World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology 83 2013
Improving the Efficiency of Pelton Wheel and
Cross-Flow Micro Hydro Power Plants
Loice K Gudukeya, Charles Mbohwa
Abstract—The research investigates hydro power plant
efficiency with a view to improving the power output while keeping
the overall project cost per kilowatt produced within an acceptable
range. It reviews the commonly used Pelton and Cross-flow turbines
which are employed in the region for micro-hydro power plants.
Turbine parameters such as surface texture, material used and
fabrication processes are dealt with the intention of increasing the
efficiency by 20 to 25 percent for the micro hydro-power plants.
Keywords—Hydro, power plant, efficiency, manufacture.
I. INTRODUCTION
M ICRO-HYDRO power plants are an attractive option for
providing electricity in off grid areas of the country.
The Pelton and Cross-flow turbines are predominantly used
for these projects as they are cheaper to construct for this form
of renewable energy. Current level of efficiency is estimated
to be 60%, thus allowing for improvements on the overall
efficiency of whole micro-hydro system. At 60% turbine
efficiency micro-hydro schemes seem to be underutilising
resources. Communities are benefitting by having their
business centres, clinics and schools powered. However more
electrical power can be attained without increasing the
resources but by only increasing the turbine efficiencies [4].
This can ensure that more households in the catchment area
get more than just lighting, but are able to use other devices
such as refrigerators, stoves etc in their houses.
L K Gudukeya is with the Mechanical Engineering Department, University
of Zimbabwe, Box MP 167, Mt Pleasant, Harare (phone: 00263 773 286 349;
email: loicekmg@gmail.com).
C Mbohwa is with the Quality and Operations Management Department,
University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park Kingsway, South Africa (phone:
0027 78 207 1516; email: cmbohwa@uj.ac.za).
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II. RESEARCH OBJECTIVE
To investigate options for increasing the turbine efficiencies
of Pelton wheel and Cross-flow turbines targeting the
improvement of the overall micro hydro system efficiency
while keeping the project financially feasible.
III. OVERVIEW OF MICRO-HYDRO POWER PLANT
Hydro power is the harnessing of energy from falling water,
such as water falling through steep mountain rivers. The
energy in flowing water is converted into useful mechanical
power by means of a water wheel or a turbine [3]. The
mechanical power from the turbine can be converted into
electricity using an alternator or a generator.
Hydro power systems that are classified as “micro” have the
power generation capacity of less than 100kW. They are
relatively small power sources that may be used to supply
power to a small group of users or communities, who are
independent of the general electricity supply grid [5].
A micro-hydropower system (MHS) has the following
components [6]:
• A water turbine that converts the energy of flowing or
falling water into mechanical energy. This drives an
alternator, which then generates electrical power
• A control mechanism in the form of electronic load
controller to provide stable electrical power.
• Electrical distribution lines
To develop an MHS the following features are needed as
given in Figures 1 and 2 [7]:
• an intake or weir to divert stream flow from the water
course;
• a headrace, the canal or pipeline to carry the water to the
forebay from the intake;
• a forebay tank and trash rack (gravel trap) to filter debris
and prevent it from being drawn into the turbine at the
penstock pipe intake;
• a penstock (pipe) to transport the water to the
powerhouse. This may be set up above the ground surface
or underground depending on the topography of the site.
At rocky sites, penstocks are supported above ground on
concrete blocks called Anchors or Saddle (Pier) supports.
The saddle supports are provided along the straight length
at regular intervals and anchors are provided at horizontal
and vertical bends along the alignment of the penstock.
These are designed to carry the thickness and the
diameter of the penstock
 World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology 83 2013

• a powerhouse, being the building that accommodates and

protects the electro-mechanical equipment, (turbine and
generator), that convert the power of the water into
electricity;
• a tailrace through which the water is released back to the
river or stream without causing erosion;

Fig. 3 Concept of the head [9]

No power conversion system delivers 100% useful power

as some power is lost by the system itself in the form of
Fig 1 Components of a micro-hydro power system [8]
friction, heating, noise etc. The efficiency of the system needs
to be taken into account, since all the equipment used to
convert the power from one form to another do so at less than
100% efficiency. Fig 4 shows the power losses and
efficiencies within a micro-hydro power system [5]:

Fig 2 The inside of a power house [8]

A. Power Generation
A hydro scheme requires water flow and a drop in height
(head) to produce useful power (Fig 3). It is a power
conversion system, absorbing power in the form of head and
flow, and delivering power in the form of electricity.
To measure the potential power and energy on a site the first
step is to determine the flow rate and the head through which
the water falls. These two parameters are defined thus:
• Flow rate (Q) is the quantity of water flowing past a point
at a given time. Q is measured in cubic metres per second
(m3/s)
• Head (H) is the vertical height from the level where the
water enters the penstock at forebay tank to the level of
turbine centerline. The typical unit of measurement is
metres (m).

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where Pactual is the actual power produced (kW)

ρwater is the density of water (kg/m3)
Q is the flow in the penstock pipe (m3/s)
g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.81m/s2)
hgross is the total vertical drop from intake to turbine (m)

x x x x x
 

The turbine efficiency is typically the lowest of the

component efficiencies [5]. Hence it has the highest chances
of being improved and once this has been done, the overall
system may be improved.
B. The turbine
The turbines convert energy in the form of falling water
into rotating shaft power. They basically consist of the
following components [5]:
• intake shaft - a tube that connects to the piping or
penstock which brings the water into the turbine
• water nozzle - a nozzle which shoots a jet of water
(Impulse type of turbines only)
• runner - a wheel which catches the water as it flows in
causing the wheel to turn (spin)
• generator shaft - a shaft that connects the runner to the
generator
• generator - a unit that creates the electricity
• exit valve - a tube or shute that returns the water to the
stream from where it came
• powerhouse - a small shed or enclosure to protect the
Fig. 4 Power losses and efficiencies in a micro-hydro system [5] water turbine and generator from the elements

Typical system component efficiencies are shown in Table Selection of the turbine depends on the site characteristics,
I: the main factors being the head available, the flow rate and the
power required as well as the speed at which the turbine is
TABLE I
TYPICAL SYSTEM COMPONENT EFFICIENCIES [5] desired to run the generator [4]. All turbines have a power-
System Component Efficiency speed characteristic and an efficiency-speed characteristic. For
a particular head they will tend to run most efficiently at a
Canal 95%
particular speed, and require a particular flow rate.
Penstock 90% Water turbines are often classified as being either Reaction
Turbine 60 -80% or Impulse turbines. In a reaction turbine, the runners are fully
immersed in water and are enclosed in a pressure casing. In an
Generator 85%
impulse turbine, the runner operates in air and is turned by one
Step-up and down 96% or more jets of water which make contact with the blade. The
transformers water remains at atmospheric pressure before and after
Transmission 90% making contact with the runner blades. In this case, pressure
energy is converted into the kinetic energy of a high speed jet
of water in the form of a nozzle. Then it is converted to
To determine the actual power output from the MHS the rotation energy in contact with the runner blades by deflection
following equation that includes the system efficiency factor, of the water and change of momentum. The nozzle is aligned
ηtotal is used: so that it provides maximum force on the blades. An impulse

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turbine needs a casing only to control splashing and to protect
against accidents.
Impulse turbines are cheaper than Reaction turbines
because no specialist pressure casing and no carefully
engineered clearances are needed. These fabrication
constraints make impulse turbines more attractive for use in
micro-hydro systems. Other advantages of using impulse
turbines over reaction turbines in micro-hydro systems are that
impulse turbines are more tolerant to sand and other particles
in the water. They also allow better access to working parts
and are easier to fabricate and maintain [7].
In this study the Pelton wheel and the Cross-flow turbine
are considered in detail. They are both Impulse turbines.
IV. PELTON WHEEL TURBINE
A Pelton turbine consists of a series of cups mounted
around the periphery of a circular disc. The shaft of the Pelton
turbine is mounted either horizontal or vertical. The turbine is
not immersed in water but operates in air with the wheel
driven by jets of high pressure water which hit the cups. The
kinetic energy of the water jets is transferred to the turbine as
the water jet is deflected back. The kinetic energy of a jet of
water is converted into angular rotation of the cups as the jet
strikes. The high-velocity jet of water emerging from a nozzle
impinges on the cups and sets the wheel into motion. The
speed of rotation is determined by the flow rate and the
velocity of water and these are controlled by the spear valve.
The water must have just enough speed to move out from
between the cups and fall away under gravity from the wheel.
Fig. 5 Pelton turbine [6]
Fig. 6 Pelton buckets [1]
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A. Characteristics of Pelton Wheel Cups/Buckets
The central part of each bucket has a splitter ridge. This is
the part that the water jet hits first. This splitter ridge should
be sharp and smooth, so that it cleanly splits the jet into two
halves. The force on the bucket comes from it catching the
water and taking out as much of the water’s momentum as it
can. The more the water’s momentum absorbed by each
bucket, the better the turbine efficiency. Getting a good torque
from this force requires the force to act at as large a radius as
possible. To achieve this, the position of the end point of the
splitter ridge is important. The optimum position will have
most of the water hitting the bucket when it is nearly at right
angles to the jet. The angle of the splitter ridge is set so that it
is approximately at right angles to the jet when the full cross-
section of the jet is hitting it. The rest of the internal shape is
designed to allow water to flow freely round, and out at the
edges. The water should emerge at a favourable an angle to
give maximum moment from the momentum change. This is
achieved by having the cup surfaces smoothly curved, with a
reasonably large radius [5].
The jet should always strike the surface between the splitter
ridge first and never at the edges of the bucket. The surface
between the splitter ridge and the outside end of the bucket
has to be shaped so that it directs all the water from the ridge
into bucket cups [5].
Ideally the bucket should take the water around a complete
‘U’, removing all the energy from the jet, and leaving the
water stationary in air and then have it fall under its own
weight into the tailrace. In reality this is not achievable
because the next bucket would hit the water left hanging in
mid-air. The edges of the bucket are consequently angled
outwards; just enough to make sure that the water clears the
next bucket [5].
Fig. 7 Water jet being deflected back at an angle of 1650 [2]
For optimum efficiency the speed of the jet, vj, should be
about twice the speed of the bucket, vb. Because the runner is
moving away from it, the speed at which the jet enters the
bucket is given by . The jet is split by the ridge and
flows round the two cups to emerge at the sides of the bucket.
The inside of the bucket should be as smooth as possible and
evenly curved so that the water does not loose much speed as
it goes round. Lack of smoothness reduces efficiency. If there
were no losses, the water jet would leave at a velocity equal
to . If the jet speed, vj, is twice the bucket speed, vb,
 World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology 83 2013

then the water, relative to the bucket, leaves at a speed and Vω1 = Vr1 cos ф – v1
of the force exerted by the jet of water in the direction of motion
So if the bucket is moving at a velocity of vb and the water is:
is coming out of the bucket at a speed of vb, in almost the
opposite direction, this would mean that the speed of the water F = ρaVω [Vω + Vω1]
coming out relative to the housing is nearly zero; its energy
where ‘a’ is the area of the jet given as:
having been completely removed by the bucket [5].
a = πd2 / 4
The rotational speed of the buckets hence the runner is
d = diameter of the jet
determined by the jet velocity as illustrated in Fig. 8.
the angle β is an acute angle, therefore positive sign is taken
work done by the jet on the runner per second

= F x v = ρaVω[Vω + Vω1] x v (Nm/s)

power given to the runner by the jet

= ρaVω[Vω + Vω1] x v (W)

work done / s per unit weight of water striking/s

= ρaVω[Vω + Vω1] x v
weight of water striking/s
Fig. 8 Water jet hitting the bucket

= ρaVω[Vω + Vω1] x v
The net head acting on the Pelton wheel
ρaVω x g
H = Hg - hf
= [Vω + Vω1] x v
where Hg = gross head
g
the energy supplied to the jet at inlet is in the form of kinetic
hf is the head loss due to friction,
energy and is equal to mV2 / 2
which is given by the Darcy – Weisbach Equation
and kinetic energy of jet per second

= ρaVω x Vω2
2
Therefore the kinetic energy of the water jet is transferred
where f = Darcy friction factor (dimensionless)
to the buckets and hence the runner. So the runner rotational
speed depends on the jet velocity.
L = length of the penstock (m)
V = volumetric flow rate (m/s) B. Pelton Wheel Turbine Efficiency
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2) The parameters of the runner that affect efficiency are:
D* = diameter of penstock (m) diameter of runner, number of jets, number of buckets of a
runner and method used to attach buckets to a runner.[5]
then
A small runner is cheaper to make than a larger one. It takes
velocity of the jet at inlet = √(2gH)
less material and the housing and associated components can
in fig 10 this is = Vω be made smaller. To use smaller runners requires dividing the
v = v1 = πDN / 60 flow of water among a large number of jets. Multiple-jet
Pelton turbines can have up to six jets before interference
where N = speed of the wheel in rpm effects between jets lead to too much inefficiency. Multiple-jet
D = diameter of the wheel machines have the following advantages over the single-jet
machines: [5]
the velocity triangle at inlet will be a straight line where • higher rotational speed
• smaller runner and case
Vr = Vω – v • some flow control is possible without extra equipment
α = 0 and θ = 0 such as the spear valve
• less chances of blockage in most designs due to reduced
from the velocity triangle at outlet surge pressures
Vr1 = Vr

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In order to optimize efficiency, the number of buckets on
the turbine runner is generally between 18 and 22. For the
Pelton wheel turbine to function as expected, the buckets must
be attached securely onto the runner. This is to avoid buckets
flying off the runner during operation or buckets moving from
their original positions, hence compromising efficiency. There
are a number of ways of mounting buckets onto the runner
hub. The whole runner and buckets may be cast as one piece
or buckets may be cast separately and are then bolted,
clamped or welded onto the runner [2]. Casting of buckets and
mounting them to the runner is the process widely used in the
manufacturing of turbines. It is cheap, reliable and can
produce complex shapes easily.
C. Materials for Pelton wheel turbine buckets
The chief material requirements are high strength, abrasion
resistance, casting suitability and ability to withstand extended
use in water. Materials in common use are Aluminium,
Copper Alloys, Grey Cast Iron, Stainless Steel and Plastic.
D. Flow control for Pelton wheel turbine efficiency
In order to maximise the efficiency of the turbine, it is
important to be able to control the flow rate. The need to
control this flow arises due to site conditions that include
change in water flow rate with changing seasons. There are
various options that are used to control the flow of the water
jet, and these include the varying of number of jets, the spear
valve and the replacement of nozzles [3].
E. Friction
Turbine efficiency can be considered separately as
hydraulic efficiency, mechanical efficiency, volumetric
efficiency and overall efficiency [5].
a) Hydraulic efficiency
Hydraulic efficiency is defined at the ratio of power given
by water to the runner of a turbine to the power supplied by
the water at the inlet of the turbine. The power at the inlet of
the turbine is the highest and this power goes on decreasing as
the water flows over the buckets of the turbine due to
hydraulic losses as the buckets are not as smooth. Hence the
power delivered to the runner of the turbine will be less than
the power available at the inlet of the turbine. From Fig 10,
mathematically the hydraulic efficiency of a turbine is:
The power delivered by water to the runner of a
turbine is transmitted to the shaft of the turbine. Due
to mechanical losses, the power available at the shaft
of the turbine is less than the power delivered to the
runner of a turbine. The ratio of the power available
at the shaft of the turbine to the power delivered to
the runner is defined as mechanical efficiency.
Hence, it is written as:
ηm = power at the shaft of the turbine
power delivered by water to the runner
ii. Volumetric efficiency
The volume of the water striking the runner of a
turbine is slightly less than the volume of water
supplied to the turbine. Some of the volume of the
water is discharged to the tail race without striking
the runner of the turbine. Thus the ratio of the
volume of the water actually striking the runner to
the volume of water supplied to the turbine is defined
as volumetric efficiency. It is written as:
ηv = volume of water actually striking the runner
volume of water supplied to the turbine
iii. Overall efficiency
Overall efficiency is the ratio of power available at
the shaft of the turbine to the power supplied by the
water at the inlet of the turbine. It is written as:
ηo = volume available at the shaft of the turbine
power supplied at the inlet of the turbine
 
         =  ηm   x  ηh    

ηh = power delivered to runner

power supplied at inlet

= work done per second

K.E. of jet per second

=ρaVω[Vω + Vω1] x v
(ρaVω) x (Vω)2 / 2

= 2 [Vω + Vω1] x v
(Vω)2
i. Mechanical efficiency

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Friction has the greatest impact on hydraulic efficiency and
in turn hydraulic efficiency is one of the factors affecting the
overall efficiency. This makes friction an important factor in
overall turbine efficiency. For example in the analysis of flow
friction of Pelton turbine hydraulics it is indicated that the
flow friction in the Pelton buckets has a substantial impact on
the system efficiency.
The direct influence is determined by the friction, which
directly retards the bucket motion and thus determines the
power output. The indirect way is determined by the changes
of relative flow and the pressure distribution in the bucket.
The flow friction theorem points out that the total reduction of
the system efficiency is equal to the total efficiency reductions
by two different ways. In the total efficiency reduction, the
effect from the indirect way dominates. In addition, frictions
in the bucket, whether at the bucket entrance or at the exit,
always cause a reduction in system efficiency. The efficiency
drop resulting from the flow frictions represents the greatest
part in the total loss in the system efficiency of a Pelton
turbine.
F. Water Jet and Pelton Wheel Buckets
Of great importance is the interaction of the water jet with
the Pelton buckets. The jet discharged from the nozzle of a
Pelton turbine is a key item of hydropower systems and its
precise shape and position are highly relevant to the optimum
design of the turbine buckets to match the incoming flow.
In the first configuration, the interaction between the runner
and an axial-symmetric jet characterized by a given velocity
jet profile were investigated, whereas in the second
configuration the runner was coupled with the needle nozzle
and the final part of the penstock and the interaction between
the jet and the bucket were analyzed. The results confirmed
that the turbine efficiency is affected by the water jet
interaction with the turbine was shown.
V. CROSS-FLOW TURBINES
The turbines comprise of a drum shaped runner consisting
of two parallel discs connected together near their rims by a
series of curved blades. It has its runner shaft horizontal to the
ground in all cases [6].
Fig. 9 Cross-flow turbine [10]
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The Cross-flow turbine consists of a cylindrical water
wheel or runner with a horizontal shaft, composed of 18 up to
37 blades, arranged radially and tangentially. The blade's
edges are sharpened to reduce resistance to the flow of water.
A blade is made in a part-circular cross-section. The ends of
the blades are welded to disks to form a cage, instead of the
bars, the turbine has trough-shaped blades.
In operation, the water jet of rectangular cross-section
passes twice through the rotor blades, arranged at the
periphery of the cylindrical runner. The water strikes the
blading first from the periphery towards the centre, imparting
most of its kinetic energy, and then crosses the runner from
inside outwards striking the blades on exit and imparting a
smaller amount of energy on leaving the turbine as shown in
Fig 16.
Fig. 10 Flow of water across the turbine [11]
Going through the runner twice provides
additional efficiency. When the water leaves the runner, it also
helps clean the runner of small debris. The Cross-flow turbine
is a low-speed machine that is well suited for locations with a
low head but high flow.
The effective head driving the Cross-flow runner can be
increased by the inducement of a partial vacuum inside the
casing. This is done by fitting a draught tube below the runner
which remains full of tail water at all times. Any decrease in
the level induces a greater vacuum which is limited by the use
of an air bleed valve in the casing. Careful design of the valve
and casing is necessary to avoid conditions where water might
back up and submerge the runner. This has the additional
advantage of reducing spray damage on the bearings since the
internal vacuum causes air to be sucked in through the bearing
seals, so impeding the movement of water out of the seals.
The efficiency of Cross-flow turbine depends on the
sophistication of its design. For example a feature such as
vacuum enhancement is expensive because it requires the use
of air seals around the runner shaft as it passes through the
casing, and airtight casing. Sophisticated machines attain
efficiencies of 85%. Simpler ones range typically between
60% and 75%.
Two major attractions of the Cross-flow turbine are that it is
a design suitable for a wide range of heads and power ratings
and it lends itself easily to simple fabrication techniques. This
 World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology 83 2013

is a feature that is of interest in developing countries, e.g. the A. SITE A: Bondo

runner blades can be fabricated by cutting a pipe lengthwise in The Bondo MHS has a gross head of 51m and a design
strips. flowrate of 0.325m3/s. A special characteristic at this site is
A. Flow control in Cross-flow turbine the high flowrate. This is due to the vast amount of water that
flow in Bondo River. Figs 11 to 13 show the weir, part of the
Flow control is done by a guide vane. The shaft of the
canal at Bondo project and the Pelton turbine in use at this
guide vane is parallel to the rotor shaft, it fits neatly inside the
site.
nozzle to keep leaks at the side in the closed condition within
limits. It guides water to the runner and controls the amount of
water entering the runner. The device is operated by a screw
and nut which is connected to a hand wheel. It can also be
coupled to automatic operation, to the hydraulic cylinder of a
speed governor. In addition, rubber gaskets are used to seal up
the turbine housing.
The correct design speed of a turbine depends on the power
rating of turbine, the site head and the type of turbine [7].
Small turbines designed for micro-hydro applications may at
times have techniques for altering the flow rate of water. On
larger machines a method of altering flow is different. Cross-
flow has guide vanes which alter the water flow rate.

VI. OVERVIEW OF MICRO-HYDRO PLANTS CONSIDERED IN Fig. 11 Weir at Bondo MHS

THIS STUDY
The turbines considered in this study are for micro-hydro
power plants at sites located in Malawi, Mozambique and
Zimbabwe as shown in Table II.

TABLE II
MICRO-HYDRO POWER PLANT BY SITE
SITE NAME GROSS DESIGNED TURB DESIGNED
HEAD FLOW INE EFFICIEN
(m) RATE TYPE CY (%)
(m3/s)
A BONDO, 51 0.325 Pelton 60%
MALAWI
B DAZI, NYANGA 138 0.035 Pelton 60%
C NYAMWANGA, 26 0.277 Cross- 60%
HONDE flow
VALLEY
D CHITUNGA, 35 0.180 Cross- 60%
MOZAMBIQUE flow

Fig. 12 Part of the canal at Bondo MHS

Fig. 13 The Pelton wheel turbine at Bondo MHS

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The Bondo project benefits two schools in the area; a

primary and a secondary schools and teachers’ houses, one
clinic including the waiting mothers’ home and staff houses
and one business centre. The business centre has some grocery
shops, a battery charging centre, hair salon and an electric
grinding mill. There are seven villages in the Bondo
catchment area with a total of 3084 households. However,
evidence shows that if more power could be produced further
developments would be possible.
B. SITE B: Dazi micro-hydro project
At the site the head is 138m, the design flowrate is
0.035m3/s. A pelton turbine is in used. A special characteristic
of this site is the very high head that compensates for the low
flows. The project benefits a school in Fig 21, a clinic and
lighting for about 1000 people in nine villages. More power
would allow the 1000 people to use electrical gadgets such as
Fig. 16 Plan for Nyamwanga business centre that is benefitting from
refrigerators and stoves.
the project

D. SITE D: Chitunga project

At the site, the gross head is 35.12m, the designed flow rate
is 0.180m3/s. The project benefits one school, one clinic, an
energy centre, local authority offices, four grinding mills and
366 households. A cross-flow turbine is in place at this project
site.
The rainfall pattern is shown in Fig. 17.

Fig. 14 A classroom lit by power from the Dazi MHS

C. SITE C: Nyamwanga project

The Nyamwanga MHS is located 27km North East of
Hauna Township in Chief Zindi’s area in Mutasa District .
The gross head is 26m, the flowrate is 0.277m3/s. A Cross-
flow turbine is in use at this project as shown in Fig 22. The
project benefits one school, and one shopping centre with
fifteen shops. The plan for the shopping centre is shown in Fig
15:

Fig 17 Average rainfall graph for Chitunga

VII. RESEARCH PROCESS

Fig. 15 The Cross-flow turbine for Nyamwanga project
Data for this project was collected through document
reviews, interviews, site visits and online research.
A. Document Review
This was carried out through document and online research.
B. Site Visits
Site visits to the workshops where turbines were fabricated
were undertaken. There the study of the factory manufacturing
of turbines was done by following through the fabrication

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process. Visits were also made to the project sites to produce the mould, the hollow section in the sand box where
physically test turbine efficiencies. the molten metal is poured in to produce the required Pelton
buckets.
C. Physical Testing Of Efficiency Of Turbines
Physical testing of the turbine rotational speed was done by
using two methods. Firstly a tachometer was used.
A tachometer is an instrument that measures the rotational
speed of a shaft or disk. Secondly, a load may be used. A load
(e.g. an industrial welding machine) is carried to site. A
typical example is one which operates at 25amps and about
35Amps when striking an arc. The community is then
disconnected and the load is connected. The operating current
is measured and multiplied by the system voltage. This gives
the power output which is then compared to the designed
power output. From this, one can tell if the turbine is still
performing as designed.
D. Key Personnel Interviews
Some information on micro-hydro designing and especially           
current methods of designing Pelton and Cross-flow turbines Fig. 18 Pelton bucket that has been sand cast.
was provided by interviewing key personnel.
Fig. 18 is showing a single bucket that has been sand cast.
E. Data Collection and Analysis The feeder and the riser are still attached to the bucket. The
Financial data was collected through online quotations. feeder is the entrance through which the molten metal is
Tables and graphs were used to compare financial information poured into the mould and the riser is the way excess metal
and data on current methods used to manufacture turbines and goes through.
show how efficiencies can be better improved.

VIII. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

A. Design and Manufacture of Turbines

The friction within the Pelton buckets, the interaction of the
water jet with the buckets, the accuracy in the cutting of
Cross-flow blades and the method of welding of the blades to
the runner all have major roles in the efficiency of a turbine.
1. Pelton turbine manufacture
The head and flowrates were collected from each of the
four study sites. This data was used to calculate the gross
power output hence the size of the runner, number of buckets,
number and size of water jets. The efficiency of the turbine is
designed at 60%. Two of the four sites that were analysed
have Pelton wheel turbine working on them. Data from the Fig. 19 Pelton bucket that has been machined
sites is given in Table III.

TABLE III
In Fig. 19 the bucket has been machined to remove the
THE TWO MHS SITES THAT HAVE THE PELTON WHEEL TURBINE INSTALLED feeder and riser. It has 2 holes drilled through it for bolting to
ON THEM the runner. It is important to have the holes expertly drilled
SITE GROSS FLOW CAPACITY TURBINE EFFICIENCY
otherwise the buckets will not sit on the runner perfectly and
HEAD RATE (kW) TYPE (%)
(m) (m3/s)
the turbine is misaligned. This reduces the efficiency of the
A 51 0.325 88 Pelton 60% turbine as some energy is lost to heavy vibrations and noise
B 138 0.035 20 Pelton 60% since the water jet will not be hitting on the correct spot
anymore.
The capacity for each site is the actual power output .
Buckets are sand cast individually and bolted to a runner.
Figs. 25 to 30 show this process. The pattern is used to

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Fig. 22 Turbine housing being welded together

The individual parts of the turbine housing were cut using a

cutting torch. The inside of the turbine housing is shown in
Fig 23. The nozzle through which the water jet goes through
to the turbine is seen in the picture. The sizing of the nozzle is
important in having the correct size water jet, hence the right
amount of force on the turbine that ensures maximum
efficiency.

 
Fig. 20 Alignment of buckets on the runner
Fig. 20 shows how individual buckets are aligned on the
runner. They sit at an angle to each other. This allows for the
full force of the jet to be applied on each bucket one after
another without hindrance from the previous bucket. This
ensures maximum efficiency of the turbine.  
Fig. 23 The inside of the turbine showing the nozzle
2. Cross-flow turbine manufacturing
Cutting and welding are basically the two procedures
carried out in the fabrication of Cross-flow turbines. The site
head and flow rate are collected from the site as the critical
parameters. These are used to calculate the expected power
output hence the size of the runner, number, length and width
of blades the turbine. The overall efficiency of the turbine is
also designed at 60%. Two of the four sites that were studied
are using the Cross-flow turbine as shown in Table IV.
  TABLE IV
Fig. 21 A complete turbine THE TWO MHS SITES THAT HAVE THE CROSS-FLOW TURBINE INSTALLED ON
THEM
A finished turbine is shown is Fig 21. Seventeen buckets SITE GROSS FLOW CAPAC TURBIN EFFICIE
HEAD RATE ITY E NCY
are bolted onto the runner. The number of buckets per runner (m) (m /s) (KW) TYPE (%)
is important in making sure there is enough space between the
buckets to allow the water jet to hit individual buckets with C 26 0.277 30 Cross-flow 60%
the same force.
Fig 22 shows the turbine housing being welded together. D 35 0.180 34 Cross-flow 60%

The capacity for each site is the actual power output.

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The blades are then cut using a cutting torch and welded to Fig. 26 The turbine casing
the runner. Figs 23 to 25 show the Cross-flow turbine ready
for mounting. The turbine casing is shown in Fig 26. The cutting torch is
used to cut the different parts which are then welded together.

3. Effect of roughness due to manufacturing

The processes used to manufacture turbines are sand
casting, oxyacetylene welding and flame cutting. Different
manufacturers of turbines provided quotations that included
the turbine efficiencies and methods used to manufacture the
turbines.
Each manufacturing process has a different roughness. This
combined with material roughness determines the friction of a
turbine and it will then translate to turbine efficiency, in
particular hydraulic efficiency. The hydraulic efficiency
affects overall turbine efficiency directly [4].
Table V compares different manufacturing processes
Fig. 24 Finished Cross-flow turbine
against the overall turbine efficiency associated with each
process.
Fig 24 is shows a Cross-flow turbine that is ready for
connection. The cuttings on the runner where the blades are
welded into are the ones that give the blades the required
curve.
TABLE V
THE TURBINE EFFICIENCIES ASSOCIATED WITH ROUGHNESS OF DIFFERENT
MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
Manufacturing Turbine
Process Efficiency Roughness

Pressure die casting A 85.0 1.6

Investment casting B 85.0 3.2

Milling C 85.0 6.3

Laser D 80.0 6.3

Electron beam E 80.0 6.3

Oxyacetylene welding F 60.0 25.0

Sand casting G 60.0 25.0

Fig. 25 Blades welded to the runner
Flame cutting H 60.0 50.0
Fig. 25 shows closely the blades welded into the runner.
The curving of the blades guides the flowing water as it flows
from one end of the turbine to the other. Fig. 27 shows a graph that was drawn to relate this
roughness to the turbine efficiencies

Fig. 27 Turbine efficiency & roughness for different manufacturing

processes

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The graph indicates that as the manufacturing process

roughness increases the overall efficiency of the turbine
Figs 36 and 37 show the relationships between roughness
produced decreases. This emphasizes the need to use
and price per kg of material and hardness and price per kg of
manufacturing processes with minimal roughness.
material respectively.
This diagnosis of roughness affecting the overall efficiency
of turbines tallies with the findings that the flow friction in the
Pelton buckets has a substantial impact on the system
efficiency of the turbine. The efficiency drop resulting from
the flow frictions represents the greatest part in the total loss
in the system efficiency of a Pelton turbine.
Mechanical efficiency is the other determining factor of the
overall efficiency. One way to improve this efficiency in
casting procedures is to cast segments comprising of a number
of buckets or whole runners, comprising the runner and all the
buckets.
4. Effect of the water jet movement
Of great importance in the mounting of the Pelton turbine is
its interaction with the water jet. To maximize efficiency the
jet must hit precisely the centre of each Pelton bucket. That
way the jet gives the maximum drive to each bucket as noted
earlier in the design of the buckets that the rotation of the
turbine depends on the water jet velocity. This fact matches Fig. 28 Material roughness compared to material price
with the experimental studies of the jet of a Pelton turbine. It
was concluded that the jet discharged from the nozzle of a
Pelton turbine is a key item of hydropower systems and its
precise shape and position are highly relevant to the optimum
design of the turbine buckets to match the incoming flow.
5. Turbine material
The type of material used to fabricate a turbine affects its
efficiency. Good materials are hard and must be able to resist
erosion and corrosion. This ensures that the turbines will
function at their best efficiency for the expected life span on
the micro hydro power plant. Stainless steel is mainly used for
Pelton and Cross-flow turbines and mild steel is used for
casings.
This study revealed that other materials that maybe used for
turbines are Aluminium, Cast Iron, Copper based alloys such
as Brass and Bronze, and Sheet steel. The properties of these
materials and their prices per kg are given in Table VI.
Fig. 29 Material hardness compared to material price
TABLE VI
PROPERTIES OF DIFFERENT MATERIALS AND THEIR PRICES PER KG The two graphs shows why Stainless steel is the most
MATERIAL MATERIAL ROUGHNESS BRINELL PRICE/ commonly used material in the manufacturing of turbines for
(x100-2) HARDNESS KG
(x100) (US$/kg MHS. It has a high hardness, a very low roughness and price
) is close to the lowest. Sheet Steel maybe the cheapest and its
hardness is slightly higher than that of stainless steel but its
A Aluminium 0.2 1.2 1.32 roughness is much higher than Stainless Steel. Such a
B Grey cast 25 3.02 0.83 roughness means that it has a much higher friction than
iron Stainless Steel and this is not good for the hydraulic efficiency
C Brass 1 3.6 5.54
of the turbine and hence the overall efficiency. Brass and
D Bronze 1 3.6 5.54 Bronze are too expensive for MHS. This is because they are
alloys of Copper which is a very expensive metal. Its price is
E Stainless 3 4.15 1.47
steel about $8 per kg.
F Sheet Steel 15 4.5 0.29 Aluminum has a price close to Stainless Steel and the
lowest roughness, but is susceptible to damage if debris such

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as stones and sand find their way to the turbine. This is TACHOMETER 1 2 3 4 5
READINGS
because it has the lowest hardness. The roughness of Grey
495 rpm 515 rpm 511 rpm 492 prm 498 rpm
Cast Iron is too high. This compromises the turbine efficiency
despite having a low price and a fairly high hardness.
The average of these numbers was used to calculate turbine
6. Effect of increasing turbine efficiency on MHS power power output.
out put The designed power output for this site is 34kW and turbine
The resultant change in actual power output due to increase efficiency is designed at 60%. The calculated power output
in turbine efficiency of the four MHS that were studied is from these readings was 33.3kW. The two power outputs are
shown in the Table VII. comparable to each other, therefore it was concluded that the
turbine was still operating at 60%.
TABLE VII The need for performance measurement is invaluable.
DIFFERENCES IN POWER OUTPUT DUE TO INCREASE IN TURBINE EFFICIENCY
SITE TURBIN CURRENT CURRENT NEW POSSIBLE When done on regular intervals problems are identified and
E TYPE TUBINE
EFICIENCY
POWER
OUTPUT
TURBINE
EFFICIENC
POWER
OUTPUT
rectified before the MHS needs to be shut down.
(kW) Y (kW)

IX. FINANCIAL ANALYSIS

Bondo (A) PELTON 0.60 88.00 0.85 124.67 There is a limit on the project cost per kilowatt for each
Dazi (B) PELTON 0.60 20.00 0.85 28.33 MHS. It entails that total project cost of each site depends on
its capacity. A project is considered financially viable if the
Nyamwanga CROSSF 0.60 34.00 0.80 45.33
(C) LOW budget does not exceed $6000 per kW. Table IX shows the
Chitunga (D) CROSSF 0.60 30.00 0.80 40.00 costs that were involved in the selected projects.
LOW

TABLE IX
COSTS INVOLVED IN THE SELECTED FOUR PROJECTS
SITE TURBINE TURBINE MHS TURBINE TOTAL PROJ
TYPE EFFICIENC CAPA COST (US$) PROJEC ECT
Y CITY T COST
COST(U PER
S$) kW
A Pelton 60% 88kW 5000.00 509 5
444.00 789.14
B Pelton 60% 20kW 5000.00 81 775.20 4
088.76
C Cross- 60% 30kW 7000.00 174 5
flow 719.00 823.97
D Cross- 60% 34kW 7000.00 158 4
flow 340.00 166.84

Fig. 30 Difference in MHS power output for the four sites analysed
Using quotations from suppliers new MHS capacity were
calculated, total project cost and project cost per kW as shown
In all the four cases there is a remarkable increase in power
in Table X.
output coming from the same resources. Therefore using the
materials and manufacturing processes that give the highest TABLE X
possible yield from each site and resources is most ideal. COSTS INVOLVED WITH BETTER EFFICIENCY TURBINES
SITE TURB TURBIN NEW TURBINE TOTAL PROJEC
7. Performance measurements INE E CAPACITY COST (US$) PROJECT T COST

After the turbine has been set up and the micro hydro is just TYPE EFFICIE COST(US$) PER kW
NCY
starting to run, it is of utmost importance to measure the
A Pelton 85% 125kW 6500.00 510 944.00 4 087.55
efficiency of the turbine in order to verify if it is meeting the
B Pelton 85% 28kW 6500.00 83 275.20 2 974.12
expected efficiency. This is done using a tachometer. This is C Cross- 80% 40kW 8200.00 175 919.00 4 397.98
done at the initiation of a project and after it has run for six flow
months to check if all is performing as expected. During the D Cross- 80% 45kW 8200.00 159 540.00 3 545.33
period of study the tachometer was used to check the flow

performance of the turbine at Site C as shown in Table VIII.

New turbines have a better efficiency; therefore the
TABLE VIII
TACHOMETER READINGS AT SITE C
capacity of a MHS is improved. These turbines are more
expensive than the current turbines in use and this translates to

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higher total project costs. However, because a turbine with These processes offer far less roughness compared to
better efficiency also improves the MHS capacity the projects current methods that include sand casting, flame cutting and
are made even more viable because in the end the project cost oxyacetylene welding. That reduction in roughness lessens
per kW is reduced. The change in project cost per kW for friction and the overall efficiency of a turbine is increased.
each site is shown in Table XI.
XI. CONCLUSION
TABLE XI
THE DIFFERENCE IN PROJECT COSTS PER KW This study has revealed that turbines of better efficiencies
SITE CURRENT PROJECT EXPECTED PROJECT can be manufactured, made available for MHS and the
COST PER kW COST PER kW projects remain financially viable. This was achieved through
A 5 789.14 4 087.55 the comparison of current fabrication methods used locally to
B 4 088.76 2 974.12 methods used by different suppliers of turbines. Even though
C 5 823.97 4 397.98 the better efficiency turbines are more expensive than the ones
D 4 166.84 3 545.33 being used currently the overall benefit is clear. More
electricity is generated hence the cost per unit kW actually
decreases making the projects even more viable. The financial
This reduction is shown graphically in Fig. 39. viability of a project was determined by the project cost per
kilowatt produced. Use of better efficiency turbines will make
it possible to harness more electrical power from the same
resources.

XII. FURTHER RESEARCH

Further studies may be carried out on need for experimental
investigations with respect to the flow friction effects on the
hydraulic efficiency of a Pelton turbine as well as considering
materials which can be locally sourced for fabrication of the
MHS in the country. As the MHS has potential for renewable
energy resource, meaning less pollution to the environment
which is encouraged by the dictates of Cleaner Production for
sustainable development.

REFERENCES
[1] Balino, Design Pelton Bucket Runner.
<http://www.balino.com/ingles/turbinas/pelton.htm> viewed on 6
October 2012
[2] Development book shop, Micro-hydro Pelton Turbine
Manual<http://developmentbookshop.com/product_info.php?products_i
d=441> viewed on 13 sept 2012
[3] Greenstone, Community Development Library, Pelton Turbine
<http://www.greenstone.org/greenstone3/nzdl%3Bjsessionid=0f.9.pp&si
Fig. 31 The reduction in project cost per kW on each site b=1&p.s=ClassifierBrowse&p.sa=&p.a=b> viewed on 6 October 2012
The graph is showing that even though turbines of higher [4] HARC, Turbines
<http://files.harc.edu/Documents/EBS/CEDP/HydropowerPart2.pdf>vie
efficiencies are more expensive the overall project cost per wed on 1 November 2012
kW actually decreases. [5] Hydropower ( 2012), Axco Generators for hydropower
applications<http://www.axcomotors.com/hydropower_generator.html>
viewed on 16 September 2012
X. RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS [6] John F Douglas, Janus M Gasiorek, John A Swaffied, Lynn B Jack (
It is highly recommended to consider investing in processes 2005). Fifth edition. Fluid Mechanics
[7] R.K. Bansal ( 2005). A textbook of fluid mechanics and hydraulic
that produce turbines with higher efficiencies such as: machines: (in S.I. units)
• Pressure die casting of turbines. They may be cast as [8] Akvopedia. <http://akvopedia.org/wiki/Micro_hydropower > viewed on
whole turbines or as segments made up of a number of 17 July 2013
[9] Sustainable Green Homes
buckets. <http://eco.allpurposeguru.com/2013/09/micro-hydropower-another-
• Investment casting of whole turbines. renewable-energy-source/> viewed on 17 July 2013
• CNC milling of Pelton buckets. [10] Free flow Hydro www.freeflowhydro.co.uk/13/
24/CINK/CINK.htmlViewed on 16 July 2013
• Cutting of Pelton runner and Cross-flow runner and [11] Fundamental form
blades using CNC laser, CNC plasma. http://www.fundamentalform.com/html/francis_turbine.html
• Electron beam and laser welding of blades to runners. Viewed on 16 July 2013

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