular
building this plan was more typically used for the smaller
audience halls of the emperors, governors, and the very
rich than for the great public basilicas functioning as law
courts and other public purposes.[7] Constantine built a
basilica of this type in his palace complex at Trier, later
very easily adopted for use as a church. It is a long rectan-
gle two storeys high, with ranks of arch-headed windows
one above the other, without aisles (there was no mercan-
tile exchange in this imperial basilica) and, at the far end
beyond a huge arch, the apse in which Constantine held
Structural elements of a gothic basilica.
state.
Variations: Where the roofs have a low slope, the gallery may
have own windows or may be missing

basilica dating from the 1st century AD were found near

the Porta Maggiore in Rome in 1915. The ground-plan of
Christian basilicas in the 4th century was similar to that
of this Neopythagorean basilica, which had three naves
Comparison of profiles of churches
and an apse.
In the 4th century, once the Imperial authorities had
decriminalised Christianity with the 313 Edict of Mi-
lan, and with the activities of Constantine the Great and
his mother Helena, Christians were prepared to build
larger and more handsome edifices for worship than
the furtive meeting-places (such as the Cenacle, cave-
churches, house churches such as that of the Roman con-
suls John and Paul) they had been using. Architectural
formulas for temples were unsuitable, for their pagan as-
sociations, and because pagan cult ceremonies and sac-
rifices occurred outdoors under the open sky in the sight
of the gods, with the temple, housing the cult figures and
the treasury, as a backdrop. The usable model at hand, • Basilical structure:
when Constantine wanted to memorialise his imperial The central nave extends to one or two storeys more
piety, was the familiar conventional architecture of the than the lateral aisles, and it has upper windows.
basilicas.[6]
144 CHAPTER 2. ROMAN

• Pseudobasilica (i.
e. false basilica): The central nave extends to an
additional storey, but it has no upper windows.
Old St Peter’s, Rome, as the 4th century basilica had developed
by the mid-15th century, in a 19th-century reconstruction

• Stepped hall: The

vaults of the central nave begin a bit higher than
those of the lateral aisles, but there is no additional
storey.

Byzantine Basilica of Sant'Apolli- nare in Classe near Ravenna

in Italy

• Hall church: All

vaults are almost on the same level.

Romanesque basilica of nowadays Lutheran Bursfelde Abbey in

Germany

Development Putting an altar instead of the throne, as

was done at Trier, made a church. Basilicas of this type
were built in western Europe, Greece, Syria, Egypt, and
• Aisleless church Palestine, that is, at any early centre of Christianity. Good
with wallside pilasters, a barrel-vault and upper early examples of the architectural basilica include the
windows above lateral chapels Church of the Nativity at Bethlehem (6th century AD),
the church of St Elias at Thessalonica (5th century AD),
and the two great basilicas at Ravenna.
2.6. BASILICA
Chester Cathedral in England, a Perpendicular style basilica
St. Sebald’s in Nuremberg has a basilical nave and a hall choir
Palma Cathedral on Mallorca in Spain has windows on three basilicas in the Caucasus, particularly those of Armenia
levels, one above the aisles, one above the file of chapels and and Georgia, have a central nave only slightly higher than
one in the chapels.
The first basilicas with transepts were built under the or-
ders of Emperor Constantine, both in Rome and in his
“New Rome”, Constantinople:
“Around 380, Gregory Nazianzen, describing
the Constantinian Church of the Holy Apostles
at Constantinople, was the first to point out its
resemblance to a cross. Because the cult of the
cross was spreading at about the same time, this
145
A rare American church built imitating the architecture of
an Early Christian basilica, St. Mary’s (German) Church in
Pennsylvania, now demolished.
comparison met with stunning success.” (Yvon
Thébert, in Veyne, 1987)
Thus, a Christian symbolic theme was applied quite nat-
urally to a form borrowed from civil semi-public prece-
dents. The first great Imperially sponsored Christian
basilica is that of St John Lateran, which was given to the
Bishop of Rome by Constantine right before or around
the Edict of Milan in 313 and was consecrated in the year
324. In the later 4th-century, other Christian basilicas
were built in Rome: Santa Sabina, and St Paul’s Outside
the Walls (4th century), and later St Clement (6th cen-
tury).
A Christian basilica of the 4th or 5th century stood be-
hind its entirely enclosed forecourt ringed with a colon-
nade or arcade, like the stoa or peristyle that was its an-
cestor or like the cloister that was its descendant. This
forecourt was entered from outside through a range of
buildings along the public street. This was the architec-
tural ground-plan of St Peter’s Basilica in Rome, until in
the 15th century it was demolished to make way for a
modern church built to a new plan.
In most basilicas, the central nave is taller than the aisles,
forming a row of windows called a clerestory. Some
the two aisles and a single pitched roof covering all three.
The result is a much darker interior. This plan is known
as the “oriental basilica”, or “pseudobasilica” in central
Europe.
Gradually, in the early Middle Ages there emerged the
massive Romanesque churches, which still kept the fun-
damental plan of the basilica.
In the United States the style was copied with variances.
A rare American church built imitating the architec-
ture of an Early Christian basilica, St. Mary’s (German)
Church in Pennsylvania, was demolished in 1997.
146
• Assumption of Mary’s in The style influenced the construction of early wooden
Bad Königshofen (Franconia, Germany)
• ...is a pseu-
dobasilica
Basilicas in Eastern Orthodoxy
Wooden church from Maramures, Romania.
CHAPTER 2. ROMAN
In the Eastern Orthodox Church, in general, the basil-
ica is a mere architectural description of churches built
in the ancient style. It bears no significance with regard
to precedence or importance of the particular building or
clerics associated with it. Eastern basilicas may be single-
naved, or have the nave flanked by one or two pairs of
lower aisles; it may have a dome in the middle: in this
case it is called a “domed basilica”.
In Romania, the word for church both as a building and as
an institution is biserică, derived from the term basilica.
churches.
2.6.2 Ecclesiastical basilicas
The Papal Basilica of St Francis of Assisi (architecturally an
aisleless nave with lateral chapels)
The Early Christian purpose-built basilica was the
cathedral basilica of the bishop, on the model of the semi-
public secular basilicas, and its growth in size and impor-
tance signalled the gradual transfer of civic power into
episcopal hands, which was under way in the 5th century.
Basilicas in this sense are divided into classes, the ma-
jor (“greater”) basilicas and the minor basilicas; there are
three other papal and several pontifical minor basilicas in
Italy, and over 1,400 lesser basilicas around the world.
Churches designated as papal basilicas, in particular, pos-
sess a papal throne and a papal high altar, at which no one
may celebrate Mass without the pope’s permission.[8]
Numerous basilicas are notable shrines, often even re-
ceiving significant pilgrimages, especially among the
many that were built above a confessio or the burial place
of a martyr – although this term now usually designates
a space before the high altar that is sunk lower than the
main floor level (as in the case in St Peter’s and St John
Lateran in Rome) and that offer more immediate access
to the burial places below.
2.6. BASILICA 147

Major or papal basilicas

Main article: Major basilica

To this class belong only the four great papal churches

of Rome, which among other distinctions have a spe-
cial "holy door" and to which a visit is always prescribed
as one of the conditions for gaining the Roman Jubilee.
Upon relinquishing in 2006 the title of Patriarch of the
West, Pope Benedict XVI renamed these basilicas from
“Patriarchal Basilicas” to “Papal Basilicas”.

• St. John Lateran, also called the Lateran Basilica, is

Basilica of Saint Mary in Minneapolis, MN. The first basilica the cathedral of the Bishop of Rome, the Pope.
established in the United States.
• St. Peter’s, also called the Vatican Basilica, is a
major pilgrimage site, built over the burial place of
Saint Peter.
• St. Paul Outside the Walls, also known as the Ostian
Basilica because it is situated on the road that led
to Ostia, is built over the burial place of Paul the
Apostle.
• St. Mary Major, also called the Liberian Basilica
because the original building (not the present one)
was attributed to Pope Liberius, is the largest church
in Rome dedicated to the Blessed Virgin Mary.

The four papal or major basilicas were formerly known as

“patriarchal basilicas”. Together with the minor basilica
of St Lawrence outside the Walls, they were associated
with the five ancient patriarchal sees of Christendom (see
Pentarchy): St John Lateran was associated with Rome,
St Peter’s with Constantinople (present-day Istanbul), St
Paul’s with Alexandria (in Egypt), St Mary Major with
Antioch (the Levant) and St Lawrence with Jerusalem.

Minor basilicas

Main article: Minor basilica

The privileges attached to the status of minor basilica,
Basilica of Salta in Argentina.
which is conferred by papal brief, include a certain prece-
dence before other churches, the right of the conopaeum
(a baldachin resembling an umbrella; also called umbrac-
Ranking of churches ulum, ombrellino, papilio, sinicchio, etc.) and the bell
(tintinnabulum), which are carried side by side in pro-
The papal or major basilicas outrank in precedence all cession at the head of the clergy on state occasions, and
other churches. Other rankings put the cathedral (or co- the cappa magna which is worn by the canons or secular
cathedral) of a bishop ahead of all other churches in the members of the collegiate chapter when assisting at the
same diocese, even if they have the title of minor basil- Divine Office.[8] In the case of major basilicas these um-
ica. If the cathedral is that of a suffragan diocese, it yields braculae are made of cloth of gold and red velvet, while
precedence to the cathedral of the metropolitan see. The those of minor basilicas are made of yellow and red silk—
cathedral of a primate is considered to rank higher than the colours traditionally associated with both the Papal
that of other metropolitan(s) in his circonscription (usu- See and the city of Rome.
ally a present or historical state). Other classifications of There are five “pontifical” minor basilicas in the world
churches include collegiate churches, which may or may (the word “pontifical” referring to the title "pontiff"
not also be minor basilicas. of a bishop, and more particularly of the Bishop of
148 CHAPTER 2. ROMAN

Bari, the Pontifical Basilica of Saint Anthony in Padua,

the Pontifical Basilica of the Holy House at Loreto, the
Pontifical Basilica of St Michael in Madrid, Spain.
Until Pope Benedict XVI, the title “patriarchal” (now “pa-
pal”) was officially given to two minor basilicas[9] asso-
ciated with Saint Francis of Assisi situated in or near his
home town:

• Papal Basilica of St Francis of Assisi

• Papal Basilica of St Mary of the Angels in

Portiuncola.

The description “patriarchal” still applies to two minor

basilicas[9] associated with archbishops who have the ti-
tle of patriarch: the Patriarchal Cathedral Basilica of St
Mark in Venice and the Patriarchal Basilica of Aquileia.
Not all Patriarchal cathedrals are minor basilicas, notably:
the Patriarchal Cathedral of St Mary Major in Lisbon,
Portugal, the Patriarchal Cathedral of Santa Catarina, Old
Goa, India.

Basilicas and pilgrimages

Basilica of the Sacred Heart of Paris (France) is a minor basilica,
but not an architectural basilica

The Basilica of Divine Mercy, constructed in 2002 in Kraków,

Poland, received 2 million pilgrims in 2011.[3]
Tintinnabulum and conopaeum, one of the privileges granted to
a basilica In recent times, the title of minor basilica has been
attributed to important pilgrimage churches. In 1999
Bishop Francesco Giogia stated that the Basilica of Our
Rome): Pontifical Basilica of Our Lady of the Rosary Lady of Guadalupe in Mexico City (constructed in the
of Pompeii, the Pontifical Basilica of Saint Nicholas in 20th century) was the most visited Catholic shrine in the
2.7. BATHS OF DIOCLETIAN 149

world, followed by San Giovanni Rotondo and Basilica [8] Gietmann, G. (1913). "Basilica". In Herbermann,
of the National Shrine of Our Lady of Aparecida in Charles. Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Ap-
Brazil.[4] Millions of pilgrims visit the shrines of Our pleton Company.
Lady of Lourdes and Our Lady of Fatima. Pilgrimage
[9] The title of minor basilicas was first attributed to the
basilicas continue to attract well over 30 million pilgrims
church of San Nicola di Tolentino in 1783. Older minor
per year.[4] basilicas are referred to as “immemorial basilica”.
Every year, on 13 May and 13 October, the significant
dates of the Fatima apparitions, pilgrims fill the country [10] Trudy Ring, 1996, International Dictionary of Historic
Places, ISBN 978-1-884964-02-2 page 245
road that leads to the Sanctuary of Our Lady of Fátima
[10]
with crowds that approach one million on each day. In [11] Gcatholic (2010). “Basilicas in the World”. Archived
December 2009 the Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe from the original on 22 November 2010. Retrieved 12
set a new record with 6.1 million pilgrims during Fri- November 2010.
day and Saturday for the anniversary of Our Lady of
Guadalupe.[5]
Sources

Ecclesiastical basilicas by region • Krautheimer, Richard (1992). Early Christian and

In 2010, 1,587 churches bore the title of basilica.[11] As
of 30 June 2016, there are 1,752 basilicas (4 major; 1,748
minor) in the world; Italy (570), France (171), Poland
(144), Spain (120), United States (82), and Germany
(76).
Byzantine architecture. New Haven: The Yale Uni-
versity Press. ISBN 0-300-05294-4
• Architecture of the basilica, well illustrated.
• Syndicus, Eduard, Early Christian Art, Burns &
Oates, London, 1962

2.6.3 See also • Basilica Porcia

• Architecture of cathedrals and great churches • W. Thayer, “Basilicas of Ancient Rome": from
Samuel Ball Platner (as completed and revised by
• Cathedral Thomas Ashby), 1929. A Topographical Dictionary
of Ancient Rome (London: Oxford University Press)
• Duomo
• Paul Veyne, ed. A History of Private Life I: From
• List of basilicas Pagan Rome to Byzantium, 1987
• Roman architecture
• Heritage Foundation of Newfoundland and
• Roman Catholic Marian churches Labrador

• Gietmann, G. (1913). "Basilica". In Herbermann,

2.6.4 References and sources Charles. Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert
Appleton Company.
References

[1] The Oxford Dictionary of Christian Art and Architecture

2.6.5 External links
(2013 ISBN 978-0-19968027-6), p. 117
• List of All Major, Patriarchal and Minor Basilicas
[2] Helen Dietz, “The Eschatological Dimension of Church & statistics by Giga-Catholic Information
Architecture”

[3] Sacred Travels by Lester Meera 2011 ISBN 1-4405-2489-

0 page 53 2.7 Baths of Diocletian
[4] “Eternal Word Television Network, Global Catholic Net-
work”. Ewtn.com. 1999-06-13. Retrieved 2012-02-17. The Baths of Diocletian (Thermae Diocletiani) were
public baths in Rome, in what is now Italy. Named af-
[5] “Zenith News December 14, 2009”. Zenit.org. Retrieved ter emperor Diocletian's Baths and built from 298 to in
2012-02-17. 306, they were the largest and most impressive of the im-
perial baths. The project was originally commissioned by
[6] “Basilica Plan Churches”. Cartage.org.lb. Retrieved
2012-02-17.
Maximian upon his return to Rome in the autumn of 298
and was continued after his and Diocletian’s abdication
[7] Syndicus, 40 under Constantius, father of Constantine.[1]
150 CHAPTER 2. ROMAN

2.7.1 Location
The Baths occupy the high-ground on the northeast sum-
mit of the Viminal, the smallest of the Seven hills of
Rome, just inside the Agger of the Servian Wall. They
served as a bath for the people residing in the Vimi-
nal, Quirinal, and Esquiline quarters of the city.[2] The
Quadrigae Pisonis, a 2nd-century monument with various
reliefs, some private homes, and a relief representing the
temple of Quirinus once stood at the site but were demol-
ished to build the baths.[1] The water supply was provided
by the Aqua Marcia, an aqueduct that had long served the
city of Rome since the early 2nd century. To properly
supply the baths, the supply of water to the city was in-
creased under the order of Diocletian.[1] The baths may
have also been supplied by the Aqua Antoniniana, which
was originally positioned to supply Caracalla's baths in
the early 3rd century.[3]
Floorplan: 1=Caldarium 2=Tepidarium 3=Frigidarium
4=Natatio 5=Palaestra 6=main entrance 7=Exedra
2.7.2 History
The Baths were commissioned by Maximian in honor of
co-Emperor Diocletian in 298, the same year he returned was said to be much greater in comparison to the Baths
from Africa. Evidence of this can be found in bricks from of Caracalla. This could be because the entrance and
the main area of the baths, which distinctly show stamps rooms were made larger than its predecessor in block size,
of the Diocletianic period. These, according to the an- which allowed more space and functionality.[5] According
cient guidebook Mirabilia Urbis Romae, were known as to Olympiodorus, the baths were able to hold up to 3,000
“Palatium Diocletiani”.[2] This evidence shows the effect people at one time. However, this claim is disputed be-
of the massive project on the brick industry in that all cause Olympiodorus never mentioned how he came about
work by them was redirected and under control of the this figure in the first place.[2]
emperor.[4] Building took place between the year it was
first commissioned and was finished sometime between
the abdication of Diocletian in 305 c.e. and the death of
Constantius in July 306 AD.[1] The Baths remained in use
until the siege of Rome in 537 when the Ostrogothic king The frigidarium
Vitiges cut off the aqueducts.

The word frigidarium originates from the Latin word

2.7.3 Description
One of the four inscriptions around the main entrance to
the Baths of Diocletian reads, translated from Latin, “Our
Lords Diocletian and Maximian, the elder and invincible
Augusti, fathers of the Emperors and Caesars, our lords
Constantius and Maximian and Severus and Maximum,
noblest Caesars, dedicated to their beloved Romans these
auspicious Baths of Diocletian, which the divine Max-
imin on his return from Africa ordered to be built and
consecrated in the name of his brother Diocletian, hav-
ing purchased the premises required for so huge and re-
markable work and furnishing them with the most sump-
tuous refinement.”[2] The bath complex take up 120,000
square metres or 30 acres of the district, which is about
the same size as the Baths of Caracalla. The central block
of the baths was 280 (910 feet) by 160 meters (520 feet)
or 10.85 acres vs. 6 acres of the Baths of Caracalla;
from it were derived plans for the Basilica of Constan-
tine.[1] However, the capacity of the Baths of Diocletian
frigeo, which means “to be cold”. The prominence of
the room and its conjoining rooms showed the increase
in popularity cold baths had during the early 4th century
compared to the hot baths. This also could have been a
result of the depletion of the surrounding forests, result-
ing in a lack of fuel. The frigidarium, or Cella frigidaria
consisted of a pool and a host of smaller baths connected
to the main room. Water entering the room would come
from a pipe or cistern and would exit through a drain
within the pool. The water from the pool was thought
to have been reused to flush latrines within the complex.
The frigidarium was used mainly as a swimming pool or
a cold-water bath, depending on the time. Normally, one
would continue on to the frigidarium after using the hot-
water baths or after exercising in the palaestra. Noting
the massive size of the room, it was believed to have also
been used as a social room. This idea is supported by the
presence of statues and elaborate niches along the walls.[5]
On each end of the frigidarium are large shallow pools
that were made to be open-air bathing pools.
2.7. BATHS OF DIOCLETIAN 151

tions that part of the Bibliotheca Ulpia, which are found in

the Forum of Trajan, are being housed within the baths; a
statement he later contradicts when later referencing the
Bibliotheca Ulpia. However, with the presence of simi-
lar rooms that suggest that they were libraries found in
the Baths of Caracalla and the Baths of Trajan, it is not a
stretch to theorize that the baths of Diocletian contained
a library.[6]

Architectural styles

Within the frigidarium, the use of external buttresses for

the cross vaults were considered by some to be the first
example of the scientific system of thrusts and counter-
Landscape with Herdsmen and Animals in front of the Baths of thrusts in architecture.[2] Concerning the baths as a whole,
Diocletian, by Pieter van Bloemen, c. 1700 it has been described as evoking the Imperial style, or
a “Classical” image, which is the style of “manipulation
of space”.[7] To manipulate the space within this style,
The caldarium
the forms of the building were simple and give the im-
pression of a vast amount of open space. The builders
The word caldarium comes from the Latin word caleo,
of the baths used different techniques to create this ef-
meaning “to be hot”. It also has roots in the Greek word
fect. The exterior walls of the bath were encrusted with
that means “innermost room”. The purpose of the cal-
stucco to give the impression of stonework.[2] This tech-
darium was that of the principal bath chamber within the
nique was quite common within the structures built dur-
baths. From its namesake, the room was used for a hot-
ing the Imperial style of Roman architecture, e.g., The
water bath or for saunas or steam rooms. The room could
baths of Constantine, the Basilica Nova, and parts of the
have also been used for oiling before or after a bath, but,
Sessorian bridge.[8] The interior parts of the bath were
in most cases, this was moved to a separate room off of
supported by vaulting ceilings and arches to create curvi-
the caldarium.[5]
linear lines. The structure of the roof is an excellent ex-
The caldarium, or Cella caldaria, was rectangular in ample of Classical design. Architects used sloped forms
shape with many octagonal rooms found near it in the to cover curved extrados (the outer surface of the arch)
corner of the structure. The area seemed to be refer- of the vaulted halls.[2]
encing the older baths of Nero and Titus in its initial de-
sign. What set this caldarium apart was the sheer scale
of the room compared to its predecessors. It continued 2.7.4 Present day
a basilica-like theme from the frigidarium with a cross-
vaulted middle bay and three projecting apses. These ar-
chitectural techniques created the feeling of a more open
space for the patron. Dressing rooms, also known as
apodyteria, were located on either side of the caldarium.
Along the sides of the caldarium were private rooms that
are believed to have had multiple functions, including pri-
vate baths, poetry readings, rhetoricians, etc. Other areas
attached to the caldarium were a garden, lounging rooms,
gymnasiums, and small halls and semicircular exedrae
used as lecture and reading rooms.[4]

Funerary stele of a cook. Latin inscription: “Eros, cocus Po-

Presence of libraries sidippi, ser(vus) hic situs est” (“Eros, Posidippus’ cook, slave, lies
here”).
Rectangular halls connected to the hemicycle have been
suggested to be libraries because of their similar set-up to Parts of the structure were converted to ecclesiastical or
those in the Baths of Caracalla.[2] Historians, to support other use, including:
this theory, have demonstrated that these halls with their
niches could properly house books from that day. Refer- • Basilica of Santa Maria degli Angeli e dei Martiri
ences to the presence of libraries within the baths of Dio- (derived from the frigidarium, whose three soaring
cletian both confirm and contradict themselves, such as transept vaults provide one of the few glimpses of
the case of the author of the life of Probus. In it, he men- the original splendor of Roman building)[1]
152
San Bernardo alle Terme
• Church of San Bernardo alle Terme (derived from
one of the two circular rooms)
• Sections of the National Roman Museum (derived
from the main hall and the octagonal aula)[4]
Other remains of the baths are visible several streets away.
The church of San Bernardo alle Terme recycled one of
only two circular towers in the rectangular boundary of
the baths, flanking its southwestern wall. Between these
two towers, one large exedra used to exist as part of the
same wall. Today, only its outline may be appreciated in
the layout of Piazza della Repubblica.
The Smithsonian’s National Museum of Natural His-
tory building in Washington, D.C. was partially based
on design elements from these Baths, including the
semicircular windows.[9]
2.7.5 See also
• Ancient Roman architecture
• Baths of Caracalla
• Giovanni Battista Mercati for engravings from 1629
CHAPTER 2. ROMAN
2.7.6 Sources
• Platner, Samuel Ball, “Baths of Diocletian” 1929
• Dix, T. Keith (1994), “Public Libraries in Ancient
Rome”, Libraries & Culture, University of Texas
Press, 29 (3): 282–296, JSTOR 25542662
• Brown, Frank E. (1954), “Roman Architecture”,
College Art Journal, College Art Association, 17 (2):
105–114, JSTOR 774050
• Yegul, Fikret (1992), Baths and Bathing in Classical
Antiquity (First ed.), Cambridge, MA: MIT Press,
ISBN 0-262-74018-4
• Coulston, Jon (2000), Ancient Rome:The Archaeol-
ogy of the Eternal City, Oxford, England: Oxford
School of Archaeology, ISBN 0-947816-54-2
• Nielsen, Inge (1990), Thermae et Balnea: The Ar-
chitecture and Cultural History of Roman Public
Baths (First ed.), Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus univer-
sity Press, ISBN 87-7288-512-2
• Richardson, Lawrence (1992), A New Topograph-
ical Dictionary of Ancient Rome (First ed.), Balti-
more, MD: JHU Press, ISBN 0-8018-4300-6
• Lanciani, Rodolfo (1980), The Ruins and Excava-
tions of Ancient Rome (First ed.), Outlet, ISBN 0-
517-28945-8
2.7.7 References
[1] Platner, Samuel Ball (1929). A Topographical Dictionary
of Ancient Rome (First ed.). London: Oxford University
Press. ISBN 0-19-925649-7.
[2] Yegul, Fikret (1992). Baths and Bathing in Classical An-
tiquity (First ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN
0-262-74018-4.
[3] Coulston, Jon (2000). Ancient Rome:The Archaeology of
the Eternal City. Oxford, England: Oxford School of Ar-
chaeology. ISBN 0-947816-54-2.
[4] Richardson, Lawrence (1992). A New Topographical Dic-
tionary of Ancient Rome (First ed.). Baltimore, MD: JHU
Press. ISBN 0-8018-4300-6.
[5] Nielsen, Inge (1990). Thermae et Balnea: The Architec-
ture and Cultural History of Roman Public Baths (First
ed.). Aarhus, Denmark: Aarhus university Press. ISBN
87-7288-512-2.
[6] Dix, T. Keith (1994). “Public Libraries in Ancient
Rome”. Libraries & Culture. University of Texas Press.
29 (3): 282–296. JSTOR 25542662.
[7] Brown, Frank E. (1954). “Roman Architecture”. College
Art Journal. College Art Association. 17 (2): 105–114.
JSTOR 774050.
2.8. BATHS OF CARACALLA 153

[8] Lanciani, Rodolfo (1980). The Ruins and Excavations of

Ancient Rome (First ed.). Outlet. ISBN 0-517-28945-8.

[9] Ewing, Heather (2009). A guide to Smithsonian architec-

ture (First ed.). Random House Digital, Inc. p. 57. ISBN
978-1-58834-261-4.

2.7.8 External links

• Penelope.uchicago.edu, (Contains Latin translations
of Historia Augusta and other primary sources)

2.8 Baths of Caracalla

The Baths of Caracalla (Italian: Terme di Caracalla)
in Rome, Italy, were the second largest Roman public
baths, or thermae, built in Rome between AD 212 (or
211) and 217, during the reigns of Septimius Severus and
Caracalla.[2] They would have had to install over 2,000 t
(2,000 long tons; 2,200 short tons) of material every day
for six years in order to complete it in this time. Records
show that the idea for the baths were drawn up by Septim-
ius Severus, and merely completed or opened in the life-
time of Caracalla.[3] This would allow for a longer con-
struction timeframe. They are today a tourist attraction.
One of the statues that adorned the baths was the Farnese Her-
2.8.1 History cules.

were destroyed.[4] The bath was free and open to the pub-
lic. The earthquake of 847 destroyed much of the build-
ing, along with many other Roman structures.[5]
The building was heated by a hypocaust, a system of burn-
ing coal and wood underneath the ground to heat water
provided by a dedicated aqueduct. It was in use up to the
19th century. The Aqua Antoniniana aqueduct, a branch
of the earlier Aqua Marcia, by Caracalla was specifically
built to serve the baths. It was most likely reconstructed
by Garbrecht and Manderscheid to its current place.
In the 19th and early 20th century, the design of the baths
was used as the inspiration for several modern structures,
including St George’s Hall in Liverpool and the original
Pennsylvania Station (demolished in 1963) in New York
City. At the 1960 Summer Olympics, the venue hosted
the gymnastics events.
The baths were the only archaeological site in Rome dam-
aged by an earthquake near L'Aquila in 2009.[6] They
were again damaged, though minor, in August 2016 by
an earthquake in central Italy.[7]
The baths were originally ornamented with high qual-
ity sculptures. Among the well-known pieces recov-
The Baths of Caracalla (reconstructive drawing from 1899)
ered from the Baths of Caracalla are the Farnese Bull
The baths remained in use until the 6th century when and Farnese Hercules, now in the Museo Archeologico
the complex was taken by the Ostrogoths during the Nazionale, Naples; others are in the Museo di Capodi-
Gothic War, at which time the hydraulic installations monte there. One of the many statues is the colossal 4 m
154 CHAPTER 2. ROMAN

shippers of Mithras, the Persian god in vogue with the

military and mostly lower class men, in the second and
third centuries AD. The mithraeum was approximately
23 m (75 ft) long and 10 m (33 ft) wide with a cross-
vaulted ceiling. It can be only roughly dated by the two
main events associated with the baths: the mithraeum was
certainly created after the complex was completed in AD
217 and it was probably no longer in use when the aque-
duct supplying the complex was cut during the Greco-
Gothic Wars. Certainly the most intriguing feature is the
small tunnel that runs under the center of the main hall
into an adjoining room, where there is an entrance/exit
with staircase; this has been identified as the fossa san-
guinis, the ritual pit over which the bull at the center of
the Mithraic mythology was slaughtered, bathing one or
more initiates in its blood.[1][10]

2.8.3 Dimensions

The Farnese Bull

(13 ft) statue of Asclepius.

2.8.2 Interior

The Caracalla bath complex of buildings was more a

leisure centre than just a series of baths. The “baths” were
the second to have a public library within the complex.
Like other public libraries in Rome, there were two sep-
Plans of the baths (more here )
arate and equal sized rooms or buildings; one for Greek
language texts and one for Latin language texts.[8]
The baths consisted of a central frigidarium (cold room) Principal dimensions
measuring 55.7 by 24 m (183 by 79 ft) under three groin
vaults 32.9 m (108 ft) high, a double pool tepidarium • Precinct maximum: 412 m × 393 m (1,352 ft ×
(medium), and a caldarium (hot room) 35 m (115 ft) in 1,289 ft)
diameter, as well as two palaestras (gyms where wrestling
and boxing were practiced). The north end of the bath • Internal: 323 m × 323 m (1,060 ft × 1,060 ft)
building contained a natatio or swimming pool. The nata-
tio was roofless with bronze mirrors mounted overhead to • Central Block overall: 218 m × 112 m (715 ft × 367
direct sunlight into the pool area. The entire bath build- ft)
ing was on a raised platform 6 m (20 ft) high to allow for • Swimming Pool: 54 m × 23 m (177 ft × 75 ft)
storage and furnaces under the building.[9]
• Frigidarium: 59 m × 24 m (194 ft × 79 ft), height
The libraries were located in exedrae on the east and west
of 41 m (135 ft)
sides of the bath complex. The entire north wall of the
complex was devoted to shops. The reservoirs on the • Caldarium: 35 m (115 ft), height of 44 m (144 ft)
south wall of the complex were fed with water from the
Marcian Aqueduct.[9] • Internal courts: 67 m × 29 m (220 ft × 95 ft)

Quantities of materials
Subterranean features
• Pozzolana: 341,000 m3 (12,000,000 cu ft)
Discovered in 1912, the mithraeum at the Bath is consid-
ered the largest documented gathering space for the wor- • Quick lime: 35,000 m3 (1,200,000 cu ft)
2.9. ROMAN AMPHITHEATRE
• Tuff: 341,000 m3 (12,000,000 cu ft)
• Basalt for foundations: 150,000 m3 (5,300,000 cu
ft)
• Brick pieces for facing: 17.5 million
• Large Bricks: 520,000
• Marble columns in Central block: 252
• Marble for columns and decorations: 6,300 m3
(220,000 cu ft)
Estimated average labour figures on site
• Excavation: 5,200 men
• Substructure: 9,500 men
• Central Block: 4,500 men
• Decoration: 1,800 men
The 12 m (39 ft) columns of the frigidarium were made
of granite and they weighed close to 100 t (98 long tons;
110 short tons).
2.8.4 Grounds
The bath complex covered approximately 25 ha (62
acres). The bath main building was 218 (711 ft.) x 112
meters (370)and the height to the top of the roof line 44
meters (145 ft.); it covered 6.5 acres and could hold an
estimated 1,600 bathers.[9]
2.8.5 Public use in culture
Opera and concerts
The central part of the bath complex is the summer home
of the Rome Opera company. It is also a concert venue,
having achieved fame as the venue and backdrop for the [10] “Mithraeum at the Baths of Caracalla”. American Institute
first Three Tenors concert in 1990.
Sporting
The area was used for the Rome Grand Prix four times
between 1947 and 1951.[11][12]
2.8.6 Visiting
The extensive ruins of the baths have become a popular
tourist attraction. The baths are open to the public for an
admission fee. Access is limited to certain areas to avoid
damage to the mosaic floors, although such damage is al-
ready clearly visible. Also, a total of 22 well-preserved
columns from the ruins are found in the church of Santa
Maria in Trastevere, taken there in the 12th century.
155
2.8.7 See also
• List of largest monoliths in the world
• List of Roman domes
2.8.8 References
[1] Dowson, Thomas (22 November 2012). “Going Under-
ground at the Baths of Caracalla - Archaeology Travel”.
Archaeology Travel. Retrieved 27 August 2016.
[2] Scarre, Chris (1999). Scarre, Chris, ed. The Seventy Won-
ders of the Ancient World: The Great Monuments and How
They Were Built (1st ed.). London: Thames & Hudson. p.
178. ISBN 9780500050965.
[3] Walker, Charles (1980). Wonders of the Ancient World.
New York: Crescent Books. pp. 92–93. ISBN
9780517318256.
[4] http://www.rome-guide.it/english/monuments/
monuments_caracalla.html
[5] DeLaine,Janet, (1997), The baths of Caracalla: A study
in the design, construction, and economics of large-scale
building projects in imperial Rome, (1st ed.), London:
JRA, p. 169.
[6] “L'Aquila earthquake damaged ancient baths in Rome”.
The Telegraph. Telegraph Media Group Limited. 6 April
2009. Retrieved 27 August 2016.
[7] Kennedy, Maev (24 August 2016). “Art experts fear seri-
ous earthquake damage to historic Italian buildings”. The
Guardian. Retrieved 27 August 2016.
[8] DeLaine,(1997), The baths of Caracalla,(1st ed.), Lon-
don: JRA. p. 191.
[9] Roth, Leland M. (2007). Understanding Architecture: Its
Elements, History, and Meaning (2nd ed.). Boulder, Colo.:
Westview. ISBN 9780813390451.
for Roman Culture. 29 November 2012. Retrieved 27
August 2016.
[11] “More on Caracalla 1947”. Caracalla 1947. Retrieved 27
August 2016.
[12] Architectural Record, Volumes 19-20. F.W. Dodge Cor-
poration. 1906. p. 454. Retrieved 27 August 2016.
2.8.9 External links
• 1960 Summer Olympics official report. Volume 1.
pp. 76, 79.
• 1960 Summer Olympic official report. Volume 2.
Part 1. p. 345.
• Caracalla Thermal Baths
156
The Amphitheatre of Pompeii, one of the earliest known Roman
amphitheatres, in the 1800s.
2.9 Roman amphitheatre
Roman amphitheatres are amphitheatres – large, circu-
lar or oval open-air venues with raised seating – built by
the ancient Romans. They were used for events such as
gladiator combats, venationes (animal slayings) and ex-
ecutions. About 230 Roman amphitheatres have been
found across the area of the Roman Empire. Early am-
phitheatres date from the republican period,[1] though
they became more monumental during the imperial era.[2]
Amphitheatres are distinguished from circuses,
hippodromes, which were usually rectangular and
built mainly for racing events and stadia, built for
athletics. But several of these terms have at times been
used for one and the same venue. The word amphithe-
atrum means “theatre all around”. Thus an amphitheatre
is distinguished from the traditional semicircular Roman
theatres by being circular or oval in shape.[3]
2.9.1 Components
The different levels of the cavea in the Roman Theatre at Bosra.
Ima cavea in blue, media cavea in red and summa cavea in yel-
low.
CHAPTER 2. ROMAN
The Roman amphitheatre is made up of 3 main parts; the
cavea, the arena, and the vomitorium. The seating area
is referred to as the cavea (Latin for enclosure). Cavea
is formed of concentric rows of stands which are either
supported by arches built into the framework of the build-
ing, or simply dug out of the hillside or built up using ex-
cavated material extracted during the excavation of the
fighting area (the arena).
The cavea is traditionally organised in three horizon-
tal sections, corresponding to the social class of the
spectators:[4]
• The ima cavea is the lowest part of the cavea and the
one directly surrounding the arena. It was usually
reserved for the upper echelons of society.
• The media cavea directly follows the ima cavea and
was open to the general public, though mostly re-
served for men.
• The summa cavea is the highest section and was usu-
ally open to women and children.
Similarly the front row was called the prima cavea and
the last row was called the cavea ultima. The cavea was
further divided vertically into cunei. A cuneus (Latin for
wedge; plural, cunei) was a wedge-shaped division sepa-
rated by the scalae or stairways.
The arched entrances both at the arena level and within
the cavea are called the vomitoria (Latin “to spew forth";
singular, vomitorium) and were designed to allow rapid
dispersal of large crowds.
2.9.2 History
Early amphitheatres
It is uncertain when and where the first amphitheatres
were built. There are records attesting to temporary
wooden amphitheatres built in the Forum Romanum for
gladiatorial games from the second century BC onwards,
and these may be the origin of the architectural form
later expressed in stone.[5] In his Historia Naturalis, Pliny
the Elder claims that the amphitheatre was invented dur-
ing the spectacles of Gaius Scribonius Curio in 53 BC,
where two wooden semicircular theatres were rotated to-
wards each other to form one circular amphitheatre, while
spectators were still seated in the two halves.[3] But while
this may be the origin of the architectural term amphithe-
atrum, it cannot be the origin of the architectural concept,
since earlier stone amphitheatres, known as spectacula or
amphitheatra, have been found.[3]
According to Jean-Claude Golvin, the earliest known
stone amphitheatres are found in Campania, at Capua,
Cumae and Liternum, where such venues were built to-
wards the end of the second century BC.[5] The next-
oldest amphitheatre known, as well as one of the best-
2.9. ROMAN AMPHITHEATRE
researched, is the amphitheatre of Pompeii, securely
dated to be built shortly after 70 BC.[6] There are rel-
atively few other known early amphitheatres: those at
Abella, Teanum and Cales date to the Sullan era (until
78 BC), those at Puteoli and Telesia from the Augustan
(27 BC–14 AD). The amphitheatres at Sutrium, Carmo
and Ucubi were built around 40–30 BC, those at Antioch
and Phaestum (Phase I) in the mid-first century BC.[5]
Imperial era
Amphitheatre of Mérida, Spain.
In the Imperial Era, amphitheatres became an inte-
gral part of the Roman urban landscape. As cities
vied with each other for preeminence in civic build-
ings, amphitheatres became ever more monumental in
scale and ornamentation.[2] Imperial amphitheatres com-
fortably accommodated 40,000–60,000 spectators, or up
to 100,000 in the largest venues, and were only out-
done by the hippodromes in seating capacity. They fea-
tured multi-storeyed, arcaded façades and were elabo-
rately decorated with marble and stucco cladding, statues
and reliefs, or even partially made of marble.[7]
As the Empire grew, most of its amphitheatres remained
concentrated in the Latin-speaking western half, while in
the East spectacles were mostly staged in other venues
such as theatres or stadia.[8] In the West, Amphitheatres
were built as part of Romanization efforts by providing a
focus for the Imperial cult, by private benefactors, or by 12th century the Frangipani fortified even the Colosseum
the local government of colonies or provincial capitals as to help them in Roman power struggles.[14] Yet others
an attribute of Roman municipal status. A large number
of modest arenas were built in Roman North Africa,[8]
where most of the architectural expertise was provided
by the Roman military.[9]
The late Empire and the decline of the amphitheatre
tradition
Several factors caused the eventual extinction of the tra-
dition of amphitheatre construction. Gladiatorial munera Main article: List of Roman amphitheatres
began to disappear from public life during the 3rd cen- This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.
tury, due to economic pressure, philosophical disapproval
157
and opposition by the increasingly predominant new re-
ligion of Christianity, whose adherents considered such
games an abomination and a waste of money.[10] Specta-
cles involving animals, venationes, survived until the sixth
century, but became costlier and rarer. The spread of
Christianity also changed the patterns of public benefi-
cence: where a pagan Roman would often have seen him-
self as a homo civicus, who gave benefits to the public in
exchange for status and honor, a Christian would more of-
ten be a new type of citizen, a homo interior, who sought
to attain a divine reward in heaven and directed his benef-
icence to alms and charity rather than public works and
games.[11]
The Arles Amphitheatre as a fortified settlement, 18th-century
engraving
These changes meant that there were ever fewer uses for
amphitheatres, and ever fewer funds to build and main-
tain them. The last construction of an amphitheatre is
recorded in 523 in Pavia under Theoderic.[12] After the
end of venationes, the only remaining purpose of am-
phitheatres was to be the place of public executions and
punishments. After even this purpose dwindled away,
many amphitheatres fell into disrepair and were gradu-
ally dismantled for building material, razed to make way
for newer buildings, or vandalized.[13] Others were trans-
formed into fortifications or fortified settlements, such as
at Leptis Magna, Sabratha, Arles and Pola, and in the
were repurposed as Christian churches, including the are-
nas at Arles, Nîmes, Tarragona and Salona; the Colos-
seum became a Christian shrine in the 18th century.[14]
Of the surviving amphitheatres, many are now protected
as historic monuments; several are tourist attractions.
2.9.3 Important Roman amphitheatres
158 CHAPTER 2. ROMAN

The Colosseum [12] Bomgardner, 221.

[13] Bomgardner, 223.

[14] Bomgardner, 222.

2.9.6 External links

2.10 List of Roman amphitheatres

Main article: Roman amphitheatre
The remains of at least 230 amphitheatres have been

The Colosseum

The Flavian Amphitheatre in Rome, more generally

known as the Colosseum, is the archetypal amphitheatre.
As the largest such monument, built from 72 to 80 AD,
it remains as an icon of ancient Rome.

Amphitheatre of Pompeii

The Amphitheatre of Pompeii is the oldest surviving Ro-

man amphitheatre. It is located in the Roman city of
Pompeii, and was buried by the eruption of Vesuvius in
79 AD, that also buried Pompeii itself and the neighbor-
ing town of Herculaneum. It is also the oldest surviving Map of Roman amphitheatres
Roman amphitheatre built with stone.
found widely scattered around the area of the Roman Em-
pire. These are large, circular or oval open-air venues
2.9.4 References with raised 360 degree seating and not to be confused
with the more common theatres, which are semicircular
• Bomgardner, David Lee (October 2000). The Story
structures. There are, however, a number of buildings
of the Roman Amphitheatre. Routledge. ISBN 0-
that have had a combined use as both theatre and am-
415-16593-8.
phitheatre, particularly in western Europe. Following is a
list of Roman amphitheatre locations by country.
2.9.5 Footnotes
[1] Welch, Katherine E. (2007). The Roman amphitheatre: 2.10.1 See also
from its origins to the Colosseum. Cambridge University
Press. p. 9. ISBN 0-521-80944-4. • Roman architecture

[2] Bomgardner, 61. • Roman theatre

[3] Bomgardner, 37. • Circus (building)

[4] Roman Architecture • Arena

[5] Bomgardner, 59. • Stadium
[6] Bomgardner, 39.
Related modern building structures
[7] Bomgardner, 62.

[8] Bomgardner, 192. • List of contemporary amphitheatres

[9] Bomgardner, 195. • List of association football stadiums by capacity

[10] Bomgardner, 201–202. • List of indoor arenas

[11] Bomgardner, 207. • List of stadiums

2.11. CIRCUS (BUILDING) 159

2.10.2 References
[1] Durrës Amphitheatre#Site

[2] Jean-Claude Lachaux: Théâtres et amphithéâtres

d'Afrique Proconsulaire. Édisud, La Calade, Aix-en-
Provence 1970

[3] Raymond G. Chase: Ancient Hellenistic and Roman am-

phitheatres, stadiums, and theatres: the way they look
now. P. E. Randall, Portsmouth 2002, ISBN 1-931807-
08-6

[4] Pula Arena#Construction

[5] R. J. Wilson, La topografia della Catania romana. Prob-

lemi e prospettive, in <<CATANIA ANTICA, Atti del
The site of the former Circus Maximus in modern-day Rome
Convegno della SISAC>>, Pisa-Roma 1996, pp. 165-
167.

[6] Mariotti 2004
[7] s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 4#62
[8] FASTI On-line. “c.d. Villa degli Antonin”. Retrieved 8
April 2016.
[9] “Conjunto Arqueológico de Itálica. Portal de Museos
y Conjuntos Arqueológicos y Monumentales de An-
dalucía”. www.juntadeandalucia.es. Retrieved 2016-02-
13.
with theatres and amphitheatres, Circuses were one of
the main entertainment sites of the time. Circuses were
venues for chariot races, horse races, and performances
that commemorated important events of the empire were
performed there. For events that involved re-enactments
of naval battles, the circus was flooded with water.
According to Edward Gibbon, in Chapter XXXI of his
work The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman
Empire, the Roman people, at the start of the 5th century:

[10] Bern, Engehalbinsel, Römerbad(German) ...still considered the Circus as their

[11] Rohn, Corinna. “The Theater-Stadium-Complex home, their temple, and the seat of the
in Aizanoi”. Publikationsserver der BTU Cottbus- republic.[1][2][3]
Universitätsbibliothek. Retrieved 2012-04-01.

2.11.1 Architectural design

2.10.3 External links
• Aerial Photographs
• article “Amphitheatrum” (Smith’s Dictionary of
Greek and Roman Antiquities)
• Rome: Colosseum at LacusCurtius with Platner ar-
ticle
• Small list with details
• Several photographs
• Google Earth file containing several locations
• Romanheritage.com site with photos of Roman Am- Floorplan of Circus Maximus. This design is typical of Roman
phitheaters circuses.

The performance space of the Roman circus was nor-

2.11 Circus (building)
The Roman circus (from Latin, “circle”) was a large
open-air venue used for public events in the ancient
Roman Empire. The circuses were similar to the ancient
Greek hippodromes, although circuses served varying
purposes and differed in design and construction. Along
mally, despite its name, an oblong rectangle of two linear
sections of race track, separated by a median strip run-
ning along the length of about two thirds the track, joined
at one end with a semicircular section and at the other
end with an undivided section of track closed (in most
cases) by a distinctive starting gate known as the carceres,
thereby creating a circuit for the races. The Circus of
Maxentius epitomises the design.
160 CHAPTER 2. ROMAN

The median strip was called the spina and usually featured sion, as it only requires small excavations at either end
ornate columns, statues and commemorative obelisks. of the centreline. It is very probable that this can be done
The turning points on either end of the spina were usu- even when the circus is buried under subsequent construc-
ally marked by conical poles, called the metae (singular: tions. Track lengths may vary from the 245m of the cir-
meta).[4] cus at Gerasa (Jordan), to the 621m of the Circus Max-
The performance surface of the circus was normally sur- imus (Italy).
rounded by ascending seating along the length of both The alternative comparative dimension is that of seating
straight sides and around the curved end, though there capacity. This is much more complex to measure as it
were sometimes interruptions in the seating to provide requires that the dimensions of the original vertical and
access to the circus or the seating, or to provide for spe- horizontal extent of the inclined seating be re-established.
cial viewing platforms for dignitaries and officials. One In many cases the full structure of the inclined seating has
circus, that at Antinopolis (Egypt), displays a distinct gap been destroyed beyond the point where this can be mea-
of some 50m between the carceres and the start of the sured, or at the least would require a great deal more exca-
ascending seating where there is apparently no structure. vation than that required for the measurement of the track
This appears to be an exception. length. Seating capacity may vary from around 15,000
The great majority of circuses fit the description above. people at Gerasa (Jordan), to 150,000 at the Circus Max-
Those that do not display two different variations: that at imus (Italy).
Emerita Augusta (Mérida, Spain), where the carceres end
is substituted by a slightly curved 'straight' end joined to Orientation
the straight sides of ascending seating by rounded corners
of ascending seating; and a few in which the carceres end Circuses do not appear to have been constructed with any
is substituted by a second semi-circular end to produce special compass orientation. Those that are well identi-
an oval shaped arena. These latter circuses are normally fied can be found with their round ends oriented around
small (Nicopolis (Greece) and Aphrodisias (Turkey)), the compass. Examples include: N. Gerasa (Jordan); NE.
and should probably be considered stadiums. Antinopolis (Egypt); E. Circus of Maxentius (Italy); SE.
There are similar buildings, called stadia, which were Circus Maximus (Italy); S. Tyrus (Lebanon); SW. Gortyn
used for Greek style athletics. These buildings were simi- (Greece); W. Circus of Nero (Italy).
lar in design but typically smaller than circuses; however,
the distinction is not always clear. An example of this Relative location
type is the Stadium of Domitian.
Circuses can be found at 3 distinct locations relative to
the towns to which they belong:
2.11.2 Common characteristics
• outside the city walls at anything up to 1.5 km dis-
Dates tant, as at: Gerasa (Jordan) (c300m), and Leptis
Magna (Libya) (1.5 km).
Differently from other major Roman structures circuses
frequently evolved over long periods of time from a sim- • simply within the town walls, as at: Thessalonica
ple track in a field, through generations of wooden seat- (Greece).
ing structures (frequently destroyed by fire or rot), before • inside the walls, in the heart of the town, and an inte-
they finally began to be converted to stone. Although cir- gral part of the architectural power structure of the
cuses such as the Circus Maximus (Italy) may have ex- town, as at: Rome, Sirmium (Serbia) and Tarraco
isted in some form from as early as around 500BC, cir- (Spain).
cuses were mainly constructed during the 400 years be-
tween 200BC and 200AD.[5]
Carceres

Dimensions The carceres, or starting gates, had a distinctive, slanted,

slightly curved, plan form, designed to compensate for
The comparative dimensions of a circus may be mea- what would otherwise be significant differences in the
sured in 2 basic ways: by the length of the track, and distances from the individual starting gates to the start
by the seating capacity. Other dimensions, such as the of the first section of straight track on the right hand side
external dimensions of the structure may vary consider- of the spina (as seen from the carceres). The carceres
ably depending on the location, the site, and on specific were designed for the races to be run round the spina in
architectural characteristics. an anticlockwise direction.
The simplest comparative measurement of a circus is its The form of the carceres appears to have been standard-
track length. This is the most easily measured dimen- ised throughout the Roman world. The similarity in form
2.11. CIRCUS (BUILDING) 161

among the carceres of circuses of many different sizes
suggests that carceres were constructed according to a se-
ries of proportional mathematical relationships or formu-
las. It is not clear when the earliest carceres of the stan-
dardised form was constructed, nor whether there exists
documentary evidence for the existence of such formulas.
Some of the best examples of carceres can be found at:
Gerasa (Jordan) and the Circus of Maxentius (Italy).
[3] Gibbon, Edward (1776). “Chapter XXXI: Invasion
Of Italy, Occupation Of Territories By Barbarians.—
Part II.”. The History of the Decline and Fall
of the Roman Empire. ( Project Gutenberg; Gib-
bon, Edward, 1737-1794 https://www.gutenberg.org/
browse/authors/g#a375; OR Books by Gibbon, Ed-
ward (sorted alphabetically) https://www.gutenberg.org/
ebooks/author/375?sort_order=title ). Retrieved 2013-
11-11. External link in |publisher= (help) - second sen-
tence of the 4th paragraph

[4] Michael Gagarin; Elaine Fantham, eds. (2009). The Ox-

2.11.3 Best preserved
ford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome, Volume
1. Oxford University Press. p. 146. ISBN 978-0-19-
The best preserved circuses include: Emerita Augusta 517072-6.
(Spain), Caesarea Maritima (coastal) (Israel), Circus of
Maxentius (Italy), Gerasa (Jordan), Tyrus (Lebanon), [5] Circus Maximus#History of Construction.
Miróbriga (Portugal), Leptis Magna (Libya).
[6] [Auzia] Names of cities in Algerie in (A.D. 138) Roman
times and names now from E-DZ Community | Education
& Learning | Algerian History, Culture, Art, Law, Politics
2.11.4 List of Roman circuses (order by start date; start date: 21 Dec 2008).
Unless otherwise indicated the coordinates in the follow- [7] John H. Humphrey: Roman Circuses: Arenas for Chariot
ing list are of a point that lies within the space of a circus. Racing. University of California Press, Berkeley and Los
For the remaining circuses (those whose detailed location Angeles 1986, ISBN 0-520-04921-7.
is not known) the point is for a location within the space
[8] [Cherchell] The Circus | Cherchel at circusmaximus.us.
of the historic nucleus of the associated town, or for a
location within the associated archaeological site. These [9] [Setif] The Circus | Circus at Setif at circusmaximus.us.
points are probably within 1.5 kilometres of the site of the
circus, as a circus was almost always within this distance [10] [Trimontium] The ancient stadium of Philippopolis
Track.
from its associated town.
(ordered initially by country; number of circuses at latest [11] [Trimontium] The ancient stadium of Philippopolis.
count (2012-04-01): 63) [12] [Antinopolis] Wikimapia location: Antinopolis.

[13] [Camulodunum] THE ROMAN CIRCUS VICTRICEN-

2.11.5 See also SIS IN COLCHESTER.

• Hippodrome – a Greek arena also used for chariot [14] [Camulodunum] Colchester Archaeological Trust.
racing [15] [Camulodunum] Roman Circus 200 m south of Abbey
House, EHER/SMR Number 46327 at Unlocking Essex’s
• Amphitheater
Past website from Heritage Conservation at Essex County
• Roman theatre (structure) Council.

[16] [Arelate] Cirque romain (French), at Patrimoine de la

2.11.6 References
[1] Gibbon, Edward (1776). “Chapter 31 - Games and spec-
tacles”. The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman
Empire. Christian Classics Ethereal library; Edward Gib-
bon, English historian of the Roman Empire. Retrieved
2013-11-11. - second sentence of the following paragraph
Ville d'Arles | Ville d'Arles | Barriol / Plan-du-Bourg.
[17] [Arelate] Cirque romain d'Arles at Arles Office de
Tourisme | Visit | Places to visit.
[18] [Arelate] Cirque romain | Description (French), at
Patrimoine de la Ville d'Arles | Ville d'Arles | Barriol /
Plan-du-Bourg.

[2] Gibbon, Edward (1776). “Chapter XXXI: Invasion
Of Italy, Occupation Of Territories By Barbarians.—
Part III.”. The History of the Decline and Fall
of the Roman Empire. ( Project Gutenberg; Gib-
bon, Edward, 1737-1794 https://www.gutenberg.org/
browse/authors/g#a375; OR Books by Gibbon, Ed-
ward (sorted alphabetically) https://www.gutenberg.org/
ebooks/author/375?sort_order=title ). Retrieved 2013-
11-11. External link in |publisher= (help) - second sen-
tence of the 4th paragraph
[19] [Arelate] Wikimapia location: Arelate.
[20] [Arelate] The Circus | Arles at circusmaximus.us.
[21] [Lugdunum] Cirque antique de Lyon and Cirque antique
de Lyon#Hypothèses de localisation (French).
[22] Raymond G. Chase: Ancient Hellenistic and Roman am-
phitheatres, stadiums, and theatres: the way they look
now. P. E. Randall, Portsmouth 2002, ISBN 1-931807-
08-6
162
[23] [Vienna] The Circus | Vienne at circusmaximus.us.
[24] [Augusta Treverorum] satellite photo from LIVIUS Arti-
cles on Ancient History | Germania Inferior | Topography
| Augusta Treverorum (Trier) | Trier: Circus.
[25] [Augusta Treverorum] Wikimapia location: Augusta
Treverorum Roman circus.
[26] [Augusta Treverorum] Archäologie in Trier (in German)
from Universität Trier | Organisation | Fachbereiche und
Fächer | Fachbereich III | Klassische Archäologie | Was |
Archäologie in Trier.
[27] [Augusta Treverorum] Trier: Circus at LIVIUS Articles
on Ancient History | Germania Inferior | Topography |
Augusta Treverorum (Trier).
[28] [Corinth] A Roman Circus in Corinth at HighBeam Re-
search » Publications » Academic journals » History jour-
nals » Hesperia, paper reference: David Gilman Romano,
“A Roman Circus in Corinth,” in Hesperia 74, 2005, pp.
585–611.
[29] [Corinth] Figure 11. Roman Corinth, ca. A.D. 50, and a
portion of the land divided between the long walls illus-
trating the north-south roadways. from Corinth Computer
Project | Greek and Roman Corinth | 44 BC – Colonia
Laus Iulia Corinthiensis (Figure 11).
[30] [Corinth] Figure 11. Roman Corinth, ca. A.D. 50, and a
portion of the land divided between the long walls illus-
trating the north-south roadways from Corinth Computer
Project | Greek and Roman Corinth | Colonia Laus Iulia
Corinthiensis, 44 BC (Figure 11).
[31] [Corinth] Wikimapia location: Corinth Roman circus
(hypothesised and partially excavated location).
[32] [Gortyn] Map of Gortyn (Gortina – Planta Archaeologica
Dela Citta) at romanaqueducts.info | Roman Aqueducts
| AQUASITE: Information on 50 selected Roman aque-
ducts | Gortyn(a) (Greece / Crete).
[33] [Gortyn] Wikimapia location: Gortyn Roman circus.
[34] [Gortyn] The Circus | Circus of Gortyn at
circusmaximus.us.
[35] [Nicopolis] Wikimapia location: Nicopolis Roman circus.
[36] [Thessalonica] Wikimapia location: Thessalonica Roman
circus.
[37] [Thessalonica] archaeological map of walled historical
centre of Thessalonica.
[38] [Caesarea Maritima] The Circus | Caesarea at
circusmaximus.us.
[39] [Caesarea Maritima (coastal)] Wikimapia location: Cae-
sarea Maritima Roman circus (coastal).
[40] [Caesarea Maritima (inland)] Wikimapia location: Cae-
sarea Maritima Roman circus (inland).
[41] [Aquileia] The Circus | Aquileia at circusmaximus.us.
[42] [Aquileia] Wikimapia location: Aquileia Roman circus.
CHAPTER 2. ROMAN
[43] [Bovillae] L'antica Bovillae | Il Circo di Bovillae (Italian)
at parcodibovillae.org | PROTEZIONE DELL'AREA
DELL'ANTICA BOVILLAE (Italian).
[44] [Bovillae] English page | The Roman stadium of Boville
at parcodibovillae.org | PROTEZIONE DELL'AREA
DELL'ANTICA BOVILLAE (Italian).
[45] [Bovillae] Wikimapia location: Bovillae Roman circus.
[46] [Mediolanum] The Circus | Milan at circusmaximus.us.
[47] [Mediolanum] Wikimapia location: Mediolanum Roman
circus.
[48] [Mediolanum] J.H.Humphrey, Roman Circuses, Londra
1986, p.614.
[49] [Mediolanum] Wikimapia location: Milan Roman circus
(tower at the north western corner).
[50] [Circus Flaminius] Wikimapia location: Circus
Flaminius, Rome.
[51] [Circus Flaminius] Circus Flaminius.
[52] [Circus Flaminius] Circus Flaminius – Samuel Ball Plat-
ner, 1929, via http://penelope.uchicago.edu/ at the Uni-
versity of Chicago.
[53] [Circus of Maxentius] Wikimapia location: Circus of
Maxentius, Rome.
[54] [Circus of Maxentius] The Circus | Maxentius at
circusmaximus.us.
[55] [Circus Maximus] Circus Maximus#Republican era.
[56] [Circus of Nero] Wikimapia location: Circus of Nero (lo-
cation of the spina obelisk until 1586).
[57] [Circus of Nero] Wikimapia location: Circus of Nero (lo-
cation of the obelisk since 1586).
[58] [Circus of Nero] The Circus | Vatican Circus at
circusmaximus.us.
[59] [Circus Varianus] Wikimapia location: Circus Varianus,
Rome.
[60] [Circus Varianus] Circo Variano at Italian Wikipedia.
[61] [Circus Varianus] The Circus | Varianus at
circusmaximus.us.
[62] [Gadara] Gadara (Umm Quais) Topographische Bestand-
karte 2007 (archaeological site map) from Research
projects | geographical order | Gadara/Umm Qais (Jor-
danien) at Deutsches Archäologisches Institut (DAI).
[63] [Gadara] Wikimapia location: Gadara hippodrome.
[64] [Gerasa] Wikimapia location: Gerasa Roman circus.
[65] [Gerasa] The Circus | Gerasa at circusmaximus.us.
[66] [Berytus] Wikimapia location: Colonia Iulia Augusta Fe-
lix Berytus Roman hippodrome.
[67] [Tyrus] Wikimapia location: Tyrus Roman circus.
2.11. CIRCUS (BUILDING)
[68] [Tyrus] The Circus | Tyre at circusmaximus.us.
[69] [Cyrene] Wikimapia location: Cyrene Roman circus.
[70] [Cyrene] The Circus | Circus at Cyrene at
circusmaximus.us.
[71] [Leptis Magna] Wikimapia location: Leptis Magna Ro-
man circus.
[72] [Leptis Magna] The Circus | Leptis Magna at
circusmaximus.us.
[73] [Aeminium] Aeminium at Museu Nacional de Machado
de Castro | English Version.
[74] [Aeminium] Aeminium Archived January 21, 2012, at the
Wayback Machine. (in Portuguese), at Museu Nacional
de Machado de Castro | Mini-Sítios.
[75] [Aeminium] Wikimapia location: suggested location for [100] [Toletum] Wikimapia location: Toletum Roman circus
Aeminium Roman circus.
[76] [Balsa] O Urbanismo de Balsa Romana (from 8:50; [101] [Zafra] Zafra#Roman era (article accessed: 2012-03-01).
dimensions given at 9:11) at Campo Arqueológico de
Tavira.
[77] [Miróbriga] Wikimapia location: Miróbriga Roman cir-
cus.
[78] [Miróbriga] The Circus | Circus of Mirobriga at
circusmaximus.us.
[79] [Olissipona] A Cronologia do Circo de Olisipo by IPPAR
(now IGESPAR); published as: Revista Portuguesa de Ar-
queologia. volume 5. número 2. 2002, pp 245–275, “A [104] [Bostra] Wikimapia location: Nova Trajana Bostra Ro-
Cronologia do Circo de Olisipo: a Terra Sigillata”, Eurico
Sepúlveda and others.
[80] [Sirmium] archaeological plan of Roman Sirmium from
Sirmium Palatium Imperiale at Carska Palata Sirmium. [106] [Abthugni]+[Commodum (as: Mun. Aur. Comm.)] map
[81] [Sirmium] Sirmium#Archeological findings.
[82] [Calagurris] Cidade | Turismo | Monumentos | Arque-
ología Romana at Ayuntamiento de Calahorra.
[83] [Calagurris] Wikimapia location: Calagurris Roman cir-
cus.
[84] [Cáparra] Wikimapia location: Cáparra Roman circus.
[85] [Cáparra] Cáparra at Spanish Wikipedia.
[86] [Corduba] Wikimapia location: Corduba Roman circus.
[87] [Corduba] Cordoba Roman circus at Artencordoba.com |
Roman Córdoba (see also: plan of Roman Cordoba; and:
detailed location map of the circus).
[88] [Emerita Augusta] Wikimapia location: Emerita Augusta
Roman circus.
[89] [Emerita Augusta] The Circus | Emerita Augusta at
circusmaximus.us.
[90] [Italica] Roman sites by list | Spain | Italica at Imperium
Roman sites.
[91] [Saguntum] Wikimapia location: Saguntum Roman cir-
cus.
163
[92] [Saguntum] Roman sites by list | Spain | Sagunto at
Imperium Roman sites.
[93] [Saguntum] Wikimapia location: Saguntum Roman cir-
cus (excavated gate).
[94] [Saguntum] Wikimapia location: Saguntum Roman cir-
cus (information, including dimensions, in Spanish).
[95] [Saguntum] The Circus | Segunto at circusmaximus.us.
[96] [Tarraco] Roman Art | Public Spectacles architecture |
Circus of Tarraco in Tarragona | Roman Circus of Tar-
raco, at Tarragona at SpanishArts.com.
[97] [Tarraco] The Circus | Tarragona at circusmaximus.us.
[98] [Toletum] The Circus | Toledo at circusmaximus.us.
[99] [Toletum] Wikimapia location: Toletum Roman circus.
(curved end).
[102] [Bostra] Plan de l'Ancienne Ville de Bosra montrant
l'emplacement de tous les monuments connus. B&W, 37
x 25 cm, scale by approximation ~ 1:6,100. Shows in red
the boundaries of the site at UNESCO | Ancient City of
Bosra.
[103] [Bostra] Plan de Bosra (circus identified as a hippodrome)
from In-Depth History | Plan of the City | Plan of the City
at Bosracity.com | English.
man circus.
[105] [Bostra] The Circus | Bostra at circusmaximus.us.
from DocArtis | Progetti | TUNISIA: Projet de gestion
du patrimoine culturel | Bibliografie | B0000018 | Pflaum
H. G., Romanisation de l'ancien territoire de la Carthage
punique; The full article and map can be found from:
Pflaum H. G., “Romanisation de l'ancien territoire de la
Carthage punique” - in Antiquités africaines, 4, 1970. pp.
75-118. (the full map is on the last page; a high resolution
version of the complete map may be obtained by using the
scaling facilities of the site to enlarge the map, and then
saving the resulting image).
[107] [Abthugni] Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman
World, Edited by Richard J. A. Talbert, Map 32 Carthago;
textual directory to map available from: http://press.
princeton.edu/B_ATLAS.ZIP | BATL032_.PDF (refer-
ence to Abthugni and Henchir-es-Souar on directory page
494 (PDF page 2)).
[108] [Abthugni] Hennchir Kasbat es Souar: Tunisia,
SOURCE: National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency,
Bethesda, MD, USA.
[109] [Abthugni (as: 'Ruins’ at ref: NJ 32-
15/510322)]+[Commodum (as: 'Henchir Boucha
(ruins)' at ref: NJ 32-15/498358)] on map: NJ 32-15
Tunis, Tunisia from Perry-Castañeda Library Map Col-
lection | Tunisia Maps | Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia,
Joint Operations Graphic 1:250,000.
 164 CHAPTER 2. ROMAN

[110] [Abthugni] ZAGHOUAN (search for 'A00030'), from [125] [Thugga] Dougga#Circus.
Docartis | Tunisia | Patrimonio archeologico e storico | Siti
complessi e monumenti | Gestion du patrimoine culturel [126] [Thugga] The Circus | Dougga at circusmaximus.us.
de la Tunisie - Liste des monuments et décrets par gou-
vernorat (search for 'Zaghouan'). [127] [Thysdrus] Wikimapia location: Thysdrus Roman circus.

[111] [Abthugni] Décret du 13 mars 1912 (24 rabia-el-aoual [128] [Thysdrus] The Circus | El Djem at circusmaximus.us.
1330), page 2 (search for 'Henchir Souar'), from Docartis
[129] [Utica] Cahier Ghar el Melh (NO-SO) from Institut Na-
| Tunisia | Patrimonio archeologico e storico | Decreti di
tional du Patrimoine Tunisie | Archaeological Map | Carte
protezione | Liste Decrets (search for '14, Décret du 13
National des Sites Arqueologiques e des Monuments His-
mars 1912 (24 rabia-el-aoual 1330)' | Décret du 13 mars
toriques | 007 Ghar el Melh.
1912 (24 rabia-el-aoual 1330).
[130] [Utica] Utica, Tunisia at British School at Rome » Ac-
[112] [Abthugni] aerial photograph from Docartis | Tunisia |
cademia Britannica di Archeologia, Storia e Belle Arti
Fonti documentarie | Foto aeree | PHOTOS AERI-
» Research » Archaeology » Geophysics » Geophysics
ENNES (search for 'Henchir Souar, A00030').
Projects (search for 'Utica, Tunisia').
[113] [Abthugni] Wikimapia location: Henchir Souar.
[131] [Utica] Wikimapia location: Utica Roman circus (uncor-
[114] [Carthago] The Circus | Carthage Circus at roborated).
circusmaximus.us.
[132] [Utica] Wikimapia location: Utica Roman circus (proba-
[115] [Carthago] Wikimapia location: Carthago Roman circus. ble).

[116] [Commodum] site no. 028.113, Henchir Fraxine/Henchir [133] [Utica] 'Survey and Excavation at Utica 2010' by Nabil
Bou Cha (anc. Municipium Aurelium Commodum) Kallala, Elizabeth Fentress, Josephine Quinn, Andrew
(doc page: 98; PDF page: 99)(gives UTM coordinates: Wilson (maps on pages 11 and 12).
358,900N; 498,350E = approx: 36 deg 32' N, 9 deg 53'
[134] [Antioch] The Circus | Antioch at circusmaximus.us.
E) from Institut National du Patrimoine Tunisie | Archae-
ological Map | Carte National des Sites Arqueologiques e [135] [Antioch] map Ancient City of Antioch Archived Decem-
des Monuments Historiques | Bir Mcherga 028 | Cahier ber 30, 2005, at the Wayback Machine. from a past exhi-
BIR MCHERGA 028. (French) bition at the The Cleveland Museum of Art.
[117] [Hadrumetum] Wikimapia location: Sousse Roman cir- [136] [Antioch] Wikimapia location: ancient city of Antioch.
cus (probable location).
[137] [Antioch] Wikimapia location: Antioch Roman hippo-
[118] [Hadrumetum] Sousse Archaeological Bulletin (espe-
drome.
cially PDF pages: 16, 17, 19, 204, 239, 410) “SOCIÉTÉ
ARCHÉOLOGIQUE DE SOUSSE, Assemblée générale [138] [Aphrodisias] Wikimapia location: Aphrodisias Roman
du 29 Février 1903, Extraits des procès-verbaux des réu- circus/hippodrome/stadium.
nions.” etc., from Institut National du Patrimoine Tunisie /
National Heritage Institute (INP) | Digital Library | Sousse [139] [Aphrodisias] The Circus | Aphrodisia at
Archaeological Bulletin (near bottom of page). (French) circusmaximus.us.

[119] [Hadrumetum] aerial photograph of Sousse from [140] [Byzantium] Hippodrome of Constantinople#History and
DocArtis | Progetti | TUNISIA: Projet de gestion du use.
patrimoine culturel | Fonti documentarie | Foto aeree |
PHOTOS AERIENNES | Sousse ville. | A00219. [141] [Byzantium] Hippodrome of Constantinople#The Hippo-
drome today.
[120] [Thugga] Dougga#Dougga’s “liberty”.
[142] [Byzantium] The Circus | Constantinople at
[121] [Thugga] Wikimapia location: Thugga Roman circus (ap- circusmaximus.us.
proximate location).
[143] [Laodicea on the Lycus] Wikimapia location: Laodicea
[122] [Thugga] Délimitation du site culturel de Dougga. A3. on the Lycus Roman stadium or circus.
Scale by calculation ~ 1: 6,250. Shows boundaries
and buffer zone of the World Heritage property from [144] [Nicomedia] The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical
UNESCO » Culture » World Heritage Centre » The List Sites | NICOMEDIA NW Turkey at Perseus Digital Li-
» World Heritage List » Dougga / Thugga » Maps. brary | Collections/Texts | Perseus Collection | Greek and
Roman Materials (search for 'The Princeton Encyclopedia
[123] [Thugga] THE GERMAN-TUNISIAN PROJECT AT of Classical Sites’).
DOUGGA FIRST RESULTS OF THE EXCAVATIONS
SOUTH OF THE MAISON DU TRIFOLIUM (page 47). [145] [Nicomedia] KocaeLi - information on historical remains
at Izmit (ancient Nicomedia).
[124] [Thugga] PlanetWare.com > Africa and the Middle East
> Tunisia > Tunisia Tourist Attractions > Dougga Tourist [146] [Nicomedia] Kocaeli Metropolitan Municipality | History
Attractions | Circus. of Kocaeli.
2.12. ROMAN THEATRE (STRUCTURE) 165

2.11.7 External links to influence local architecture, we see numerous theatres

around the world with uniquely Roman attributes.[1]
• Cyrene
There exist similarities between the theatres and
• Ondernemen.in: List of circus-hippodrome struc- amphitheatres of ancient Rome/Italy. They were con-
tures structed out of the same material, Roman concrete, and
provided a place for the public to go and see numer-
• Google Earth file containing several locations ous events throughout the Empire. However, they are
two entirely different structures, with specific layouts that
lend to the different events they held. Amphitheatres
2.12 Roman theatre (structure) did not need superior acoustics, unlike those provided
by the structure of a Roman theatre. While amphithe-
atres would feature races and gladiatorial events, theatres
hosted events such as plays, pantomimes, choral events,
and orations. Their design, with its semicircular form,
enhances the natural acoustics, unlike Roman amphithe-
atres constructed in the round.[1]
These buildings were semi-circular and possessed certain
inherent architectural structures, with minor differences
depending on the region in which they were constructed.
The scaenae frons was a high back wall of the stage floor,
supported by columns. The proscaenium was a wall that
supported the front edge of the stage with ornately dec-
orated niches off to the sides. The Hellenistic influence
is seen through the use of the proscaenium. The Roman
theatre also had a podium, which sometimes supported
Roman theatre at Amman, Jordan the columns of the scaenae frons. The theatre itself was
divided into the stage (orchestra) and the seating section
Roman theatres derive from and are part of the over- (auditorium). Vomitoria or entrances and exits were made
all evolution of earlier Greek theatres. Indeed, much available to the audience.[2]
of the architectural influence on the Romans came from
the Greeks, and theatre structural design was no differ-
ent from other buildings. However, Roman theatres have
specific differences, such as generally being built upon
their own foundations instead of earthen works or a hill-
side and being completely enclosed on all sides.

2.12.1 Buildings

Roman Theatre (Mérida)

The auditorium, the area in which people gathered, was

sometimes constructed on a small hill or slope in which
stacked seating could be easily made in the tradition of
the Greek Theatres. The central part of the auditorium
was hollowed out of a hill or slope, while the outer ra-
dian seats required structural support and solid retaining
walls. This was of course not always the case as Romans
tended to build their theatres regardless of the availabil-
ity of hillsides. All theatres built within the city of Rome
were completely man-made without the use of earth-
works. The auditorium was not roofed; rather, awnings
Interior view of the Roman theatre of Bosra, Syria: 1) Scaenae
(vela) could be pulled overhead to provide shelter from
frons 2) Porticus post scaenam 3) Pulpitum 4) Proscaenium 5)
rain or sunlight.[3]
Orchestra 6) Cavea 7) Aditus maximus 8) Vomitorium.
Some Roman theatres, constructed of wood, were torn
Roman theatres were built in all areas of the empire from down after the festival for which they were erected con-
Spain to the Middle East. Because of the Romans’ ability cluded. This practice was due to a moratorium on perma-
166 CHAPTER 2. ROMAN

[4] Constance Campbell. “The Uncompleted Theatres of

Rome”, The Johns Hopkins University Press. Theatre
Journal 55.1 (2003) 67–79 10 May 2007.

2.13 Amphitheatre
For other uses, see Amphitheatre (disambiguation).
An amphitheatre or amphitheater /ˈæmfᵻˌθiːətər/[1][2]

Standard floor plan of a Roman theatre.

nent theatre structures that lasted until 55 BC when the

Theatre of Pompey was built with the addition of a tem-
ple to avoid the law. Some Roman theatres show signs of
never having been completed in the first place.[4]
Inside Rome, few theatres have survived the centuries fol-
lowing their construction, providing little evidence about
the specific theatres. The Roman theatre of Orange in
modern Orange, France, is a good example of a classic
Roman theatre, with an indented scaenae frons, reminis-
cent of Western Roman theatre designs, however stripped
of its ornamental stone columns, statues and facing.[3]
2.12.2 List of Roman Theatres
Main article: List of Roman theatres
2.12.3 See also
• Theatre of ancient Greece
• Theatre of ancient Rome
• Amphitheatre
• Roman architecture
The Colosseum amphitheatre in Rome, built c. 70 – 80 AD,
is considered one of the greatest works of architecture and
engineering.
is an open-air venue used for entertainment, perfor-
mances, and sports. The term derives from the ancient
Greek ἀμφιθέατρον (amphitheatron),[3] from ἀμφί (am-
phi), meaning “on both sides” or “around”[4] and θέατρον
(théātron), meaning “place for viewing”.[5][6]
Ancient Roman amphitheatres were oval or circular in
plan, with seating tiers that surrounded the central perfor-
mance area, like a modern open-air stadium. In contrast
both ancient Greek and ancient Roman theatres were built
in a semicircle, with tiered seating rising on one side of
the performance area. In modern usage, “amphitheatre”
is sometimes used to describe theatre-style stages with
spectator seating on only one side, theatres in the round,
and stadiums. Natural formations of similar shape are
sometimes known as natural amphitheatres.

2.12.4 References
[1] Jones, Mark Wilson (2000). Principles of Roman Archi-
tecture. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-
08138-3.

[2] Ros, Karen E. (1996). “The Roman Theater at Carthage”.

American Journal of Archaeology. 100 (3): 449–89.
JSTOR 507025.

[3] Richard Allan Tomlinson. “Theatres (Greek and Roman),

structure", The Oxford Companion to Classical Civiliza-
tion. Ed. Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth. Ox-
ford University Press, 1998. Oxford Reference Online.
Oxford University Press. Northwestern University. 11 Interior of the Colosseum
May 2007.
2.13. AMPHITHEATRE
Arles Amphitheatre, France: a Roman arena still used[7] for bull-
fighting, plays and summer concerts.
2.13.1 Roman amphitheatres
Main article: Roman amphitheatre
Ancient Roman amphitheatres were major public
Amphitheatre at El Djem
venues, circular or oval in plan, with perimeter seating
tiers. They were used for events such as gladiator com-
bats, chariot races, venationes (animal hunts) and execu-
tions. About 230 Roman amphitheatres have been found
across the area of the Roman Empire. Their typical
shape, functions and name distinguish them from Roman
theatres, which are more or less semicircular in shape;
from the circuses (similar to hippodromes) whose much
longer circuits were designed mainly for horse or chariot
racing events; and from the smaller stadia, which were
primarily designed for athletics and footraces.[8]
The earliest Roman amphitheatres date from the mid-
dle of the 1st century BC, but most were built un-
der Imperial rule, from the Augustan period (27 BC–
14 AD) onwards.[9] Imperial amphitheatres were built
throughout the Roman empire; the largest could accom-
modate 40,000–60,000 spectators. The most elaborate
featured multi-storeyed, arcaded façades and were elabo-
rately decorated with marble, stucco and statuary.[10] Af-
ter the end of gladiatorial games in the 5th century and
of staged animal hunts in the 6th, most amphitheatres fell
into disrepair. Their materials were mined or recycled.
167
Some were razed, and others were converted into forti-
fications. A few continued as convenient open meeting
places; in some of these, churches were sited.[11]
2.13.2 Modern amphitheatres
The Hollywood Bowl, California; a modern amphitheatre,
adapted from the bowl-shaped, natural amphitheatre from
which it gets its name. The standing structure is a bandshell
Local amphitheater at Keehner Park, West Chester, Ohio
In modern usage, an amphitheatre is a circular, semi-
circular or curved, acoustically vibrant performance
space, particularly one located outdoors. Contemporary
amphitheatres often include standing structures, called
bandshells, sometimes curved or bowl-shaped, both be-
hind the stage and behind the audience, creating an area
which echoes or amplifies sound, making the amphithe-
atre ideal for musical or theatrical performances. Small-
scale amphitheatres can serve to host outdoor local com-
munity performances.
Notable modern amphitheatres include the Shoreline
Amphitheatre and the Hollywood Bowl. The term “am-
phitheatre” is also used for some indoor venues such as
the Gibson Amphitheatre.
2.13.3 Natural amphitheatres
A natural amphitheatre is a performance space located in
a spot where a steep mountain or a particular rock forma-
tion naturally amplifies or echoes sound, making it ideal
168 CHAPTER 2. ROMAN

[7] Michel Tournier, Le coq de bruyère, W. D. Redfern, Fair-

leigh Dickinson Univ Press, 1996, p. 69

[8] Bomgardner, 37.

[9] Bomgardner, 59.

[10] Bomgardner, 62.

Bryce Canyon Amphitheatre from Sunrise Point
[11] Bomgardner, 201–223.

for musical and theatrical performances. The term am-

phitheatre can also be used to describe naturally occur- 2.13.6 References
ring formations which would be ideal for this purpose,
even if no theatre has been constructed there. • Bomgardner, David Lee (October 2000). The Story
of the Roman Amphitheatre. Routledge. ISBN 0-
Notable natural amphitheatres include the Drakensberg 415-16593-8.
amphitheatre in Drakensberg, South Africa, Slane Cas-
tle in Ireland, the Supernatural Amphitheatre in Victoria,
Australia, Ruth Amphitheatre in Alaska, Echo am-
phitheatre, Red Rocks Amphitheatre in Morrison, Col- 2.14 List of monuments of the Ro-
orado and The Gorge Amphitheatre in Washington State, man Forum
United States.

2.13.4 See also

• Arena

• Stadium

• Thingplatz

• List of Roman amphitheatres

• List of contemporary amphitheatres

• List of indoor arenas

A view of the Roman Forum.
• List of ancient Greek theatres
• Roman theatre (structure)
This list of monuments of the Roman Forum (Fo-
rum Romanum) includes existing and former buildings,
2.13.5 Footnotes memorials and other built structures in the famous Ro-
man public plaza during its 1,400 years of active use (8th
[1] New Oxford American Dictionary (Third ed.). Oxford century BC — ca 600 AD). It is divided into three cat-
University Press. 2010. egories: (1) those ancient structures that can be seen to-
[2] “Definition of Amphitheatre in Oxford dictionary. day as ruins or reconstructions; (2) ancient structures that
Meaning, pronunciation and origin of the word”. Oxford have vanished or exist only as fragments; and (3) churches
Dictionaries. Oxford University Press. 2014. Retrieved of the later, Christian, era.
23 February 2014. Many of the Forum’s monuments were originally built in
[3] ἀμφιθέατρον, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, the periods of the Kingdom (753 BC-509 BC) and the
'56'An Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon, on Peseus Republic (509 BC-27 BC), although most were destroyed
and rebuilt several times. The existing ruins generally
[4] ἀμφί, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek- date from the Imperial period (27 BC - 476 AD).
English Lexicon, on Perseus

[5] θέατρον, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-

English Lexicon, on Perseus
2.14.1 Existing (or reconstructed) ruins

[6] Hoad, T.F. (1996). The Concise Oxford Dictionary of En- Temples
glish Etymology. Oxford University Press. pp. 14, 489.
ISBN 0-19-283098-8. • Temple of Castor and Pollux (494 BC)
2.14. LIST OF MONUMENTS OF THE ROMAN FORUM 169

• Temple of Saturn (501 BC) Smaller monuments

• Temple of Vesta (7th century BC) • Rostra (New Rostra, Rostra Augusti), platform from
which politicians made their speeches to the Roman
• Temple of Venus and Roma (135) citizens
• Umbilicus Urbis Romae, the designated centre
• Temple of Antoninus and Faustina (141)
(“navel”) of the city from which, and to which,
all distances in Rome and the Roman Empire
• Temple of Caesar (29 BC)
were measured (probably identical with the Mundus
Cereris)
• Temple of Vespasian and Titus (79)
• Milliarium Aureum After Augustus erected this
• Temple of Romulus (309) monument, all roads were considered to begin here
and all distances in the Roman Empire were mea-
sured relative to that point.
Basilicas
• Column of Phocas, the last monument built within
• Basilica Aemilia the Forum.
• Lapis Niger (“Black Stone”), a very ancient shrine
• Basilica Julia which was obscure even to the Romans.

• Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine • Plutei of Trajan (Plutei Traiani), now in the Curia
Julia
• Colossus of Constantine, colossal statue for-
merly in the west apse of the Basilica of Max-
Pools, springs
entius
• The Lacus Curtius, the site of a mysterious pool ven-
erated by Romans even after they had forgotten what
Arches it signified.

• Arch of Septimius Severus • The Lacus Iuturnae (“Spring of Juturna”), a healing

pool where Castor and Pollux were said to have wa-
• Arch of Titus tered their horses

• Arch of Maxima
Roads, streets, staircases

• Gemonian stairssteps situated in the central part of

Government buildings or official residences Rome, leading from the Arx of the Capitoline Hill
down to the Roman Forum.
• Regia, originally the residence of the kings of Rome
or at least their main headquarters, and later the of- • Clivus Capitolinus was the street that started at the
fice of the Pontifex Maximus, the high priest of Ro- Arch of Tiberius, wound around the Temple of Sat-
man religion. urn, and ended at Capitoline Hill.
• Via Sacra, the famous processional street of Roman
• Curia Julia, official meeting place of the Roman
Triumphs; linked the Atrium Vestae with the
Senate (built by Julius Caesar, 44 BC; later recon-
Colosseum.
struction by Diocletian, 305 AD)
• Vicus Jugarius (“Street of the Yoke-Makers”)
• Tabularium, the records office of Rome; inside is the
Tabularium Museum
2.14.2 Vanished (or almost vanished)
• Portico Dii Consentes (“Portico of the Harmonious structures
Gods”)
Associated with the old Comitium
• Atrium Vestae, the house of the Vestal Virgins.
• Curia Hostilia (c. 560 BC-c. 80 BC), original meet-
• Tullianum, the prison used to hold various foreign ing place of the Senate (replaced by the Curia Cor-
leaders and generals. nelia)
170
• Basilica Porcia (184 BC), first basilica in the Forum
area; built by Marcus Portius Cato (Cato the Elder)
• Curia Cornelia (c. 80 BC-c. 50 BC), subsequent
meeting place of the Senate (replaced by the Curia
Julia)
• Rostra Vetera (Old Rostra), main speaker’s platform
until it was replaced by the nearby Rostra Augusta
(New Rostra)
• Graecostasis, platform or “grandstand” for Greek
and other foreign ambassadors
• Statue of Attus Navius and the Ficus Navia (Navian
fig tree), in front of the Curia Hostilia (the well-
being of Rome was supposed to be dependent upon
the health of this sacred fig-tree)
• Columna Maenia (“Column of Maenius"), a
commemorative column celebrating the (second)
Battle of Antium (338 BC)
• Columna Rostrata C. Duilii ("Rostral Column of
Gaius Duilius"), a commemorative column celebrat-
ing the naval Battle of Mylae (260 BC); remnants of
the inscription are in the Capitoline Museum [1]
Elsewhere in the Forum
• Altar of Saturn (Ara Saturni), much older than the
associated Temple of Saturn
• Arch of Augustus (29 BC), commemorated the
Battle of Actium (31 BC)
• Arch of Fabius (Fornix Fabianus; 121 BC), earliest
triumphal arch in the Forum
• Arch of Tiberius (16 AD)
• Basilica Fulvia (179 BC), replaced by the Basilica
Aemilia in 78 BC
• Basilica Paulli
• Basilica Opimia
• Basilica Sempronia (170 BC), replaced by the 2.14.3 Christian churches
Basilica Julia in 46 BC
• S. Maria Antiqua (6th century), oldest Christian
• “Ficus, Olea, Vitus”, a small garden plot in the cen-
ter of the Forum plaza where a fig-tree, olive-tree
and grape-vine were cultivated; beside (or in) the
Lacus Curtius
• Domus Aurea (“Golden House” of Nero), part of its
porticoed entrance extended into the eastern Forum
• Domus Publica (“State House”), official residence of
the Pontifex Maximus near the Regia
• Office of the Scribes and Heralds of the Aediles
CHAPTER 2. ROMAN
• Pool of Servilius (Lacus Servilius), near the Basilica
Julia; Sulla displayed heads of executed Senators
there
• Rostra Diocletiani, in front of the Temple of Caesar;
on the opposite side of the Forum from the Rostra
Augusti
• Shrine of Faustina the Younger
• Shrine of Vulcan (Vulcanal)
• Shrine of Venus Cloacina (Sacellum Cloacinae)
• Statua Marsyae (“Statue of Marsyas"), the satyr de-
picted with wineskin over his left shoulder and rais-
ing his right arm; a symbol of liberty
• Statue of Constantine the Great
• Statue of Domitian
• Statue of Tremulus
• Statue of Vertumnus
• Temple of Augustus
• Temple of Bacchus
• Temple of Concord
• Temple of Janus
• Temple of Jupiter Stator, either on the Forum or on
the Palatine Hill
• Tribunal Aurelium (Tribunal of Aurelius), near the
Temple of Castor and Pollux
• Tribunal of the City Praetor (Praetor Urbanus)
• Tribunal of the Praetor for Foreigners (Praetor Pere-
grinus)
• Well-head of Libo (Puteal Libonus or Puteal Scribo-
nianum)
• Statues of numerous other gods and men
monument in the Forum
• Oratory of the Forty Martyrs (6th or 7th cen-
tury), attached to S. Maria Antiqua
• SS. Cosmas and Damian (527), inside the “Temple
of Romulus”
• SS. Martina e Luca (625; current facade 1635-69)
• SS. Sergio e Bacco (678; totally demolished by
1812)
2.14. LIST OF MONUMENTS OF THE ROMAN FORUM 171

• S. Lorenzo de’ Speziali in Miranda (7th century; cur-

rent facade 1602), inside the Temple of Antoninus
and Faustina

• S. Adriano (7th century; baroque interior removed,

1935-38), formerly inside the Curia Julia

• S. Francesca Romana (10th century; current facade

1615), or Sta. Maria Nuova

• S. Maria Liberatrice (13th century; New facade

1617; Demolished 1900)

• S. Giuseppe dei Falegnami (1540)

2.14.4 References
[1] Columna Rostrata C. Duilii in Samuel Ball Platner and
Thomas Ashby: A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient
Rome (1929).
Chapter 3

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MichaelTinkler, Mav, Bryan Derksen, Gianfranco, Olivier, Dante Alighieri, Mdebets, Anders Feder, Stan Shebs, Darkwind, Error,
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Shadowjams, Misortie, Ashwednes, Patricius12, Franjuan, Ad1118, D'ohBot, T@Di, Dramartistic, Cannolis, Cod5maniac, Citation bot 1,
Pinethicket, Alonso de Mendoza, PrincessofLlyr, 10metreh, AmateurEditor, Hamtechperson, Kyahl, Vicedomino, Jauhienij, Elekhh, Cuc-
ciolo25, Amphicoelias, Gustavo.motta, Gulbenk, Vrenator, UNIT A4B1, Innotata, World8115, Onel5969, Zelevin, RjwilmsiBot, TjBot,
Mr magnolias, Scottchae14, EmausBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Super48paul, SteveM123, Bengt Nyman, Johnreedy, Wikipelli,
K6ka, NotableXception, Italia2006, Mz7, Zachoowackoo, Joe Gazz84, John Cline, Shuipzv3, ‫פארוק‬, KuduIO, Aeonx, AManWithNoPlan,
Thine Antique Pen, Jbribeiro1, L Kensington, Philafrenzy, Donner60, BL Gildersleeve, 28bot, Xanchester, Ladyliberty2000, LM2000,
ClueBot NG, Gareth Griffith-Jones, Nehocbelac, Hotel Abruzzi, Satellizer, Bped1985, Werewolf94, Halladayj, O.Koslowski, ScottSteiner,
Владимир Шеляпин, Widr, Butterly21815, Newyorkadam, Jamesgr8, Helpful Pixie Bot, Admin kerala, Jean-Pol GRANDMONT, Tito-
dutta, KLBot2, DBigXray, Paulc2, Dfbowsmountainer, BG19bot, Ymblanter, Wiki13, Marosi Gyula, MusikAnimal, Davidiad, Mar-
cocapelle, Accentman, Yowanvista, Adriano.93, Xwejnusgozo, Arminden, Dentalplanlisa, Snow Blizzard, Rococo1700, 220 of Borg,
Klilidiplomus, Achowat, Ctny, Haymouse, Cyberbot II, Indrani Iragavarapu, Trollingtoiletpaper, EuroCarGT, Dexbot, Torquatus, Hilmorel,
Lugia2453, Frosty, Dschslava, Epicgenius, BreakfastJr, PhantomTech, DavidLeighEllis, Dnalor 01, Paolocoen, Ginsuloft, Kind Tennis Fan,
Ithinkicahn, Dyrus4EverPeke, Jononmac46, Napalatt, Melcous, Monkbot, Tpchildress, The Smart Cheetah, Oscar3kings, Penultimate11,
KH-1, Caliburn, Wilba29, Steve honey, Jörg Bittner Unna, Csosa430, KasparBot, Loverofpandas, CabbagePotato, 3 of Diamonds, Starfire-
rulez101, CAPTAIN RAJU, Emmimoo9, DenverBroncos1960, Mar11, Berlinuno, GreenC bot, Maxfreeman73, Shwetabamb, Guri.gogel,
Citygirl30, Abw20, DrStrauss and Anonymous: 930
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erstemeier, Robbot, Donreed, Xanzzibar, Niteowlneils, Bobblewik, Btphelps, Utcursch, RTCearly, Miraclediver, LarryandSheryl, Narsil,
David Schaich, Bender235, El C, Bendono, Kappa, Tritium6, Geschichte, Alansohn, QVanillaQ, Carbon Caryatid, Swift, Mathmo, Jacobo-
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RibotBOT, Flags33, Lulu97417, Farkasven, Dhtwiki, Bcinskeep8, Citation bot 1, Pbpboys, Peroxwhy2gen, Patbruen, Jschnur, Masti-
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lafrenzy, GermanJoe, ClueBot NG, Morgankevinj AWB, Qaz Janssen, Amina.alobaid, Владимир Шеляпин, Widr, Urharec, Helpful
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Andygates, Michael Hardy, Delirium, Stan Shebs, Jniemenmaa, Error, Warofdreams, Wetman, GreatWhiteNortherner, Klemen Kocjan-
cic, Freakofnurture, Sicilarch, Goochelaar, Kbh3rd, Bill Thayer, Grutness, Deror avi, BD2412, Vegaswikian, Boticario, Epolk, Malcolma,
Dppowell, BL Lacertae, Attilios, SmackBot, Eskimbot, Hmains, Skizzik, Cush, Darth Panda, Drphilharmonic, Luxgratia, Peterlewis,
Sailko, Wikster72, Neddyseagoon, Alessandro57, JPilborough, Californicus, ShelfSkewed, Cydebot, Asdspeed, Thijs!bot, TonySever, Ap-
praiser, Alexander Domanda, The Anomebot2, Geoffmark, Mlindroo, JaGa, Gun Powder Ma, Iulus Ascanius, DorganBot, Hugo999,
VolkovBot, Roarshocker, TXiKiBoT, Wiae, Jamelan, Wolfrock, Cwkmail, Morningstar1814, Gawaxay, Wikijens, Addbot, LatitudeBot,
Mephiston999, SimoneMLK, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, LilHelpa, Zad68, DrilBot, I dream of horses, Lotje, Rjwilm-
siBot, John of Reading, Wikipelli, Deaniebean, FAM1885, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, Northamerica1000, Marcocapelle, Citation-
CleanerBot, Rococo1700, Ducknish, Torquatus, Hmainsbot1, Lparsp, Jakec, Doewiets, Audie Scribener and Anonymous: 45
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Avery, Panairjdde~enwiki, Heron, WhisperToMe, Tpbradbury, Warofdreams, AlainV, Fredrik, Chris 73, Ashley Y, David Edgar,
GreatWhiteNortherner, Decumanus, Barbara Shack, Eran, Ferkelparade, Ezhiki, Kuralyov, Oknazevad, D6, Jayjg, Freakofnurture, Soli-
tude, Exile, Pmsyyz, MeltBanana, Paul August, Mairi, Bill Thayer, Polylerus, SPUI, Grutness, Cmapm, Ghirlandajo, Japanese Searobin,
Rocastelo, Eoghanacht, Gryffindor, SMC, Vegaswikian, FlaBot, CalJW, YurikBot, TexasAndroid, RobotE, RussBot, Longbow4u, Boti-
cario, Epolk, Dr31, Moe Epsilon, Mlouns, Zwobot, Gadget850, BL Lacertae, Attilios, SmackBot, Thumperward, Kleinzach, Viva-Verdi,
Tsca.bot, Farmer88, GuillaumeTell, Clean Copy, Quinte eye, Kukini, Kuru, Peterlewis, Sailko, Ckatz, Drieakko, Neddyseagoon, Kir-
rVlad, RodCrosby, Alessandro57, CBM, Funnyfarmofdoom, Cydebot, PKT, Thijs!bot, Z10x, Miller17CU94, Sluzzelin, Joshua, Magiola-
ditis, Alexander Domanda, Jllm06, The Anomebot2, Mlindroo, Pax:Vobiscum, Gun Powder Ma, J.delanoy, Nev1, Peter Clarke, Johnbod,
NewEnglandYankee, DorganBot, Bonadea, Wmquinlan, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, Nrswanson, Ferengi, Howardhudson, Tontotti, Oxxo, My-
godfrey, Flyer22 Reborn, Radon210, Oda Mari, Antonio Lopez, Lightmouse, ClueBot, Morningstar1814, The Thing That Should Not Be,
Bachofen, NuclearWarfare, EivindJ, Burner0718, Jmuriel~enwiki, SilvonenBot, MarmadukePercy, Addbot, Mephiston999, Luckas-bot,
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3.1. TEXT 179

Abductive, Micraboy, Dante4848, Jamietw, DASHBot, EmausBot, Diiscool, AvicBot, ZéroBot, NicatronTg, Wayne Slam, Inglonias,
Spicemix, FAM1885, ClueBot NG, Smtchahal, Thetiesthatbind, BG19bot, Marcocapelle, Tahimu, Rococo1700, 220 of Borg, Lucullus19,
Ethan Doyle White, Torquatus, Little green rosetta, ThievingBeagles, Inglok, Howardsfb, FriarTuck1981, Spazboy222, InternetArchiveBot,
JJMC89 bot, RichardWats and Anonymous: 107
• Roman amphitheatre Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_amphitheatre?oldid=763505308 Contributors: Andrewman327,
Bender235, PMLF, Woohookitty, BD2412, Ketiltrout, Rsrikanth05, Sandstein, Chris the speller, Cydebot, Casliber, Yomangani, Para-
cel63, Dig deeper, Niceguyedc, Arunsingh16, Excirial, Mifter, Download, Alonso de Mendoza, Solarra, ClueBot NG, Prioryman, Helpful
Pixie Bot, BG19bot, MusikAnimal, Davidiad, Jhassanandani, Tobatar, Algertz, WoodhouseMason, Acquaduct, DatGuy, Darcyedmu and
Anonymous: 27
• List of Roman amphitheatres Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Roman_amphitheatres?oldid=760891945 Contributors:
Olivier, SebastianHelm, Docu, Charles Matthews, Wetman, Keith Edkins, Geni, D6, Bender235, CeeGee, Espoo, Denniss, Woohookitty,
Edbrims, TheDJ, SkiDragon, Korg, Gwernol, Bleakcomb, Grafen, Jpbowen, Open2universe, Meegs, Attilios, Myrabella, Colonies Chris,
Quartermaster, Bhludzin, BrownHairedGirl, Neddyseagoon, Joseph Solis in Australia, Basicdesign, Chicho Ficho, Eponymous-Archon,
Ken Gallager, Cydebot, Walgamanus, Thijs!bot, Barticus88, Jmg38, Kidbrother, Nick Number, Enlil2, Joris, JaGa, Gun Powder Ma, CvZ,
R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Nono64, Adavidb, KylieTastic, Deor, Gaudete, Berthold Werner, Natg 19, SieBot, Hasanbay~enwiki, Anyep,
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dbot, Caul Donnalba, Victrixt, AnomieBOT, HCATC4, Er Cicero, LilHelpa, Ffokoob, Antoniusz, RibotBOT, Io' 81, FrescoBot, Womboy,
Halavar, Kudelski, Ramessou Mériamon, Pako00, Giladteller, Look2See1, GoingBatty, Catalaalatac, Midas02, Waugh Bacon, ClueBot
NG, Wbm1058, PhnomPencil, SprinterBot, Cyberbot II, Globetrotter19, Rybec, WIKI1Q2W3E4R, AlanBOT, Dberov, Jakemadoff210,
Bek268, Bes327, GreenC bot, Cosasdefelipe, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 46
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Robbot, Andycjp, D6, Bender235, Melaen, BD2412, SkiDragon, Kurt Leyman, Fastifex, Samuel Blanning, Sardanaphalus, Attilios, Smack-
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Straw Cat, Deor, VolkovBot, Rambo’s Revenge, Flyer22 Reborn, Jorgegraca, ClueBot, Binksternet, BANZ111, Addbot, SpellingBot, Laa-
knorBot, Ginosbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Omnipaedista, FrescoBot, Alonso de Mendoza, RedBot, LucasW,
‫מוטי‬, EmausBot, Cricobr, John of Reading, Look2See1, AvicAWB, GermanJoe, Justlettersandnumbers, AvocatoBot, VladislavNedelev,
Cyberbot II, Serrabear8, Mogism, AlanBOT, JJMC89, King muh, InternetArchiveBot, GreenC bot, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 23
• Roman theatre (structure) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_theatre_(structure)?oldid=724373146 Contributors: Bryan
Derksen, Deb, Olivier, Ahoerstemeier, Error, GreatWhiteNortherner, Michael Devore, Woggly, The Singing Badger, MisfitToys, Oneiros,
Ganymead, Bender235, QuartierLatin1968, Mairi, CeeGee, Bobo192, Smalljim, MPerel, Grutness, Alansohn, Yamla, AndreasPraefcke,
Rjwilmsi, Vegaswikian, Eyas, SchuminWeb, SkiDragon, Moocha, Bgwhite, RussBot, Gaius Cornelius, Rsrikanth05, Elkman, Pegship, Co-
drinb, Nikkimaria, Gorgan almighty, Katieh5584, Codeine, Udimu, Attilios, SmackBot, Gilliam, Andy M. Wang, SlimJim, MalafayaBot,
J. Spencer, Viva-Verdi, Marco79, Rrburke, Khoikhoi, Kukini, Bhludzin, BrownHairedGirl, Mathiasrex, Dejudicibus, Neddyseagoon, Iri-
descent, Igoldste, Chicho Ficho, Lahiru k, Numidix, Eponymous-Archon, FlyingToaster, Cassmus, Kickyouworse, Epbr123, Oliver202,
Marek69, AntiVandalBot, Liquid-aim-bot, Goldenrowley, Ingolfson, Blood Red Sandman, Hut 8.5, F64too, PhilKnight, Cynwolfe, Enlil2,
VoABot II, JNW, Hinest, The Anomebot2, Allstarecho, Joris, PoliticalJunkie, Hbent, Gun Powder Ma, Seba5618, S3000, Averross,
CommonsDelinker, J.delanoy, Uncle Dick, Johnbod, Ipigott, AntiSpamBot, Belovedfreak, FJPB, Tourbillon, Macedonian, FolkenFanel,
Punkmarty, Mark Miller, Melsaran, LeaveSleaves, Jamelan, Phe-bot, Bentogoa, Radon210, Tk1888, DaDrought3, CultureDrone, Gaylap-
dancer, Sfan00 IMG, ClueBot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Auntof6, Felucius, Lord Hidelan, Alexknight12, Catalographer, Avidius,
Local hero, XLinkBot, Anteriorlobe, Alansplodge, Bgag, Addbot, Brumski, Zozo2kx, Glane23, AnomieBOT, DaisukeVulgar, Ulric1313,
Materialscientist, E2eamon, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Cureden, GenQuest, RadiX, GrouchoBot, Uxbona, RibotBOT, Venerock, DivineAlpha,
DrilBot, Poliocretes, Alonso de Mendoza, Clif9710, RedBot, Elekhh, NerdyScienceDude, John of Reading, Super48paul, A930913,
Somersfckeeper, Donner60, ClueBot NG, Widr, Blue86Swirl, Marcocapelle, 4throck, HighCity, Eharding, EuroCarGT, Lparsp, Rybec,
Bricsig, Chickenonastick99, St170e, Theartofthemuses, ChamithN, Ghiopghiop, Francisco1973dv, Sweepy, Yo Mama is coming, THE
WHEAT and Anonymous: 191
• Amphitheatre Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphitheatre?oldid=765997812 Contributors: Derek Ross, Mav, Bryan Derksen,
Andre Engels, XJaM, Christian List, Deb, William Avery, Olivier, Barkingdoc, Tolken, Den fjättrade ankan~enwiki, Darkwind, Cser-
nica, Adam Bishop, Steinsky, Morwen, Paul-L~enwiki, Joy, Rls, Carlossuarez46, Fredrik, RedWolf, Romanm, Bkell, Hadal, Wikibot,
GreatWhiteNortherner, Michael Devore, Stevietheman, J. 'mach' wust, Geni, Ganymead, Tail, Cwoyte, Damieng, Econrad, LindsayH,
Joanjoc~enwiki, EurekaLott, Cacophony, Bill Thayer, Bobo192, Cmdrjameson, Gracee, Darwinek, Polylerus, Matthewcieplak, Hashar-
Bot~enwiki, Zachlipton, Alansohn, Woohookitty, Asav, Lawrence King, Edbrims, Pyb, Mariegriffiths, FlaBot, Gurch, Lemuel Gulliver,
Gwernol, YurikBot, Kafziel, Phantomsteve, RussBot, Diliff, Gaius Cornelius, Rsrikanth05, Wimt, NawlinWiki, Voyevoda, Danyoung,
Nick, Jpbowen, Fmi, BOT-Superzerocool, Ms2ger, Sandstein, TheMadBaron, Ningyou, GrinBot~enwiki, Vanka5, Attilios, SmackBot,
Ulterior19802005, Adammathias, Doc Strange, Evanreyes, Peter Isotalo, Skizzik, Valley2city, Chris the speller, Frecklegirl, Moshe Con-
stantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Marco79, Sgt Pinback, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Kanabekobaton, VMS Mosaic, Nakon, Savidan, Bh-
ludzin, SirIsaacBrock, SashatoBot, Loooo, JorisvS, Merchbow, Peterlewis, Special-T, TheHYPO, Waggers, Neddyseagoon, Risingpower,
Mfield, Hu12, JMK, Kestudi, RekishiEJ, Pimlottc, Courcelles, MightyWarrior, Eponymous-Archon, JohnCD, WeggeBot, Pjmc, Rey-
was92, Hebrides, Odie5533, Codetiger, Tony Keen, Digon3, FrancoGG, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Kidbrother, Civertan, Mentifisto, Seaphoto,
Wahabijaz, JAnDbot, Leuko, MER-C, Hut 8.5, Kerotan, Cynwolfe, Enlil2, Canjth, VoABot II, Bothar, Klausok, Picagoro, Live!, Allstare-
cho, Ahmad87, DerHexer, Mattinbgn, Pax:Vobiscum, FisherQueen, Jtir, MartinBot, Centpacrr, Kostisl, Thirdright, J.delanoy, Pharaoh
of the Wizards, Nev1, Fullmetal2887, Juliancolton, DorganBot, Inwind, Idioma-bot, 28bytes, ABF, Macedonian, Headphonos, Classi-
cal geographer, Philip Trueman, Oshwah, Gareth-jc-thomas, Rei-bot, Frog47, Brunton, Ausr52, JhsBot, C7796E2C, Tar-Elenion, Uan-
nis~enwiki, Turgan, Ikariam3944, SieBot, Sparrowman980, Vicoduomo, Caltas, Flyer22 Reborn, BenoniBot~enwiki, Superbeecat, Van-
ishedUser sdu9aya9fs787sads, ClueBot, Godfollower4ever, Whyareall2, Ottawahitech, Alexbot, Winston365, Prof tpms, Thingg, Versus22,
WikHead, PL290, TravisAF, Wyatt915, Perss002, Addbot, Jojhutton, Tcncv, Rconsoli, Ka Faraq Gatri, MrOllie, Download, Doniago,
Numbo3-bot, Tide rolls, Olasveengen, OlEnglish, Gail, ScottoJames, Sugeesh, Legobot, Yobot, Fraggle81, TaBOT-zerem, Yngvadot-
tir, AnomieBOT, Andrewrp, Rubinbot, Jim1138, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Stwiso, Xqbot, Capricorn42, AbigailAbernathy, Grou-
choBot, RibotBOT, Some standardized rigour, Haploidavey, Hersfold tool account, FrescoBot, Oneforfortytwo, Pinethicket, Poliocretes,
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• File:Erechtheion_detail.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/48/Erechtheion_detail.jpg License: CC BY-

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tributors: Own work Original artist: LevineDS
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3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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tributors: Own work (own photo) Original artist: Gunnar Bach Pedersen
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known<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https:
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Previously published: Not previously published Original artist: Tar-Elessar
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192 CHAPTER 3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Pantheon_Rome-The_Dome.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Pantheon_Rome-The_Dome.

jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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org/wiki/File:Baukunst_Etrusker_R%C3%B6mer.jpg' class='image'><img alt='Baukunst Etrusker Römer.jpg' src='https://upload.
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• Parthenon-2008.jpg Original artist:
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• File:Pendentive_and_Dome.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Pendentive_and_Dome.png License:
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• File:Penditifkuppel.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Penditifkuppel.png License: Public domain
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3.2. IMAGES 193

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194 CHAPTER 3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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main Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: <a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/r/robert/pub_bath.jpg' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img
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License: Public domain Contributors: Meyers Kleines Konversationslexikon. Fünfte, umgearbeitete und vermehrte Auflage. Bd. 1.
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3.2. IMAGES 197

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• File:Temple_of_athena_nike_2010.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Temple_of_athena_nike_
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198 CHAPTER 3. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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