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General Design:
The general design of a simple fluorescent lamp consists of a sealed glass

tube. The tube contains a small bit of mercury and a gas (usually argon)
kept under very low pressure. The tube also contains a phosphor powder,
coated along the inside of the glass. The tube has two electrodes, one at
each end, which are wired to an electrical circuit. The electrical circuit,
which includes a starter and ballast, is hooked up to an alternating current
(AC) supply.
General Operation:
When the lamp is first turned on, the current travels through the path of
least resistance, which is through the bypass circuit, and across the starter
switch. This current then passes through the circuit heating up the
filament in each electrode, which are located at both ends of the tube
(these electrodes are simple filaments, like those found in incandescent
light bulbs)
This boils off electrons from the metal surface, sending them into the gas
tube, ionizing the gas.
The mercury vapor becomes "excited" and it generates radiant energy,

mainly in the ultraviolet range. This energy causes the phosphor coating
on the inside of the tube to fluoresce, converting the ultraviolet into
visible light.
The Starter:
The starter is basically a time delay switch. Its job is to let the current
flow through to the electrodes at each end of the tube, causing the
filaments to heat up and create a cloud of electrons inside the tube. The
starter then opens after a second or two. The voltage across the tube
allows a stream of electrons to flow across the tube and ionize the
mercury vapor. Without the starter, a steady stream of electrons is never
created between the two filaments, and the lamp flickers.
The Ballast:
The ballast works mainly as a regulator. They consume, transform, and

control electrical power for various types of electric-discharge lamps,
providing the necessary circuit conditions for starting and operating them.
In a fluorescent lamp, the voltage must be regulated because the current
in the gas discharge causes resistance to decrease in the tube. The AC
voltage will cause the current to climb on its own. If this current isn’t
controlled, it can cause the blow out of various components.
Newer Designs:
Today, the most popular fluorescent lamp design is the “rapid start” lamp.
This design works the same as the basic design described above, but it
doesn't have a starter switch. Instead, the lamp's ballast constantly
channels current through both electrodes. This current flow is configured
so that there is a charge difference between the two electrodes,
establishing a voltage across the tube.
Another method used in instant-start fluorescent lamps, is to apply a very

high initial voltage to the electrodes. This high voltage creates a corona
discharge, which causes an excess of electrons on the electrode surface
that forces some electrons into the gas. These free electrons ionize the
gas, and almost instantly the voltage difference between the electrodes
establishes an electrical arc.
In Conclusion:
There are many different types of fluorescent lamps but they all work in
the same basic way: An electric current stimulates mercury atoms, which
causes them to release ultraviolet photons. These photons in turn
stimulate a phosphor, which emits visible light photons
Copyright © 2004-2005 Jonathan Z Kremer All rights reserved

Jonathan Kremer has over 25 years experience in the electrical field. For
more tips and articles please visit http://www.megavolt.co.il
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How Fluorescent Fixtures Work
A fluorescent lamp works much the

way a neon tube does. There are electrodes at each end that are
heated in order to reduce the amount of strike current required to
excite the gas in the tube. Once the tube is excited, the electrodes
continue to remain heated due to current transfer, but the voltage
required to maintain the gas excitation drops down significantly
from the strike voltage.
The inside of the lamp is coated with a phosphor mix that

illuminates when UV radiation comes in contact with the glass.
Since light is not a direct result of filament glow, fluorescent lamps
are inherently more efficient than incandescents.
Magnetic and electronic ballasts are both used with fluorescent

lamps. Electronic ballasts are preferred since they are lighter in
weight, emit less heat, and use high frequency voltage waveforms
to eliminate visible lamp flicker. Electronic ballasts usually operate
in the 32kHz range for example, rather than the 120Hz used by
magnetics. This on occasion has been known to cause other
problems such as increased line harmonics and interference with
infrared control devices, but the pros outweigh the cons.
How fluorescent fixtures are dimmed
Fluorescent fixtures are dimmed using a special dimmable ballast.

This is because standard ballasts typically do not have the ability
to maintain electrode heat to the degree required for proper gas
excitation when input voltage is varied. While magnetic dimmable
ballasts do exist, almost all dimmable ballasts these days are
electronic.
Electronic ballasts vary the frequency at which they run the lamps
without changing the electrode voltage and are therefore able to
get a much wider range of dimming. Where magnetics were doing
really good to get lamp output down to 20-40%, electronic ballasts
can dim down to 1% on some models.
About the different dimmable ballasts
Ballasts are commonly referred to by the number of wires that feed

them. There are three different ballast types that are available in
the US market. Ballasts come in 2-wire, 3-wire, and 4-wire models.
These do not all exist in foreign markets.
2-Wire
These are very

common ballasts and the easiest to install. They require a dimmed
hot and a neutral (ground is understood) and are available in 5%
dimmed models from such companies as Lutron and Advance.
They are installed and controlled on one dimmer just as you would
an incandescent source except that a bottom-end threshold is set.
This setting keeps the lamps from running below their
recommended voltage, preventing premature failure of both lamps
and ballasts.
2-wire ballasts are made in both forward phase and reverse phase
variants. To dim a reverse phase ballast you will need to use a
reverse phase dimmer module such as ETC's ELV10 dimmer in a
compatible dimmer rack.
3-Wire
These ballasts are also common and are usually quite
inexpensive. However, they use two dimmers for control and
power as they require a dimmed hot, a switched hot, and a neutral
(ground is understood). Advance and Lutron make them in 1%,
5%, and 10% models. A threshold like the 2-wire models is used
and at the point one dimmer goes to full (non-dim) and the other
begins its fade to full. The dimmer module is special since by code
it must have only one breaker for both outputs.
4-Wire
These are not

seen as often as the 2-wire and 3-wire models. They use a hot
(non-dim) and neutral (ground is understood) plus two low-voltage
conductors for 0-10vdc control. They are available in 5% and 10%
control models. Again, a threshold is used to set the bottom power
and control voltage. Use standard dimmer modules in conjunction
with a 0-10vdc control card such as the FLO board in Unison
dimming. Please note that current is sourced by the ballast and
sinked by the FLO board so a standard D/A will not work. There
will be more on this later.
About the different dimmable percentages
There are always lots of questions surrounding the dimming percentages

manufacturers publish in regards to ballasts. The percentages are based on light output
measured with a light meter. The human eye does not perceive light increase linearly
but rather as a close function of “square law,” yet light meters do use a linear scale.
Therefore, when looking at the minimum light level output by a fluorescent fixture,
the eye will see more light than the percentage touted. Here is a chart to give you a
better comparison between advertised or measured versus perceived light.
Perceived light
Ballast type (what the Measured light (what
(what is seen by
manufacturers market) is seen by a meter)
you)
1% 1% 10%
5% 5% 22.4%
10% 10% 32%
20% 20% 46%
The 5% ballast is the most prevalent of all the ballast types. It is

very common for a system purchaser to not understand why their
fluorescent lights do not dim down to 5%. Please help them see
why 5% means light output as opposed to perceived light or
control level.
Important installation tips
Make sure you “season” the lamps for 100 hours prior to being
dimmed. Lamps to be used in dimmed fixtures must be run at full
for 100 hours. This lengthens lamp life and reduces flicker and end
cap blackening. Many people do not know this until they start
running through lamps frequently and call for help. It is
recommended that a few fixtures be purchased and installed in the
storage room to provide a lamp burn-in area.
Make sure the fixtures are adequately grounded. The lamp must
be in close proximity to a metal ground plane in order to reduce
flicker and increase lamp life. The distance should be 0.5” within
+/- 0.25”.
Do not mix ballast or lamp types on the same circuit. Contrary to

popular belief, ballasts can interact with each other on the same
circuit. The same is true for lamps as they do fire differently and
should never be mixed within a fixture.
Please use the following chart to determine the correct ETC dimmer module for your
ballasts:
2-wire 2-wire
(Forward (Reverse 3-wire 4-wire
Phase) Phase)
120VAC
L10/D15/D20 ELV10 D15F/D20F L10/D15/D20
(USA)
230VAC
(CE, ED15 - ED15AFRF ED15/ER15
Europe)
277VAC
AL5/AD20 - AL5F/AD20F AL5/AD20
(USA)
There are some new dimmer modules available that help deal with
very low numbers of ballasts on a circuit. Since SCR based
dimming requires a minimum load to operate correctly, ETC has
developed modules that are better able to deal with situations
where only a ballast or two is on a dimmer or the ballast is highly
inductive or capacitive. The L series of modules use MOSFET and
IBGT technology to more accurately dim low wattage loads.
How to tune an ETC Unison system for dimming fluorescents
When configuring the dimming engine on a Unison processor,

please verify that you select the correct module type and the
appropriate load type. When you select fluorescent, you will be
asked what percentage ballast you are using. The curve and
threshold will be set automatically.
How to tune an ETC Sensor system for dimming fluorescents
Sensor is quite a bit different in how it should be set for proper

fluorescent dimming. You must first set the curve you wish to use.
Most people select Linear, but there is a Modified Linear as well
that has a softer bottom end of the curve. After that, set the
Threshold to about 60% and measure the RMS voltage output for
the dimmer at its minimum setting. You are looking for voltage to
be 0.47 times the incoming line voltage. If 60% is not correct,
select another Threshold that is closer to the desired output and
verify with the meter. With this type of setting (let’s assume 60%
Threshold) your fader will have a large area of travel (between 0
and 59%) where nothing will happen. On Unison systems, you can
set the Zone to have a minimum level of 60, maximum of full and
select the box labeled, “Use zero as off.” This will give your
wallstation fader complete control of the ballast across the entire
range of the fader and still turn off at the bottom of the fader travel.
This is a very nice solution. When running ballasts from a DMX
control console, take time to program a profile to emulate the
Unison programming, or record all your cues with those affected
channels between 59 and full. That way a timed fade will still
operate with all fluorescent and non-fluorescent channels in
parallel.
Troubleshooting dimmed fluorescents
1. Lamps are at different - Mixture of different types or ages

levels on different ballasts of lamps.
- Lamps were not seasoned at full
for 100 hours.
2. Lamps have blackened - Lamps have been run for long
ends periods of time at very low levels.
- Lamps have been run below
recommended levels.
3. Lamps flicker or flash at for 100 hours.
low levels only - Ballasts are being driven too low.
Verify low-end RMS voltage setting.
- 3-wire ballast has dimmed and
switched wires swapped.
4. Lamps flicker or flash at all
levels
for 100 hours.
- Lamps and ballasts not matched.
5. Lamps come on at full at
- 4-wire ballast has missing or
low-end of control and do not
incorrect wiring for control.
dim.
6. Lamps do not dim to the for 100 hours.
lowest level - Fixtures incorrectly grounded.
- Aged lamps.
What ballasts not to use with ETC equipment
Do not use reverse-phase control ballasts. All Sensor and Unison

dimming systems (and all SCR-based dimming systems
manufactured) use forward-phase control. The use of ballasts not
intended for these systems will cause a variety of problems and
will not dim correctly. The most common manufacturer of these
ballasts is ESI. Lightolier makes a converter box in one and two-
channel models to adapt the forward-phase control signal to
reverse-phase control, but the cost is quite significant. Most
dimmable ballasts made today are electronic and are easy to work
with. However, as people are retrofitting older facilities, dimmable
magnetic ballasts are being used as well. Most magnetics can be
dimmed, but as always, if there is any doubt, test it first. Magnetic
ballasts must be thermally protected to prevent non-sinusoidal
waveforms from causing overheating.
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You see fluorescent lighting everywhere these days -- in offices, stores, warehouses,
street corners... You'll even find fluorescent lamps in peoples' homes. But even though
they're all around us, these devices are a total mystery to most people. Just what is
going on inside those white tubes?
Fluorescent lamps are

an energy-efficient
option.
In this article, we'll find out how fluorescent lamps emit such a bright
glow without getting scalding hot like an ordinary light bulb. We'll also
find out why fluorescent lamps are more efficient than incandescent
lighting, and see how this technology is used in other sorts of lamps.
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Let There Be Light
To understand fluorescent lamps, it helps to know a little about light

itself. Light is a form of energy that can be released by an atom. It is
made up of many small particle-like packets that have energy and
momentum but no mass. These particles, called light photons, are the
most basic units of light. (For more information, see How Light Works.)
Atoms release light photons when their electrons become excited. If

you've read How Atoms Work, then you know electrons are the
negatively charged particles that move around an atom's nucleus (which
has a net positive charge). An atom's electrons have different levels of
energy, depending on several factors, including their speed and distance
from the nucleus. Electrons of different energy levels occupy different
orbitals. Generally speaking, electrons with greater energy move in orbitals farther
away from the nucleus.
When an atom gains or loses energy, the change is expressed by the

movement of electrons. When something passes energy on to an atom --
heat, for example -- an electron may be temporarily boosted to a higher
orbital (farther away from the nucleus). The electron only holds this
position for a tiny fraction of a second; almost immediately, it is drawn
back toward the nucleus, to its original orbital. As it returns to its original
orbital, the electron releases the extra energy in the form of a photon, in
some cases a light photon.
The wavelength of the emitted light depends on how much energy is

released, which depends on the particular position of the electron.
Consequently, different sorts of atoms will release different sorts of light
photons. In other words, the color of the light is determined by what kind
of atom is excited.
This is the basic mechanism at work in nearly all light sources. The main
difference between these sources is the process of exciting the atoms. In
an incandescent light source, such as an ordinary light bulb or gas
lamp, atoms are excited by heat; in a light stick, atoms are excited by a
chemical reaction. Fluorescent lamps have one of the most elaborate
systems for exciting atoms, as we'll see in the next section.
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How Fluorescent Lamps Work
by Tom Harris
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Please copy/paste the following text to properly cite this
HowStuffWorks article:
Harris, Tom. "How Fluorescent Lamps Work." 07 December 2001.

HowStuffWorks.com. <http://home.howstuffworks.com/fluorescent-
lamp.htm> 25 June 2010.
Inside this Article
1. Introduction to How Fluorescent Lamps Work

2. Let There Be Light
3. Down the Tubes
4. Cooking with Gas

5. Start it Up
6. Light Right Away
7. See more »
7. Ballast Balance
8. Lots More Information
9. See all Household Appliances articles
Home & Garden Videos
 More Home & Garden Videos »
Down the Tubes
The central element in a fluorescent lamp is a sealed glass tube. The tube
contains a small bit of mercury and an inert gas, typically argon, kept
under very low pressure. The tube also contains a phosphor powder,
coated along the inside of the glass. The tube has two electrodes, one at
each end, which are wired to an electrical circuit. The electrical circuit, which we'll
examine later, is hooked up to an alternating current (AC) supply
When you turn the lamp on, the current flows through the electrical
circuit to the electrodes. There is a considerable voltage across the
electrodes, so electrons will migrate through the gas from one end of the
tube to the other. This energy changes some of the mercury in the tube
from a liquid to a gas. As electrons and charged atoms move through the
tube, some of them will collide with the gaseous mercury atoms. These
collisions excite the atoms, bumping electrons up to higher energy levels.
When the electrons return to their original energy level, they release light
photons.
As we saw in the last section, the wavelength of a photon is determined

by the particular electron arrangement in the atom. The electrons in
mercury atoms are arranged in such a way that they mostly release light
photons in the ultraviolet wavelength range. Our eyes don't register
ultraviolet photons, so this sort of light needs to be converted into visible
light to illuminate the lamp.
This is where the tube's phosphor powder coating comes in. Phosphors
are substances that give off light when they are exposed to light. When a
photon hits a phosphor atom, one of the phosphor's electrons jumps to a
higher energy level and the atom heats up. When the electron falls back to
its normal level, it releases energy in the form of another photon. This
photon has less energy than the original photon, because some energy
was lost as heat. In a fluorescent lamp, the emitted light is in the visible
spectrum -- the phosphor gives off white light we can see. Manufacturers
can vary the color of the light by using different combinations of
phosphors.
Conventional incandescent light bulbs also emit a good bit of ultraviolet
light, but they do not convert any of it to visible light. Consequently, a lot
of the energy used to power an incandescent lamp is wasted. A
fluorescent lamp puts this invisible light to work, and so is more
efficient. Incandescent lamps also lose more energy through heat
emission than do fluorescent lamps. Overall, a typical fluorescent lamp is
four to six times more efficient than an incandescent lamp. People
generally use incandescent lights in the home, however, since they emit a
"warmer" light -- a light with more red and less blue.
As we've seen, the entire fluorescent lamp system depends on an

electrical current flowing through the gas in the glass tube. In the next
section, we'll see what a fluorescent lamp needs to do to establish this
current
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In the last section, we saw that mercury atoms in a fluorescent lamp's
glass tube are excited by electrons flowing in an electrical current. This
electrical current is something like the current in an ordinary wire, but it
passes through gas instead of through a solid. Gas conductors differ
from solid conductors in a number of ways.
In a solid conductor, electrical charge is carried by free electrons jumping

from atom to atom, from a negatively-charged area to a positively-
charged area. As we've seen, electrons always have a negative charge,
which means they are always drawn toward positive charges. In a gas,
electrical charge is carried by free electrons moving independently of
atoms. Current is also carried by ions, atoms that have an electrical
charge because they have lost or gained an electron. Like electrons, ions
are drawn to oppositely charged areas.
To send a current through gas in a tube, then, a fluorescent light needs to

have two things:
1. Free electrons and ions

2. A difference in charge between the two ends of the tube (a
voltage)
Generally, there are few ions and free electrons in a gas, because all of the
atoms naturally maintain a neutral charge. Consequently, it is difficult to
conduct an electrical current through most gases. When you turn on a
fluorescent lamp, the first thing it needs to do is introduce many new
free electrons from both electrodes.
There are several different ways of doing this, as we'll see in the next
couple of sections.
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by Tom Harris
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Inside this Article

3. Down the Tubes
4. Cooking with Gas

5. Start it Up
6. Light Right Away
7. See more »
7. Ballast Balance
8. Lots More Information
9. See all Household Appliances articles
Start it Up
The classic fluorescent lamp design, which has fallen mostly by the wayside, used a
special starter switch mechanism to light up the tube. You can see how this system
works in the diagram below.
When the lamp first turns on, the path of least resistance is through the
bypass circuit, and across the starter switch. In this circuit, the current
passes through the electrodes on both ends of the tube. These electrodes
are simple filaments, like you would find in an incandescent light bulb.
When the current runs through the bypass circuit, electricity heats up the
filaments. This boils off electrons from the metal surface, sending them
into the gas tube, ionizing the gas.
At the same time, the electrical current sets off an interesting sequence of
events in the starter switch. The conventional starter switch is a small
discharge bulb, containing neon or some other gas. The bulb has two
electrodes positioned right next to each other. When electricity is initially
passed through the bypass circuit, an electrical arc (essentially, a flow of
charged particles) jumps between these electrodes to make a connection. This arc
lights the bulb in the same way a larger arc lights a fluorescent bulb.
One of the electrodes is a bimetallic strip that bends when it is heated. The
small amount of heat from the lit bulb bends the bimetallic strip so it makes contact
with the other electrode. With the two electrodes touching each other, the current
doesn't need to jump as an arc anymore. Consequently, there are no charged particles
flowing through the gas, and the light goes out. Without the heat from the light, the
bimetallic strip cools, bending away from the other electrode. This opens the circuit.
Inside the casing of a conventional

fluorescent starter there is a small gas
discharge lamp.
By the time this happens, the filaments have already ionized the gas in the
fluorescent tube, creating an electrically conductive medium. The tube
just needs a voltage kick across the electrodes to establish an electrical
arc. This kick is provided by the lamp's ballast, a special sort of
transformer wired into the circuit.
When the current flows through the bypass circuit, it establishes a

magnetic field in part of the ballast. This magnetic field is maintained by the
flowing current. When the starter switch is opened, the current is briefly cut off from
the ballast. The magnetic field collapses, which creates a sudden jump in current -- the
ballast releases its stored energy.
The ballast, starter switch and fluorescent
bulb are all wired together in a simple
circuit.
This surge in current helps build the initial voltage needed to establish
the electrical arc through the gas. Instead of flowing through the bypass
circuit and jumping across the gap in the starter switch, the electrical
current flows through the tube. The free electrons collide with the atoms,
knocking loose other electrons, which creates ions. The result is a
plasma, a gas composed largely of ions and free electrons, all moving
freely. This creates a path for an electrical current.
The impact of flying electrons keeps the two filaments warm, so they
continue to emit new electrons into the plasma. As long as there is AC
current, and the filaments aren't worn out, current will continue to flow
through the tube.
The problem with this sort of lamp is it takes a few seconds for it to light
up. These days, most fluorescent lamps are designed to light up almost
instantly. In the next section, we'll see how these modern designs work.
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by Tom Harris
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Inside this Article

3. Down the Tubes
4. Cooking with Gas

5. Start it Up
6. Light Right Away
7. See more »
Light Right Away
Today, the most popular fluorescent lamp design is the rapid start lamp.
This design works on the same basic principle as the traditional starter
lamp, but it doesn't have a starter switch. Instead, the lamp's ballast
constantly channels current through both electrodes. This current flow is
configured so that there is a charge difference between the two electrodes,
establishing a voltage across the tube.
When the fluorescent light is turned on, both electrode filaments heat up very quickly,
boiling off electrons, which ionize the gas in the tube. Once the gas is ionized, the
voltage difference between the electrodes establishes an electrical arc. The flowing
charged particles (red) excite the mercury atoms (silver), triggering the illumination
process.
Rapid start and starter switch fluorescent

bulbs have two pins that slide against two
contact points in an electrical circuit.
An alternative method, used in instant-start fluorescent lamps, is to

apply a very high initial voltage to the electrodes. This high voltage
creates a corona discharge. Essentially, an excess of electrons on the
electrode surface forces some electrons into the gas. These free electrons
ionize the gas, and almost instantly the voltage difference between the
electrodes establishes an electrical arc.
No matter how the starting mechanism is configured, the end result is the
same: a flow of electrical current through an ionized gas. This sort of gas
discharge has a peculiar and problematic quality: If the current isn't
carefully controlled, it will continually increase, and possibly explode the
light fixture. In the next section, we'll find out why this is and see how a
fluorescent lamp keeps things running smoothly
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Ballast Balance
We saw in the last section that gases don't conduct electricity in the same
way as solids. One major difference between solids and gases is their
electrical resistance (the opposition to flowing electricity). In a solid
metal conductor such as a wire, resistance is a constant at any given
temperature, controlled by the size of the conductor and the nature of the
material.
In a gas discharge, such as a fluorescent lamp, current causes resistance to

decrease. This is because as more electrons and ions flow through a
particular area, they bump into more atoms, which frees up electrons,
creating more charged particles. In this way, current will climb on its own
in a gas discharge, as long as there is adequate voltage (and household
AC current has a lot of voltage). If the current in a fluorescent light isn't
controlled, it can blow out the various electrical components.
A fluorescent lamp's ballast works to control this. The simplest sort of

ballast, generally referred to as a magnetic ballast, works something like
an inductor. A basic inductor consists of a coil of wire in a circuit, which
may be wound around a piece of metal. If you've read How
Electromagnets Work, you know that when you send electrical current
through a wire, it generates a magnetic field. Positioning the wire in
concentric loops amplifies this field.
This sort of field affects not only objects around the loop, but also the
loop itself. Increasing the current in the loop increases the magnetic field,
which applies a voltage opposite the flow of current in the wire. In short,
a coiled length of wire in a circuit (an inductor) opposes change in the
current flowing through it (see How Inductors Work for details). The
transformer elements in a magnetic ballast use this principle to regulate
the current in a fluorescent lamp.
A ballast can only slow down changes in current -- it can't stop them. But
the alternating current powering a fluorescent light is constantly
reversing itself, so the ballast only has to inhibit increasing current in a
particular direction for a short amount of time. Check out this site for
more information on this process.
Magnetic ballasts modulate electrical current at a relatively low cycle

rate, which can cause a noticeable flicker. Magnetic ballasts may also
vibrate at a low frequency. This is the source of the audible humming
sound people associate with fluorescent lamps.
Modern ballast designs use advanced electronics to more precisely

regulate the current flowing through the electrical circuit. Since they use a
higher cycle rate, you don't generally notice a flicker or humming noise
coming from an electronic ballast. Different lamps require specialized
ballasts designed to maintain the specific voltage and current levels
needed for varying tube designs.
Fluorescent lamps come in all shapes and sizes, but they all work on the
same basic principle: An electric current stimulates mercury atoms, which
stimulate a phosphor, which emits visible light photons. At the most basic
level, that's all there is to it!
To learn more about this remarkable technology, including descriptions of

various lamp designs, check out the links on the next page.
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Ballast Balance
We saw in the last section that gases don't conduct electricity in the same
way as solids. One major difference between solids and gases is their
electrical resistance (the opposition to flowing electricity). In a solid
metal conductor such as a wire, resistance is a constant at any given
temperature, controlled by the size of the conductor and the nature of the
material.
In a gas discharge, such as a fluorescent lamp, current causes resistance to
decrease. This is because as more electrons and ions flow through a
particular area, they bump into more atoms, which frees up electrons,
creating more charged particles. In this way, current will climb on its own
in a gas discharge, as long as there is adequate voltage (and household
AC current has a lot of voltage). If the current in a fluorescent light isn't
controlled, it can blow out the various electrical components.
A fluorescent lamp's ballast works to control this. The simplest sort of

ballast, generally referred to as a magnetic ballast, works something like
an inductor. A basic inductor consists of a coil of wire in a circuit, which
may be wound around a piece of metal. If you've read How
Electromagnets Work, you know that when you send electrical current
through a wire, it generates a magnetic field. Positioning the wire in
concentric loops amplifies this field.
This sort of field affects not only objects around the loop, but also the
loop itself. Increasing the current in the loop increases the magnetic field,
which applies a voltage opposite the flow of current in the wire. In short,
a coiled length of wire in a circuit (an inductor) opposes change in the
current flowing through it (see How Inductors Work for details). The
transformer elements in a magnetic ballast use this principle to regulate
the current in a fluorescent lamp.
A ballast can only slow down changes in current -- it can't stop them. But
the alternating current powering a fluorescent light is constantly
reversing itself, so the ballast only has to inhibit increasing current in a
particular direction for a short amount of time. Check out this site for
more information on this process.
Magnetic ballasts modulate electrical current at a relatively low cycle

rate, which can cause a noticeable flicker. Magnetic ballasts may also
vibrate at a low frequency. This is the source of the audible humming
sound people associate with fluorescent lamps.
Modern ballast designs use advanced electronics to more precisely

regulate the current flowing through the electrical circuit. Since they use a
higher cycle rate, you don't generally notice a flicker or humming noise
coming from an electronic ballast. Different lamps require specialized
ballasts designed to maintain the specific voltage and current levels
needed for varying tube designs.
Fluorescent lamps come in all shapes and sizes, but they all work on the
same basic principle: An electric current stimulates mercury atoms, which
stimulate a phosphor, which emits visible light photons. At the most basic
level, that's all there is to it!
To learn more about this remarkable technology, including descriptions of

various lamp designs, check out the links on the next page.
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Lots More Information
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More Great Links
 Sam's Fluorescent Lamp F.A.Q.

 How Fluorescent Lighting Works
 The Fluorescent Lamp: A Plasma You Can Use
 How Things Work: Fluorescent Lamps
 Light Guides
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ballast coil
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The Fluorescent Lamp:
A plasma you can use
(Files in red–history)
You may have noticed
Index in the drawing
(reproduced here) that the
4a. Electric Fluid circuit of the fluorescent light fixture included a "ballast
coil.," You might also have noticed such coils in fixtures
5. Field Lines in your home, often encased in a rectangular box.
Ordinary hot-filament lightbulbs are connected directly to
5H. Faraday 1846 power lines, but fluorescent lamps always receive their
current through a ballast. Why?
5a-1. EM Induction--1
5a-2. EM Induction--2 Good question. If you have studied electricity, you

surely learned there about Ohm's Law, by which the
6. EM Waves current flowing through a device is inversely proportional
to its electrical resistance R. Double the resistance R
7. Plasma and only 1/2 of the current gets through, replace it with
one 10 times larger and only 1/10 as much manages to
7. Fluoresc. Lamp flow. It is a bit like water flowing in a pipe--if you make
the pipe 10 times narrower, then (other things being
7H. Langmuir, 1927 equal) only 1/10 as much water flows through.
8. Positive Ions A greedy conductor defies Ohm's law!
Well, in case you thought that Ohm's law was a

8H. Arrhenius, 1884
universal law of electricity--think again, because it isn't.
Metal wires satisfy it fairly well, although their resistivity
9. Magnetic trapping
varies with temperature: a cold lightbulb filament has
only 1/5 the resistance of a hot one, so that initially the
lamp draws a 5-fold current, which helps switch it on
quickly. But plasmas do not satisfy it at all. The
resistance of your fluorescent lamp is not fixed, it
depends on the current carried: the greater the current, the
smaller the resistance.
Put in other words, the plasma is a greedy conductor of

electricity. Suppose it has just enough free electrons to get a
current started. The current causes ions and electrons to move
rapidly and to collide violently, and those collisions strip
additional electrons off atoms of the gas. Additional electrons
increase the current, causing more collisions and producing still
more electrons, which create more current, more and still more...
In this way, if a fluorescent lamp were directly connected to the
power lines, unprotected, its current would rapidly grow until
something gave way. The tube might heat up and explode, the
wiring might melt... or more likely, the fuse or circuit breaker
which protect the fixture would stop the current.
The Ballast
A resistor connected in front of the tube, in place of the ballast

coil in the drawing, would prevent this from happening. Imagine
our power comes from a 110 volt line, and the resistance in front
is 220 ohms: then even if the effective resistance of the plasma
falls to zero (and it can't fall any further!), the current drawn is
only (110volt/220 ohm) = 0.5 ampere. If the plasma adds its own
non-zero resistance, that makes the denominator larger and the
current even smaller.
Why then a coil and not a resistor? Because the tube is fed by an
alternating voltage, which rises and falls 120 times a second (in
the USA; 100 times in Europe). Its electrical current sloshes back
and forth, 60 times a second in one direction, 60 times in the
opposite one. In between, 120 times each second, the voltage
drops to zero and the tube is extinguished, since plasmas react
very quickly. Somehow, it must be relit!
A ballast coil can do that. In an alternating current, it acts a bit

like a resistance. As the current rises, it absorbs energy from it to
build up its magnetic field, slowing down its growth. Then, when
the voltage drops to zero, the stored magnetic energy produces a
voltage surge which relights the tube. You will not usually see the
fast flickering of the light, except maybe if you illuminate a
rotating fan, when (at the right speed) its motion seems to stop.
(Note: compact fluorescent lamps now exist in which the ballast
coil is replaced by a more complex electronic circuit. The flow of
electric current is then limited by a complex circuit with
transistors.
And what about this "fluorescent" thing? The mercury atoms

in the plasma generate light very efficiently, but much of it is
ultra-violet (UV), invisible to the eye and harmful to it (or rather,
it would be, were it not absorbed by the glass). The solution is to
coat the inside of the tube with a glow-in-the-dark (fluorescent)
paint, which absorbs the UV and re-emits its energy as visible
light.
All other plasma lamps--sodium and mercury streetlights, neon

lights etc.--require ballast coils, too. Recently, small fluorescent
lamps have appeared on the market, which screw into the socket
of a regular lighbulb. They have transistor circuits replacing the
coil, and although they cost more than filament lamps, they are
(like other fluorescent lamps) much more eficient.
(And if you think Ohm's law is badly violated by

fluorescent lamp plasmas--just wait till you read about the
ring current, the electric current carried around Earth by
trapped ions and electrons of the radiation belt. That current
needs no voltage at all, it circulates just because of the
trapping of the plasma!)
A few words about safety
If a fluorescent lamp were not protected by a ballast, it could in

principle draw a huge current. Occasionally (not too frequently), a
ballast coil fails badly, the circuit breaker fails to do its job and a
fire is caused. The usual sign of a failing coil is a loud hum from
the fixture. The reason: to prevent parasitic currents, the coil is
wrapped not around a solid iron core, but around a stack of iron
plates, insulated from each other by a tar-like substance. On some
old fixtures, those plates work loose and start vibrating at the
frequency of the alternating current, which to our ears sounds like
a deep hum. Violent vibrations may scrape the coils wrapped
around them and allow the plasma to carry a greater current.
A low-intensity hum is probably no cause for alarm, although it

can be annoying. But if the hum gets really loud, it my be safer to
replace the coil or the fixture. Electric transformers are also
constructed around stacked iron plates and are subject to the same
problem.
25 June 2010
How compact fluorescent lamps work--and how to

dim them
CFLs are a hot topic (only figuratively, not literally);
how do they work, and how can you dim them?
By Tom Ribarich, Director, Lighting IC
Design Center, International Rectifier
Corporation
Planet Analog
E'13 9, 2009 (7:00 5 EST)
Compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) Rate this article

are replacing incandescent light
bulbs at a rapid rate due to their WORSE | BETTER
tremendous energy savings and
longer lifetime. Additional energy
savings can be achieved by 1 2 3 4 5
dimming, but the electronic ballast
required to control the lamp has a higher cost
and is difficult to design. This article explains how a
CFL works, how to dim them, and describes a solution for 3-way dimming
applications.
Fluorescence versus incandescence

Incandescence is the conversion of heat to light, which
requires the filament inside an incandescent lamp to burn
at a high temperature (350° F or 176° C). This conversion
is very simple but the disadvantages are that only 5% of
the total energy consumed by the lamp is used to
generate light (95% is wasted as heat!) and the lifetime is
limited to about 2,000 hours.
Fluorescence is the conversion of ultraviolet (UV) light to

visible light. Electrons flow through the fluorescent lamp
and collide with mercury atoms, causing photons of UV
light to be released. The UV light is then converted into
visible light as it passes through the phosphor coating on
the inside of the glass tube.
This two-stage conversion process is much more efficient

than incandescent lamp process, resulting in 25% of the
total energy consumed used to generate light, lower lamp
temperatures (40° C) and longer lifetime (10,000 hours).
The lamp load itself is resistive, but the electronic ballast
that is connected between the AC line voltage and the
lamp for controlling the lamp current is a capacitive load.
The complete CFL (Figure 1) includes the Edison
screwbase and plastic housing, the electronic ballast, and
the fluorescent lamp formed into a compact spiral shape.
Figure 1: CFL components and assembly

(Click on image to enlarge)
CFL Operation
The electronic ballast circuit block diagram (Figure 2)
includes the AC line input voltage (typically 120 VAC/60
Hz), an EMI filter to block circuit-generated switching
noise, a rectifier and smoothing capacitor, a control IC
and half-bridge inverter for DC to AC conversion, and the
resonant tank circuit to ignite and run the lamp. The
additional circuit block required for dimming is also
shown; it includes a feedback circuit for controlling the
lamp current.
Figure 2: CFL electronic ballast block diagram

The lamp requires a current to preheat the filaments, a

high-voltage for ignition, and a high-frequency AC current
during running. To fulfill these requirements, the
electronic ballast circuit first performs a low-frequency
AC-to-DC conversion at the input, followed by a high-
frequency DC-to-AC conversion at the output.
The AC mains voltage is full-wave rectified and then peak-

charges a capacitor to produce a smooth DC bus voltage.
The DC bus voltage is then converted into a high-
frequency, 50% duty-cycle, AC square-wave voltage using
a standard half-bridge switching circuit. The high-
frequency AC square-wave voltage then drives the
resonant tank circuit and becomes filtered to produce a
sinusoidal current and voltage at the lamp.
During pre-ignition, the resonant tank is a series-LC

circuit with a high Q-factor. After ignition and during
running, the tank is a series-L, parallel-RC circuit, with a
Q-factor somewhere between a high and low value,
depending on the lamp dimming level.
When the CFL is first turned on, the control IC sweeps the
half-bridge frequency from the maximum frequency down
towards the resonance frequency of the high-Q ballast
output stage. The lamp filaments are preheated as the
frequency decreases and the lamp voltage and load
current increase (Figure 3).
Figure 3: CFL operation timing diagram

The frequency keeps decreasing until the lamp voltage

exceeds the lamp ignition voltage threshold and the lamp
ignites. Once the lamp ignites, the lamp current is
controlled such that the lamp runs at the desired power
and brightness level.
To dim the fluorescent lamp, the frequency of the half-

bridge is increased, causing the gain of the resonant tank
circuit to decrease and therefore lamp current to
decrease. A closed-loop feedback circuit is then used to
measure the lamp current and regulate the current to the
dimming reference level by continuously adjusting the
half-bridge operating frequency.
The IRS2530D Dimming Control IC from International

Rectifier includes such a feedback control circuit, as well
as all of the necessary functions to preheat and ignite the
lamp,and to protect against fault conditions such as open
filament failures, lamp non-strike and mains brown-out.
The dimming function is realized by combining the AC
lamp current measurement (Figure 4) with the DC
reference voltage at a single node. The AC lamp current
measurement across the sensing resistor RCS is coupled
onto the DC dimming reference through a feedback
capacitor CFB and resistor RFB.
Figure 4: IRS2530D AC+DC dimming control method..

The feedback circuit regulates the valley of the AC+DC

signal to COM as the DC dimming level is increased or
decreased by continuously adjusting the half-bridge
frequency. This causes the amplitude of the lamp current
to then increase or decrease for dimming. If the DC
reference is increased, the valley of the AC+DC signal will
increase above COM and the feedback circuit will decrease
the frequency to increase the gain of the resonant tank.
This will increase the lamp current, as well as the

amplitude of the AC+DC signal at the DIM pin, until the
valley reaches COM again. If the DC reference is
decreased, the valley will decrease below COM. The
feedback circuit will then increase the frequency to
decrease the gain of the resonant tank until the valley
reaches COM again.
3-Way Dimming
One popular dimming application is for 3-way lamp
sockets. The 3-way dimming incandescent lamps include
two filaments and two connections on the lamp screw
base. A 4-position switch in gthe socket (off, low,
medium, high) is then used to switch between different
filament connections, to step through three dimming
levels (Figure 5).
Figure 5: 3-way dimming CFL circuit schematic

The first socket switch position is the off setting, where no

filaments are connected, the second position connects the
first filament across the AC line for the lowest-brightness
setting, the third position connects the second filament for
the medium-brightness setting, and the fourth position
connects both filaments in parallel for the highest-
brightness setting. To achieve the equivalent functionality
for a CFL, a dimming electronic ballast circuit is used to
control the lamp current for each brightness level.
The circuit includes a rectifier and voltage doubler circuit

at each input (D1, D2, D3, D4, C3 and C4), the half-
bridge control circuit and MOSFETs (IRS2530D, Q1 and
Q2), the resonant tank (LRES and CRES), the lamp-
current sensing and feedback circuit (RCS, RFB and CFB),
and the 3-way interface circuit (R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, RPU,
Q3, Q4, DZ1 and C5). As the switch position is changed
for each dim setting, the circuit detects the change in
voltage at the two screwbase input connections (PL1 and
PL2) with the voltage divider formed by resistors R5, R6
and R7.
Resistors R5 and R6 pull up the DC dimming reference

across resistor R7 and capacitor C5 to the appropriate
level to set the minimum and medium brightness levels.
To set the maximum brightness level, transistors Q1 and
Q2 are both turned on and the DC dimming reference is
then pulled up high enough to ensure the circuit will reach
the maximum brightness level.
The IRS2530D controls the preheat and ignition timing

with capacitor CPH, and controls the dimming loop speed
with capacitor CVCO. If the lamp does not ignite, or one
or both of the filaments open up, then the IRS2530D will
disable the complete circuit safely to prevent excessive
voltages or currents from damaging components.
The waveforms from the circuit (Figures 6A, 6B, and

6C) show the lamp current and voltage at each brightness
setting. For the 32 W lamp load, the measured lamp
current is approximately 240 mA at the maximum
brightness level, 94 mA at the medium level, and 31 mA
at the minimum level. The operating frequencies at each
level are 43 kHz at maximum, 62 kHz at medium, and 67
kHz at minimum.
Figure 6A, B, C: Lamp voltage (upper, 100 V/div) and
current (lower, 200 mA/div) at each 3-way dim setting
(time=10 μsec/div); (A) Maximum, (B) Medium, and (C)
Minimum
(Click on images to enlarge)
Conclusion
The dimming function opens up a completely new family
of CFL applications. Each dimming application presents a
different set of challenges, especially with the interface
circuit required. The dimming control loop required to
regulate the lamp current is basically the same for each
application.
The challenge is to design each different interface circuit
that converts the user dimming method to the necessary
DC dimming reference. The new IRS2530D greatly
simplifies dimming designs and helps close the gap
between dimming and non-dimming designs. This will
enable CFL products to compete with incandescent ones,
while maintaining a small form factor and a low cost.
Additional dimming circuits to consider to further enhance
the performance of CFLs include triac dimming, powerline
communication and wireless applications.
About the author

Tom Ribarich is the Director, Lighting IC Design Center,
at International Rectifier Corporation, El Segundo, CA,
where he is responsible for developing control ICs for the
global lighting market, including fluorescent, halogen,
HID, LED and LCD backlighting applications. He has a
BSEE degree from California State University, Northridge,
and a master's degree in ASIC design from University of
Rapperswil, Switzerland. He has also designed ASICS for
new generation of high-performance electronic ballast
products
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Energy-saving lamps
Last updated: March 22, 2009.

Now here's a bright idea—a lamp that saves you money and helps the
environment! It lasts 10 times longer than a standard electric lamp and
uses 80 percent less energy. If you care about tackling global warming,
lamps like this are a great place to start. During its lifetime, a typical
energy-saving lamp will stop about one ton of carbon dioxide from
entering the atmosphere and pay for itself many times over. So it's good
for your pocket and kind to the Earth as well. But how exactly does it
work?
Photo: A typical energy-saving compact fluorescent lamp (CFL).
How to make light the hot way (incandescence)
To understand what's so good about energy-saving lamps, we first need to

understand what's so bad about ordinary ones.
Most lamps are incandescent. This means they give off light because they
are hot. A typical electric light bulb is a glass globe with a very thin piece
of wire inside it. The thin wire, called a filament, gets extremely hot when
electricity flows through it. Now, hot things often give off light. Fires, for
example, look red, orange, yellow, or white because they are hot. Put an
iron bar in a fire and it will glow red when the temperature reaches about
950°C (1750°F); this is what we mean by "red hot." If the temperature
rises to about 1100°C (2000°F), the bar glow yellows. If it gets hotter
still, say about 2500°C (4500°F) it will glow with a bright, white light.
The filament in a lightbulb looks white because it is glowing white hot.
Hot iron looks red, yellow, or white because it is giving off light—but
why should it give off light at all? When you heat iron, the atoms inside it
absorb the heat energy you supply. The electrons inside the atoms push
out farther from the nucleus to soak up this extra energy. But this makes
them unstable, so they quickly return to their original or "ground" state.
When they do so, they have to get rid of some energy and do so by giving
off a tiny packet of light called a photon. Depending on how much energy
they get rid of, the photon appears as light of a particular color. See our
article on light for a fuller explanation of how atoms make light.
Photo: This incandescent lamp makes light when the filament gets white
hot.
You might think heating up a bit of wire is a pretty inefficient way to

make light—and you'd be right. A fire, a hot iron bar, and the wire
filament in a lamp all give off light, but they also give off heat. If making
light is our only objective, any heat we make is wasted energy. If you've
ever put your hand near a typical incandescent lamp, you'll know it gets
incredibly hot—far too hot to touch, so don't try it! In fact, an
incandescent bulb wastes about 90 percent of the electricity it uses by
getting hot.
Find out more in our article on incandescent lamps.
How to make light the cool way (fluorescence)
Energy-saving lights save energy by making light without the heat using a
completely different process called fluorescence. This is a trick similar to
the one used by creatures like fireflies and glow-worms, whose bodies
contain chemicals that make "cool light" without any heat. The general
name for light made this way is luminescence.
From the outside, a fluorescent lamp seems to have two main sections: a
squarish base out of which two or more white, glass tubes emerge. Inside,
things are a bit more complex. The base is the bit that plugs into the
power socket (1). Inside it, there's a small electronic circuit (2),
containing a transformer, that boosts the voltage of the incoming
electricity. (You can see a photo of the circuit below.) This means the
lamp can produce more light than it would otherwise do and also helps to
reduce flicker. The circuit is connected to a couple of electrical contacts
called electrodes (3). When electricity flows into the electrodes, electrons
(shown here as red dots) boil" from their surface and shoot off down the
thin white tubes, which contain mercury gas (4). As the electrons hurtle
down the tubes, they collide with atoms of the mercury (5), shown here as
blue dots. The collisions give the mercury atoms energy so their electrons
jump to higher energy levels. But this makes the mercury atoms unstable,
so the electrons quickly return to their ground states. When they do so,
they give off photons of invisible ultraviolet light (slightly higher
frequency than the blue light we can see).
Photo: The electronic circuit inside an energy-saving lamp. The

transformer is the big orange/gold thing in the center. The black cylinder
on the left is a capacitor.
If fluorescent lights make invisible light, how come they glow white?
Here's the clever part. The thin glass tubes of a fluorescent light are
covered in white-colored chemicals called phosphors. When the
ultraviolet light strikes atoms in the phosphors, it excites their electrons in
just the same way that the mercury atoms were excited (6). This makes
the phosphor atoms unstable, so they give off their excess energy as
photons—which, this time, happen to be visible, white light.
So, in short, fluorescent lights make their energy in a three-step process:

1. Electrodes take electrical energy from the power supply and
generate moving electrons.
2. The moving electrons collide with mercury atoms in the tubes to
make ultraviolet light.
3. The white phosphor coating of the tubes converts the ultraviolet
light into visible light (that we can see).
In case you're wondering, this is what a compact fluorescent light looks

like inside. (Don't break one apart yourself; there is some health risk from
the mercury inside if you do so.) Sorry the photo is a bit blurred. Next
time one of my lamps breaks, I'll take a better photo!
Photo: Inside a compact fluorescent lamp. The numbers on this photo

correspond to the numbers in the artwork up above: 1) Connection to
power socket; 2) Transformer circuit; 3) Electrodes; 4-6) Glass tubes with
white phosphor coating inside.
000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
From: JOlson8590-at-aol.com
Date: Wed, 9 Oct 1996 17:15:19 -0400
Subject: Magnatek ballasts, and other ballasts.
Arthur Johannson asks about Magnatek Ballasts in APD #244. I do not

have my catalog at hand, so I am answering his question from memory - a
risky endeavor! However, I believe he is describing a very common type
of "magnetic" ballast. Magnatek is a very well-known brand of magnetic
ballasts. They are well made. Ballasts seem to be poorly understood, and
the differences between the various kinds are also poorly understood.
I will stick my neck out, and try to describe how ballasts work, and the
differences between them. Again, this is risky, as it is a lot easier to
describe these devices with drawings. Also, I am NOT an engineer. This
will not be as organized nor as clear as an Engineer would say it, but I
will do my best.
The "ballast" for any fluorescent bulb is mostly a current limiting device.
Once the "arc" is started between the ends of the tube, an essentially
unlimited direct "short circuit" is developed. The best illustration that
immediately comes to mind is a bolt of lightning. Lighting does not just
suddenly blast a giant spark from cloud to ground. First, in an extremely
short time just before the bolt of lightning, an "ion trail" is established
between the cloud and the earth. In other words, a "pathway" is
established in the air, the pathway made up of "ionized" molecules of the
gases that air is made of. Then, the giant "spark," the actual "lightning
bolt" follows that pathway in an enormous burst of energy. The loud
"Bang" is generated from the suddenly heated air as the spark jumps from
ground to cloud. (The main "bolt" most often actually jumps from the
ground up to the cloud, not the other way around.) The arc in a
fluorescent tube is similar, in that it must be controlled to keep a sort of
miniature "lightning bolt" from ruining the fluorescent bulb.
Now I will 'backtrack' a bit. If you could take the white "phosphor"
coating off of the inside of an ordinary fluorescent bulb, you would see
that there is a "filament," a tightly coiled wire, that runs from one of the
pins in the end of the bulb to the other pit at that end of the bulb. There is
a "filament" on both ends of the bulb. They are usually covered with a
whitish powdery stuff. The powdery stuff is a material that "boils off" lots
of electrons when heated. The filament is the thing that actually "fails"
when a fluorescent bulb wears out. Either the filament burns out, or all of
the powdery stuff has "boiled off"
What is in the clear space from one end of the bulb to the other? That
depends upon several Engineering decisions made by the folks that
designed that particular bulb. However, it is always a pretty good
vacuum, with a small amount of some gas or other. If you look at a Neon
sign that is not lit, it has a pretty good vacuum, with a teeeny tiny bit of
Neon gas. It looks like just "clear glass" until it is lit. When an arc of
electrons passes through that gas, it glows with the familiar reddish
orange "NEON" color. In the fluorescent bulb, you get an arc that
generates ultraviolet light. The Ultraviolet from the arc bangs right up
against that white powder that coats the inside of the bulb, and the
powder glows. Electricity passes through the very thin, almost a vacuum,
gas in the bulb, generating ultraviolet light, which bangs into the powder,
which generates visible light. Ultraviolet light has a very short
wavelength, and we cannot see it. (Bees and many other insects, on the
other hand, have really tiny eyes, and they see ultraviolet light just fine!
In fact, flowers (that show pretty colors to our big eyes) reflect the
Ultraviolet light in sunlight very strongly, and appear "bright bee white"
to a honey bee. We see colors, they see "white.") ( :-) )
When a fluorescent bulb is "started," one or both of the filaments at the

ends of the bulb is heated by electricity, and "boils off" a cloud of
electrons, which quickly moves down the tube until this cloud of
electrons fills the bulb. (actually, the electrons "ionise" the gas in the
bulb, just like the ion trail that forms the path for a lightning bolt) Then
the arc jumps from one end of the bulb to the other, and the bulb is "lit."
Without the ballast, the arc would be a direct "short circuit" between the
ends of the bulb, and a huge blast of electricity would jump through the
bulb, and it would either instantly burn up the filaments, or the bulb
would literally explode. Rather like the lightning bolt I mentioned earlier.
An uncontrolled arc through a fluorescent bulb is BIG trouble for the
bulb! Actual bulb explosions from a "shorted ballast" are very rare, but
they can happen. Most often, if the "ballast" in a fluorescent fixture fails
by shorting out, you hear a loud "pop," accompanied by a very bright
flash from the bulb, then nothing. No noise, no light. The bulb has burned
out. (Actually, the filaments were destroyed by the suddenly uncontrolled
big arc.)
The ballast regulates, or controls, the flow of current through the arc, one
way or another. The magnetic ballast literally "chokes" off the current at a
set point. It does this by taking advantage of some basic physics.
Remember, the electric power in your home is (depending upon what
country you live in) either 50 or 60 cycle alternating current. In a "cycle,"
the flow of electicity goes from no flow at all, up to a set voltage, then
back to zero, then goes THE OTHER WAY, from zero up to the set
voltage, then back to zero. The current in that arc in the bulb does the
same thing. It goes from zero to maximum, back to zero, then the other
way, then back to zero. The ultraviolet light from the arc also goes from
zero to maximum, back to zero, up to maximum, then back to zero. The
glow from the phosphor powder coating the inside of the bulb does the
same thing, except the powder never completely stops glowing.
An alternator, for example the one in your automobile, often spins
magnets inside a set of coils of wire. Any time a wire moves through a
magnetic field, it generates an "ElectroMotive Force," a force measured
in volts. The amount of the force (voltage) depends upon how strong the
magnetic field is, and how FAST the wire moves through the field. Or,
you could move the magnet, and let the wire stand still. It does not matter
which is moving, the magnet, or the wire.
If you pass a current of electricity through a wire, it generates a magnetic

field. Since one of the most basic Laws of Physics can crudely be stated
as "There ain't no such thing as a free lunch," that magnetic field is
exactly opposite to that magnetic field that we were moving the wire
through just a moment ago. If the ends of the wire (or the ends of a coil
made of many turns of wire) are connected, an electrical current is
generated when you move the coil through a magnetic field. Or, you
could move the magnetic field past the coil. Is does not matter which is
moving. Yes, I suppose you could move both of them at the same time if
you wished. ( :-) ) And, any time an electric current moves through a
wire, it generates a magnetic field.
The most difficult concept for most of us is, both things happen at the
same time. You generate a current in the coil of wire by moving it through
a magnetic field, and then that current in the coil of wire generates
another magnetic field. That magnetic field is exactly opposite to the
magnetic field you are moving the wire through to generate the current.
The magnetic fields "fight", as does the current. I did not say that
particularly well. Sorry!
In a magnetic ballast, the rapid changes in current direction (the "cycles

per second," or "Hertz") makes equally rapid changes in the magnetic
field generated by the coil of wire in the ballast. The magnetic field
reverses 120 times a second. (Each "cycle" or "Hertz" goes from zero up,
than back to zero, then the other way, then back to zero.) The
corresponding current in the arc in the bulb is doing the same thing.
The "fighting" magnetic fields and currents in the magnetic ballast "fight"
much stronger as the amount of current flowing through the ballast
increases. This "fighting" impedes, or chokes, the current flow. An
individual ballast is designed by the Engineers so that it will let just
exactly the right amount of current through to light that particular
fluorescent bulb, but not let too much current through. It gets hot from the
effects of the "fight." That heat is totally wasted electricity. You pay for it,
but you don't get any light from it. Magnetic Ballasts are lots simpler and
cheaper to make than Electronic Ballasts. That is probably why they are
used so much.
Now, lets go to the actual generation of the light. The white coating on
the inside of the tube, the phosphor, glows from the ultraviolet light
generated from the arc. The arc goes from zero, up to a maximum, then
back to zero, then the other way, than back to zero. So does the
Ultraviolet light. So does the light from the glowing phosphor! The
phosphor is a bit goofy, though. It does not quite stop glowing between
current pulses. It almost stops, but not quite. If you are in a dark room,
you can wave your hand under a single fluorescent bulb, and you will see
multiple hands, as the light turns on and off and on and off, following the
current cycles. A "strobe" light turns on and off very abruptly and
completely. The fluorescent bulb is kind of lazy, and does not turn either
on or off all that quickly. Its brightness depends mostly upon a
combination of the phosphors used, and upon the amount of current
flowing through it. Too much current, and the filaments will burn up. Too
little, and you don't get much light.
In a common magnetic ballast, you start the arc by flowing a current

through the filaments, heating them until enough electrons have boiled
off to "start" the bulb. Once the bulb is started, the filaments stop
glowing, and the light comes entirely from the arc. Starting a "pre-heat"
bulb can be accomplished by using the common "starter," which looks
like a very small aluminum can with two pins on one end, or by using a
"starter switch." If your light is started with the switch, you hold the
button down for a few seconds, then release it. If you watch the bulb at
the same time, you will see the ends of the bulb start to glow, first very
dimly, then brighter. When you release the switch, you change the flow of
the current from through the filaments to through the bulb itself. The
"starter" does this for you automatically. The hand starting switch is lots
cheaper to make than the circuitry and the socket for the "starter." It also
takes a lot less room in the "hood" or reflector over your tank.
In a "rapid start ballast," a differently designed fluorescent bulb is used.

"Rapid Start" bulbs are designed to be started by Rapid Start Ballasts. In
these, a small current always flows through the filaments. The inside of
the bulb - the amount of vacuum, the gases, etc. - is designed to start the
arc very very quickly, without much heating of the filaments. Most "Pre-
Heat" bulbs will not start with magnetic rapid start ballasts. Some can be
induced to start by rubbing the bulb from end to end, thus capacitatively
inducing the arc. If you do get a Pre-Heat bulb to work with a rapid start
ballast, the end or ends of the bulb will get really black really soon. This
is because the filaments always have a current going through them,
something that does not happen with the normal "pre-heat" ballast.
Interestingly enough, Rapid Start Fluorescent Bulbs work just fine with
either the hand start switch or the "starter." It just does not work the other
way! Rapid Start ballasts are made in Magnetic, Electronic, or Hybrid
kinds. They don't look any different on the outside. The differences are
inside.
Why The Electronic Ballast Gives More Light For The Same Amount
Of Electricity
Remember how the bulb flickers, up to maximum brightness, then almost

to zero, then up, then down, over and over? Well, the Electronic Ballast
does its wizardry and changes the 50 or 60 cycle alternating current into
(usually) 400 cycle alternating current. This (to make a very crude
analogy) keeps the bulb phosphor glowing at almost the peak brighness
almost all of the time. The current cycles back and forth, going up and
down 800 times a second, and the phosphor never has a chance to quit
glowing like it did on ordinary alternating current. Another advantage to
the Electronic Ballast is the fact that is wastes very little electricity as
useless heat. The new Electronic Ballasts we are installing here in the
Aquarium Center draw slightly over 60 watts of total energy. Yet, they
light two, 40 watt bulbs, and light them much brighter than the Magnetic
Ballasts they are replacing. The Magnetic Ballasts draw more than a
hundred watts of electicicy to light two, 40 watt bulbs. They waste a lot
of electricity as heat. And, the bulbs are not nearly as bright!!
During the Iowa State Fair, there is a severe voltage drop in our area. Too
many other exhibitors, all drawing electricity from under-sized main
wiring. Anyway, we sometimes have voltages UNDER 100 volts. Many
Magnetic Ballasts just quit then. The lights just dim, then go out. They
cannot be re-started until late at night, when all of the other current users
close up shop and turn off their lights. The Electronic Ballasts we are now
using are very cleverly designed, and give the same amount of light with
line voltages from a low of only 90 volts up to over 140 volts.
Why doesn't everybody use Electronic Ballasts? Probably because

Magnetic Ballasts are cheaper to make and install.
What About High Output And Very High Output Fluorescent Bulbs?
High Output bulbs and Very High Output bulbs are just bulbs designed for
much higher current arcs. A 24 inch long, 40 watt High Output
fluorescent bulb needs the same amount of current as a 48 inch long
standard fluorescent bulb. Don't try to use a 40 watt magnetic ballast on a
24 inch, 40-watt High Output bulb. It probably will not work. Some
newer magnetic ballasts will work, not as well as a proper ballast, but
they will work. Sort of. At least some of our old ballasts won't work at all
with such bulbs. You turn on the light, and exactly nothing happens. We
found both "Hybrid" 40 watt Rapid Start Ballasts and Electronic 40 watt
Rapid Start Ballasts worked just fine with 24 inch long, 40 watt High
Output bulbs. (I have a friend who is a Licensed Professional Engineer,
with a PhD in Electronic Engineering who told me to try the Electronic
Ballasts.) If you watch Electronic Ballasts as they are starting bulbs, they
seem to work really weird. They "pulse" current through the filaments to
start the bulbs, then turn off the filament current when the bulbs start. You
can see this happen if you only have the pins on one end of the bulb
connected to the ballast. The filaments at the ends of the bulb glow bright
then dim then bright and so on. (This can happen if you are using those
rubber "plug in" special aquarium end caps. You don't always get the pins
lined up just right.)
``Ice Cap Electronic Ballasts are very good ballasts.'' My friend tells me
it is entirely possible to make an Electronic Ballast that can "sense" what
kind of bulb is connected to it, and automatically regulate the current in
the arc to the right level. I have never tried an Ice Cap, but I would guess
they are designed to operate that way.
Ordinary Electronic Ballasts are a lot cheaper!!!! We are paying from

#39.50 up to about $44.00 each for the Electronic Ballasts we are using.
(That is wholesale from Grainger.) There are Electronic Ballasts made for
all sorts of fluorescent bulbs. You can get them to light only one bulb. Or,
light two bulbs at once. Or, you can get them to light two or even three
bulbs, each bulb lighting all by itself. The advantage of that is, just
because one bulb "wears out," the others will keep on working all by
themselves. You pretty much get what you want, and are willing to pay
for.
Do You Really Get All That Much More Light From High Output
Bulbs?
Sort of. There is no such thing as a free lunch!!! The bulbs are much
brighter, but they also draw much more electic current. The lighting
engineers say you want "the most Lumens per Watt," I would say "Most
Bang for the Buck." The bottom line seems to be you get pretty much the
same Lumens per Watt from any Electronic Ballast with any combination
of bulbs. It takes more bulbs with "standard" 40 watt bulbs, fewer bulbs
with High Output and Very High Output bulbs. The amount of electricity
used per actual Lumen of light output is just about the same, no matter
which bulbs you use. We found here that High Output Bulbs "leak" more
Ultraviolet light, which actually burned some corals before we figured
out what was happening. All Electronic Ballasts are brighter than
Magnetic Ballasts. As far as I know, there are no exceptions to this rule.
Should you buy Ice Caps? Darned if I know! They sure seem expensive!
My Engineer friend thinks they are pretty "pricey." They work very well
indeed, and have some good safety features built in. They turn off
automatically if you have a dangerous current leakage. So does any
properly installed Ground Fault Interrupter. Tunze makes excellent stuff,
so does Dupla. Expensive stuff! Is it worth the money? Again, I simply
do not know.
I hope the above very long post will be helpful.
random notes about fluorescent lights
by "Shimoda, Wade" <WShimoda/hei.com>

Date: Fri, 20 Mar 1998
I recently took a course on efficient lighting taught by someone from the

Lighting Design Lab in Seattle and I thought I'd share some of the points
that might interest you. Although the class covered various technologies,
I'll just cover fluorescent lighting since that appears to be what most
people are interested in.
History:
In the 1970's, the first electronic ballasts appeared.

In the 1980's, compact fluorescents and T8s appeared.
Lamp life and lumen depreciation:
Lamp life is the average or median operational life. e.g., in a sample of

100 lamps, by the time their total operating hours equals their operational
life, 50 will be burned out. Lumen depreciation is the fractional loss of
lumens at rated operating conditions that progressively occurs during
lamp operation. At 100% of rated lamp life - Halogen incandescents have
about 95% of their initial lumens T8 fluorescents (1", or 8/8ths of an inch
diameter) - 90% (GEs new Starcoat lamps (F32 T8) are supposed to
maintain 95% of their initial lumens) Incandescents - 80% T12
fluorescents (1 1/2", or 12/8ths of an inch diameter) - 75%
Ballast types (these comments apply only to elec. ballasts for

fluorescent lamps):
Magnetic ballasts operate with an output (the elec. going to the lamps) of
about 60 Hz. Electronic ballasts operate at over 25 kHz. People may
notice the flicker of magnetic ballasts, but not of the electronic ballasts.
Electronic ballasts usually run cooler than magnetic ballasts.
Ballast factor - the lumen output of the lamp and ballast combination
compared to the rated output of the lamp on an ANSI reference ballast.
Wattage consumed by the combination is approx. proportional to the
ballast factor.
---Magnetic ballasts - .94 to .95
---Electronic ballast - .65 to 1.28
Note: lamp life may be reduced with ballast factors greater than 1.18.
Rapid start or instant start ballasts.
Instant start ballasts put more stress on the lamp when it's started,
therefore slightly reducing lamp life, but they also use less electricity.
However, at about 12 or more hours of operation per start, lamps on
instant start ballasts have about the same lamp life as those on rapid start
ballasts.
Energy consumption examples (unfortunately I don't know if these are for

instant or rapid start, but I'm guessing rapid start): A .94 ballast factor
mag. ballast running 2, 40W T12 cool white fluorescent lamps will put
out about 3050 rated lumens (2867 at .94 ballast factor) per lamp and use
96 watts. A .88 ballast factor elec. ballast running 2, 32W T8 lamps
(unknown lamp type) will put out about 2900 rated lumens (2552 at .88
ballast factor) per lamp and use 62 watts. This is about 11% lower lumens
and about 35% less electricity. (A .87 ballast factor mag. ballast running
34W T12 energy saver cool white lamps would put out 2750 rated lumens
per lamp at 82 watts).
I hope you find this helpful or at least interesting.
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What is the Function of a Ballast?

Ballast act like a governor on a car or lawn mower. It
regulates the amount of electricity that flows to the lamp.
What are the Differences Between Magnetic and

Electronic Ballast?
Magnetic ballast have been around since the beginning of
fluorescent lighting. They employ copper coils and
transformers to run a lamp. Magnetics cost less, but
weigh more and, more importantly, are less efficient than
modern electronic ballast. The federal government has
mandated magnetic ballast be replaced with electronic
ballast over the next several years.
Our electronic ballast use state-of-the-art printed circuit

boards along with U.S. and Japanese components.
Electronic ballast use 25% less energy than magnetics, do
not hum or flicker when starting, and have a lower THD.
Do Fluorescent Lights Flicker with Electronic

Ballast?
Because electronic ballast operate at higher frequencies
than magnetic ballast, the amount of light flicker is
minimized. This reduces eye fatigue in some people.
Does the Ballast Always Need to be Grounded?

Yes, the ballast case and fixture must always be
grounded. This helps assure safety, proper lamp starting,
and acceptable performance.
What are the Different Lamp Types Your Ballast Will

Run?
This list is a general sampling of the most common types
of lamps. It is not exhaustive and we recommend you talk
to your sales agent about specific lamp types.
 Compact fluorescent lamps come in the 13W, 18W,
26W, 32W, and 42W options. Our compact
fluorescent ballast will run these lamps.
 T8 lamps are made in 17W, 25W, 32W, and 40W
types.
 T5 lamps come in 21W, 24W, 28W, 38W, and 55W
types.
 Biax lamps (produced by GE) are similar to most T5
lamps and are made in 36W, 39W, 40W, and 55W
variations.
 2D lamps, often called "butterfly" lamps, come in
16W, 21W, 28W, 38W, and 55W versions.
 Note: Many ballast can run more than one type of
lamp, so be sure to check with our technical agent
for clarification.
Can I Run One Lamp With a Two-Lamp Ballast?

In most applications yes, but it is always advisable to
check with our technicians first.
What are the Different Voltage Options?
 In the United States, both 120V and 277V is used.

 In Canada, both 120V and 347V is used.
 In Mexico, 127V is used.
 In the majority of the rest of the world, 220V-240V is
used.
Does A.C.E. Ballast Allow for Voltage Fluctuations?

Our ballast can operate over or under the specified
voltage by 10%. For example, a 120V ballast will operate
as high as 132V and as low as 108V. However, it is
recommended to talk to your salesperson about those
types of applications.
Can Your Ballast be Remote-Wired? How Far?

Our ballast can be wired up to 25 ft away from the lamp.
We have the longest remote wiring capability of any
manufacturer and we still warranty our ballast 3 to 5
years.
What is Ballast Factor and Why is That Important?

Ballast Factor (BF) is a measurement that compares the
ratio of light output of a lamp or lamps operated by a
specific ballast to the light output of the same lamp or
lamps operated by a standard reference ballast.
The higher the BF is, the higher the wattage running

through the ballast. Some applications need a lower BF to
conserve energy and reduce light output, while others
prefer a higher BF to increase light output. However, a
higher BF does decrease the life of the lamp.
AC Electronics can adjust BF to meet the customer's need.
What is THD?
THD stands for Total Harmonic Distortion. The distortion is
feedback caused by deviation from the sinusoidal
waveform. The industry standard is less than 20%. If the
THD is very high (around 150%), an electrical fire can
occur. Magnetic ballast run 90%-120% THD.
What is the Difference Between Instant Start and

Rapid Start Ballast?
Instant Start (IS) ballast require a larger amount of
energy to start the lamp than Rapid Start (RS). This can
reduce the lamp life by up to 25% if you turn the light on
and off quite a bit. However, IS ballast does use less
energy than the RS ballast, passing on energy savings to
the customer. RS ballast preheat cathodes before turning
on the lamp, and more energy is used to keep the
cathodes constantly heated. With RS, one gets more lamp
life, but less efficiency.
IS ballast are more popular because they are less

expensive and have fewer wires for installation. IS ballast
are popular with T8 lamps.
Can Your Ballast Operate at 50Hz and at 60Hz?

Yes, our ballast work at both frequencies. 50 Hz is mostly
used internationally.
Do You Have "End of Lamp Life" (EOL) Protection?

Most of our ballast include EOL protection, meaning if the
lamp shuts down for any reason, the ballast will shut off
as well. After installing a new lamp, the power switch
must be toggled off and back on. On our universal voltage
models, auto restart will automatically turn the lamp back
on.
What is Power Factor?
Power factor is a measurement of the efficiency of the
ballast in terms of the ratio of wattage entering the lamp
and the wattage entering the ballast. The closer to 1 the
power factor is, the more efficiently the ballast is working.
Above a .70 power factor is considered a High Power
Factor. Between .50 and .70 is a Normal Power Factor.
The THD is higher with a normal power factor.
What is Crest Factor?

Crest Factor measures the ratio of starting wattage to
normal operating wattage of the lamp and ballast. In
between 1.4 and 1.7 is normal, but anything higher can
significantly reduce the life of the bulb.
What is the Difference Between Parallel and Series

Wiring?
Ballast with parallel circuits operate each lamp
individually. If one lamp goes out, the companion lamps
stay lit. Series circuits include every lamp in the same
electrical circuit "loop." If one lamp stops working, every
lamp will cease functioning.
What is the Maximum Case Temperature for A.C.E.

Electronic Ballast?
AC Electonics Ballast are waranteed for a case
temperature of 75 C. For our "Extreme Temperature"
ballast, the case temperature is waranteed up to 90 C.
0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
Fluorescent Ballasts
All gas discharge lamps, including fluorescent lamps, require a ballast to
operate. The ballast provides a high initial voltage to initiate the
discharge, then rapidly limits the lamp current to safely sustain the
discharge. Lamp manufacturers specify lamp electrical input
characteristics (lamp current, starting voltage, current crest factor, etc.)
required to achieve rated lamp life and lumen output specifications.
Similarly, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) publishes
recommended lamp input specifications for all ANSI type lamps. Ballasts
are designed to optimally operate a unique lamp type; however, some
ballasts will adequately operate more than one type of lamp. In these
cases, optimum lamp performance is generally not achieved under all
conditions. Less than optimum conditions may affect the lamp's starting
characteristics, light output, and operating life.
Circuit Type and Operating Mode
Fluorescent ballasts are manufactured for three primary types of

fluorescent lamps: preheat, rapid start, and instant start.
 Preheat Operation Lamp electrodes are heated prior to initiating

the discharge. A 'starter switch' closes, permitting a current to flow
through each electrode. The starter switch rapidly cools down,
opening the switch, and triggering the supply voltage across the
arc tube, initiating the discharge. No auxiliary power is applied
across the electrodes during operation.
 Rapid Start Operation Lamp electrodes are heated prior to and
during operation. The ballast transformers has two special
secondary windings to provide the proper low voltage to the
electrodes.
 Instant Start Operation Lamp electrodes are not heated prior to
operation. Ballasts for instant start lamps are designed to provide
a relatively high starting voltage (with respect to preheat and rapid
start lamps) to initiate the discharge across the unheated
electrodes.
Rapid start is the most popular mode of operation for 4-foot 40 watt
lamps and high output 8-foot lamps. The advantages of rapid start
operation include smooth starting, long life, and dimming capabilities.
Lamps of less than 30 watts are generally operated in the preheat
mode. Lamps operated in this mode are more efficient than the rapid
start mode as separate power is not required to continuously heat the
electrodes. However, these lamps tend to flicker during starting and
have a shorter lamp life. Eight-foot 'slimline' lamps are operated in
instant start mode. Instant start operation is more efficient than rapid
start, but as in preheat operation, lamp life is shorter. The 4-foot 32 watt
F32T8 lamp is a rapid start lamp commonly operated in instant start
mode with electronic high-frequency ballasts. In this mode of operation
lamp efficacy is improved with some penalty in lamp life.
Energy Efficiency
Fluorescent lamps are reasonably efficient at converting input power to

light. Nevertheless, much of the power supplied into a fluorescent lamp-
ballast system produces waste heat energy.
There are three primary means of to improving the efficiency of a

fluorescent lamp-ballast system:
 Reduce the ballast losses.

 Operate the lamp(s) at a high frequency.
 Reduce losses attributable to the lamp electrodes.
Newer, more energy-efficient ballasts, both magnetic and electronic,

exploit one or more of these techniques to improve lamp-ballast system
efficacy, measured in lumens per watt. The losses in magnetic ballasts
have been reduced by substituting copper conductors for aluminum and
by using higher grade magnetic components. Ballast losses may also be
reduced by using a single ballast to drive three or four lamps, instead of
only one or two. Careful circuit design increases efficiency of electronic
ballasts. In addition, electronic ballasts, which convert the 60 Hz supply
frequency to high frequency, operate fluorescent lamps more efficiently
than is possible at 60 Hz. Finally, in rapid start circuits, some magnetic
ballasts improve efficacy by removing power to the lamp electrodes after
starting.
Ballast Factor
One of the most important ballast parameters for the lighting

designer/engineer is the ballast factor. The ballast factor is needed to
determine the light output for a particular lamp-ballast system. Ballast
factor is a measure of the actual lumen output for a specific lamp-ballast
system relative to the rated lumen output measured with a reference
ballast under ANSI test conditions (open air at 25 degrees C [77
degrees F]). An ANSI ballast for standard 40-watt F40T12 lamps
requires a ballast factor of 0.95; the same ballast has a ballast factor of
0.87 for 34-watt energy saving F40T12 lamps. However, many ballasts
are available with either high (conforming to the ANSI specifications) or
low ballast factors (70 to 75%). It is important to note that the ballast
factor value is not simply a characteristic of the ballast, but of the lamp-
ballast system. Ballasts that can operate more than one type of lamp
(e.g., the 40-watt F40 ballast can operate either 40-watt F40T12, 34-
watt F40T12, or 40-watt F40T10 lamps) will generally have a different
ballast factor for each combination (e.g., 95%, <95%, and >95%,
respectively).
Ballast factor is not a measure of energy efficiency. Although a lower
ballast factor reduces lamp lumen output, it also consumes
proportionally less input power. As such, careful selection of a lamp-
ballast system with a specific ballast factor allows designers to better
minimize energy use by "tuning" the lighting levels in the space. For
example, in new construction, high ballast factors are generally best,
since fewer luminaires will be required to meet the light level
requirements. In retrofit applications or in areas with less critical visual
tasks, such as aisles and hallways, lower ballast factor ballasts may be
more appropriate.
To avoid a drastic reduction in lamp life low ballast factor ballasts

(<70%) should operate lamps in rapid start mode only. This is
particularly relevant for 32-watt F32T8 lamps operated at high
frequency.
Finding the ballast factor for lamp-ballast combinations may not be easy,
as few ballast manufacturers provide this information in their catalogs.
However, if the input power for a particular lamp-ballast system is known
(usually found in catalogs) an estimate of the ballast factor is possible.
Flicker
Electromagnetic ballasts are designed to condition the 60 Hz input

voltage to the electrical requirements of the lamps. A magnetic ballast
alters the voltage, but not the frequency. Thus, the lamp voltage crosses
zero 120 times each second, resulting in 120 Hz light output oscillations.
This results in about 30% flicker for standard halophosphor lamps,
operated at 60 Hz. The flicker is generally not noticeable but there is
evidence that flicker of this magnitude can cause adverse effects, such
as eyestrain and headache.
Most electronic ballasts, on the other hand, use high-frequency

operation, which reduces lamp flicker to an essentially imperceptible
level. The flicker percentage of a particular ballast is usually specified by
the manufacturer. For a given ballast, the percent flicker will be a
function of lamp type and phosphor composition.
Audible Noise
One characteristic of iron-cored electromagnetic ballasts operating at 60

Hz, is the generation of audible noise. Noise can be increased by high
temperatures, and it is amplified by certain luminaire designs. The best
ballasts use high quality materials and workmanship to reduce noise.
Noise is rated A, B, C, or D in decreasing order of preference. An "A"
rated ballast will hum softly; a "D" rated ballast will make a loud buzz.
The number of ballasts, their sound rating, and the nature of ambient
noise in the room determine whether or not a system will create an
audible disturbance.
Virtually all energy-efficient magnetic ballasts for F40T12 and F32T8

lamps are "A" rated, with a few exceptions, such as low temperature
ballasts. Still, the hum of magnetic ballasts may be perceptible in a
particularly quiet environment such as a library. Well-designed electronic
high-frequency ballasts, on the other hand, should emit no perceptible
hum. All electronic ballasts are "A" rated for sound.
Dimming
Unlike incandescent lamps, fluorescent lamps cannot be properly

dimmed with a simple wallbox device such as those used for
incandescent lamps. For a fluorescent lamp to be dimmed over a full
range without a reduction in lamp life, its electrode heater voltages must
be maintained while the lamp arc current is reduced. As such, lamps
operated in rapid start mode are the only fluorescent lamps suitable for
wide-range dimming applications. The power required to keep electrode
voltage constant over all dimming conditions means that dimming
ballasts will be less efficient when operating lamps at dimmed levels.
Dimming ballasts are available in both magnetic and electronic versions,

but there are distinct advantages to using electronic dimming ballasts.
To dim lamps, magnetic dimming ballasts require control gear containing
expensive high power switching devices that condition the input power
delivered to the ballasts. This is economically viable only when
controlling large numbers of ballasts on the same branch circuit. In
addition, luminaires must be controlled in large zones that are
determined by the layout of the electrical distribution system. Since the
distribution system is fixed early in the design process, control systems
using magnetic dimming ballasts are inflexible and are unable to
accommodate changes in usage patterns.
Dimming of electronically-ballasted lamps, on the other hand, is

accomplished within the ballast itself. Electronic ballasts alter the output
power to the lamps by a low-voltage signal into the output circuit. High
power switching devices to condition the input power is not required.
This allows control of one or more ballasts independent of the electrical
distribution system. With dimming electronic ballast systems, a low
voltage control network can be used to group ballasts together into
arbitrarily-sized control zones. This control network may be added
during a building renovation or even, in some circumstances, during a
lighting retrofit. Low voltage wiring does not have to be run in conduit,
which helps keep installation costs down. In addition, it is less costly to
modify the size and extent of lighting zones by reconfiguring low voltage
wiring when usage patterns change. Low voltage wiring is also
compatible with photocells, occupant sensors, and energy management
system (EMS) inputs.
Dimming range differs greatly among ballasts. With most electronic

dimming ballasts, light levels can vary between full output and a
minimum of about 10% of full output. However, electronic, full-range
dimming ballasts are also available that operate lamps down to 1% of
full lumen output. Magnetic dimming ballasts also offer many dimming
options, including full-range dimming.
Adapted from the Advanced Lighting Guidelines: 1993 (Second Edition),

originally published by the California Energy Commission.

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General Design:

The general design of a simple fluorescent lamp consists of a sealed glass

The mercury vapor becomes "excited" and it generates radiant energy,

The ballast works mainly as a regulator. They consume, transform, and

Another method used in instant-start fluorescent lamps, is to apply a very

Copyright © 2004-2005 Jonathan Z Kremer All rights reserved

How Fluorescent Fixtures Work

A fluorescent lamp works much the

The inside of the lamp is coated with a phosphor mix that

Magnetic and electronic ballasts are both used with fluorescent

How fluorescent fixtures are dimmed

Fluorescent fixtures are dimmed using a special dimmable ballast.

About the different dimmable ballasts

Ballasts are commonly referred to by the number of wires that feed

These are very

These are not

About the different dimmable percentages

There are always lots of questions surrounding the dimming percentages

The 5% ballast is the most prevalent of all the ballast types. It is

Important installation tips

Do not mix ballast or lamp types on the same circuit. Contrary to

How to tune an ETC Unison system for dimming fluorescents

When configuring the dimming engine on a Unison processor,

How to tune an ETC Sensor system for dimming fluorescents

Sensor is quite a bit different in how it should be set for proper

Troubleshooting dimmed fluorescents

1. Lamps are at different - Mixture of different types or ages

What ballasts not to use with ETC equipment

Do not use reverse-phase control ballasts. All Sensor and Unison

Fluorescent lamps are

Let There Be Light

To understand fluorescent lamps, it helps to know a little about light

Atoms release light photons when their electrons become excited. If

When an atom gains or loses energy, the change is expressed by the

The wavelength of the emitted light depends on how much energy is

How Fluorescent Lamps Work

Harris, Tom. "How Fluorescent Lamps Work." 07 December 2001.

1. Introduction to How Fluorescent Lamps Work

4. Cooking with Gas

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Down the Tubes

As we saw in the last section, the wavelength of a photon is determined

As we've seen, the entire fluorescent lamp system depends on an

In a solid conductor, electrical charge is carried by free electrons jumping

To send a current through gas in a tube, then, a fluorescent light needs to

1. Free electrons and ions

How Fluorescent Lamps Work

Harris, Tom. "How Fluorescent Lamps Work." 07 December 2001.

Inside this Article

1. Introduction to How Fluorescent Lamps Work

4. Cooking with Gas

Home & Garden Videos

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Inside the casing of a conventional

When the current flows through the bypass circuit, it establishes a

How Fluorescent Lamps Work

Harris, Tom. "How Fluorescent Lamps Work." 07 December 2001.

Inside this Article

1. Introduction to How Fluorescent Lamps Work

4. Cooking with Gas

 More Home & Garden Videos »

Light Right Away

Rapid start and starter switch fluorescent