Sargassum

Is it food for the European eels?

No direct studies show such contention.

Is it a breeding ground for the food of European eels?

Some ecosystem services in the Sargasso Sea may be harvested directly (e.g., fish or seaweed). In
other cases, ecosystem functions provided by the Sargasso Sea may act as only an intermediate element
in the production of ecosystem services, for instance when Sargassum supports only part of the life cycle
of organisms that ultimately benefit people far from the region (e.g., eels spawn in the Sargasso Sea
and are harvested in North America and Europe). The Sargasso Sea ecosystem is part of larger oceanic
processes whose ecological and environmental outcomes may affect human well-being globally (e.g.,
carbon sequestration).

Of five similar oceanic gyres (Antoine et al. 1996), the Sargasso Sea is unique in that it supports
mats of Sargassum, a large, floating form of marine plant. The Sargasso Sea supports the largest
openocean Sargassum-based ecosystem in the world. Sargassum drifts around the Atlantic Ocean, pushed
by winds and currents. The Sargassum is trapped within the gyre, where it stays for a long time. As a
result, a vast patchwork of mats of Sargassum and their resident organisms drift all around the Sargasso
Sea as far as the borders of the Caribbean Sea (Gower and King 2011). The patchwork of Sargassum mats
can cover tens of square kilometers. It is generally believed that these mats of “drift algae” have persisted
within the Sargasso Sea for thousands of years (Calder 1995). The Sargassum mats host a diverse
community of animals and plants, which in turn supports larger migratory species, including tunas, marlin,
sharks, and turtles. Due to these characteristics, the Sargasso Sea is often referred to as the “golden
floating rainforest.”

More than 100 species of invertebrates, more than 280 species of fish, and 23 species of seabird,
including many threatened and endangered species, use Sargassum as a resource at some point in their
life cycle—as a food source, for protection, for nesting or spawning grounds, or as a nursery habitat.5 The
Sargasso Sea is home to 10 endemic species, including the Sargassum angler fish (Histrio histrio). Four
species of sea turtle hatchlings (loggerhead [Caretta caretta], green [Chelonia mydas], Kemp’s Ridley
[Lepidochelys kempi], and hawksbill [Eretmochelys imbricata]) live within the Sargassum during their “lost
years” (Carr and Meylan 1980).6 In 2014, the U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) identified
Sargassum as “critical habitats” for loggerhead turtles (NMFS 2014). American and European eels (Anguilla
rostrata and A. anguilla) also spawn in the Sargasso Sea at the end of their life (Schmidt 1922; Schoth and
Tesch 1982; Kleckner and McCleave 1988; McCleave and Miller 1994; Miller 2002; Miller and McCleave
2007). Humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) travel through the Sargasso Sea when migrating from
breeding grounds in the Caribbean on their way north to feeding grounds in the Arctic (Punt et al. 2006).
Many commercially important fisheries species, such as albacore (Thunnus alalunga), bluefin (Thunnus
thynnus), and yellowfin (Thunnus albacores) tunas (International Commission for the Conversation of
Atlantic Tunas [ICCAT] 2011), travel through the Sargasso Sea during the spring and summer to feeding
grounds further north. The blue (Makaira nigricans) and white (Tetrapturus albidus) marlins are also
thought to spawn in the Sargasso Sea (South Atlantic Fishery Management Council 2002; Luckhurst et al.
2006; White Marlin Biological Review Team 2007)

The overall importance of Sargassum for fish has been recognized by the United States and by
ICCAT. Following the 2002 Fishery Management Plan (South Atlantic Fishery Management Council 2002),
the United States designated Sargassum as essential fish habitat (NMFS 2003). ICCAT has requested that
contracting parties assess the ecological status of Sargassum as habitat for tuna, billfish, and sharks and
has also asked countries to report on activities that may affect the abundance of Sargassum (ICCAT 2006,
2011). This is one of the first actions by ICCAT to address fisheries habitat, and it was followed in 2012 by
a resolution (ICCAT Resolution 12-12) to “examine the available data and information concerning the
Sargasso Sea and its ecological importance to tuna and tuna-like species and ecologically associated
species.” As a consequence, ICCAT is investigating the suitability of using the Sargasso Sea as a test case
for ecosystem management with a view to reviewing the situation in 2015. Finally, on October 18, 2012,
the Sargasso Sea was accepted by the 11th Conference of Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity
(Hyderabad, India) as an ecologically and biologically significant area (EBSA) under the criteria adopted by
the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD Decision XI/17, see also table 2 of the CBD Annex).

Essential Ecology of Commercial and Recreational Fishes: Sargassum mats and the Sargasso Sea
ecosystem in general provide important fish habitat for feeding and spawning, as well as juvenile habitat.
Adult tuna, wahoo, and marlin are dependent on prey that feed within Sargassum mats (Rudershausen et
al. 2010). Other pelagic species that inhabit these regions are dependent on Sargassum. Rudershausen et
al. (2010) observe that prey associated with Sargassum communities are preferred by dolphinfish and
yellowfin tuna, which sometimes even have algae in their digestive tracts.

REFERENCE:

Assessing the Economic Contribution of Marine and Coastal Ecosystem Services in the Sargasso Sea: L.
Pendleton* F. Krowicki and P. Strosser† J. Hallett-Murdoch

http://www.sargassoseacommission.org/storage/documents/ni_r_14-05_final.pdf

Harvesting large amounts of Sargassum from the Sargasso Sea will negatively impact this precious
ecosystem and could have devastating effects on the European eel, whose population is already in serious
decline. Harvesting Sargassum removes part of this delicate ecosystem on which the eels rely, and
harming the species is a violation of international law.

The overall importance of Sargassum as a habitat for pelagic fish has been recognised by the
United States (National Marine Fisheries Service 2003) and by the International Commission for the
Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) (see Laffoley et al., 2011), and in 2012 ICCAT agreed to examine
the ecological importance of the Sargasso Sea for tuna and tuna-like species (ICCAT Resolution 12-12).
The Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO) is also considering proposals to protect further the
seamounts in the Sargasso Sea section of their regulatory area. On 11 March 2014, five Governments (the
Azores, Bermuda, Monaco, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the United
States) signed the Hamilton Declaration on Collaboration for the Conservation of the Sargasso Sea,
committing themselves to collaborate on conservation in this area, and set up a Sargasso Sea Commission
to facilitate this work (Freestone and Morrison, 2014). The Sargasso Sea Commission is working with the
Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS 1979) regarding conservation
of the European eel (Anguilla anguilla) and in November 2014 the CMS Conference of the Parties added it
to Appendix II as a “having a conservation status which would significantly benefit from international co-
operation …”. (UNEP/CMS 2014). It is also in discussions with the International Maritime Organization
(IMO) and the Bermudian shipping authorities concerning ways of mitigating shipping risks and it has
recently opened a dialogue with the cable-laying industry to develop best environmental practices (SSC
Newsletter, 2015). The United Nations General Assembly has taken note of the efforts of the Sargasso Sea
Alliance, led by the Government of Bermuda, to raise awareness of the ecological significance of the
Sargasso Sea (Resolutions 67/78, 68/70 and 69/245).

With respect to feeding ecology, Ruderhausen et al. (2010) examined the diets of four pelagic
predators, namely, yellowfin tuna, dolphinfish, blue marlin and wahoo in the North Atlantic. They
classified prey into three groups: 1) prey associated with floating Sargassum 2) Flying fish (Exocoetidae) -
associated with Sargassum during spawning and 3) schooling prey, primarily Auxis spp. (Scombridae) and
cephalopods. The dominant prey of yellowfin tuna (>50cm FL) were flying fish, as well as scombrids and
cephalopods. Dolphinfish fed mostly on prey associated with floating structure, mainly Sargassum, and
flying fish. Blue marlin and wahoo preyed predominantly on scombrids. These findings indicate that
flyingfish were a significant component of the diet of these pelagic predators (Ruderhausen et al., 2010).
Sargassum is a critical habitat component of reproduction in flying fish as Sargassum mats are used as a
spawning substrate. The spawned eggs, which have long filament extensions, become entangled in the
seaweed and may develop with less predation on the eggs in the seaweed matrix (Oxenford et al., 1995).
This association of flying fish with Sargassum indicates its significance as habitat for a principal prey group
of pelagic predators. This represents an important trophic link between the Sargasso Sea and the diets of
pelagic predators.

Although anguillid eels are known to migrate into the Sargasso Sea to spawn, comprising a
potential prey group for large, pelagic predators, there was no report of anguillid eels in stomach contents
in a large dietary study of fishes and squids in the northwest Atlantic Ocean (Bowman et al., 2000).