Chapter 2

Operating Characteristics
2-1 Engine Parameters
2 2
2-2 Work
2-3 Mean Effective Pressure
2 4
2-4 Torque
T and
d Power
P
2-5 Dynamometers
2-6 Air-Fuel Ratio and Fuel-Air Ratio
2-7 Specific
p Fuel Consumption
p
2-8 Engine Efficiencies

1
 Important
p engine
g characteristics
Factors important to an engine user are:
1. The engine’s performance over its operating
range
2. The engine’s fuel consumption within this
operating range and the cost of the required fuel
3. The engine’s noise and air pollutant emissions
within this operating range
4. The initial cost of the engine and its
installation
5. The reliability and durability of the engine, its
maintenance requirements, and how these affect
engine availability and operating costs
1
Engine performance is more precisely
defined by:

1. Maximum p power ((or Maximum torque)

q )
available at each speed within the useful
engine
g operating
p g range
g
2. The range of speed and power over
which engine
g operation
p is satisfactory
y

1
Crank Shaft with Piston
 2-1 Engine
g
Parameters

B = bore
L = stroke
l = connecting rod length
a = crank offset
s = piston position
θ = crank angle
Vc = clearance volume
Vd = displacement
p volume

Figure 2-1 Piston and cylinder geometry of reciprocating engine.2

TABLE 22-11 Typical engine operating parameters

If an engine has bore = stroke, we call it “square engine”.

If bore (B) > stroke, referring to “over square”. Stroke length L
L = 2a
If bore (B) < stroke, referring to “under square”. 3
 Stroke length L
L = 2a (2 1)
(2-1)
The distance s between crank axis
and wrist pin axis is given by

s = a cosθ + l 2 - a 2sin 2θ

where: a = crankshaft offset

l = connecting rod length
θ = crank angle
g

(2-2)
y Do you think a piston ever stops while an
engine operates?
Yes / No Question
Mean piston speed is :
S p = 2 LN where: N = crankshaft speed (2-3)

The instantaneous piston speed Sp is obtained :

Sp = ds/dt ((2-4))
Instantaneous piston speed relative to average piston speed
as a function of crank angle for various R values, where
R = l/a, l = connecting rod length, a = crankshaft offset.
The ratio of instantaneous piston speed divided by the average piston
speed can then be written as
Sp π ⎡ cos θ ⎤ (2-5)
= sin θ ⎢1 + 2 ⎥
Sp 2 ⎣ ( R − sin 2
θ ) 1/ 2
⎦
where: R = l/a (2-6)
R is the ratio of connecting rod length to crank offset

Displacement, or displacement volume Vd is the volume displaced

Displacement
by the piston as it travels from BC to TC:
Vd = VBDC - VTDC (2 7)
(2-7)

Displacement can be given for one cylinder or for the entire :

engine. For one cylinder
Vd = ( π /4)B2 L (2 8)
(2-8)
 For an engine with Nc cylinders:
Vd = N c ( π /4)B2 L (2-9)
where: B = cylinder
y bore
S = stroke
Nc = number of engine
g cylinders
y
clearance volume Vc
Vc = VTDC (2-10)
VBDC = Vc + Vd (considering each cylinder) ((2-11))

The compression ratio of an engine is defined as :

rc = VBDC /VTDC = (Vc + Vd )/Vc (2-12)

7
The cylinder volume V at any crank angle is:
V = Vc + (πB2 /4)(l + a - s)) (2-13)
Same s we just seen !
where: Vc = clearance volume
B = bore
l = connecting rod length
a = crank offset
s = piston position
This can also be written in a non-dimensional form by dividing by
Vc , substituting for l, a, and s, and employing the definition of R:

V/ Vc = 1 + 12 ((rc - 1)[R
)[ + 1 - cosθ - R 2 - sin 2θ ] ((2-14))

where: rc = compression ratio

R=l/a
8
The cross-sectional area of a cylinder
y and the surface area of a
flat-topped piston are each given by:
A p = (π /4)B
) 2 ((2-15))

The combustion chamber surface area is:

A = A ch + A p + πB(l + a - s) (2-16)
where Ach is the cylinder head surface area,
area which will be
Somewhat larger than Ap.

Then if the definitions for r, a, l, and R are used. Eq. (2-16) can be
rewritten as:
A = A ch + A p + (πBL/2)[R + 1 - cosθ - R 2 sin 2θ ] (2-17)

9
2-2 Torque and Power
Torque T is normally measured with dynamometer. Torque is
a measure of engine’s ability to do work.
T = Fb (2-18)
where: F = force exerted on stator
b = length of moment arm

Fi
Figure 2 2 Schematic
2-2 S h i off principle
i i l off dynamometer
d operation
i
10
2-2 Torque And Power
Power P delivered by the engine and absorbed by dynamometer.

P = 2π NT (2-19)
(2 19)

where: N = crankshaft rotational speed

p

The engine power measured as described is called

b k power, Pb.
brake

11
Figure 2-3 Power and
torque curves of General
Motors L35 Vortec V6
engine.

1 kW = 1.341 hp

12
Figure 2-4 1996 General Motors L35 4300 Vortec V6 spark ignition
13
engine.
Figure 2-5 Brake power
and torque
q of a typical
yp auto-
mobile reciprocating engine
as a function of engine
g
speed. 14
2-3 Indicated Work per Cycle
P
Pressure ddata ffor the
h gas iin the
h cylinder
li d over operating
i cycle
l off the
h .

Figure 2-6 An indicator diagram plots cylinder pressure as a

function of combustion chamber volume over a 720° cycle for a
typical four stroke cycle SI engine. 15
Force due to gas pressure on the moving piston generates the work in
an IC engine cycle.
W = ∫ Fdx = ∫ PA p dx
(2-20)

where: P = pressure in combustion chamber

Ap = area against which the pressure acts
x = distance the piston moves
And Ap dx = dV (2-21)

dV is the differential volume displaced by the piston,

piston so work done
can be written:
(2 22)
(2-22)
W= ∫ P dV
Indicated work pper cycle
y is obtained byy integrating
g g around a
curve to obtain area enclosed on the diagram. 16
Fi
Figure 2 7 Four-stroke
2-7 F t k cycle
l off typical
t i l SI engine
i plotted
l tt d on P-V
PV
coordinates at (a) wide open throttle 17
 Gross indicated work is work delivered to piston over the
compression and expansion processes
Wgross = area A + area C (2-23)

Net indicated work is work delivered to piston

over the entire cycle
Wnet = (area A + C) - (area B + C) = area A - area B (2-24)

Pumping work is work delivered to piston over the intake

and exhaust processes
Wpump = area B + area C (2-25)

18
Figure 2-8 Four-stroke cycle of a SI engine equipped with a super-
charger or turbocharger, plotted on P-v coordinates. 19
 Power per cylinder is related to the indicated
work per cycle by Indicated power
Wc ,i N
Pi =
nR
N: crank shaft rotational speed
nR: the number of crank revolutions for each
power stroke per cylinder
y For four-stroke engine = 2
y For two-stroke engine = 1

1 hp = 0.7457 kW = 2545 BTU/hr = 550 ft - lbf/sec

1 kW = 1.341 hp
p

20
 Indicated Power Brake Power
y Power that is generated y Usable power delivered
inside the combustion by the engine to the
chamber giving force load
th t acts
that t directly
di tl on the
th y A il bl at a
Available
piston crankshaft

Indicated power and Brake power

 Actual power available at the crankshaft is called brake power
Pb.
Pb = Pi - Pf (2-27)

where: Pi = indicated power generated inside combustion chamber

Pf = power lost due to friction and parasitic loads called
friction power

The ratio of brake work at the crankshaft to indicated work in the

combustion chamber defines the mechanical efficiency of an
engine:
Pb Pi − Pf Pf
ηm = = = 1− (2-28)
Pi Pi Pi

21
 Road Load Power
Road-Load

The road-load power is the power required to drive a

vehicle on a level road at a steady speed. This power
overcomes the rolling resistance which arises from
f i ti off ti
friction tires and
d aerodynamic
d i drag
d off the
th vehicle.
hi l
 Road Load Power
Road-Load
1
Pr = (C R M ν g + ρ a C D Aν Sν2 ) Sν
2

CR = coefficient of rolling resistance (0.012 < CR < 0.015)

Mν = mass of vehicle
g = acceleration due to gravity
ρa = ambient air density

CD = drag coefficient (for cars 0.3 < CD < 0.5)

Aν = frontal area of vehicle

Sν = vehicle speed
Road Load Power
Road-Load
2-4 Mean Effective Pressure
An average or mean effective pressure (mep) is defined by
dividingg the work per
p cycle
y byy the cylinder
y displacement
p volume:
mep = w c /Vd (2-29)

or in term of power,
power P
Pn R (2-30)
mep =
Vd N
where: nR = 1 for 2-stroke cycle = 2 for 4-stroke cycle
N = crank
k shaft
h f rotational
i l speedd
Vd = displacement volume
If brake work is used, brake mean effective pressure is obtained:
bmep = w c,b /Vd = PbnR /(VdN ) (2-31)
(2 31)
22
Example 2.1 A four-stroke automotive spark-ignition (SI) engine is
designed to provide a maximum brake torque of 150 N⋅m
N m with the
brake mean effective pressure of 925 kPa in the mid-speed range
((~ 3,000
, rev/min).
) Estimate
1) engine displacement
2) bore and stroke (assume bore equals stroke)
3) maximum brake power if the mean piston speed is 15 m/s
PnR
mep = and P = 2πNT
Vd N
6.28n R T
Thus p=
mep
Vd
6.28nRTmax
Vd =
b
bmep max

6.28 × 2 × 150
= = 2 dm3
925
 π
Vd = 4 B2L For 4 cylinders
4
2 × 10 −6
B =
3
Since B = L (as assumed)
π
B = L = 86 mm

PnR ×103
bmep =
Vd N S Pmax = 15m / s
bmepVd N max S Pmax = 2 LN max
Pbmax =
n R × 10 3
N max = 87 rev/s
800 × 2 × 87
Pb max = = 70kW
2 ×10 3
2-5 Air-Fuel Ratio And Fuel-Air Ratio
Air-fuel ratio (AF) and fuel-air ratio (FA) are parameters used to
describe
d ib the
h mixture
i• • ratio:
i
AF = m a /m f = m a / m f
• • • •
FA = m f / m a = m f / m a = 1/AF
where: ma = mass of air mf = mass of fuel
• •
m a = mass flow rate of air m f = mass flow rate of fuel

Equivalence ratio φ is defined as the actual ratio of fuel-air to

ideal or stoichiometric fuel-air:
fuel air:
φ = (FA)act /(FA)stoich = (AF) stoich /(AF)act

23
2-6 Specific Fuel Consumption
Specific fuel consumption is defined by:
•
sfc = m f /P (2-35)
•
where : m f = rate of fuel flow into engine
P = engine
g p power

Brake power gives brake specific fuel consumption:

•
bsfc = m f /Pb (2-36)

24
 bsfc

Figure 22-99 Brake specific fuel consumption as a function of engine

speed.
25
2-7 Fuel Conversion Efficiency η f
Ratio of work produced per cycle to amount of energy supplied
per cycle that can be released in combustion process
Wc Pn R / N P
ηf = = =
W f QHV m& f n R / NQHV m& f QHV

m f mass of supplied fuel

Q HV heatig value of fuel

from m& f
sfc =
P
thus ηf = 1
sfcQHV
with units:
1 3600
ηf = =
sfc(g/kW⋅ h)QHV (MJ/kg)
sfc(mg/J)QHV (MJ/kg)
26
2-8 Volumetric Efficiency
Parameter used to measure the effectiveness of the induction process
Only used with four-stroke engines which have a distinct induction process

Volumetric efficiency is defined as:

•
η v = m a /ρ a Vd or η v = nR m a /ρ a Vd N
where: ma = mass of air into the engine
g ((or cylinder)
y ) for one cycle
y
•
m a = steady - state flow of air into the engine
ρ a = air density evaluated at atmospheric conditions
outside the engine
Vd = displacement volume
N = engine speed Again, seen before !

nR = number
b off revolutions
l ti per cycle
l
27
standard values of surrounding air pressure and temperature can
b usedd to
be t find
fi d density:
d it
Po (standard) = 101 kPa = 14.7 psia
To (standard)
( t d d) = 298 K = 25 °C = 537 °R = 77 °F

ρ a = Po /RTo

where: Po = pressure of surrounding air

To = temperature of surrounding air
R = ggas constant for air = 0.287 kJ/kg-K
g
= 53.33 ft-lbf/lbm-°R
At standard conditions, the density of air ρ a = 1.181
1 181 kg/m 3
= 0.0739 lbm/ft3 .

28
2-9 Correction Factors
for Power and Volumetric Efficiency

Pressure of dry Vapor pressure Temperature

air
736.6 mmHg 9.65 mmHg 29.4°c
29.0 inHg 0.38 inHg 85°F

29
For 1D steady flow past orifice
1/ 2
⎧ ⎡ 2/γ
( γ +1)
⎤⎫
AE P0 ⎪ 2γ ⎢⎛ p ⎞ ⎛ p⎞ γ
⎥⎪
m& = ⎨ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
RT0 ⎪ γ − 1 ⎢⎝ p0 ⎠ ⎝ p0 ⎠ ⎥⎬
⎩ ⎣⎢ ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭

p
m& ∝
T
Indicated Power

Pi , s = C F Pi ,m

1/ 2
p s ,d ⎛ Tm ⎞
CF = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
p m − pν ,m ⎝ Ts ⎠

Pb , s = C F Pi ,m − Pf ,m
V l
Volumetric
t i Efficiency
Effi i

ην ∝ T 1 / 2 ην = kT 1 / 2

ην , s = kT s
1/ 2 ην ,m = kTm1 / 2

1/ 2
ην , s ⎛ Ts ⎞
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
ην ,m ⎝ Tm ⎠
1/ 2
⎛ Ts ⎞ 1/ 2
ην , s = ην ,m ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎛T ⎞
C F′ = ⎜⎜ s ⎟⎟
⎝ Tm ⎠ ⎝ Tm ⎠
2-10 Emissions
Specific Emissions : rates of pollutant per unit power
•
(SE) NOx = m NOx /Pb
•
(SE) CO = m CO /Pb
• (2-42)
(SE) HC = m HC /Pb
•
(SE) part = m part /Pb
•
where : m = flow rate of emissions in gm/hr
Pb = brake power

29
Emissions Index : emission rate is normalized byy fuel flow rate
• •
(EI) NOx = m NOx [gm/sec]/ m f [kg/sec]
• •
(EI)CO = m CO [gm/sec]/ m f [kg/sec]
• •
(2 43)
(2-43)
(EI)HC = m HC [gm/sec]/ m f [kg/sec]
• •
(EI)part = m part [gm/sec]/ m f [kg/sec]

30