AERODYNAMICS II

AE6003

UNIT I
PART A

1. Differentiate between perfect gas and real gas.

ANS: Perfect gases: A gas in which intermolecular forces are neglected.
It follows the ideal gas law which states the equation: pV = mRT
Real gases: intermolecular forces are to be considered
It don't follow the gas law equation perfectly there are some corrections in the equation.
(P + (aN2)/V2)(V-Nb) = NRT
Where a and b are van der Waal’s constant.

2. What is calorific and thermally perfect gas?

ANS: A thermally perfect gas
 is in thermodynamic equilibrium
 is not chemically reacting
 has internal energy e, enthalpy h, and heat capacities CV,CP that are functions of
temperature only and not of pressure, i.e., e= e(T), h=h(T) etc
The calorically perfect gas for which, in addition,
 the heat capacity is assumed to be constant: e=CvT, h=CpT.
 independent of temperature

3. What is the basic difference between compressible and incompressible fluid flow?
ANS:
compressible incompressible
 Fluid velocities are appreciable  Fluid velocities are small compared
compared with the velocity of sound with the velocity of sound
 Density is not constant  Density is constant
 Compressibility factor is greater than  Compressibility factor is one.
one.

4. Define compressibility of a gas.[Dec16]

ANS: Compressibility (also known as the coefficient of compressibilityor isothermal compressibility) is
a measure of the relative volume change of a fluid or solid as a response to a pressure (or
mean stress) change.
1 𝑑𝑣
𝛽= −
𝑉 𝑑𝑝
5. What is isentropic compressibility?

ANS: Compressibility involves change in volume due to change in pressure; hence compressibility can be
isothermal, or isentropic. Isentropic Compressibility where volume change takes place at constant
entropy.
1 𝑑𝑣
𝛽 = (− )
𝑉 𝑑𝑝 𝑇
 6. List down the governing equations of gas dynamics.

ANS:
 Continuity( law of conservation of mass)
 Momentum ( Newton’s 2nd law)
 Energy ( law of conservation of energy)

7. Write one dimensional continuity and momentum equation for an adiabatic compressible steady
low with assumption

ANS: Continuity : ρ1v1A1= ρ2A2v2

𝑑𝑝
Momentum: ∫ 𝜌 + ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑣 + 𝑔 ∫ 𝑑𝑧
8. Write down the Bernaulis equation for compressible flow.
𝛾𝑝 𝑣2
ANS:
(𝛾−1)𝜌
+ 2
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

9. What do you meant y De-Laval nozzle?

ANS: A de Laval nozzle (or convergent-divergent nozzle, CD nozzle or con-di nozzle) is a tube that is
pinched in the middle. It is used to accelerate a hot, pressurized gas passing through it to a higher
supersonic speed in the axial (thrust) direction, by converting the heat energy of the flow into
kinetic energy. Because of this, the nozzle is widely used in some types of steam turbines and
rocket engine nozzles.

10. Why do you need a convergent-divergent nozzle to accelerate the flow from subsonic to
supersonic speed?
ANS:
𝑑𝐴
𝑑𝑢
 Area- velocity relation for compressible flow is = 𝐴
𝑢 1−𝑀2
 Using the area velocity, it can be explained that a convergent-divergent nozzle is needed
to accelerate the flow from subsonic to supersonic flow.

11. Define characteristic Mach number. What is the maximum value of it?
𝑢
ANS: Characteristic Mach number 𝑀∗ = 𝑎∗ , where a* is the speed of sound at sonic conditions

∗ 𝛾+1
𝑀𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √𝛾−1 =2.45
12. Brief about under expanded and over expanded nozzle flows.

ANS:
 The pressure at the exit in a CD nozzle is greater than the ambient pressure it is said to be
under expanded nozzle.
 The pressure at the exit Pe2 is less than the ambient pressure it is said to be over expanded
nozzle.

13. What is critical Mach number?

ANS: Critical Mach number is defined as the free stream Mach number for which the local Mach
number M at some point over the body surface reaches unity.
 14. Sound propagation is an isothermal process. True/False. Justify your answer.

ANS: FALSE. As for sound propagation there is no heat transfer possible. It is an isentropic process.
Process

15. What do you mean by over expanded nozzle and what is its effect?

ANS: The pressure at the exit Pe2 is less than the ambient pressure it is said to be over expanded nozzle.
An oblique shock is attached to the nozzle exit outside the duct.

16. Explain zone of action and zone of silence for a body moving at a speed of sound.

ANS: Zone of action: all the disturbance confine inside the Mach cone extending downstream of the
body.

Zone of silence: the region outside the Mach cone

17. What is meant by isentropic flow with variable area? .[DEC17]

ANS: A steady one-dimensional flow in a variable area passage is called ‘variable area flow’. The heat
transfer is negligible and there is no other irreversibility due to fluid friction, etc.

18. What happens if the air flowing through a nozzle is heated?

ANS: When the flowing air is heated in a nozzle, the following changes will occur
 Velocity of air will increase
 Increase in temperature and enthalpy
 Pressure increases
 Increase in entropy

PART B

1. Starting from the fundamentals derive the area Mach number velocity relation and explain the
significance of it for different configuration of ducts.
2. A) Derive the expression for chocked mass flow rate in terms of total pressure and temperature
and throat area.
B) Sketch the pressure variation along the centerline of a converging diverging nozzle for
optimum expansion. What is the influence of back pressure on this variation?
3. B) Brief about the operating characteristics of a De Laval Nozzle with the decreasing back
pressure.
A)An airplane flying at 1500 km/h at an altitude where the pressure and temperature are
respectively 3x104 N/m2 and -50 degree C. Calculate the pressure, density and temperature at the
leading edge of the wing.
4. Show that the area to throat area ratio depends only on the local Mach number and the ratio of
specific heats.
5. Starting from the fundamentals derive the equation for velocity of pressure disturbances created
in a flow in terms of ratio of specific heats, gas constant and local temperature.
6. Derive the expression for area to throat area ratio in terms of local Mach number.
7. Illustrate with pictures about the propagation of sound waves.
8. A) Obtain an expression for velocity of sound on terms of specific heats and local temperature in
air medium from one dimensional continuity, momentum and energy equations.
B) Derive relationship between the ratio of stagnation pressure to static pressure and Mach
number for an isentropic flow. Derive similar relations for temperature and density ratios.
9. A) For an aircraft flying at a speed of 1000kmph, find the variation of speed of sound a, and
Mach number M, with sea level and 11km altitude.
B) During a flight, a fighter aircraft attains its cruise speed of 600 m/s at 10km altitude after
taking off at 150 m/s from sea level. Assuming the speed to have increased linearly with altitude
during the climb, compute the Mach number variation with altitude.
10. A) A fighter aircraft attains its maximum speed of 2160 kmph at an altitude of 12 km. The take-
off speed at sea level is 270 kmph. If the flight speed increases linearly with altitude, compute the
variation of stagnation temperature with altitude for a climb up to the maximum speed.
B) Air flows through a duct. The pressure and temperature at station 1 are P1 = 0.7 atm and T1 =
300C, respectively. At a second station, the pressure is 0.5 atm. Calculate the temperature and
density at the second station. Assume the flow to be isentropic.
11. A De Laval Nozzle has to be designed for an exit Mach number of 1.5 with exit diameter of
200mm. Find the ratio of throat area to exit area necessary. The reservoir conditions are given as
P0 = 1 atm; T0 = 200C. Find also the maximum mass flow rate through the nozzle. What will be
the exit pressure and temperature?
12. a) Explain the phenomenon of choking in isentropic flow. [7M]
b) The pressure, temperature and Mach number upstream of a normal shock are 0.1MPa, 300 K
and 2.0 respectively. Determine the Mach number, pressure, temperatureand velocity downstream
the shock.
13. Air flows isentropically through a CD nozzle at inlet area 12 cm2 at a rate of 0.7 kg/sec. The
conditions at the inlet and exit are 8 kg/m3 and 400 K and 4 kg/m3 and 300 K. Find the cross
sectional area, Mach number and pressure at the exit.

UNIT II
PART A

1. List down the characteristics of a shock wave

ANS:
 Shocks may be normal or inclined to the direction of local flow
 Cause boundary layer separation
 Deviation of flow from its designed direction

2. What are the properties of a gas flow after it passes through a normal shock?
3. ANS:
 Loss in stagnation pressure
 Increase in entropy across the wave
 Stagnation temperature remains constant
 4. Why are the angle of incidence and reflected shock wave not equal?

ANS: Incident Mach number is different from reflected.

5. What is shock polar?

Ans: The graphical representation of salient oblique shock properties.

6. Plot the shock polar in dimensionless form for an upstream Mach No. of infinity.
ANS:

7. What is the need for the linear theory of supersonic flows?

ANS: For analysis the compressible flow over slender or planar bodies.

8. Explain briefly the shock stall.[Dec16]

ANS: A shock stall is a stall created when the airflow over an aircraft's wings is disturbed by shock
waves formed when flying at or above the aircraft's drag divergence Mach number.

9. Distinguish between weak shocks and strong shocks.[Dec12]

ANS:
Weak shock Strong shock
Discontinuities are small Drastic change, discontinuities are relatively
large
Almost considered as isentropic Irreversible process
Can be compression or expansion Only Compression

10. Differentiate between normal shock and oblique shock.

ANS:
Normal shock Oblique shock
a) The shock wave are right angle to the a) The shock wave are inclined at an angle to
direction o the flow the direction o the flow
b) May be treated as one-dimensional analysis b) Oblique shock is two-dimensional analysis

11. Why Prandtl relation for normal shock cannot be used for subsonic flow ?
ANS: Prandtl relation is M*1.M*2 =1. Though M1, being subsonic, satisfies the equation of motion, it
can be shown the entropy behind the shock is decreasing. This is not physically possible.
 12. Define shockstrength and expressit in terms of Mach number for a normal shock.
ANS: Strength of the shock is defined as the ratio of increase in static pressure across the shock to the
inlet static pressure
𝑝2 − 𝑝1 2𝛾
=1+ (𝑀2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛽 − 1)
𝑝1 𝛾+1 1
13. State the limiting values of shock wave angle in a supersonic flow for zero flow deflection
14. Explain Mach reflection. .[DEC13]
ANS: Mach reflection is a supersonic fluid dynamics effect, named for Ernst Mach, and is a shock wave
reflection pattern involving three shocks.
15. What is meant by detached shock? .[DEC13]
ANS: When the turning angle θ is more than a maximum angle θmax or for a given θ if M<Mmin, or
when a blunt body is facing supersonic flow detached waves appears.
16. Write down the Hugonoit relation and explain each term involved in it.[DEC13]

17. Define the term “Fanno flow” and “Fanno line”.

ANS: A steady one-dimensional flow in a constant area duct with friction in the absence of work and
heat transfer is known as “fanno flow”and the locus of the state which satisfy the continuity and
energy equation for the frictional flow is known as “fanno line”

18. Differentiate between “Fanno low” and “Rayleigh low”[DEC13].

ANS:

Fanno flow Rayleigh flow

a) One dimensional steady frictional flow a) One dimensional steady frictionless flow.
b) Stagnation temperature is constant b) Stagnation temperature is not constant
c) Because of considering the wall friction c) Less accurate
forces it is accurate d) With heat transfer
d) Without heat transfer

PART B
1. (i) Derive the equation of motion for a Normal shock wave.
(ii) Derive the Prandtl Normal Shock relation for a Perfect gas.
2. Air at 300 K and 1 bar enters a diffuser with a velocity of 245 m/sec. The diffuser is to be
designed to reduce the velocity to 60 m/sec. The mass flow rate through diffuser is 13.6 kg/sec.
Assuming the flow to be isentropic, determine the inlet diameter, outlet diameter and rise in static
temperature through the diffuser.
3. Air having an initial Mach number M1 = 2.0 is deflected through an angle δ = 150 by a
frictionless surface. Assuming that a weak shock wave occurs calculate i) the downstream Mach
number ii) wave angle iii) pressure ratio iv) temperature ratio.
4. Derive the Hugoniot equation and explain the Hugoniot Curve.
5. Briefly explain the Shock tube and its applications.
6. Derive the Relation between Shock angle (b) and Flow deflection angle (θ).
7. Briefly explain the Shock Polar.
8. Briefly explain the functions of Pitot static tube and list out the corrections needed for subsonic
and supersonic flows.
9. How Oblique shock forms? And explain its properties in detail.
10. Briefly explain the characteristic of flow over wedges and concave corners.
11. Briefly explain the features of two dimensional supersonic nozzle contours.
12. Write short notes on:
(i) Weak and detached shocks
(ii) Rayleigh Flow
(iii) Fanno flow
13. Briefly explain the Reflection and Intersection of Shock wave and Expansion wave.
14. With neat sketches explain the Supersonic shock expansion theory.
15. The flow Mach number, pressure, and temperature ahead of a normal shock are given as 2.0, 0.5
atm and 300 K respectively. Determine M2, P2, T2, and V2 behind the wave.
16. A re-entry vehicle (RV) is at an altitude of 15,000 m and has a velocity of 1850 m/s. A bow shock
wave envelops the RV. Neglecting dissociation, determine the stagnation pressure and
temperature just behind the shock wave on the RV center line where the shock wave may be
treated as normal shock.. Assume that the air behaves as perfect gas, with g = 1.4 and R = 287
J/kg-K.
17. A normal shock moves in a constant area tube as shown in figure. In region 1, V1 = 100 m/s, T1 =
300C and P1 = 0.7 atm. Shock speed CS with respect to a fixed coordinate system is 600 m/s.
Find fluid properties in region 2.
18. (i) What is Rayleigh’s correction for total pressure measurement in supersonic flows? Why is the
correction required?
(ii) With a neat sketch, explain Prandtl-Meyer expansion. Derive an expression for Prandtl-Meyer
function
19. (i) Bring out the essential differences between Rayleigh flow and Fanno flow. Give at least
twoexamples for each type of flow.
(ii) With a neat illustration distinguish between reflection and refraction of shock waves
20. (i) With a neat sketch explain the concept of Prandtl-Meyer expansion waves. How do
flowproperties like total pressure and Mach number change across the expansionwaves? (8)
(ii) What conditions favor detachment of shock waves in supersonic flows over solid bodies?
21. (i) Derive a relation connecting flow turning angle, shock angle and free stream Mach numberfor
oblique shock waves.
(ii) If a compression corner of angle 20 degree is allowed to encounter an uniform stream
ofsupersonic flow at Mach 5, calculate the shock wave angle and pressure & Mach numberbehind
the shock wave.
22. (i) What is the importance of Rankine-Hugoniot relationship for shock waves? (4)
(ii) Sketch the shock polar for M=2.5 and explain the method of finding the Mach numbersand
shock angles for a turning angle of 5 deg. (8)
(ii) Explain why shocks cannot occur in subsonic flows
23. (i) Explain shock reflection from a solid boundary with a suitable sketch. (6)
 (ii) An incident shock wave with wave angle=35 degree impinges on a straight wall. If
theupstream flow properties are M1 = 3, P1 =1 atm, T1 =300 K, calculate the reflected shockwave
angle with respect to the wall.

UNIT III
PART A

1. What is meant by Prandtl-Glauert transformation?

ANS: The Prandtl–Glauert transformation is a mathematical technique which allows solving certain
compressible flow problems by incompressible-flow calculation methods. It also allows applying
incompressible-flow data to compressible-flow cases.

2. What is potential eqution?[DEC16]

ANS: The momentum equation in terms of velocity potential.

3. How is a flow past a wedge different from past a cone?

4. What is the significance of Prandtl-Glauert rule?[DEC16]

ANS:
 Similarity in relationship between subsonic compressible low and incompressible flow
and also the importance of Mach wave in supersonic flow.
 This rule is framed to obtain the aerodynamic coefficient of bodies;
 Helps in getting the coefficient for any Mach number from the known coefficient.

5. List out the practical application of linearized two- dimensional supersonic theory.

ANS:
 Can be applied to airfoils but not to bluff shapes like cylinder
 This equation is valid for slender bodies like rocket, missiles etc
6. List out the possible methods to obtain the solution for velocity potential equation

PART B
1. Derive the Linearised two-dimensional supersonic flow theory.
2. Derive the PrandtlGlauret affine transformation relations for subsonic flows.
3. Briefly explain the lift, drag, pitching moment and center of pressure of supersonic profiles.
4. Write short notes on:
 (i) Shock Expansion method
(ii) Small perturbation equation for compressible flows
5. (i) Explain with a neat sketches, swept wing, swing wing and Ogee planform
(ii) What is a critical Mach number and explain from P-G rule (PrandtlGlauert)
6. (i) What is the main application of small perturbation equation for compressible flows? Given an
example with a neat sketch.
(ii) Explain Prandtl-Glauert compressibility correction for compressible flows. What are the other
methods for compressibility correction?
7. (i) What is Area Rule?
(ii) Using the linearized theory, calculate the lift and drag coefficient for a flat plate at a 5֯ angle
of attack in a Mach 3 flow. Compare with exact results.
8. Derive the equation of transonic airfoils by considering linearized supersonic theory. Using the
linearized theory calculate the drag coefficient for flat plate at 6֯ angle of attack in a Mach number
4 flow.
9. (i) Derive Linearized pressure coefficient equation.
(ii) Aflat plate 1m x 0.5 m is tested at 1600 kmph at free stream pressure of 0.7 MPa and
temperature 27֯ c at An Angle of attack 5֯. Using linear theory estimate lift.
10. Write down the Prandtl-Glauert similarity rule for pressure coefficient and explain.
11. (i) What are the features of “Linerized Supersonic flow” theory?
(ii) Derive the expression for the CL and CD of a symmetric diamond profile in supersonic flow at
small angle of attack.

UNIT IV

PART A

1. Define wave drag.

ANS: aused by the formation of shocks in supersonic flows even in the inviscid flows.

2. Define lower and upper critical Mach numbers.

ANS: Lower: the highest subsonic free stream Mach number beyond which transonic drag rise occurs

Upper: the lowest supersonic free stream Mach number below which the flow over the airfoil is
mixed.
3. What is drag divergence Mach number?

ANS: The drag divergence Mach number is the Mach number at which the aerodynamic drag on an
airfoil or airframe begins to increase rapidly as the Mach number continues to increase.

4. What is the need for sweep back in supersonic vehicles?

ANS: This is the one way to delay the onset of transonic drag rise by giving a sweep back; normal
component o the Mach number to the leading edge can be considerably reduced. Hence the Mcrit
can be increased.

5. What is transonic area rule?[Dec 12]

ANS: This rule is compliance of smooth and continuous distribution of vehicles cross-sectional area
along its length to minimize the transonic interference drag.

6. What is transonic buffeting?[Dec12]

ANS: This is the shock –boundary layer interaction which continuously changes for Ma>Mcrit where
the shock moves downstream o aerofoil first on the leftward side and next in the windward side.

7. Write any four design consideration or supersonic aircraft.

ANS:
 The airfoil should be thin.
 The leading edge should be sharp so that detached shocks are avoided.
 Location of maximum thickness is around 50% of the chord
 Generally, symmetric airfoil are used as camber in supersonic low increases drag.

8. What is the use of swept wing in a high speed air plane?

ANS: Same 3

9. Write a short note on super critical airfoils. .[DEC15]

ANS: It is the technique of increasing the transonic drag rise Mach number of an airfoil which is shaped
somewhat lat on top surface in order to reduce Mach number inside the supersonic region below
what it would be for conventional airfoil.

PART B

1. Explain the rules, wing fuselage combinations designs for the transonic configurations and
supersonic configurations.
2. Briefly explain the characteristics features of the lower critical Mach number and upper critical
Mach number.
3. Explain in detail about lift and drag divergence.
4. Explain with neat sketch about the shock induced separation.
5. Briefly explain the characteristics features of swept wings.
6. Briefly explain the effects of thickness, camber and aspect ratio over the performance of wings in
high speed flows.
7. Briefly explain the need and characteristic features of Transonic area rule.
8. Explain the following;
(iii) Disadvantages of Swept wings
(iv) Delta wing
9. (i)Who is the first creator of supercritical airfoil and how does it differ from Laminar flow airfoil.
(ii) What is transonic area rule in the transonic airplane fuselage design?
(iii) Explain the lower critical Mach number, critical Mach number and upper critical Mach
number in the experimental analysis of airfoil.
(iv) Why do we provide forward sweep, backward sweep to high speed wings instead of
designing easier straight rectangular wings.
 10. (i) With good sketches, explain the Area rule as applied to high speed airplanes.
(ii) Sketch the variation of the lift and drag coefficient with Mach number from M = 0 to M= 3.
11. Applying thin airfoil theory, derive the equation for CL and CD as CL = 4a0/√𝑀2 − 1 and CD=
4a0/√𝑀2 − 1 where, a0= angle of attack of the air foil and M is the free stream Mach number.
12. What is critical Mach number? Describe clearly the role of critical Mach number in aircraft flight.
13. Describe the Drag Divergence number> also explain the concept of shock stall and Mach tuck
and its causes.
14. (i) Write a note on the need for sweep back to wings in high speed flow, its advantages and
disadvantages.
(ii) What are subsonic and supersonic leading edges? Explain with sketches.

UNIT V
PART A

1. What is shock tube?[DEC16]

ANS: The shock tube is an instrument used to replicate and direct blast waves at a sensor or a model in
order to simulate actual explosions and their effects, usually on a smaller scale. Shock tubes (and
related impulse facilities such as shock tunnels, expansion tubes, and expansion tunnels) can also
be used to study aerodynamic flow under a wide range of temperatures and pressures that are
difficult to obtain in other types of testing facilities.

2. What are the advantages of blow down type tunnel?

ANS: This is the simplest among high speed wind tunnel types and the most economic build. Large test
sections and high Mach numbers upto M=4 can be obtained. Constant blowing pressure can be
maintained and running time of considerable duration can be achieved.

3. Draw a neat diagram of a Hypersonic Wind Tunnel and indicate all the important parts

ANS:

4. What is meant by plenum chamber? .[DEC17]

ANS: A plenum chamber is a pressurised housing containing a gas or fluid (typically air) at positive
pressure (pressure higher than surroundings). One function of the plenum is to equalise pressure
for more even distribution, because of irregular supply or demand. A plenum chamber can also
work as an acoustic silencer device.
 5. Why aerodynamic heating is important for hypersonic flows rather than supersonic flow?
6. What is the basic principle behind the optical flow visualization techniques?

ANS: The three principal optical methods are: shadow, schlieren and interferometry

7. What are the principles of model testing?

8. What is a wind tunnel and classify the wind tunnels?

ANS: Majority of experimental data needed in aerodynamics is generated using wind tunnels. Wind
Tunnel is a device for producing airflow relative to the body under test. Wind tunnels provide
uniform flow conditions in their test section.

Wind tunnels may be classified based on: 1) Speed, Mach no 2) Mode of operation 3) Kind of test
section.
9. What are the components on the Transonic wind tunnel?

ANS: Electro-mechanical Pressure Control Valve

Stagnation Tank
Turbulence-reducing Screens
Test Section
Static Pressure Port
Model Positioning System
Choke
Data Acquisition, Display and Control System

10. List out the calibration carried out in the Transonic wind tunnel.

ANS: Air inlet

Settling chamber
Nozzle
Sonic throat
Test-section
Second throat
Diffuser
Vacuum chamber.

11. What are the components on the supersonic wind tunnel?

12. What is meant by gun tunnel?

ANS: A gun tunnel is an intermediate altitude hypersonic wind tunnel that can be configured to produce
hypersonic flows at roughly 30 to 40 km altitude. This uses a piston for isentropic compression.

13. List out the calibration carried out in the supersonic wind tunnel.
14. What instruments are used to measure the fluctuating pressures on the models
15. What is the application of gun tunnels?

PART B
1. Explain the Hypersonic wind tunnel (Helium) with sketches.
2. (i) Sketch a typical shock tunnel and explain its principle of operation. What are the advantages
and limitations of shock tunnel?
3. (ii) Explain how measurements of pressure, velocity and Mach number can be done in a
supersonic wind tunnel.
4. Draw a neat sketch of a supersonic wind tunnel circuit and explain the function of each
component.
5. Draw a neat sketch of a transonic wind tunnel circuit and explain the function of each component.
6. Draw a neat sketch of a hypersonic wind tunnel circuit and explain the function of each
component.
7. Briefly explain the Blow down, indraft and induction tunnel layouts and their design features.
8. Explain in detail about the various calibration of supersonic wind tunnel.
9. Explain in detail about the various calibration of transonic wind tunnel.
10. Explain in detail about the various calibration of hypersonic wind tunnel.
11. Briefly explain the Helium and gun tunnels and its applications.
12. What is meant by ‘Shock tube’? Explain in detail its working principle and characteristics and list
out its application.
13. Briefly explain the various optical methods of flow visualization