Asexual reproduction can be defined as the
process by which offspring are produced from a
single parent rather than through fertilization. It
is most common in environments that favor
rapid population growth over genetic diversity,
as the offspring inherits its genetic traits
completely from one parent. The methods of
asexual reproduction vary greatly among
different types of species.There are many
different ways to reproduce asexually. These
include:
1. Binary fission. This method, in which a
cell simply copies its DNA and then
splits in two, giving a copy of its DNA
to each “daughter cell,” is used by
bacteria and archaebacteria
2. Budding. Some organisms split off a
small part of themselves to grow into a
new organism. This is practiced by
many plants and sea creatures, and some
single-celled eukaryotes such as yeast.
3. Vegetative propagation. Much like
budding, this process involves a plant
growing a new shoot which is capable of
becoming a whole new organism.
Strawberries are an example of plants
that reproduce using “runners,” which
grow outward from a parent plant and
later become separate, independent
plants.
4. Sporogenesis. Sporogenesis is the
production of reproductive cells, called
spores, which can grow into a new
organism.
5. Fragmentation. In fragmentation, a
“parent” organism is split into multiple
parts, each of which grows to become a
complete, independent “offspring”
organism. This process resembles
budding and vegetative propagation, but
with some differences.
6. Agamenogenesis. Agamenogenesis is
the reproduction of normally sexual
organisms without the need for
fertilization.
Fertilization is the process by which male and
female gametes are fused together, initiating the
development of a new organism.
Internal fertilization
In sexual reproduction, the male inserts the
sperms into the female reproductive tract to fuse
with the egg. If the fusion takes place within the
female parent, it is called internal fertilization. In
humans, most of the animals like cats, lions,
pigs, dogs, hens, etc., the fusion of gametes
takes place internally. In this type, a zygote is
formed within the mother and gets its
nourishment from her.
External fertilization
When the fusion of sperm and egg takes place
outside the female parent, it is called external
fertilization. Only a minority of organisms
exhibit this type of gamete fusion. For example,
fish, frogs, etc. Here the female parent deposits
her eggs in a place and later, the male parent
ejects his sperms over them, then fusion takes
place.
Gametes that fuse externally has to face many
challenges. Since eggs and sperms are deposited
in the external environment, the chances of
fusion are very less. Predators may eat eggs and
the zygote that is formed. To compensate this
loss, organisms like fish and frogs lay hundreds
of eggs at a time.
The 3 germ layers - the ectoderm, the
mesoderm, and the entoderm (endoderm):
are in place at the end of gastrulation.
THE ECTODERM gives rise to the central
nervous system (the brain and spinal cord); the
peripheral nervous system; the sensory epithelia
of the eye, ear, and nose; the epidermis and its
appendages (the nails and hair); the mammary
glands; the hypophysis; the subcutaneous
glands; and the enamel of the teeth
THE MESODERM gives rise to connective
tissue, cartilage, and bone; striated and smooth
muscles; the heart walls, blood and lymph
vessels and cells; the kidneys; the gonads
(ovaries and testes) and genital ducts; the serous
membranes lining the body cavities; the spleen;
and the suprarenal (adrenal) cortices
THE ENTODERM gives rise to the epithelial
lining of the gastrointestinal and respiratory
tracts; the parenchyma of the tonsils, the liver,
the thymus, the thyroid, the parathyroids, and
the pancreas; the epithelial lining of the urinary
bladder and urethra; and the epithelial lining of
the tympanic cavity, tympanic antrum, and
auditory tube.
A heterotroph is an organism that cannot
manufacture its own food by carbon fixation and
therefore derives its intake of nutrition from
other sources of organic carbon, mainly plant or
animal matter. In the food chain, heterotrophs
are secondary and tertiary consumers.There are
two forms of heterotroph. Photoheterotrophs use
light for energy, although are unable to use
carbon dioxide as their sole carbon source and,
therefore, use organic compounds from their
environment. Heliobacteria and
certain proteobacteria are photoheterotrophs.
Alternatively, chemoheterotrophs obtain their
energy from ingesting preformed organic energy
sources such as lipids, carbohydrates and
proteins which have been synthesized by other
organisms.
Food Processing in the Body
1. ingestion,
2. digestion
3. absorption
4. assimilation
5. Egestion
Feeding behaviour, any action of an animal that
is directed toward the procurement of nutrients.
The variety of means of procuring food reflects
the diversity of foods used and the myriad of
animal types.