Electric Propulsion - History and New Trends

(original in Portuguese: Propulsão Elétrica – Histórico e Perspectivas Futuras)

Article presented at the 20th National Congress of Maritime Transport, Shipbuilding

and Offshore of the Brazilian Society Of Naval Engineering (original in Portuguese:
20º Congresso Nacional de Transportes Marítimos, Construção Naval e Offshore da
SOBENA). Rio de Janeiro, 2004.

Authors: Paulo Eduardo Meirelles Freire and Cesar Leal Ferreira

Summary

The employment of electric propulsion is already outspread to various sectors of the

maritime industry, and is being consolidated as one of the best options to promote the
reduction of operational costs in this highly competitive environment. Initially
adopted in icebreaker projects and specialized ships, electric propulsion has
conquered new markets. It is already standard, for example, for application in the
most modern commercial cruise ships.

On the other hand, several of the world's navies also turn to electric propulsion in
search of design alternatives that will make their ships more prepared for combat,
adapting to the new, almost unanimous reality on a global level, of budget constraints
in the area of defense. In the United Kingdom and United States Navy, there is already
a consensus that electric propulsion will be standard for the future naval fleet. This
work initially seeks to list the main developments in the last 100 years that led to the
development of the concept of electric propulsion and its evolution to the present.
Subsequently, an overview of the principle of operation of the main types of
converters currently available on the market will be presented, with an example of
actual application in the maritime and defense industry. There will also be a
discussion on the main advantages and disadvantages of using electric propulsion on
board merchant ships and war ships in terms of performance, limitations, redundancy,
acquisition cost and operation.

Finally, the main technological developments that makes possible and even more
attractive to the maritime and defense industry the adoption of electric propulsion
will be presented. The goal, with this work, is to draw the attention of the Brazilian
naval industry to the possibilities, advantages and restrictions of applying the electric
propulsion in both domestic projects and construction for export.
 INTRODUCTION

The employment of electric propulsion is already outspread to various sectors of the

maritime industry and is being consolidated as one of the best options to promote
reduction of operational costs in this highly competitive environment. Initially
adopted in icebreaker projects and specialized ships, electric propulsion has
conquered new markets. It is already standard, for example, for application in the
most modern commercial cruise ships.

On the other hand, several of the world's Naval forces also turn to electric propulsion
in search for design alternatives that will make the vessels more prepared for combat,
also adapting to the new reality shared by most countries, of constraints in the defense
budget. In the United Kingdom and United States Navy, there is already a consensus
that electric propulsion will be standard for the future naval fleet.

The present work initially intends to list the main developments in the last 100 years,
which led to the modern concept of electric propulsion and its evolution until present
days. Subsequently, an overview about the principle of operation of the main types of
converters currently available on the market will be presented, with an example of
actual application in the maritime and defense industry. There will also be a
discussion on the main advantages and disadvantages of using electric propulsion in
merchant vessels and warships, in terms of performance, limitations, redundancy,
acquisition cost and operation. Finally, a introduction will be made of the main
technological developments that will turn electric propulsion even more attractive, in
the near future, to the maritime and defense industry.

1 - First Applications of Electric Propulsion

The first utilization of electric propulsion on a large surface vessels was in an

experimental installation aboard the USS "Jupiter", a coal cargo ship, in 1913.

Figure 1 - USS Jupiter

The "Jupiter" was a ship of 19,230 tons, with a maximum speed of 14 knots, propelled
by two shafts. The propulsion system consisted of a 5.5 MW turbo-generator (AC)
feeding two induction motors directly connected to the shafts. The total weight of the
propulsion system was approximately 175 tons. Inductive motors with coiled rotor
and sliding switches were used and, to increase starting torque and to reverse the
direction of rotation of the shafts, resistors were installed into the rotor circuit. The
speed of the ship was controlled by the variation of rotation of the turbine and, in
order to reverse the direction of rotation of the shafts, two of the three phases of the
motors were inverted and resistances were installed in the rotor circuit, as previously
mentioned.

The combination of a two-pole generator with 36-pole induction motors made

possible to reduce the rotation from 2,130 rpm in the turbine to 117 rpm in the shafts.
The experiment was successful, and the ship was converted into the first US Navy
aircraft carrier, USS "Langley", in 1922. The system remained in operation until 1942,
when the ship was sunk in combat.

Figure 2 - USS Langley

Meanwhile, in Europe, very little has been done in relation to electric propulsion in
ships. Some examples of operational ships were the small cargo ships "Mjolner" and
"Wulsty Castle", built in Sweden at the beginning of the twentieth century. These
6,000 t ships were propelled by two 655 kW turbo-generators feeding two coiled rotor
induction motors that powered a single shaft through a reduction gear. Ships operated
most of the time at constant speed, their turbo-generators being designed to operate at
a constant rotation of 3,600 rpm, and changes in ship speed were achieved by
inserting resistors into the rotor circuit of the electric motors. The operation of the
system is shown on figure 3.
 Figure 3 - Mjolner’s speed control

Obviously, such a system could only be used in ships that needed few variations of
speed, and with small installed power. On the other hand, such ships proved to be
40% cheaper than a conventional ship at the time.

The successful application of AC propulsion using turbo generators and the

significant benefits inherent to electric propulsion led to a greater interest in building
ships with this kind of propulsion. In 1915, USN decided to install an electric
propulsion system on the USS "New Mexico", a 32,000 tons ship with a design speed
of 21 knots.

Figure 4 - USS New Mexico

The propulsion plant consisted of two 11.5 MW turbo generators feeding four
induction electric motors directly connected to four shafts. Such an arrangement had a
total weight of approximately 500 tons. A major technological advance implemented
in this ship was the use of “squirrel cage” type motors, which were able to provide a
nearly constant torque throughout the entire speed range of the rotor, resulting
unnecessary to use resistors installed in the rotor circuit. Such a motor was also able
to develop torque seventeen times greater when compared to motors with winding
rotor at the time.

The induction motors were also provided with commutator poles, allowing them to
operate with 24 or 36 poles, providing a reduction ratio of 12: 1 and 18: 1,
respectively. This device provided a rough control of the ship speed, the fine
adjustment being obtained by varying the rotation of the turbines. In the period
between World War I and II, 50 ships were built by the USN using this system,
including warships with more than 21 MW of power per shaft and two aircraft carriers
with an installed capacity of 135 MW.

As far as merchant ships are concerned, the French "Normandie" liner is probably the
best example of the era's tendency to use electric propulsion instead of conventional
gearbox. Launched in France, in 1932, the "Normandie" propulsion design allowed
the ship to match the speed of the "Queen Mary", reaching 32.2 knots.

Figure 5 - Normandie

The propulsion system consisted of four turbo generators, totaling 119.3 MW

installed. Several advantages were perceived in such a propulsion system, such as the
high reduction ratio obtained, the elimination of reversing turbines, the reduction of
the required number of turbines with a consequent reduction in fuel consumption and
a greater reliability of the system.

Most likely, however, the lack of training of the French in the manufacture of large
steel components, such as gears, and considerable experience in electrical systems,
encouraged them to use the electrical propulsion system. The "Normandie" had four
synchronous, squirrel-cage-type motors, driven by four turbo-generators arranged to
form two separate units of two turbo generators each. The speed of the ship was
controlled by changing the speed of rotation of the turbo-generators, similar to the
USS "New Mexico" system.

Already during World War II, more than 160 escort ships were built for the USN with
electric propulsion, using turbo or diesel generators in the range of 4.5 to 9 MW.
Approximately 500 small ships were equipped with DC propulsion systems in the
range of 225 kW to 15 MW.

The number of electric propelled ships increased mostly due to the lack of industrial
facilities to manufacture gear-boxes during World War II. However, by 1940,
dual-reduction gear systems had become competitive and, associated with the
disadvantages of electric propulsion, in reason of higher weight, higher required
volume and lower efficiency, inhibited the expansion of using electric propulsion in a
larger scale.

The change in propulsion type preference was consequence of improvements in

metallurgy and new manufacturing processes of gear-boxes, which allowed a
reduction in weight and volume and the improvement in acoustic performance of such
equipment. Even so this situation persist to the present time, the capacity of
mechanical transmission is reaching its technological limit and economic viability.

2 - Development of the Concept of Electric Propulsion for Alternating Current

A major factor in recent developments on electric propulsion for ships is the progress
in the state of the art of power electronics. Power electronic devices, like those of
microelectronics, are semiconductors that allow or prevent the passage of electric
current, but are capable of switching high currents at high voltages, in order to
control, distribute and process electrical power. In comparison to electromechanical
switches, they are faster, smaller, more precise, easier to control, cheaper and more
efficient. Several concepts of electric propulsion for alternating current (AC)
developed for merchant vessels, especially passenger ships, icebreakers and ferries,
will be presented in this article.

2.1 - Synchronous Converter

The first successful use of this technology aboard ships was made in 1986/87, in a 100
million sterling pounds operation, when nine MAN L58 / 64 mid-speed diesel engines
were installed aboard the Queen Elizabeth II (QE2), to replace the previously installed
steam system.

Figure - Queen Elizabeth II

In addition to providing power to the ship's auxiliary and hotel loads, through
transformers, the electric power generated was used to propel the two main electric
motors, one on each shaft. The maximum power of each electric motor was 44 MW,
taking the QE2 to a maximum speed of 32 knots. Such motors were synchronous,
with protruding poles with 9 meters in diameter, weighing more than 400 tons each.
The service speed of 28.5 knots could be maintained using only seven engines,
allowing maintenance services to be performed while the ship was traveling. At that
speed, a fuel economy of 35% was obtained when compared to the original propulsion
system.
 Figure 7 - Synchronous Converter

The ship's power transmission system included a rectifier, a link, an inverter and the
synchronous motors, in a system called “synchronous converter”. In this system,
thyristors are used in the rectification and inversion processes, and are arranged to
provide redundancy, as they were designed to allow safer operation with only four of
the twelve devices in each arm. The Diesel engines are connected to the generators,
and each develops 10.5 MW of electrical power at 10,000 volts. This system has been
very successful and is still used aboard ships nowadays.

2.2 - Cycloconverter

This system is usually used when there is a requirement for good dynamic response at
low speeds, and is therefore well suited for application in icebreakers and ferries. The
cycloconverter is a direct converter, without a direct current (DC) link. The AC
voltage supplied to the electric motor is built through “slices” of phase voltage
supplied to the converter, which is done through an anti-parallel thyristor bridge
control. The cycloconverter can have a 6 or 12 pulse setting for harmonic reduction.
The motor voltage is controllable up to one-third the drive frequency, making the
cycloconverter more suitable for low speeds (0 to ± 300 rpm) without the use of
gearboxes.
 Figure 8 - Cycloconverter

Figure 8 shows a cycloconverter installed in an icebreaker vessel, with a 12-pulse

configuration providing power to the synchronous motor. As can be seen, this type of
converter implies the use of a greater number of power electronic devices when
compared to a synchronous converter.

2.3 - Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

The PWM system is characterized by a DC link that is powered by the alternating

current (AC) system through a rectifier using diodes. A capacitor bank is used to
smooth the direct current (DC) link voltage and to minimize the harmonic distortion
effect generated by the inverter. The level of harmonics generated by this system is
lower than that generated by the cycloconverter and is proportional to the speed of the
electric motor. Such harmonics can still be reduced by the use of three winding
transformers that power a converter in a 12 or 24 pulse configuration. The AC voltage
supplied to the motor is generated by the inverter through the selection of DC voltage
slices in order to build an AC voltage. An example of the application of this
technology can be given by the "Schleswig Holstein" and "Deutschland" ferries which
started operating in 1997.
 Figure 9 - Deutschland

The system installed on board these ferries consists of four azimuth thruster driven by
3.1 MW induction motors controlled by a PWM converter. Main bus (3φ, 6.6KV,
60Hz) The three-winding transformer feeds the two six-pulse rectifiers, supplying DC
voltage to the PWM inverter, consisting of five converters feeding the induction
motors.

Figure 10 - PWM Converter of Deutschland

In the case of these ships the control in one quadrant is required, but total control in
the four quadrants can be obtained by replacing the diodes of the rectifier with IGBTs
(Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors).

3 - Current Advantages and Disadvantages of Electric Propulsion

One aspect that impelled the current trend towards electric propulsion is the
acknowledgment of the importance of designing for optimizing whole-life cost rather
than minimizing initial procurement costs at the expense of high maintenance and
modernization costs over the life of the asset. There are, however, as disadvantages
the high development costs, and decreasing risk ("de-risking”).

To overcome this, in the case of warships, the United Kingdom, in partnership with
the United States and France, is funding the development and de-risking in a joint
project, the ESTD (Electric Ship Technology Demonstrator). A battery of tests are
performed using a 1:1 scale prototype, which will help to configure the system and
validate the computational models, which will also be useful in the future for the
design of other ships. Regarding the main advantages of electric propulsion, we can
mention:

3.1 - Reduction of consumption, emission of pollutants and maintenance costs

In ships with traditional propulsion, the speed of the engine is what defines the
rotation of the propeller; consequently, depending on the operational profile of the
ship, the engine may not operate within the optimum performance range, usually
associated to high speeds. This means waste of fuel and excessive mechanical wear.
With the adoption of electric propulsion, this kind of problem is eliminated, and the
primary engine can operate at the point of best performance regardless of propeller
speed.

Due to the extinction of the mechanical connection between primary motor (which
generates power through the burning of fuel) and the propeller shaft, there is no longer
a direct relationship between the speed of the primary motor shaft and the rotation of
the propeller. Modern energy storage systems and sophisticated control algorithms
accentuate this advantage of electric propulsion by ensuring that the primary motor
does not suffer large variations in the operating profile independent of changes in the
energy demand of the system. This translates into fuel economy and reduction of
pollutant emissions, besides the decreased need of maintenance.

3.2 - Crew Reduction

The trend for future electric ships is the adoption of wide range of auxiliary systems
and accessories powered by electricity, replacing the mechanical, hydraulic and
pneumatic systems. Electrical systems are easier to control at a distance and have
greater compatibility with electronic controls. This trend allows the increase of
automation, with consequent reduction of crew, providing additional benefit through
the reduction of operational cost.

3.3 - Project Flexibility

Electric propulsion equipment is modular and does not need to be positioned close to
each other. In addition, they do not produce as much vibration and noise as
mechanical equipment, a factor that limits installation close to inhabited
compartments, for example. Generators can be installed on upper decks, away from
users, reducing the precious volume occupied by the air intake and smoke extract
ducts of their engines.
As a result of this flexibilization, it becomes unnecessary to concentrate equipment in
main machinery compartments, being possible to outspread the compartments of
machines by the ship with an optimized use of the space available on-board. Auxiliary
generators are not required on an electrically powered vessel. All energy demanded by
the ship will be generated by the main engines. This decrease the number of engines
and also reflects in cost and space savings.

3.4 - Increased Ship Survivability Capacity

Modularity and flexibility provide a redundant, distributed and reconfigurable

generation of propulsion system. Consequently, damage to a machinery compartment,
whether caused by fire, flooding or simple malfunction, can be easily detected and
"by-passed", keeping the system operation virtually unchanged. The reduction in
noise and vibration levels is responsible for a significant decrease in acoustic
signatures, thus reducing the possibility of the vessel being detected.

3.5 - Increased Life time of the Ship

Modern warships increasingly incorporate sensors and weapons of high technological

complexity, making them far more powerful than ships of previous generations. The
cost needed to procure these equipment have grown even further, making it difficult to
justify the investment by considering the standard life span of traditional vessels. With
the event of automation of weapons systems in the 1980s and 1990s, more electrical
and electronic equipment has been incorporated to warships, increasing the demand
for electrical energy. This means that on-board generators need to supply greater
power in order to respond to the demand and maintain some reserve for future growth.
The prospect of adopting "electric weapons" in a near future exacerbates this
situation.

With electric propulsion, the scenery changes radically. The on-board generators
simultaneously supply power to the propulsion, auxiliaries and weapon systems,
through a redundant and reconfigurable distribution system. The engines are sized to
suit the ship at full speed, with all vital systems in operation. Therefore, at normal
speed, the ship has power in excess, capable of feeding all equipment, assimilating
without problems future changes or additions of equipment or systems. Ships
designed with electric propulsion may have a longer life span, of the order of 50
years, against 15 or 20 years of ships with traditional propulsion.

4 - The Next Steps

As shown to this point, the electric propulsion associated with high power demands
has been applied until recently in large ships mostly, due to the heavy weight and
large volume of the electric motors.
 Figure 11 - Dimensions of electric motors used nowadays

At the end of the 1960s, investments were made in technologies designed to improve
the performance and power density of electric machines for propulsion of ships, in
order to allow the advantages of this type of configuration to be applied to smaller
ships and warships.

Smaller motors would allow a reduction in the angle of inclination of the shafts and
the installation on a more astern positioning in the hull, with consequent reduction of
the size of the shafts. The availability of smaller diameter, high torque electric
propulsion engines could make it feasible to use propulsion pods instead of the
conventional arrangement of shaft lines for small ships such as warships. The use of
pods, widely adopted in passenger ships, offers greater propulsion efficiency and frees
up internal spaces in the hull, by moving the electric propulsion motor out of the hull
and installing it in watertight structures supported below the hull. Such equipment, in
certain cases, is also able to rotate 360°, greatly improving the maneuverability of the
ship.

Figure 12 - Pods in a Cruise ship

There are engines currently in production with powers above 20 MW, sufficient for
the propulsion of warships like frigates and destroyers. The suitability of the system
using warship pods, including its vibration characteristics and acoustic signature, are
currently under analysis.

A major effort has been made by the industry in an attempt to increase the power
density of electric motors, some of which are discussed below.

4.1 - Power Electronics

Static power conversion systems employ power electronics devices to handle the
electrical power generated, by converting it to be used in a variety of systems,
including rotation and torque control on the shaft of an electric motor.

The development of these devices started a revolution in the control of electric motors
in ships, allowing the engines / turbines to operate in constant rotation, with
maximum efficiency, and allowing the use of the on-board generated energy to drive
both the electric propulsion motors and the ship’s hotel load.

Since 1935, static converters have been used to convert electrical power, but its
components suffered from severe technical limitations. In 1947, the functioning
principle of the transistor was demonstrated, and in 1957 the thyristor became
available on the market. Such devices require forced switching circuits and have a
relatively low switching frequency, and a new device called "Gate Turn-off Thyristor"
(GTO) has been developed.

The GTO is a current-driven device passing through the gate circuit and, despite
increasing the switching frequency in relation to the thyristor, such a frequency is still
far from ideal and generates heat that has to be dissipated through a cooling system,
which makes it an expensive and bulky device. Such devices are, however, widely
used for propulsion of ships in synchronous converters and cycloconverters.

In the 1980s, IGBTs appeared, which are voltage-activated devices at the gate, having
a higher switching speed, generating lower switching losses, having simpler control
circuits and being smaller than the aforementioned devices. Due to the increase in the
switching frequency (approximately 10 times that of the GTO), the IGBT made
possible the use of Pulse Width Modulation (PWM), which requires a smaller amount
of filtering and provides a better quality of energy in the output.

Better performance can be achieved through a new device that is being developed by
the US Navy, the nMCT, which will allow the development of the so-called "Power
Electronic Building Block" (PEBB). According to the reference [12], the PEBB will
integrate in one unit all the elements necessary for the processing of electrical power.
This device will have three ports, two for power and one for control with bidirectional
power flow, converting electrical energy from one type (DC or AC at any frequency)
to another based on a control algorithm executed within the PEBB, using information
accessed through the control port.
Although PEBB can be constructed using any semiconductor device, n-MCT fulfills a
greater number of requirements for the military and commercial market. Its main
advantage is its simultaneous high-speed switching capacity (> 70 kHz), high voltage
(> 1400 V) and high current (> 1000 A). For an electric propelled frigate, which have
powerful propulsion motors and a great number of electric auxiliary systems,
employing a significant number of power electronic devices, savings of about US $
4.4 million are expected, added to the advantages of reducing size and weight of the
whole equipment.

4.2 - Transverse Flow Permanent Magnet Motors (TFM)

In this type of motor, the rotor is replaced by an arrangement of permanent magnets

and the electric and magnetic circuits can be separated. With this arrangement, the
electrical and magnetic fields no longer compete for the same space and each can be
more charged. It is expected that the power density and torque would grow eight
times. This motor has a circular coil on the same rotor axis and the stator winding
connects the flow generated by the permanent magnets.

Figure 13 - Prototype of a TFM

In 1997, the TFM concept was selected by the British Ministry of Defense to receive
investment for development, as it was considered the optimal configuration in terms
of high power density and high efficiency, in order to meet the requirements intended
to be applied in future vessels of the Royal Navy. The motor is being developed by
Rolls Royce, which was contracted to design motors in the power range of 16 to 24
MW.

4.3 - Full Electric Ship

It was announced in November 2000 that the new Type 45 Destroyers, the British
Royal Navy's "Daring" Class, whose first unit was expected to enter service in 2007,
will be provided with Integral Electric Propulsion (IEP) system. The Type 45 electric
generation system will produce power to propel the ship, power the auxiliary engines
and the Hotel load simultaneously. The Type 45 system will be a step up from the
plant installed in the new "Albion" Class Docks, but will be less sophisticated than the
system planned for the Future Surface Combatant (FSC) and the Future Aircraft
Carrier (CVF) ships.

Figure 14 - Type 45 Destroyer

On the other side of the Atlantic Ocean, the American Integrated Propulsion System
(IPS) project takes a parallel course. The new generation of US Navy warships
(LHD8, Multi-Surface Fighter Ship - DD (X), Future Aerodrome Ship - CVNX and
the new Attack Submarine - Virginia Class) will form the basis of the "Electric Naval
Force", based on new technologies of electric propulsion.

In fact, PEI is not simply considered as the result of the natural evolution of
technologies already in use by CODLAG (combined diesel-electric and gas turbine)
vessels. PEI will transform the composition and structure of the future naval fleet. It is
being treated as one of the greatest revolutions since the development of nuclear
propulsion. The consequences of its implementation will be reflected in the design,
manufacture, support and operation, with the adoption of new philosophies, in order
to allow the exploitation of all the potential of this type of propulsion. USN is
developing programs to introduce a variety of electric weapons - electromagnetic
cannons (EM), high-energy lasers (HEL) and high power microwaves (HPM) - into its
future fleet.

Some analysts say that there will be a real "revolution on the seas", made possible by
the employment of this type of weapons system, which was only seen in Sci-Fi
movies before. This viability depends directly on the adoption of the PEI. The power
generation capacity required by electric weapons is the critical point. In current naval
projects, where the main propulsive plant is independent of the auxiliary electric
generation plant, it would be necessary to resize the electric plant to the equivalent of
another main plant on the same vessel. The solution, in order to end the distinction
between propulsion plant and generation plant, is the PEI.

The recent strategic shift in the world's Navies, from blue waters warfare, with
emphasis on the protection of maritime communications lines, to brown waters, with a
power projection from the coast, also helps justifying the option for PEI. In an
integrated plant (propulsion and generation) there would be optimization in the use of
installed capacity. The brown waters warfare requires speed profiles with values
predominantly lower; however, it is still necessary to provide the ships with high
maximum speeds, which results in idle power generation capacity for most of the
time. In PEI this excess capacity would be used to supply the Hotel load and
eventually electrify the ship's weapons system.

5 - Conclusion

As shown in this article, the application of electric propulsion in ships has a history of
successes over the last 100 years. Recent attempts to increase the power density of
this type of propulsion will allow smaller vessels, especially warships, to benefit from
the advantages inherent in the use of electric propulsion in the near future.

Electric propulsion is already standard for commercial cruise ships and, in United
Kingdom’s and the United States’ Navies, there is already a consensus that it will also
be the standard for the future naval fleet, with only the type of configuration to be
adopted yet pending. As explained, there are several advantages associated with
Integral Electric Propulsion (PEI), which will result on the seas being conquered by
electric energy eventually.

After the development phase and decreasing of risks, the Integral Electric Propulsion
will be ready to get on-board of the warships of the new millennium. Its use will
reduce or eliminate completely the reduction gears, will allow greater flexibility in the
arrangement of equipment on-board, will make the primary motor frequently operate
in the optimum performance range, reduce fuel consumption, maintenance and
emission of pollutants. In a more distant future, with the introduction of "electric
weapons", will be written the last chapter of this true "revolution on the seas".

6 – References

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London.
[2] S. M. Robinson (1922), "Electric Ship Propulsion", Simmons - Boardman
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[3] E. Roth (1936), "Notes on the Turbo Electric Propulsion Equipment of the
Liner "Normandie"", Transactions IMarEST, Vol. XLVIII, London.
[4] ALL HANDS Magazine (September 1967), Naval Media Center, EUA.
[5] J. Joliff & D. Greene (April 1982), "Advanced Integrated Electric Propulsion
a Reality of the Eighties", Naval Engineers Journal.
[6] William H Miller (1988), "Great Cruise Ships and Ocean Liners", Dover
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[7] J. B. Borman (May 1988), "The electrical propulsion system of the QE2:
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Electric Ships, Past, Present and Future", SNAME Centennial Meeting.
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[10] C. G. Hodge & D. J. Mattick (1996), "The Electric Warship", Transactions
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London.
[12] M. Al-Sheikhly et all (1997), "Technology for the United States Navy and
Marine Corps, 2000-2035 Becoming a 21st Century Force", Volume 2, Technology,
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[13] Timothy J. Doyle & Howard O. Stevens (1999), "An historical overview of
Navy Electric Drive", Naval Surface Warfare Center, Annapolis Detachment.
[14] Andrew L. Nelson & Mo-Yuen Chow (December 1999), Electric Vehicles and
Axial Flux Permanent Magnet Motor Propulsion Systems, Industrial Electronics
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[15] J. M. Newell & S. S. Young (2000), "Beyond Electric Ship", IMarEST.
[16] Siemens AG (2000), "SIMAR Drive - Advanced Diesel-Electric Propulsion
Systems".