1.

INTRODUCTION

Concrete is the most versatile material of construction the world over. It has
achieved the distinction of being the “largest man-made material” with the average
per capita consumption exceeding 2 kg. Concrete is the material of choice for a
variety of applications such as housing, bridges, highway pavements, industrial
structures, water-carrying and retaining structures, etc. The credit for this
achievement goes to well-known advantages of concrete such as easy availability
of ingredients, adequate engineering properties for a variety of structural
applications, adaptability, versatility, relative low cost, etc. Moreover, concrete has
an excellent ecological profile compared with other materials of construction.

The concrete industry has witnessed an astronomical growth in the 20th century.
The world cement production stood at around 1.8 billion tons in 2004 and this huge
amount gets converted into around 9-10 billion tons of concrete annually. With the
continuing expansion of infrastructure and housing construction, especially in the
developing countries of Asia, Africa and South America, the rate of consumption
of cement and concrete is bound to grow further. It is estimated that the world
cement production will increase to around 2 billion tons per annum by the year
2010, resulting in proportionate growth in the production of concrete.

In India, concrete construction scenario has been witnessing considerable growth

in recent years. The cement production in the country has witnessed a sharp
increase from 45.25 million tons in 1989-90 (beginning of decontrol era) to 102.4
million tons in 2001-02 — more than two-fold increase in production in just 12
years! With around 155.7 million tons of production in 2006-07, India is currently
the second largest cement producer in the world, after China and this is indeed a
laudable achievement. However, the per capita cement consumption in the country
is amongst the lowest in the world. Currently, it stands at around 120 kg, which is
much below the world average of about 250 kg. The nation has to go a long way
to catch up with the rest of the world.

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1.1 History
The word concrete comes from the Latin word "concretus" (meaning compact or
condensed), the perfect passive participle of "concrescere", from "con-" (together)
and "crescere" (to grow).
1.1.1 Prehistory
Perhaps the earliest known occurrence of cement was twelve million years ago. A
deposit of cement was formed after an occurrence of oil shale located adjacent to
a bed of limestone burned due to natural causes. These ancient deposits were
investigated in the 1960s and 1970s.On a human timescale, small usages of
concrete go back for thousands of years. Concrete-like materials were used since
6500 BC by the Nabataea traders or Bedouins who occupied and controlled a
series of oases and developed a small empire in the regions of southern Syria and
northern Jordan. They discovered the advantages of hydraulic lime, with some
self-cementing properties, by 700 BC. They built kilns to supply mortar for the
construction of rubble-wall houses, concrete floors, and underground waterproof
cisterns. The cisterns were kept secret and were one of the reasons the Nabataea
were able to thrive in the desert. Some of these structures survive to this day.

1.1.2 Classical era

In both Roman and Egyptian times, it was re-discovered that adding volcanic ash
to the mix allowed it to set underwater. Similarly, the Romans knew that adding
horse hair made concrete less liable to crack while it hardened, and adding blood
made it more frost-resistant. Crystallization of strätlingite and the introduction of
pyro-clastic clays creates further fracture resistance. German archaeologist
Heinrich Schliemann found concrete floors, which were made of lime and pebbles,
in the royal palace of Tiryns, Greece, which dates roughly to 1400-1200 BC. Lime
mortars were used in Greece, Crete, and Cyprus in 800 BC. The Assyrian Jerwan
Aqueduct (688 BC) made use of waterproof concrete. Concrete was used for
construction in many ancient structures.
Modern tests show that opus caementicium had as much compressive strength as
modern Portland-cement concrete (20 MPa). However, due to the absence of

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reinforcement, its tensile strength was far lower than modern reinforced concrete,
and its mode of application was also different.

1.1.3 Middle Ages

After the Roman Empire, the use of burned lime and pozzolana was greatly
reduced until the technique was all but forgotten between 500 and the 14th century.
From the 14th century to the mid-18th century, the use of cement gradually
returned. The Canal du Midi was built using concrete in 1670, and there are
concrete structures in Finland that date from the 16th century.

1.1.4 Industrial era

Perhaps the greatest driver behind the modern usage of concrete was Smeaton's
Tower, the third Eddystone Lighthouse in Devon, England. To create this structure,
between 1756 and 1759, British engineer John Smeaton pioneered the use of
hydraulic lime in concrete, using pebbles and powdered brick as aggregate.
A method for producing Portland cement was patented by Joseph Aspdin on
1824.Reinforced concrete was invented in 1849 by Joseph Monier.In 1889 the first
concrete reinforced bridge was built, and the first large concrete dams were built
in 1936, Hoover Dam and Grand Coulee Dam.

1.2 Composition of Concrete

1.2.1 Cement
Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general usage. It is a basic
ingredient of concrete, mortar and many plasters. English masonry worker Joseph
Aspdin patented Portland cement in 1824. It was named because of the similarity
of its colour to Portland limestone, quarried from the English Isle of Portland and
used extensively in London architecture. It consists of a mixture of calcium silicates
(alite, belite), aluminates and ferrites - compounds which combine calcium, silicon,
aluminium and iron in forms which will react with water. Portland cement and

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similar materials are made by heating limestone (a source of calcium) with clay
and/or shale (a source of silicon, aluminium and iron) and grinding this product
(called clinker) with a source of sulfate (most commonly gypsum).

In modern cement kilns many advanced features are used to lower the fuel
consumption per ton of clinker produced. Cement kilns are extremely large,
complex, and inherently dusty industrial installations, and have emissions which
must be controlled. Of the various ingredients used to produce a given quantity of
concrete, the cement is the most energetically expensive. Even complex and
efficient kilns require 3.3 to 3.6 gigajoules of energy to produce a ton of clinker and
then grind it into cement. Many kilns can be fueled with difficult-to-dispose-of
wastes, the most common being used tires. The extremely high temperatures and
long periods of time at those temperatures allows cement kilns to efficiently and
completely burn even difficult-to-use fuels.

1.2.2 Water
Combining water with a cementitious material forms a cement paste by the process
of hydration. The cement paste glues the aggregate together, fills voids within it,
and makes it flow more freely. A lower water-to-cement ratio yields a stronger,
more durable concrete, whereas more water gives a freer-flowing concrete with a
higher slump. Impure water used to make concrete can cause problems when
setting or in causing premature failure of the structure. Hydration involves many
different reactions, often occurring at the same time. As the reactions proceed, the
products of the cement hydration process gradually bond together the individual
sand and gravel particles and other components of the concrete to form a solid
mass.

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1.2.3 Aggregates
Fine and coarse aggregates make up the bulk of a concrete mixture. Sand, natural
gravel, and crushed stone are used mainly for this purpose. Recycled aggregates
(from construction, demolition, and excavation waste) are increasingly used as
partial replacements for natural aggregates, while a number of manufactured
aggregates, including air-cooled blast furnace slag and bottom ash are also
permitted.
The size distribution of the aggregate determines how much binder is required.
Aggregate with a very even size distribution has the biggest gaps whereas adding
aggregate with smaller particles tends to fill these gaps. The binder must fill the
gaps between the aggregate as well as pasting the surfaces of the aggregate
together, and is typically the most expensive component. Thus variation in sizes of
the aggregate reduces the cost of concrete. The aggregate is nearly always
stronger than the binder, so its use does not negatively affect the strength of the
concrete. Redistribution of aggregates after compaction often creates
inhomogeneity due to the influence of vibration. This can lead to strength
gradients.

1.2.4 Reinforcement
Concrete is strong in compression, as the aggregate efficiently carries the
compression load. However, it is weak in tension as the cement holding the
aggregate in place can crack, allowing the structure to fail. Reinforced concrete
adds either steel reinforcing bars, steel fibres, glass fibres, or plastic fibres to carry
tensile loads.

1.2.5 Chemical admixtures

Chemical admixtures are materials in the form of powder or fluids that are added
to the concrete to give it certain characteristics not obtainable with plain concrete
mixes. In normal use, admixture dosages are less than 5% by mass of cement and
are added to the concrete at the time of batching/mixing. The common types of
admixtures are as follows.

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• Accelerators speed up the hydration (hardening) of the concrete. Typical
materials used are CaCl2, Ca(NO3)2 and NaNO3. However, use of chlorides
may cause corrosion in steel reinforcing and is prohibited in some countries,
so that nitrates may be favoured. Accelerating admixtures are especially
useful for modifying the properties of concrete in cold weather.
• Retarders slow the hydration of concrete and are used in large or difficult
pours where partial setting before the pour is complete is undesirable.
Typical polyol retarders are sugar, sucrose, sodium gluconate, glucose,
citric acid, and tartaric acid.
• Air entraining agents add and entrain tiny air bubbles in the concrete,
which reduces damage during freeze-thaw cycles, increasing durability.
However, entrained air entails a trade off with strength, as each 1% of air
may decrease compressive strength 5%. If too much air becomes trapped
in the concrete as a result of the mixing process, Defoamers can be used
to encourage the air bubble to agglomerate, rise to the surface of the wet
concrete and then disperse.
• Plasticizers increase the workability of plastic or "fresh" concrete, allowing
it be placed more easily, with less consolidating effort. A typical plasticizer
is lignosulfonate. Plasticizers can be used to reduce the water content of a
concrete while maintaining workability and are sometimes called water-
reducers due to this use. Such treatment improves its strength and durability
characteristics. Superplasticizers (also called high-range water-reducers)
are a class of plasticizers that have fewer deleterious effects and can be
used to increase workability more than is practical with traditional
plasticizers. Compounds used as superplasticizers include sulfonated
naphthalene formaldehyde condensate, sulfonated melamine
formaldehyde condensate, acetone formaldehyde condensate and
polycarboxylate ethers.
• Pigments can be used to change the colour of concrete, for aesthetics.
• Corrosion inhibitors are used to minimize the corrosion of steel and steel
bars in concrete.

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1.2.6 Mineral admixtures and blended cements
Inorganic materials that have pozzolanic or latent hydraulic properties, these very
fine-grained materials are added to the concrete mix to improve the properties of
concrete (mineral admixtures), or as a replacement for Portland cement (blended
cements). Products which incorporate limestone, fly ash, blast furnace slag, and
other useful materials with pozzolanic properties into the mix, are being tested and
used. This development is due to cement production being one of the largest
producers (at about 5 to 10%) of global greenhouse gas emissions, as well as
lowering costs, improving concrete properties, and recycling wastes.
• Fly ash: A by-product of coal-fired electric generating plants, it is used to
partially replace Portland cement (by up to 60% by mass). The properties
of fly ash depend on the type of coal burnt. In general, siliceous fly ash is
pozzolanic, while calcareous fly ash has latent hydraulic properties.
• Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS or GGBS): A by-product
of steel production is used to partially replace Portland cement (by up to
80% by mass). It has latent hydraulic properties.
• Silica fume: A by-product of the production of silicon and ferrosilicon alloys.
Silica fume is similar to fly ash, but has a particle size 100 times smaller.
This results in a higher surface-to-volume ratio and a much faster
pozzolanic reaction. Silica fume is used to increase strength and durability
of concrete, but generally requires the use of superplasticizers for
workability.
• High reactivity Metakaolin (HRM): Metakaolin produces concrete with
strength and durability similar to concrete made with silica fume. While silica
fume is usually dark gray or black in colour, high-reactivity metakaolin is
usually bright white in colour, making it the preferred choice for architectural
concrete where appearance is important.

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1.3 Types of concrete

1.3.1 Normal Concrete

The concrete in which common ingredients i.e. aggregate, water, cement is used
is known as normal concrete. It is also called normal weight concrete or normal
strength concrete. It has a setting time of 30 - 90 minutes depending upon moisture
in atmosphere, fineness of cement etc. The development of the strength starts
after 7 days the common strength values is 10 MPa to 40 MPa. At about 28 days
75 - 80% of the total strength is attained. Almost at 90 days 95% of the strength is
achieved. Its slump varies from 1 - 4 inches. Density ranges from 140 pcf to 175
pcf. It is strong in compression and weak in tension. Air content 1 - 2 %. Normal
concrete is not durable against severe conditions e.g. freezing and thawing.

1.3.2 High strength concrete

Compressive strength of high strength concrete mix is usually greater than 6,000
pounds per square inch. High strength concrete is made by lowering the water
cement (W/C) ratio to 0.35 or lower. Often silica fume is added to prevent the
formation of free calcium hydroxide crystals in the cement, which might reduce the
strength at the cement aggregate bond. Low w/c ratios and the use of silica fume
make concrete mixes significantly less workable, which is particularly likely to be a
problem in high-strength concrete applications where dense rebar cages are likely
to be used. To compensate for the reduced workability in the high strength
concrete mix, superplasticizers are commonly added to high-strength mixtures.
Aggregate must be selected carefully for high strength mixes, as weaker
aggregates may not be strong enough to resist the loads imposed on the concrete
and cause failure to start in the aggregate.

1.3.3 High Performance Concrete

This mix has the following main properties such as high strength, high workability,
High durability, Ease of placement, Compaction without segregation, Early age

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strength, Long-term mechanical properties, low permeability, high density, low
Heat of hydration, Toughness, Volume stability and Long life in severe
environments. High strength concrete mix can be prepared with careful selection
of ingredients and optimization of mix design. High workability is attained by super
plasticizers; they lower the water cement ratio to 0.25 which is the amount required
only for hydration process. High durability is attributed to fly ash and silica fume
which modify the e mineralogy of the cement; it enhances the compatibility of
ingredients in concrete mass and reduces the CH amount. Fly ash also causes
ball bearing effect increasing workability. The admixtures are 20-25% fly ash of
partial replacement of cement and rest 70% is Ordinary Portland Cement.
Properties of high performance concrete mix are Strength of high performance
concrete ranges from 10000 psi - 15000 psi and Water cement ratio can be
reduced to 0.25

1.3.4 Air Entrained Concrete

One of the greatest achievements in field of concrete technology is development
of air entrained concrete. It is used where the concrete is vulnerable to freezing
and thawing action. It is used where the concrete is vulnerable to freezing and
thawing action. It is prepared by adding the air entraining admixture. The air
entrainment in concrete does the following functions; It lowers the surface tension
of water and thus bubbles are created. Secondly the air entraining agents prevents
coalescing i.e. the combining of bubbles. The diameter of these bubbles ranges
from 10 micrometers to 1000 micrometer and in entrapped air the diameter of
bubble is greater than 1mm.Air entraining agents or air entrained admixtures are
used for the purpose of making entrained air in concrete.

1.3.5 Light weight concrete

The concrete which has substantially lower mass per unit volume then the concrete
made of ordinary ingredients is called lightweight concrete. The aggregates used
are lighter in weight. Density of light weight concrete is 240 kg/m³ (15pcf) -1850

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kg/m³ (115 pcf). Strength of light weight concrete blocks varies from 7 MPa (1000
psi) - 40 MPa (5800 psi).

1.3.6 Self-compacting concrete

The concrete where no vibration is required. The concrete is compacted due to its
own weight. It is also called self-consolidated concrete or flowing concrete. It can
be also categorized as high performance concrete as the ingredients are the same,
but in this type of concrete workability is increased. This self-consolidating
concrete is characterized by: Extreme fluidity as measured by flow, typically
between 650-750 mm on a flow table, rather than slump (height). No need for
vibrators to compact the concrete. Placement being easier. No bleed water, or
aggregate segregation.

1.3.7 Shotcrete
Shotcrete concrete uses compressed air to shoot concrete onto (or into) a frame
or structure. Shotcrete is mortar or (usually) concrete conveyed through a hose
and pneumatically projected at through a shotcrete nozzle with high velocity onto
a surface. Shotcrete undergoes placement and compaction at the same time due
to the force with which it is projected from the nozzle. It can be impacted onto any
type or shape of surface, including vertical or overhead areas. Shotcrete is
frequently used against vertical soil or rock surfaces, as it eliminates the need for
formwork. It is sometimes used for rock support, especially in tunneling. Shotcrete
is also used for applications where seepage is an issue to limit the amount of water
entering a construction site due to a high water table or other subterranean
sources. This type of concrete is often used as a quick fix for weathering for loose
soil types in construction zones.

1.3.8 Pervious concrete

Pervious concrete contains a network of holes or voids, to allow air or water to
move through the concrete. This allows water to drain naturally through it, and can

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both remove the normal surface water drainage infrastructure, and allow
replenishment of groundwater when conventional concrete does not. It is formed
by leaving out some or the entire fine aggregate (fines), the remaining large
aggregate then is bound by a relatively small amount of Portland cement. When
set, typically between 15% and 25% of the concrete volumes are voids, allowing
water to drain. The majority of pervious concrete pavements function well with little
or no maintenance. Maintenance of pervious concrete pavement consists primarily
of prevention of clogging of the void structure. In preparing the site prior to
construction, drainage of surrounding landscaping should be designed to prevent
flow of materials onto pavement surfaces. Soil, rock, leaves, and other debris may
infiltrate the voids and hinder the flow of water, decreasing the utility of the pervious
concrete pavement.

1.4 Problem of durability in concrete

While this spectacular growth has been occurring in concrete production, the
problem of early deterioration of some of the reinforced and prestressed concrete
structures has also come to the forefront in recent years. It has been observed that
some recently-constructed structures ― even those built conforming to the latest
specifications — has shown early signs of distress and damage, sometimes within
a few years of commissioning, while quite a few structures built more than half a
century ago are still in a good serviceable condition. The phenomenon of early
deterioration of concrete structures is tending to assume alarming proportions in
some countries, especially those facing hostile weather conditions. The
seriousness of the problem is reflected in the high cost of repairs in these countries.
It has been estimated that in the USA alone, the cost of bringing back the
deteriorated infrastructure into serviceable state would be a staggering US $ 3
trillion! In this country, out of 600,000 bridges on record, roughly 40 percent are
either structurally deficient or functionally obsolete. In the United Kingdom, nearly
£ 500 million are spent annually on concrete repairs. In most of the advanced
countries, nearly 40 percent of the construction industry's budget is spent on repair,
restoration and strengthening of the damaged concrete structures. All this has

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tarnished the image of concrete as a "durable, maintenance-free" material. Thus,
durability of concrete has become an important issue today.

1.4.1 Durability: Indian scenario

Fortunately, the problem of early deterioration of concrete structures is not as
severe in India as that in the western world. This could mainly be attributed to two
factors. Firstly, as compared to the western countries the total stock of the concrete
structures in India is far less. The full potential of the infrastructural growth involving
construction of roads, bridges, ports, docks, airports, industrial structures, etc. ―
for which concrete is incidentally the favored material of construction — is yet to
be realized in India. Secondly, a majority of the concrete structures are generally
subjected to moderate environmental conditions, which prevail in most parts of the
country, excepting of course the coastal and industrial belts and certain extreme
climatic zones, in which concrete structures do face aggressive environment. It is
in these areas that the problems of deterioration of concrete are causing concern
in India. Further, environmental pollution in major cities has increased steeply in
recent years and it is accelerating deterioration of concrete ― especially the poor
quality concrete — in these cities.
The country has a large coastal line and a number of cities and metropolis located
in the vicinity of the coastal belt are witnessing the phenomenon of early
deterioration of reinforced concrete structures. Same is the fate of a number of
bridges, jetties, docks, harbours, etc. in these areas. Further, a number of civil
engineering structures in chemical, petro-chemical, fertilizer, and other industries,
which are subjected to aggressive chemical attack are facing serious problems.
Unfortunately, no reliable estimates of such deterioration are available. One
indirect way to judge this is to look for the estimate of cement used for repair and
maintenance. The Cement Manufacturers Association (CMA) has published data
on end uses of cement based on a market survey conducted in the late nineties It
indicates that nearly 35 percent of the cement produced in the country goes into
repair and maintenance. This is indeed a very high figure for a developing country
like India

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1.5 Sustainability
Besides durability of structures, sustainability is yet another important issue
confronting the construction sector. A steep increase in population during the 20th
century and the consequent phenomena of industrialization and urbanization have
resulted in unlimited exploitation of non-renewable natural resources. If this trend
continues unabated, very little resources will be left for the future generations.
Besides, the emission from Green House Gases (GHGs) ― especially CO2 and
NOx — has reached an alarming level, resulting in an unprecedented rise in
ambient temperature throughout the globe. The Inter-Governmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) has warned that while the average global temperature
rose only by 0.60C in the last 100 years, the same is expected to rise between 1.4
to 5.80C over the next 100 years. It is now established that the climate change
phenomenon is responsible for the rise in frequencies of floods and droughts,
wreaking havoc to human habitat9. It would thus be obvious that if the GHGs
emissions are not controlled and the unlimited exploitation of non-renewable
natural resources is not reversed, the very existence of humankind will be in
danger.

Since the construction sector is the largest user of natural resources it is being
widely accepted that it has to play a major role towards achieving the sustainable
development of our society. Fortunately, concrete, which is the most widely used
man-made material, possesses potential to be used in an environmentally
beneficial way. It is now established beyond doubt that use of supplementary
cementitious materials (SCMs) such as fly ash, blast-furnace slag, metakaolin,
silica fume, etc. not only helps in minimizing the use of Portland cement ― thereby
reducing the GHGs emissions — but also improves a host of properties of
concrete, including its durability. Fortunately, the use of SCMs, either in the form
of blended cements or as separate additions to concrete is today increasing.

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One of the surest ways of enhancing the sustainability of concrete construction is
by improving its long-term durability and thus the useful service life of the structure.
However, the currently-available codal provisions and specifications practiced in
different countries are not conducive in achieving these objectives. The current
approach of "assuming" that long service life can be ensured following certain
"prescriptive" specifications has many limitations. It does not exactly define what
service life is and what constitutes the end of service life. Further, limited account
is taken of construction quality and methods and the risk of premature deterioration
exists even when "prescriptive" specifications are followed. This highlights the
need for adopting performance-based specifications and a holistic approach based
on life-cycle cost. Service-life design can contribute to sustainable development by
helping satisfy client needs in a cost-effective manner, avoiding wastages
emanating from structures that are over-designed from a durability perspective or
premature, costly repairs arising from poor quality design and materials.

1.6 Role of concrete in housing sector

1.6.1 General
Most basic needs of any human being are food, shelter and clothing. Of these three
getting shelter especially in cities is the biggest problem. Even after so many years
of independence of the country, country like India facing housing or shelter
problem. Rapid multiplication in the urban population has even multiplied the
problem. Actually rural population draining into cities is compounding the same
problem. Since the demand is more and supply is less for houses, this leads to
even further price rise and that is why poor get poorer and is not able to purchase
houses in a good locality in a city which means along with housing problem, there
is another problem of adequate housing facilities. Thus, there is a surplus of
houses when compared with households but these houses are unfit to reside. In
all this chaos, many people are left homeless as neither can they purchase costly
houses nor they can pay high rents. Thus, they are left with only one choice to stay

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in houses unfit for them. Some very poor people prefer to squat rather than even
rent an accommodation, thus leading to the growth of slums.

1.6.2 Current scenario of housing in India

Current scenario says that in India 1 percent of population is without home.
Approximately 60 percent of population is from rural India and nearly 40 percent is
from urban India. In terms of housing units, the housing shortage is estimated to
be 148.33 lakh houses. The housing shortage has increased at 0.89 million houses
per year. The total rural housing shortage is estimated at almost 48 percent and of
these 90 percent of the total population comes from below poverty line families. It
is a matter of grave concern that even in advanced states like Gujarat and
Maharashtra the extent of housing shortage is still very serious.

1.6.3 Reason for housing shortage

• Increase in construction material cost
• Availability of time for construction of mass housing projects
• Durability parameter of the structure is denied in most of housing projects
• Unavailability of skilled labours
• Shortage of land in urban area
• Lacking in availability of land

1.6.4 Initiative by Indian government

Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana- "Housing for All by 2022" Mission - National
Mission for Urban Housing
The Union Cabinet chaired by the Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi, have given
the approval for launch of “Housing for All by 2022” aimed for urban areas with
following components/options to States/Union Territories and cities: -
• Slum rehabilitation of Slum Dwellers with participation of private developers
using land as a resource;

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 • Promotion of affordable housing for weaker section through credit linked
subsidy;
• Affordable housing in partnership with Public & Private sectors and
• Subsidy for beneficiary-led individual house construction or enhancement.

1.6.5 Sub mission -Technological development in housing sector

A Technology Sub-mission under the Mission would be set up to facilitate adoption
of modern, innovative and green technologies and building material for faster and
quality construction of houses. The Technology Sub-Mission will also facilitate
preparation and adoption of layout designs and building plans suitable for various
geo-climatic zones. It will also assist States/Cities in deploying disaster resistant
and environment friendly technologies. The Technology Sub-Mission will
coordinate with various regulatory and administrative bodies for mainstreaming
and up scaling deployment of modern construction technologies and material in
place of conventional construction. The Technology Sub-Mission will also
coordinate with other agencies working in
green and energy efficient technologies, climate change etc. The Technology Sub-
Mission will also work on the following aspects:
• Design & Planning
• Innovative technologies & materials
• Green buildings using natural resources and
• Earthquake and other disaster resistant technologies and designs.

The Mission will also compile best practices in terms of affordable housing
policies of the States/UTs designs and technologies adopted by States and
Cities with an objective to spread best practices across States and cities and
foster cross learning. The Mission will also develop a virtual platform to obtain
suggestions and inputs on house design, materials, technologies and other
elements of urban housing.

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1.7 Technological solution

Even though there are series of scheme formulated by the Indian government for
the past decades to overcome shortage in housing sector. But it has always in vein
to achieve its target goal. The main reason is most of the scheme concentrated on
mass housing in an accelerated time period and not much focused on
technological solution to reach such high goal. The scheme Pradhan Mantri Awas
Yojana- "Housing for All by 2022" has focused on the technology and also the
economy to reach such goal. This may be the gate through for the research and
development in affordable housing in India.

1.7.1 Rapid wall technology for affordable housing

There is a huge growing requirement of building materials in India to overcome the
existing housing shortage to meet this challenge, India requires innovative, energy
efficient building materials for strong and durable housing in fast track method of
construction at affordable cost. It is also important that housing and buildings are
disaster resistant to protect the lives and properties of people. All these concerns
are involved in sustainable and inclusive development. Rapid wall Panel provides
rapid or faster construction and contributes to environmental protection, providing
a solution to many of the above issues and concerns. Rapid wall, also called
gypcrete panel is an energy efficient green building Material with huge potential for
use as load bearing and non-load bearing wall panels. Rapid wall is a large load
bearing panel with modular cavities suitable for both external and internal walls. It
can also be used as intermediary floor slab/roof slab in combination with RCC as
a composite material. Since the advent of innovative Rapid wall panel in 1990 in
Australia, it has been used for buildings ranging from single storey to medium -
high rise buildings. Light weighted Rapid wall has high compressive strength,
shearing strength, flexural strength and ductility. It has very high level of resistance
to fire, heat, water, termites, rot and corrosion. Concrete infill with vertical
reinforcement rods enhances its vertical and lateral load capabilities. Rapid wall
buildings are resistant to earthquakes, cyclones and fire.

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1.7.2 Glass fiber reinforced gypsum panel
Glass fiber reinforced gypsum, abbreviated as GFRG (better known as Rapid wall
in the industry) is the name given to a new building panel product, made of gypsum
plaster, reinforced with glass fibers used in rapid wall construction technology.
GFRG is of particular relevance to India, where there is a tremendous need for
cost-effective mass-scale affordable housing, and where gypsum is abundantly
available as an industrial by-product waste. The product is not only eco-friendly or
green, but also resistant to water and fire. GFRG panels are presently
manufactured to a thickness of 124 mm, a length of 12m and a height of 3m. its
main application is in the construction of walls, it can also be used in floor and roof
slabs in combination with reinforced concrete. Using GFRG panels, building can
be erected on a low cost in fewer days it is cost effective will be considerably
reduce quantity of concrete cement steel and iron used in construction. Quantity
used a support 40% to 50% lesser than that of regular concrete building. Building
can be erected in few weeks hence reduced labour cost. Low building weight less
expenditure while laying foundations IIT Madras has been involved, since 2003,
with the development of building systems (especially with respect to use of GFRG
panels as floor slabs and earthquake resistant design) for use in India. The panel
contains cavities that may be filled with concrete and reinforced with steel bars to
impart additional strength and provide ductility.

1.8 Need for present study

Rapid wall housing using GFRG panels need some research and development in
material design especially concrete used for filling the panel cavity which almost 3
m high which makes the difficulty of compaction and the joint may be prone leaking
which ultimately leads to degradation of the structure. Thin screed of concrete used
for roofing which should be less permeable and durable were convention concrete
is not advisable. An another sector can also be focused on replacing the gypsum
with concrete in GFRG panels, which makes the cost of the panel to reduce from

18
the present rate. By understanding these present scenario, there is a need for
present study to design and analyze self-compacting concrete with high
performance in its fresh state and harden state. The self-compacting concrete has
a better flow and filling ability which is required for rapid wall construction and
casting of prefabricated panels. Panel should have a better finish which reduces
the cost of finishing. SCC may be suitable for use. Based on these understanding
we designed a self-compacting concrete with very small size aggregate (less than
10mm) which has high flowing ability, filling ability, high strength and durability.
Type of concrete is to be design is to base on performance specification

1.9 Scope of investigation and objective

To design self-compacting concrete with high performance specification at its fresh

and harden state
• To assess the mechanical properties such as compressive strength, split
tensile strength and flexure test.
• To assess the durability properties like accelerated corrosion test, rapid
chloride penetration test, chloride penetration test, water absorption test
and sorptivity test.
• To assess the feasibility of self-compacting concrete in rapid wall
technology.

19
 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 General
The research work is carried out for past decades on development of self-
compacting concrete and its behavior at plastic and harden state which reviewed
in this chapter.

2.1.1 Literature review on self-compacting concrete

Kumar (2006) reported the history of SCC development and its basic principle,
different testing methods to test high-flow ability, resistance against segregation,
and passing ability. Different mix design methods using a variety of materials has
been discussed in this paper, as the characteristics of materials and the mix
proportion influences self-compact ability to a great extent, also its applications
and its practical acceptance at the job site and its future prospects have also been
discussed. Orimet test was performed, the more dynamic flow of concrete in this
test simulates better the behavior of a SCC mix when placed in practice compared
with the Slump-flow variation. The Orimet/J-ring combination test shows great
promise as a method of assessing filling ability, passing ability and resistance to
segregation. [1]

Bertil Persson (2001) carried out an experimental and numerical study on

mechanical properties, such as strength, elastic modulus, creep and shrinkage of
self-compacting concrete and the corresponding properties of normal compacting
concrete. The study included eight mix proportions of sealed or air-cured
specimens with water binder ratio (w/b) varying between 0.24 and 0.80. Fifty
percent of the mixes were SCC and rests were NCC. The age at loading of the
concretes in the creep studies varied between 2 and 90 days. Strength and relative
humidity were also found. The results indicated that elastic modulus, creep and

20
shrinkage of SCC did not differ significantly from the corresponding properties of
NCC. [2]

Nan Su et al (2001) proposed a new mix design method for self-compacting

concrete. First, the amount of aggregates required was determined, and the paste
of binders was then filled into the voids of aggregates to ensure that the concrete
thus obtained has flow ability, self-compacting ability and other desired SCC
properties. The amount of aggregates, binders and mixing water, as well as type
and dosage of super plasticizer to be used are the major factors influencing the
properties of SCC. Slump flow, V-funnel, L-flow, U-box and compressive strength
tests were carried out to examine the performance of SCC, and the results
indicated that the proposed method could be used to produce successfully SCC of
high quality. Compared to the method developed by the Japanese Ready-Mixed
Concrete Association (JRMCA), this method is simpler, easier for implementation
and less time-consuming, requires a smaller amount of binders and saves cost.
[3].

Bouzoubaa and Lachemi (2001) carried out an experimental investigation to

evaluate the performance of SCC made with high volumes of fly ash. Nine SCC
mixtures and one control concrete were made during the study. The content of the
cementations materials was maintained constant (400 kg/m3), while the
water/cementations material ratios ranged from 0.35 to 0.45. The self-compacting
mixtures had a cement replacement of 40%, 50%, and 60% by Class F fly ash.
Tests were carried out on all mixtures to obtain the properties of fresh concrete in
terms of viscosity and stability. The mechanical properties of hardened concrete
such as compressive strength and drying shrinkage were also determined. The
SCC mixes developed 28-day compressive strength ranging from 26 to 48 MPa.
They reported that economical SCC mixes could be successfully developed by
incorporating high volumes of Class F fly ash. [4]

21
Sri Ravindra rajah (2003) et al made an attempt to increase the stability of fresh
concrete (cohesiveness) using increased amount of fine materials in the mixes.
They reported about the development of self-compacting concrete with reduced
segregation potential. The systematic experimental approach showed that partial
replacement of coarse and fine aggregate with finer materials could produce self-
compacting concrete with low segregation potential as assessed by the V-Funnel
test. The results of bleeding test and strength development with age were
highlighted by them. The results showed that fly ash could be used successfully in
producing self-compacting high-strength concrete with reduced segregation
potential. It was also reported that fly ash in self-compacting concrete helps in
improving the strength beyond 28 days. [5]

Hajime Okamura and Masahiro Ouchi (2003) addressed the two major issues
faced by the international community in using SCC, namely the absence of a
proper mix design method and jovial testing method. They proposed a mix design
method for SCC based on paste and mortar studies for super plasticizer
compatibility followed by trail mixes. However, it was emphasized that the need to
test the final product for passing ability, filling ability, and flow ability and
segregation resistance was more relevant. [6]

Paratibha Aggarwal (2008) et al presented a procedure for the design of self-

compacting concrete mixes based on an experimental investigation. At the
water/powder ratio of 1.180 to 1.215, slump flow test, V-funnel test and L-box test
results were found to be satisfactory, i.e. passing ability; filling ability and
segregation resistance are well within the limits. SCC was developed without using
VMA in this study. Further, compressive strength at the ages of 7, 28, and 90 days
was also determined. By using the OPC 43 grade, normal strength of 25 MPa to
33 MPa at 28-days was obtained, keeping the cement content around 350 kg/m3
to 414 kg/m3. [7]

22
Girish (2010) et al presented the results of an experimental investigation carried
out to find out the influence of paste and powder content on self-compacting
concrete mixtures. Tests were conducted on 63 mixes with water content varying
from 175 l/m3 to 210 l/m3 with three different paste contents. Slump flow, V funnel
and J-ring tests were carried out to examine the performance of SCC. The results
indicated that the flow properties of SCC increased with an increase in the paste
volume. As powder content of SCC increased, slump flow of fresh SCC increased
almost linearly and in a significant manner. They concluded that paste plays an
important role in the flow properties of fresh SCC in addition to water content. The
passing ability as indicated by J-ring improved as the paste content increased. [8]

E. Todorova and G. Chernev (2013) The aim of the “influence of metakaolinite

and stone flour on the properties of self-compacting concrete” was the
manufacture and characterization of mixture for self-compacting concrete with
participation of powder additives (metakaolinite and stone flour) and super
plasticizers (viscocrete 5370 and viscocrete 5800). The influence of chemical
admixtures and powder additives on concrete properties was made by the different
methods: sorption ability; sем; ftir and potential. Physical and mechanical
properties as compressive strength; spreading and fluidity were measured. Tests
for mechanical and physical properties of self-compacting concrete established,
that the best appropriate mixtures were these withmetakaolinite and 1,25 %
Viscocrete 5370, with stone flour and admixture of 1,2 % Viscocrete 5370 and
Viscocrete 5800. The strength pressure reaches 71 МРа, 65, 1 МРа and 63, 3
МРа, respectively. SЕМ micrographs proved evenly distribution of fine fraction in
concrete mixture. Metakaolinite and stone flour showed excellent values for each
test using for investigation properties of prepared mixtures. They improve the
characteristics of self-compacting concrete. Better results showed mixtures with
higher content of powder materials and super plasticizers. [9]

Cristian Druta (2003) carried out an experimental study on to compare the

Splitting Tensile Strength and Compressive Strength values of self-compacting

23
and normal concrete specimens and to examine the bonding between the coarse
aggregate and the cement paste using the Scanning Electron Microscope. In this
experiment used mineral admixes Blast Furnace Slag, Fly Ash and Silica Fume
and chemical admixes Super plasticizers and Viscosity-Modifying Admixtures, It
has been verified, by using the slump flow and U-tube tests, that self-compacting
concrete (SCC) achieved consistency and self-compatibility under its own weight,
without any external vibration or compaction. Also, because of the special
admixtures used, SCC has achieved a density between 2400 and 2500 kg/m3,
which was greater than that of normal concrete, 2370-2321 kg/m3.Self-compacting
concrete can be obtained in such a way, by adding chemical and mineral
admixtures, so that its splitting tensile and compressive strengths are higher than
those of normal vibrated concrete. An average increase in compressive strength
of 60% has been obtained for SCC, whereas 30% was the increase in splitting
tensile strength. Also, due to the use of chemical and mineral admixtures, self-
compacting concrete has shown smaller interface micro cracks than normal
concrete, fact which led to a better bonding between aggregate and cement paste
and to an increase in splitting tensile and compressive strengths. A measure of the
better bonding was the greater percentage of the fractured aggregate in SCC (20-
25%) compared to the 10% for normal concrete. [10]

Manu santhanam and Subramanyam (2004) discussed the existing research

about various aspects of self-compacting concrete, including materials and mixture
design, test methods, construction-related issues, and properties. They
summarized that Self-Compacting Concrete is a recent development that shows
potential for future applications. It meets the demands places by requirements of
speed and quality in construction. [11]

R.V(2003) found that use of fine fly ash for obtaining Self compacting concrete
resulted in an increase of the 28-day Compressive Strength Concrete by about
38%. Self-compacting concrete was achieved when volume of paste was between
0.43 and 0.45. [12]

24
Subramanian and Chattopadhyay (2002) described the results of trails carried
out to arrive at an approximate mix proportioning of Self compacting concrete. Self-
Compatibility was achieved for Water to Powder ratio ranging from 0.9 to 1.1 when
Coarse Aggregate and Sand content were restricted to 46 % and 40% of the mortar
volume respectively. [13]

2.1.2 Literature review on housing sector in India

Bhakshi Sinha (1976) , while discussing many aspects of the housing problem in
his book Housing Growth in India, stresses upon the requirement of housing and
recognises the basic necessity of housing. He enunciates the fact that the framers
of the Indian cosntitution have recognized housing as a prerequisite for rural
development. He further emphasizes that housing has got a vital role to play in the
national economy. He points out that the shortage of housing is related to
population explosion and evaluates the investment needs of house building
industry as well as its material requirements. Stressing upon the employment
aspect of house building activity he points out that the house building industry has
the potential to generate employment for the masses. If a planned number of
houses are constructed every year, it would facilitate the flow of capital into the
housing sector and increase the national income. For this, he seeks for a
constructive national housing policy and has suggested three alternatives for
housing construction programmes considering the financial issues. He further
discusses the various levels of housing growth from the year 1975-76 to 1980-81.
Finally, he proposes the establishment small and medium scale house building
industries and the proper utilization of large scale core industries such as the
cement industry to boost house construction in rural as well as urban areas and to
provide accommodation for millions of people. Thus the shortage of housing
caused fey population explosion may be solved to a great extent. This would
ultimately lead to providing continuous direct employment opportunities to the rural
masses.[14]

25
K. S. Sharma's (1996) article Housing for Masses, is a commentary on NHP. He
feels that shelter is an inseparable component of the overall development process.
He adds that in India, housing is the second largest employment-generating sector.
Then he talks about the NHP, its advent and the principles on which it is based.
He also talks of how implementation of NHP is not a one-time exercise but a
continuous process. He also talks about the enabling environment and the different
aspects that are acting as enabling factors.In conclusion, he appreciates the fact
that in a short span of time, the government has indicated several steps which
would go a long way in creating an enabling environment for increased and
sustained housing activity with the focus on providing affordable shelter to the
economically weaker sections, low-income group categories and other vulnerable
groups, viz. households below poverty line, rural landless labour and artisans,
SC/STs, widows, single women and women-headed households, physically
handicapped and others.[15]

2.1.3 Literature review on GFRG panel

Menon et.al (2006) Investigations were carried out on lateral resistance of Glass
Fiber Reinforced Gypsum (GFRG) wall panel as a component of buildings.
Numerical analytical procedures have been developed to predict the capacity
under axial compression, compression with inplane bending and shear. The
authors report that the failure load is dependent on the plaster strength for unfilled
wall panels and on out-of-
plane buckling for concrete-filled wall panels. Further, it is reported that the axial
load carrying was influenced by eccentricity and support conditions in respect of
concrete filled wall panels. The shear failure is longitudinal for concrete filled GFRG
panel, which is different from that of traditional RC wall panel. An interaction
diagram was developed to arrive at the reinforcement required for a concrete filled
GFRG wall panel to carry a
given load.

26
R.L. Sreenivasa, (2010) Experiments were conducted to find out the axial
compressive
strength and stiffness of unfilled, concrete filled (M20) and RC filled GFRG wall
panels. It is found that there is a substantial increase in axial strength and stiffness
with filling of wall panels. Similar increase is found for eccentric loading for filled
wall panels compared to unfilled wall panels. It was observed that numerical
analysis using finite element methods for assessing the strength of wall panels
give values that are very close to experimental results.

27
 3. STUDY OF MATERIAL PROPERTIES

3.1 General
This chapter present the details of physical and chemical properties of materials
used for designing of self-compacting concrete. Portland pozzolana cement (fly
ash based) was collected from local manufacturer Dalmia Vajram. Fine aggregate
and coarse aggregate of good quality was collected from the local supply units. A
fine particle like fly ash was collected from Ennore thermal power station and
Metakaolin from the local market All the physical and chemical properties were
assessed by experimental investigation as per the bureau of Indian standard (BIS)
and American standard for testing material (ASTM).

3.1 Materials
The materials to be used for the experimental study are listed in the table.

Table 3.1: Material used in self-compacting concrete.

S. No Material Purpose of Using in SCC

1 Portland pozzolana cement (fly ash Binder
based)
2 Fine aggregate (zone II) Reduce shrinkage and filler
3 Coarse aggregate (<10mm)
4 Fly ash (class F) Filler, increase in flow property
5 Metakaolin and binder
6 Super plasticizer (polycarboxylic Water reducing and increase
base) flow property
7 Portable water Hydration of cement

28
3.1.2 Portland pozzolana cement (fly ash based)
Most of research work on SCC in India is done by use of ordinary Portland cement
but due to increasing use of Portland pozzolana cement in construction industry
we decided to use Portland pozzolana cement confirming to IS 1489:1991 of brand
Dalmia Vajram. The different laboratory test were conducted on cement to
determine standard consistency, initial and final setting time and compressive
strength as per IS 4031 and IS 269-1967.The test result are tabulated in table 3.2.

Table.3.2: Properties of Cement.

Properties Value Requirement as Requirement
obtained per BIS as per ASTM

Physical properties
Fineness (m²/kg) 340 300 -
Initial Setting Time (min) 62 30 45
Final Setting time (min) 650 600 420
Specific gravity 3.2 - -
Compressive 3 days 13 16 13
Strength 7 days 18.26 22 20
(MPa)
(IS 650-1991) 28 days 33 33 33
Chemical composition *
Fly ash content 28 - -
( % of wt)
Magnesium(MgO) 4.41 10 -
(% by mass)
Insoluble Residue 0.51 4 -
(% by mass)
Sulphuric Anhydride 2.67 3 -
(SO3 ) (% by mass)
Sulphide Sulphur (S) 0.36 1.5 -
Loss of Ignition (LOI) 0.87 5 -
(% by mass)
Total Chloride (Cl) 0.015 0.10 -
( % by mass)
*value is obtained from the manufacturer.

29
3.2.2 Fine aggregate
Natural sand crushed, rounded sand and manufactured sand are suitable for
designing of self-compacting concrete. River sand of specific gravity 2.55 and
confirming to zone II of IS 383-1970 was used for study. Other properties such as
fineness modulus, bulk density and % of void were listed in the table and particle
size distribution is shown in the fig.

Table 3.3: Properties of fine sand

Properties/Details Value obtained
Zone type II
Specific gravity 2.556
Fineness modulus 4.6
Bulk Density (Kg/l) 1.69
% of void 35%

120

100
percentage passing

80

60

40

20

0
1 10 100 1000 10000
particle size (micron)

Figure 3.1: Particle size distribution of fine aggregate

30
3.2.3 Coarse aggregate
The shape and particle size distribution of the aggregate is very important as it
effects the packing void content, water absorption, grading of all aggregate should
be closely and continuously monitored and must be taken in account in order to
produce SCC of constant quality. Coarse aggregate used in this study has
maximum size of 10mm.specific gravity of coarse aggregate used was 2.59 and
others properties like fineness modulus, bulk density and % of void are listed in the
table. The particle size distribution of coarse aggregate is shown in the image

Table 3.4: Properties of coarse aggregate

Properties/Details Value obtained
Zone type -
Specific gravity 2.59
Fineness modulus 7.67
Bulk Density (Kg/l) 1.3
% Of void 44%

120

100
Percentage of passing

80

60

40

20

0
1 10 100 1000 10000
Particle size (micron)

Figure 3.2: Particle size distribution of coarse aggregate

31
3.2.4 Fly ash

Fly ash is used as a filler material in self-compacting concrete. The use of fly ash
reduce the dosage of superplasticizer needed to obtain similar flow compared to
concrete made with Portland cement only. Fly ash of class F obtained from
Ennore Thermal Power Station is used in the project. Class F fly ash is derived
from bituminous coal, is mainly siliceous. Generally low in lime (say, <
15%).Spherical glassy particles formed due to rapid cooling of the molten ash in
the furnace. Apart from the solid spheres, there also may exist two types of
hollow spheres called Cenospheres were small hollow spheres with entrapped
gas and Plerospheres were large hollow spheres with solid spheres inside them.
Particle size is between <1 μm and 100 μm. The physical and chemical
properties of fly ash is listed in the table.

Table 3.5: The physical and chemical properties of fly ash.

Physical Properties Result obtained

Specific Gravity 2.2

Blaines fineness (m2/Kg) 350

Chemical composition* Result obtained

Calcium Oxide, CaO (% by mass) 1.7

Silicon dioxide, SiO (% by mass) 62.5

Aluminum Oxide, Al2O3 (% by mass) 26.5

Ferric oxide, Fe2O3 (% by mass) 4.2

Magnesium Oxide, MgO (% by mass) 0.8

Sulphur trioxide, SO3 (% by mass) 0.2

Sodium oxide, Na2O3 (% by mass) 0.12

Potassium oxide, K2O (% by mass) 1.14

Loss in ignition 1.0

*Result obtained from the manufacturer

32
3.2.5 Metakaolin

Metakaolin is a white pozzolana made by calcining (heating below melting

temperature) the kaolin clay to 600-800°C. The crystalline clay loses its structure
at this temperature by the loss of bound water. Due to dehydroxylation, a
disordered amorphous state is produced which is highly reactive. Higher
temperatures should be avoided since recrystallization of the clay occurs beyond
1000°C. The physical and chemical properties is listed in the table.

Table 3.6: Physical and chemical properties of Metakaolin.

Physical properties

Colour Pinkish white

Specific gravity 2.6

Bulk density, (kg/m3) 300

Specific surface, (m2/kg) 12000

Chemical properties

Calcium Oxide, CaO (% by mass) 0.34

Silicon dioxide, SiO (% by mass) 51.34

Aluminum Oxide, Al2O3 (% by mass) 41.95

Ferric oxide, Fe2O3 (% by mass) 0.52

Loss in ignition 0.72

3.2.6 Super plasticizer

Superplasticizer or high range water reducing admixtures are an essential
component of SCC. Supaflo PC 100 was used as superplasticizer. It is
polycarboxylic based superplasticizer confirms to BIS 9103:1999 and ASTM C494
type F.

3.2.7 Potable water

Ordinary potable water available in the laboratory was used.

33
 4. SELF-COMPACTING CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

4.1 General

For several years beginning in 1983, the problem of the durability of concrete
structures was a major topic of interest in Japan. To make durable concrete
structures, sufficient compaction by skilled workers is required. However, the
gradual reduction in the number of skilled workers in Japan's construction
industry has led to a similar reduction in the quality of construction work. One
solution for the achievement of durable concrete structures independent of the
quality of construction work is the employment of self-compacting concrete,
which can be compacted into every corner of a formwork, purely by means of its
own weight and without the need for vibrating compaction. The necessity of this
type of concrete was proposed by Okamura in 1986. Studies to develop self-
compacting concrete, including a fundamental study on the workability of
concrete, have been carried out by Ozawa and Maekawa at the University of
Tokyo.

The prototype of self-compacting concrete was first completed in 1988 using

materials already on the market. The prototype performed satisfactorily with regard
to drying and hardening shrinkage, heat of hydration, denseness after hardening,
and other properties. This concrete was named “High Performance Concrete.” and
was defined as follows at the three stages of concrete:
1. Fresh: self-compactable
2. Early age: avoidance of initial defects
3. After hardening: protection against external factors

4.2 Mechanism for Achieving Self-Compactability

The method for achieving self-Compactability involves not only high deformability
of paste or mortar, but also resistance to segregation between coarse aggregate
and mortar when the concrete flows through the confined zone of reinforcing bars.

34
Okamura and Ozawa have employed the following methods to achieve self-
compact ability

1. Limited aggregate content

2. Low water-powder ratio
3. Use of superplasticizer
The frequency of collision and contact between aggregate particles can increase
as the relative distance between the particles decreases and then internal stress
can increase when concrete is deformed, particularly near obstacles. It has been
revealed that the energy required for flowing is consumed by the increased internal
stress, resulting in blockage of aggregate particles. Limiting the coarse aggregate
content, whose energy consumption is particularly intense, to a level lower than
normal proportions is effective in avoiding this kind of blockage.
Highly viscous paste is also required to avoid the blockage of coarse aggregate
when concrete flows through obstacles. When concrete is deformed, paste with a
high viscosity also prevents localized increases in the internal stress due to the
approach of coarse aggregate particles. High deformability can be achieved only
by the employment of a superplasticizer, keeping the water-powder ratio to be very
low value.

Figure 4.1:Show the mechanism of self-compacting concrete

35
4.3 Self-compacting Concrete mix design

Methodology adopted for designing of self-compacting concrete is completely

different from the convention concrete mix design. In self-compacting concrete of
volume paste content, it should be more than 35% of volume of concrete compared
with normal concrete it is less than 20%. Size of coarse aggregate should be less
than 12 mm and incase of convention there is no bound for size of coarse
aggregate. For the present study of Self-compacting concrete for prefabricated
construction the aggregate size used in concrete is adopted to be less than 10mm
and % of paste volume is half of the concrete volume to have a better filling ability
during casting of complicated shaped prefabricated panels, better finishing and
durability parameter.

These complicated variations in the properties of the material used in self-

compacting concrete, a methodology for designing of self-compacting concrete is
adopted.

4.3.1 A design methodology for self-compacting concrete

1.Concrete is considered to be two phase material consisting of paste and

aggregates.

2.The composition of the concrete is determined by separately optimizing the paste

and the aggregate skeleton and finally choosing a paste volume that results in the
required self-compact ability and strength

3.The experimental procedure is based on optimization procedures developed for

SCC and HSC at Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya(Barcelona, Spain)

4.Paste: the system composed of cement, water, superplasticizer and filler (flash
and Metakaolin).

5.Aggregate skeleton is composed of fine and coarse aggregate.

36
Table 4.1: list of experiment for designing of SCC.

Experiment Optimization

Marsh cone test Superplasticizer dosage (sp/b) *

Mini slum test Fine material dosage (f/c) *

Bulk density test sand gravel ratio

*sp/b-superplasticizer binder ratio

*f/c-fine cement ratio

Figure 4.2: Layout of design methodology for self-compacting concrete

37
4.3.1.1 Marsh cone test

The objective of the test is to determine the superplasticizers dosage and it is

carried out as per EN 445. The time taken in seconds, for complete flow out of
slurry from the mash cone. The time in seconds is called the “marsh cone time”.
The test is repeated with different dosages of plasticizer. A graph is plotted
connecting marsh cone time in seconds and dosage of super plasticizer. The dose
at which the marsh cone time is lowest is called saturation point. The dose is the
optimum dose for that brand of cement and super plasticizer for that constant w/b
ratio. The test is conducted for different dosage of filler material (f/c) in terms of
0.3,0.4,0.5 and 0.6 times the weight of cement, water binder ratio is fixed as 0.4
and relation between the flow time and dosage of superplasticizer for different f/c
value is shown in the fig respectively. The saturation point of superplasticizer for
different dosage of filler is listed in the table. It is studied from the test that slurry
with less content of fly ash had better flow at minimum dosage of superplasticizer.
Slurry with high content of fly ash of f/c value 0.5 and 0.6 requires more dosage of
superplasticizers its sp/c value reached up to 1% and 1.09%.

Figure 4.3: Marsh cone test

38
 2.5 3

Flow time-log(sec)
Flow time -log(sec) 2.4 2.8
2.3 2.6
2.2
2.4
2.1
2.2
2
2
1.9
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
0.2 0.7 1.2 1.7
SP/C (%) Poly carboxilic base
Sp/b(%) Poly carboxilic base

a) sp/c=0 and w/c=0.4 b) sp/c=0.3 and w/c=0.4

2.6 2.55

Flow time -log (sec)

Flow time-log(sec)

2.5
2.5
2.45
2.4 2.4
2.35
2.3
2.3
2.2 2.25
0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
sp/c (%) Polycarboxilic base sp/c(%) Poly Carboxilic base

c) sp/c=0.4 and w/c=0.4 d) sp/c=0.5 and w/c=0.4

e) sp/c=0.6 and w/c=0.4

Figure 4.4: Flow time as a function of superplasticizer dosage.

39
Table 4.2: Saturation dosage of superplasticizer for various f/c value.

Allowable max dosage (sp/b)

f/c (%) Saturation point (sp/b) % %
0 0.8 1.1
0.3 0.8 1.1
0.4 0.9 1.1
0.5 1 1.1
0.6 1.09 1.1

4.3.1.2 Mini slump test

Objective of mini slump test is to determine the optimum dosage of fly ash with
constant water binder ratio. The apparatus required for test is flow table and a mini
slump cone of dimension with upper diameter of 19mm and lower diameter of
38.1mm. Once the cement paste is poured in the cone and excess paste is
cleaned. The cone is lifted slowly the cement paste is allowed to flow. The time
taken to spread for a diameter of 115mm is measured and also the diameter of
final spread of cement paste is noted. The time taken for 115mm spread should
be within 2-4sec. The diameter of final spread should be of 170-190mm. Cement
Paste is prepared with increasing f/c value of 0, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5 and 0.6 with
superplasticizer dosage (sp/c) optimized from marsh cone test as 0.8, 0.8, 0.9,1
and 1.09 respectively. The water binder ratio (w/b) is fixed as 0.4. Time taken for
the paste to spread to a diameter of 115mm and final spread diameter of the paste
for various f/c value is listed in the table

Final spread diameter

115mm

Figure 4.5: Mini slum test

40
Table 4.3: Mini-slump test result

f/c 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

sp/b (%) 0.8 0.9 1 1.09

spread time, T115* (sec) 2.99 2.605 3.01 2.69
final spread diameter, DF (mm)
138 173.75 173.25 176.33

Unit weight of paste, (Kg/l) 1.67 1.68 1.68 1.69

Optimized dosage of fly ash based on the mini slum test result
1. f/c=0.5; sp/b=1
2. f/c=0.6; sp/b=1.09

4.3.1.3 Bulk density test

Objective of the test is to determine the maximum density with minimum void ratio
by varying proportion of fine and coarse aggregate. It is also used to find sand
gravel ratio. The material required for this test is 30-liter container, ramping rod
and weighing machine. In modified ASTM: C29M initially aggregate is taken in a
cylinder with proper 25 blows is given using ramping rod at two different layers and
weight is measure. The surface has to be level before weighing. Simultaneously
for varying proportion of sand and gravel same procedure is followed. The graph
is plotted for bulk density and percentage of void ratio with respect to percentage
of sand is shown in the fig. From the graph it can be interpreted to determine the
aggregate skeleton minimum void ratio and maximum bulk density.

41
 Figure 4.6: Optimization of aggregate skeleton using bulk density test

45 1.9
43 1.85
41 1.8

Bulk density kg/l

39 1.75
37 1.7
% of void

35 1.65
% of void
33 1.6
31 1.55 Bulk Density
29 1.5
27 1.45
25 1.4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% of Sand

Figure 4.7: Relation of bulk density and percentage of void with varying
sand content

The sand /gravel ratio corresponding to the aggregate skeleton with the minimum
void ratio and maximum density is chosen as

1. Optimum sand /gravel ratio=45/55

2. Minimum void ratio=27.1%

42
4.4 Mix proportion

The three different mix proportions were arrived with varying paste volume and
fine content (fly ash and Metakaolin) based on the experimental study such as
marsh cone test, mini slump test and bulk density test. Mix proportion is
confirmed as per the specification of UNI 11040. The proportion for three different
mixes are listed below in the table.

Figure 4.8: Difference between mix proportion of SCC and conventional

concrete

Table 4.4: Details of mix proportion 1.

Mix proportion 1 (SCC -M1) Specification as per UNI 11040

Paste volume (%) 48 >40
PPC 53 Grade cement (kg/m3) 420 Fine content about 500-
Fly ash (kg/m3) 210 600kg/m³

Metakaolin (kg/m3) 8.4

Water added W/b=0.4 252 Water/binder ratio 0.31-0.36
Super plasticizer poly carboxylic base
(liters) 6.3 sp/b=1.1
Sand (kg/m3) 590.27 Coarse aggregate /sand ratio of
about 1
Gravel(kg/m3) 732.76

43
Table 4.5: Details of mix proportion 2.

Specification as per
Mix proportion 2 (SCC-M2) UNI 11040

Paste volume (%) 48 > 40

PPC 53 Grade cement (kg/m3) 390
Fine content about 500-
Fly ash 234
600kg/m³
Metakaolin 4
Water added W/b=0.4 249 Water/binder ratio 0.31-0.36
Super plasticizer poly carboxylic base
(liters) 6.8 sp/b=1.1
Sand 593 Coarse aggregate /sand ratio
of
about 1
Gravel 737

Table 4.6: Details of mix proportion 3.

Specification as per UNI

Mix proportion 3 (SCC-M3) 11040

Paste volume (%) 49 > 40

PPC 53 Grade cement (kg/m3) 400
Fine content about 500-
Fly ash (kg/m3) 240 600kg/m³
Metakaolin (kg/m3) 4
Water added W/b=0.4 256 Water/binder ratio 0.31-0.36
Super plasticizer poly carboxylic base
(liters) 7 Sp/b=1.1
Sand (kg/m3) 579.83 Coarse aggregate /sand ratio
of about 1
Gravel (kg/m3) 719.79

44
4.5 Analytical study

4.5.1 General

Analytical study is done to understand the particle size distribution or particle

packing of concrete with varies mix proportion. Today, particle size distributions
of different building products, ceramics, concrete etc. are investigated by this
tool. Even when the flow ability is not the issue, efficient particle packing may be
desired for these products, increasing mechanical strength, reducing liquid
addition during processing, etc.

4.5.2 Emma-size distribution analyzer

EMMA is a software that calculates and displays the particle size distribution of a
mixture of components. It was originally developed for designing self-flowing
refractory castable compositions at Elkem. Independent of consolidation method
for making efficient particle packing is applied. EMMA is used for high performance
and self-compacting concrete. EMMA is an easy-to-use computer program that
helps to optimize & refine their concrete mix designs. The user input the Particle
Size Distribution (PSD) of their sand, gravel & cementing materials and EMMA
predicts the optimum blend of those materials to make the best concrete. EMMA
can calculate its CO2 loading. To reduce the carbon footprint, you can try and
replace high CO2 materials such as Portland cement, with low CO2 materials, such
as silica fume.

4.5.3 Modified Andreassen Model

In EMMA the particle size distribution of a combination of materials chosen by the

user is compared to the modified Andreassen Model.

Andreassen suggested in 1931 that optimal packing occurs when the particle size
distribution can be described by this model. To deal with the problem of infinite
distribution of the Andreassen distribution, a modified version that links the

45
Andreassen and the Furnas distribution has later been developed. This is called
the modified Andreassen distribution and is shown here:

CPFT = (dq*-dmq*/Dq*-dmq*)

q* means q is the exponent.

Where CPFT is the Cumulative (Volume) Percent Finer Than,

d is the particle size,

dm is the minimum particle size of the distribution

D is the Maximum particle size,

and q is the distribution coefficient (q-value).

The particle distribution curve of the concrete is compared with the standard
modified Andreassen Model. This model is adopted for its suitability towards
analyzing self-compacting concrete. The q value is taken 0.28.

4.5.4 Procedure for feeding material properties

1. Start by adding your materials to the library – Click the ‘materials library’ icon
located at the top of the ‘materials in library’ column.

2. Begin by clicking on 'new material' and write in the name of the material. Input
the data for your material such as name, origin, cost, sieve size (micron),
percentage passing and Particle density.

3. Now click 'Save material'.

4. The panel will stay open for further input – click on ‘new’ and start with your
next material. Repeat this for all your ‘components’ - all coarse aggregates,
all fine aggregates, cements, pozzolans, fillers, pigments etc.

4.5.5 Procedure for analysis

1. Open the EMMA software

46
2. Click on the 'New recipe' box at the top of the screen. The program will
prompt you to enter a file name. Enter your choice of filename then click
‘Save’. A new blank recipe record will open. Fill in any suitable description
details for your recipe.

3. Then you take the cursor over to the materials library, either double click or
‘drag and drop’ your selection of materials, one by one, into the recipe box
– into the column ‘Material name’.

4. Then put in the weights (quantity) of each material for your recipe.

5. Next, enter your desired water quantity for your recipe. (The box for this is
towards the top left of the screen). Water amount is added to the dry mixture
and comes in addition to the 100 wt% of dry material. The PSD curve in
EMMA Graphics shows the dry materials, so you may view graph even if
the Water Quantity is not entered. You can now see that the program has
calculated the volumes and density of your recipe.

6. The bottom of the screen you can see ‘q-value’ and ‘Maximum particle size’.
For the maximum particle size you should enter the maximum size of the
aggregate in your recipe – this will help EMMA to draw a graph later using
a suitable scale. Note that unit value is microns.

7. Once you have chosen a suitable q-value, click on 'View graph'.

8. The straight red line is your target (perfect particle packing based on the
Andreassen Model), the irregular line (blue) is the particle packing of your
recipe. When your blue line is above the red target line, you have too much
material of that size, - when below, you have too little. If you place the cursor
on the line at such a point, it will tell you what size of material it is.

47
9. You can now start to optimize your mix by adjusting your particle distribution
to better fit the Andreassen curve. Try changing the quantity of a material in
your recipe and then review the effect on the graph.

Figure 4.9: Screen shot image of the software.

48
4.5.6 Particle size distribution graph

Figure 4.10: Comparison of particle size distribution of SCC-M1 with

modified Andreassen Model.

Figure 4.11: Comparison of particle size distribution of SCC-M2 with

modified Andreassen Model.

49
 Figure 4.12: Comparison of particle size distribution of SCC-M3 with
modified Andreassen Model

4.5.7 Analytical study discussion

The particle size distribution for all the three mixes were same due to less variation
in material quantity and it is approximately aligned with modified Andreassen
Model. The particle distribution curve for all the three mixes are aligned above the
standard curve which means material of size from 0.8 microns to 100 microns is
merely high and it can be adjusted to get better particle packing density. In the
present study the mixes were taken as such without any adjustment in the particle
quantity.

50
51
4.6 Fresh concrete properties

4.6.1 General

The main characteristics of SCC are properties in the fresh state. The mix design
is focused on the ability to flow under its own weight without vibration, the ability to
flow through heavily congested reinforcement under its own weight and the ability
to retain homogeneity without segregation. The workability of scc is higher than
“very high” degree of workability mentioned in is 456:2000. A concrete mix can
only be classified as self-compacting concrete if it has the following characteristics
such as filling ability, passing ability and segregation. List of test methods for
analyzing the workability properties of SCC at fresh state is detailed in the table.

Table 4.7: List of test for workability properties of SCC

S. No Method/Test Properties

1 Slump Flow Filling ability

2 T50cm Slump flow Filling ability

3 V-Funnel Filling ability

4 V-funnel at T5 minutes Segregation resistance

5 L-Box Passing ability

6 U-Box Passing ability

4.6.2 Slump flow test

Slump flow test for three different mixes were conducted as per UNI11041, the
final spread diameter of concrete and time taken for 500mm diameter spread is
noted. The result obtained is listed in the table. Relation between the flow and fine
content is shown in the fig. SCC-M1 has less slump flow when compared to other
two mixes and also it has been found that slump flow increases with increase in
paste volume and fine content (fly ash and Metakaolin). Thus SCC-M2 and SCC-
52
M3 has better flow characteristic than mix1 with less paste content. This determine
that SCC-M2 and SCC-M3 has better filling ability. There is no segregation is
observed all of the mixes.

Figure 4.13: Slump flow test for SCC-M1 and SCC-M3

Table 4.8: Slump test value for the mixes.

Fresh concrete Specification as

properties SCC-M 1 SCC-M 2 SCC-M3 per UNI 11040

slump flow final spread

(cm) 550 620 665 >600mm
Slump flow -T50cm (sec) 6 5 4 ≤ 12 secs

700
fine content (kg/m3)

650
600
550
500
450
400
215 220 225 230 235 240 245 250
slump flow (mm)

Figure 4.14:Relation of slump flow with fine content.

53
4.6.3 V-Funnel Test

This test is done to find the filling and segregation property of concrete as per UNI
11042. The equipment consists of a V shape funnel shown in figure. The funnel is
filled about 12 liters of concrete and trap door is opened. The time taken for its flow
down is noted. Procedure for flow time at T5mim is open the trap door after 5 minutes
after the fill of the funnel and allow concrete to flow. calculate the time taken for
complete discharge .it is called the flow time at T5 minute. V-funnel test the flow time
should be between 8 and 12 seconds. For V funnel flow time at T 5 minute. +3 secs
are allowed. This test is done for all the three mixes and the result obtained is listed
in the table. Initial flow time for the SCC-M1 and SCC-M 2 are the same compared
with SCC-M3 the value is less. T5mim value obtained shows gradual decrease in
time with increasing paste volume and fine content and no segregation is observed
in all of the three mixes.

Figure 4.15: V -funnel test

54
Table 4.9: V-funnel test results

Fresh concrete Specification as

properties SCC-M1 SCC-M2 SCC-M3 per UNI 11040
V-Funnel flow time (sec) 18 18 16 4-12 sec
V-Funnel flow time t5
min (sec) 22 20 27 +3 sec

24

22

20
flow time at t 5min

18

16

14

12

10
215 220 225 230 235 240 245 250
fine content (kg/m3)

Figure 4.16: Relation between fine content and flow time at T5min

4.6.4 U- box test

The test is used to measure the filling ability of self-compacting concrete as per
11044. The apparatus consists of a vessel that is divided by a middle wall into two
compartments. An opening with a sliding gate is fitted between the two
compartments. Reinforcing bars with nominal diameter of 13mm are installed at
the gate with center to center distance of 50mm.This creates a clear spacing of

55
35mm between the bars. the left hand section is filled with about 20 liters of
concrete flows to the other section. the height of concrete in both the section is
measured. The difference in height of the concrete is noted and result is shown in
the table. The observation shows that mix 1 has lower filling ability than other two
mixes.

Figure 4.17: U-box test

Table 4.10: Test result u-box test.

Specification as
Fresh concrete properties SCC-M1 SCC-M2 SCC-M3 per UNI 11040

U-BOX 80 10 10 ≤ 30 mm

4.6.5 L-Box Test

The test asses the flow of concrete and also the extent to which the concrete is
subjected to blocking by reinforcement as UNI 11043. About 14 liters of concrete
is required for this test. The concrete is poured in the vertical section and allowed
to stand for 1 minute. The sliding gate is lifted and concrete start flowing. The
height of the concrete at both the end is measures. Blocking ratio is obtained

56
dividing the height of the concrete at one end of vertical section end and the height
of the concrete at other vertical section end. Test is carried out for all the three
mixes and result are listed out in the table. Result obtained for all the three mixes
were not within the specification. Passing ability is merely less and blockage of
concrete is not observed for all the three mixes.

Figure 4.18: L-box test

Table 4.11: Test result for L-box test

Fresh concrete Specification as per
properties SCC-M 1 SCC-M 2 SCC-M3 UNI 11040

L-BOX 0.5 0.6 0.5 > 0.80

4.7 Casting of specimen

The concrete designed is self-compacting concrete, it requires proper mixing of

material to achieve homogenous mixing. First cement, fly ash and metakaolin are
mixed thoroughly in a separate mixer and it is added with aggregate. Water is the
added initially at 80% remaining is added with superplasticizer. The concrete is
mixed thoroughly and it is placed in the standard mould without compaction after

57
the fresh properties of concrete is tested. Specimen for accelerated corrosion test
the has to be pickled to remove rust from the rod before it placed in the mould.

Figure 4.19: Mixing and casting of self-compacting concrete

58
 CHAPTER 5

EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
5.1 General

Self-compacting concrete is developed using commercially available river sand

,10mm coarse aggregate, Portland pozzolana cement, fly ash, metakaolin,
polycarboxylic based superplasticizer and water. These SCC mixes were identified
for further study on their strength, durability properties in addition to workability
properties.

Strength related studies conducted includes,

• Compressive strength test

• Split tensile strength test
• Flexure strength test
• Modulus of elasticity

Durability related studies conducted includes,

• Accelerated corrosion test

• Rapid chloride penetration test
• Chloride penetration test
• Half-cell potential test
• Water absorption test
• Sorptivity test

5.2 Experimental Investigation (Mechanical properties)

5.2.1 Compressive strength test

5.2.1.1 Introduction

Compressive strength test was conducted as per BIS: 456:2000 (Method of test-
Compression strength of concrete), concrete cubes of size 150x150x150 mm are
made with self-compacting concrete. Three trial mixes were identified for

59
compressive strength test at the age of 7, 14, 28 days. In each category and age
three specimens were tested. Totally 27 cubes were subjected to compression
test.

5.2.1.2 Test procedure

The test was conducted in a 3000 kN capacity digital compressive testing

machine. Before testing of concrete cubes following procedure has to be followed,
the cubes are removed from the water after specific days of curing by noting the
identification mark. The water gilt and projecting fins on the surface are cleaned.
The cubes are placed in the compression testing machine such that cubes are
between upper and lower platen and load is applied to the opposite side of the
cubes as shown in the figure 5.1. Load is applied without shock and the load is
increased continuously at a rate of 140kg/cm2/min till failure occurs. The maximum
load, appearance of concrete and type of failure is noted. Record the load at failure
as that maximum load at which the cube fails to produce any further increase in
the dial. The same procedure is repeated for different samples. The compressive
strength can be calculated from the formula 5.1.

Figure 5.1: Compressive testing machine

60
Ultimate compressive strength (N/mm2) = P/A …….5.1
Where,
P = Maximum load at failure (mm2)
A= Cross sectional area under compression (N)

5.2.2 Split tensile strength test

5.2.2.1 Introduction

Split tensile strength test is a standard test carried out as per BIS 5816 :1999
(Method of Test- Split tensile strength of concrete). The specimen is a cylinder of
150mm diameter and 300mm height is used. Three trial mixes were identified for
split tensile strength test at the age of 28 days. In each category at 28 days of
curing three specimens were tested. Totally 9 cylinders were subjected to split
tensile strength test. This test method consists of applying a diametrical force along
the length of a cylindrical concrete at a rate that is within a prescribed range until
failure. This loading induces tensile stresses on the plane containing the applied
load and relatively high compressive stresses in the area immediately around the
applied load. Although we are applying a compressive load but due to Poisson’s
effect, tension is produced and the specimen fails in tension. Tensile failure occurs
rather than compressive failure because the areas of load application are in a state
of triaxle compression, thereby allowing them to withstand much higher
compressive stresses than would be indicated by a uniaxial compressive strength
test result.

5.2.2.2 Test procedure

Split tensile strength was conducted in 150 tones compression testing machine.
The cylinder is tested in a special fixture such way that it is placed between the
thin plywood bearing strips used to distribute the load applied along the length of
the cylinder and bearing bars of steel are provided in a manner that the load will
be applied over the specimen as shown in the figure 5.2. The load is applied in a
rate of loading should be such that a stress of 0.7 – 1.4 MPa/min is produced. The

61
 maximum load sustained by the specimen is divided by appropriate geometrical
factors to obtain the splitting tensile strength.

The splitting tensile strength of the specimen is calculated from the formula 5.2.
2𝑃
T=
ᴨ𝑙𝐷
…5.2

Where,
T = splitting tensile strength, (MPa),
P = maximum applied load indicated by the testing machine, (N)
D = diameter, (mm)
l = length, (mm)

Figure 5.2: Schematic representation Figure 5.3: split tensile strength test
of split tensile strength test in progress

5.2.3 Flexure strength test

5.2.3.1 Introduction

Flexure strength test is an another common test conducted for determining the
tensile strength of the concrete. The test could be performed in accordance with
as per BIS 519 :1959 (Method of test- Flexure strength of concrete). A simple plain
concrete beam is loaded at one-third span points. Normal standard size of

62
specimen 100x100x500 mm is used. The value of modulus of repture (extreme
fibre stress in bending) depends on the dimension of the beam and manner of
loading. The system of loading used in finding out the flexural tension are central
point loading and third pint loading. In centre point loading, maximum fibre stress
will come below the point of loading. In case of symmetrical two-point loading, the
critical crack may appear at any section, not strong enough to resist the stress
within the middle third, where the bending moment will be maximum. It can be
expected that the two-point loading will yield a lower value of the modulus of
rupture than the centre point loading. In the present study two-point loading is
used.

5.2.3.2 Procedure

The testing machine of 40 tones capacity universal testing machine (UTM) is used.
The bed of the testing machine shall be provided with two steel rollers, 38 mm in
diameter, on which the specimen is to be supported, and these rollers shall be so
mounted that the distance from centre to centre is 40 cm for 10 cm specimens, the
load shall be applied through two similar rollers, mounted at the third points of the
supporting span, that is, spaced at 20 or 13·3 crn centre to centre. The load shall
be divided equally between the two loading roller, and all rollers shall be mounted
in such a manner that the load applied axially and without subjecting the specimen
to any torsional stresses or restraints. One suitable arrangement which complies
with these requirements is indicated in Figure 5.4 and 5.5. The load shall be
applied without shock and increasing continuously at a rate such that the extreme
fibre stress increases at approximately 7 kg/cm2/min. That is at a rate of 180 kg/min
for the 10cm specimens, the load shall be increased until the specimen fails, and
the maximum load applied to the -specimen during the test shall be recorded. The
appearance of the fractured faces of concrete and any unusual features in the type
of failure shall be noted. The modulus of repture is calculated from the formula 5.3
and 5.4 based on the failure condition.

The flexure strength of the specimen is expressed as the modulus of repture f d which if
‘a’ equals the distance between the line of facture and the nearer support, measured on

63
the centre of line of the tensile side of the specimen in mm, is calculated to the nearest
0.05MPa as follows

fd = PL/bd2 …….5.3

when ‘a’ is greater than133 mm for 100mm specimen.

fd = 3Pa/bd2 …….5.4

when ‘a’ is less than133 mm but greater than 110mm for 100mm specimen.

Where,

fd = modulus of rupture in MPa,

P = maximum load in N
L = span length in mm,
b = average width in mm and
d = average depth in mm.

Figure 5.4: Schematic representation Figure 5.5: Flexure strength test in

of flexure strength test progress

64
5.2.4 Modulus of elasticity

5.2.4.1 Introduction

Modulus of elasticity is determined by a standard test carried out as per BIS 5816
:1999 (Determination of the modulus of Elasticity by means of an extensometer).
The specimen is a cylinder of 150mm diameter and 300mm height is used. Three
trial mixes were identified for split tensile strength test at the age of 28 days. In
each category at 28 days of curing three specimens were tested. Totally 9 cylinders
were subjected to test. Extensorneter is used having a gauge length of not less
than 10·2 cm and not more than half the length of the specimen. It is capable of
measuring strains to an accuracy of 2 X 10-4.

5.2.4.2 Procedure

The three test specimens for compressive strength is first tested and the average
compressive strength is recorded. Immediately on removing the cylinder or prism
from the water and while it is still in a wet condition, the extensometers shall be
attached at the ends or on opposite side at the specimen and parallel to its axis, in
such a way that the gauge point, are symmetrical about the centre of the specimen
and in no case are nearer to either end of the specimen than a distance equal to
half the diameter or half the width of the specimen as shown in the figure 5.6 and
5.7. The extensometer is fixed with the recording points at the same end. The
specimen is immediately placed in the testing machine of 150 tones capacity and
accurately centered. The load shall be applied continuously and without shock at
a rate of 140 kg/cm2/min until an average stress of (C +5) kg/cm2 is reached, when
C is one third of the average compressive strength of the cubes calculated to the
nearest 5 kg/cm2. The load shall he maintained at this stress for at least one minute
and shall then be reduced gradually to an average stress of 1·5 kg/cm2 when
extensometer reading is taken. The load is applied for a second time at the same
rate until an average stress of (C+1·5) kg/cm 2 is reached. The load will be
maintained at this figure while extensometer readings are taken. The load shall
65
again be reduced gradually and reading again taken at 1.5 kg/cm 2. The load shall
then be applied a third time and extensometer reading taken at ten approximately
equal increment of stress up to an average stress of (C+1.5) kg/cm 2. Reading is
taken with as little delay as possible.

The strains at the various loads in the last two cycles shall be calculated separately
for each Extensorneter and the results shall be plotted graphically against the
stress. Straight lines shall be drawn through the points for each extensometer; the
slopes of these two lines shall be determined and from them the average value
shall be found. If the difference between the individual values is less than 15
percent of the average value. this average value, expressed in kg/cm 2 to the
nearest 1 000 kg/cm2 shall be recorded as the modulus of elasticity of the concrete.
If the difference is greater than 15 percent, the specimen shall be re-centered in
the testing machine and the test repeated. If the difference after re-centering and
testing is still greater than 15 percent of the average value, the results of the test
shall be discarded.

Figure 5.6: Schematic representation Figure 5.7: Modulus of elasticity

of modulus of elasticity test test setup

66
5.3 Experimental Investigation (Durability properties)

5.3.1 Accelerated corrosion test

5.3.1.1 Introduction

Accelerated corrosion test is a crash test conducted to determine the durability

parameter of the concrete or coated rebars. The test is conducted in the
accelerated condition. This test was developed by CCSIR-Structural Engineering
Research Institute (SERC) and Central electro chemical research institute
(CECRI).test was carried out as per ASTM-C 876 This test is based on the basic
principle that rebars starts corroding in favorable condition its volume get increase.
Once the volume of rebar in concrete increases, the concrete cannot withstand the
tensile stresses developed in it and crack will develop perpendicular to the change
in volume direction of the rebar. The test specimen comprises of 70mm diameter
and 115mm height concrete cylinder with centrally embedded 12mm rebar is used.
Three trial mixes were identified for ACT test at the age of 14 days. In each
category at 14 days of curing three specimens were tested. Totally 9 cylinders
were subjected to test.

5.3.1.2 Test procedure

To conduct accelerated corrosion test following apparatus are required, a non-

conducting acrylic tank, perforated stainless steel hollow cylinder, DC power
supply and 3% of NaCl solution. A constant potential of 12 V was applied to the
system using a DC power supply regulator. The anode is connected with the
concrete specimen and the cathode is made with the stainless steel hollow
cylinder. The 3% NaCl solution act as an electrolyte. Thus the system forms a
electrochemical cell. The schematic representation of the test setup is shown in
the figure 5.8. The variation in the development of corrosion current was monitored
at regular intervals of 2 hours using a high impedance multimeter. A continuous
monitoring of test specimen is required to find out the time required for the initiation

67
of first crack was considered as a relative resistance of coating material / protection
system against chloride ingress and subsequent corrosion. A graph is drawn
showing relation with time and current.

Figure 5.8: Schematic diagram of accelerated corrosion test

Figure 5.9: Accelerated corrosion test in progress

5.3.2 Half-cell potential

5.3.2.1 Introduction

This is a qualitative method of assessing the corrosion of the rebar inside concrete.
The half-cell potential measurements were carried out as per ASTM C 876:1999.

68
The test specimen comprises of 70mm diameter and 115mm height concrete
cylinder.12mm diameter and 75mm height rebar’s were embedded centrally which
acts a working electrode.

5.3.2.1 Test procedure

The specimen was subjected to alternate wetting and drying cycle for a period of
330 days. Once the cycle comprises of immersion in 3% of NaCl for 3 days
followed by 3 days drying. The potential of the rebar was measured against a
saturated calomel electrode(SCE) at the end of every wetting and drying cycle.
The observed potential readings were compared with ASTM criteria for probability
of corrosion. At the end of the test period, the specimens were broken to examine
the corrosion rebar inside concrete.

Table 5.1: ASTM C 876 criteria for corrosion condition

S.no Potential (mV) versus Saturated Probability of corrosion (%)

calomel electrode (SCE)

1 > - 126 mV Low corrosion risk (< 10%)

2 - 126 mV to -276mV Intermediate corrosion risk

3 > -276 mV High (< 90% risk of corrosion)

4 > -426 mV Severe corrosion

69
 Figure 5.6: Half-cell potential test: Typical setup.

5.3.3 Rapid chloride penetration test

5.3.3.1 Introduction

The rapid chloride ion penetration test (RCPT) set-up is similar to the diffusion test.
the standardized testing procedure followed as per AASTHO T2277 or ASTM
C1202. This test helps us to determine the ability of the concrete to resist the
penetration of the concrete.

5.3.3.2 Test procedure

The RCPT is performed by monitoring the amount of electrical current that passes
through sample 50mm thick x 100mm diameter in 6 hours. The sample is typically
cut as slice of a core or cylinder. A voltage of 60V DC is maintained across the
ends of the sample throughout the test. One lead is immersed in a sodium chloride
(NaCl) solution (0.5 N) and the other sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution (0.3). the
total charge passed (Q) is calculated in coulombs by the following formula 5.4.

Q = 900 (I0 + 2I30 + 2I60 +………. +2I300 + 2I330 + I360) …….5.4

Where,

Q= charge passed (coulombs),

I0 =Current (amperes) immediately after voltage is applied,

I360= Current (amperes) t minutes after voltage is applied.

70
 Figure 5.7: Rapid chloride penetration test

Table 5.2: ASTM C 1202 criteria for chloride permeability based on charge
passed

S.no Chloride Charge passed Type of concrete

permeability (coulombs)

1 High ≤ 4000 High w-c ratio (> 0.6)

2 Moderate 2000 to 40000 Moderate w-c ratio (0.40 to 0.50)

3 Low 1000 to 2000 Low w-c ratio (< 0.40)

4 Very low 100 to 1000 Latex-modified concrete

5 Negligible ≤ 100 Polymer-impregnated concrete

5.3.4 Chloride penetration test

5.3.4.1 Introduction

Chloride penetration test is done to understand the resistance of concrete towards

chloride ion penetration without any external inducing agent. The test specimen
comprises of 100 x 100 mm concrete cubes. Three trial mixes were identified for
chloride penetration test at the age of 28 days. In each category at 28 days of
curing 3 three specimens were tested. Totally 9 cubes were subjected to test.

5.3.4.2 Test procedure

The concrete cube of size 10x10 cm coated with polymer based water proof
coating at four sides and remaining other two side is allowed for chloride
penetration. The cube is submerged in 3% solution of NaCl for more than 28 days
as shown in the figure 5.8 and it is spliced into two halves for test of chloride
penetration. A solution with 0.1% sodium fluorescein and 0.1 N of silver nitrate is

71
prepared and it is sprayed in the specimen. Chloride penetrated part will remain in
the same colour, while rest of the area will be in pinkish red.

Figure 5.8: Chloride penetration test

5.3.5 Water absorption test

5.3.5.1 Introduction

The pore structure of concrete is known to be of high importance for the durability
of the material. A characterization of this pore structure by means of a simple test
is often investigated, in order to find a very simple compliance criterion with respect
to concrete durability. The test specimen comprises of 100mm diameter x 50 mm
height cylinder. Three trial mixes were identified for water absorption test at the
age of 28 days. In each category at 28 days of curing 3 three specimens were
tested. Totally 9 cubes were subjected to test.

5.3.5.2 test procedure

Initially in water absorption test the specimens were oven dried for 24 hours at the
temperature110°C until the mass became constant and again weighed. This
weight was noted as the dry weight (W1) of the cylinder. After that the specimen
was kept in hot water at 85°c for 3.5 hours. Then this weight was noted as the wet
weight (W2) of the cylinder. % water absorption is calculated from the formula 5.5.

72
% water absorption = [(W2– W1) / W1] x 100…….5.5

Where,

W1 = Oven dry weight of cylinder in grams

W2 = after 3.5 hours wet weight of cylinder in grams.

Figure 5.9 : Water absorption test

5.3.6 Sorptivity test

5.3.6.1 Introduction

The test method used was ASTM C1585 – 04: “Measurement of Rate of Absorption
of Water by Hydraulic Cement Concrete”. This test method determines the rate of
absorption (i.e. sorptivity) of water by hydraulic cement concrete by measuring the
increase in the mass of a specimen resulting from absorption of water as a function
of time when only one surface of the specimen is exposed to water. The exposed
surface is immersed in water (the water depth is 1 to 3 mm only) and water ingress
of unsaturated concrete dominated by capillary suction during initial contact with
water

73
5.3.6.2 Test procedure
The sorptivity can be determined by the measurement of the capillary rise
absorption rate on reasonably homogeneous material. Water was used of the test
fluid. The cylinders after casting were immersed in water for 90 days curing.

The specimen size 100mm diameter x 50 mm height after drying in oven at

temperature of 100 + 10 °C were drowned as shown in figure 4with water level not
more than 5 mm above the base of specimen and the flow from the peripheral
surface is prevented by sealing it properly with non-absorbent coating. The
quantity of water absorbed in time period of 30 minutes was measured by
weighting the specimen on a top pan balance weighting up to 0.1 mg. surface water
on the specimen was wiped off with a dampened tissue and each weighting
operation was completed within 30 seconds. Sorptivity (S) is a material property
which characterizes the tendency of a porous material to absorb and transmit water
by capillarity. The cumulative water absorption (per unit area of the inflow surface)
increases as the square root of elapsed time (t).

I=S.t½ therefore S=I/ t½

Where;

S= sorptivity in mm,

t= elapsed time in mint,

I=Δw/Ad.

Where;

Δw= change in weight = W2-W1,

74
W1 = Oven dry weight of cylinder in grams,

W2 = Weight of cylinder after30 minutes capillary suction of water in grams,

A= surface area of the specimen through which water penetrated,

d= density of water.

Figure 5.9: Schematic representation of sorptivity test specimen

75
 Figure 5.9: Sorptivity test in progress

5.RESULT AND DISCUSSION

General

5.1 Mechanical properties

5.1.1 Compression test

Table 5.1: Observation on compressive strength test of SCC-M1

S.no Type of Age Ultimate Compressive Average

mix load (kN) strength(MPa) compressive
strength (MPa)

877 39

910 40 39
1 SCC-M1 7
854 38

967 43

970 43 43
2 SCC-M1 14
945 42

76
 1080 48

1100 49 48
3 SCC-M1 28
1070 48

Table 6.2: Observation on compressive strength test of SCC-M2

S.no Type of Age Ultimate Compressive Average

mix load (kN) strength(MPa) compressive
strength (MPa)

540 24

510 23 24
1 SCC-M2 7
530 24

697 31

630 28 30
2 SCC-M2 14
720 32

855 38

765 34 37
3 SCC-M2 28
877 39

Table 6.2: Observation on compressive strength test of SCC-M3

S.no Type of Age Ultimate Compressive Average

mix load (kN) strength(MPa) compressive
strength (MPa)

495 22

472 21 22
1 SCC-M2 7
517 23

697 31

585 26 28
2 SCC-M2 14
607 27

77
 855 38

765 34 36
3 SCC-M2 28
832 37

60

50 48
Compressive strength (MPa)

43
39
40 37 36

30 7 days
30 28
24 14 days
22
28 days
20

10

0
SCC-M1 SCC-M2 SCC-M3

Figure 5.2: Comparison of compressive strength of different mixes over the

time

78
 50
48

Compresive strength (MPa)

46
44
42
40
38
36
34
32
30
215 220 225 230 235 240 245 250
Fine content (kg/m3)

Figure 5.3: Relation between compressive strength with fine content

5.1.1.1 Study on cracks pattern

All four exposed faces are cracked approximately equally, generally with little
damage to faces in contact with the platens. Some tensile crack and no explosive
crack found

a) Mix 1

79
 b) Mix 2

c) Mix 3
Figure 5.4: Crack pattern in tested cubes

5.1.2 Split tensile test

Figure 5.5: Split tensile test

80
Table 5.2: Observation on split tensile strength

Ultimate Split tensile Average split

S.no Type of
load (kN) strength(MPa) tensile strength
mix
at 28 days of curing (MPa)
1 SCC-M1 176 2.5

184 2.6 2.5

170 2.4

2 SCC-M2 170 2.4

148 2.1 2.33

176 2.5

2 SCC-M3 141 2

134 1.9 2.1

169 2.4

2.6
2.5
2.5
Split tensile strength (MPa)

2.4
2.33
2.3

2.2
2.1
2.1

1.9
SCC-M1 SCC-M2 SCC-M3
Sample

81
 Figure 5.6: Comparison of 28 days split tensile strength of SCC mixes

5.1.3 Flexure test

Figure 5.8: Prism after flexure test

Table 5.3: Flexure test result

S.no Type of Ultimate load Modulus of Average

mixes repture at 28 Modulus of
(kN)
days of curing repture (MPa)

7.4 3.7

1 SCC-M1 7.6 3.8 3.8

8 4

7.6 3.8

82
 2 SCC-M2 7 3.5 3.7

7.8 3.9

6.4 3.2

3 SCC-M3 7.6 3.8 3.5

7 3.5

3.85
3.8
Modulus of repture (MPa)

3.75
3.7
3.65
3.6
3.55
3.5
3.45
3.4
3.35
SCC-M1 SCC-M2 SCC-M3
Types of mixes

5.1.4 Modulus of elasticity

Applied Stress change in Young’s

S.no load (ton) (N/mm2) length (mm) strain modulus(MPa)
1 4 2.220531 0.012 0.00008 27756
2 8 4.441062 0.024 0.00016 27756
3 12 6.661593 0.034 0.000227 29389
4 16 8.882123 0.048 0.00032 27756
5 20 11.10265 0.06 0.0004 27756
6 24 13.32319 0.074 0.000493 27006

83
 7 28 15.54372 0.094 0.000627 24803
8 32 17.76425 0.112 0.000747 23791
9 36 19.98478 0.124 0.000827 24175

25

20
Stress (MPa)

15

10

0
0 0.0001 0.0002 0.0003 0.0004 0.0005 0.0006 0.0007 0.0008 0.0009
Strain

Applied
load Stress Change in Young’s
S.no (tons) (N/mm2) length (mm) Strain modulus (MPa)
1 4 2.2205 0.012 0.00008 27756
2 8 4.4411 0.024 0.0002 27756
3 12 6.6616 0.04 0.0003 24980
4 16 8.8821 0.056 0.0004 23791
5 20 11.103 0.07 0.0005 23791
6 24 13.323 0.086 0.0006 23238
7 28 15.544 0.11 0.0007 21195

84
 8 32 17.764 0.132 0.0008 21147
9 36 19.985 0.14 0.0009 21412

25

20
Stress (MPa)

15

10

0
0 0.0002 0.0004 0.0006 0.0008 0.001
Strain

Applied Young’s
load Stress change in modulus
S.no (kN) (N/mm2) length (mm) Strain (MPa)
1 4 2.220531 8
0.00009 23791
2 8 4.441062 19
0.0002 22205
3 12 6.661593 31
0.000293 22709
4 16 8.882123 47
0.0004 22205
5 20 11.10265 63
0.000493 22505
6 24 13.32319 75
0.000613 21722

85
 7 28 15.54372 94
0.000773 20099
8 32 17.76425 108
0.000853 20817
9 36 19.98478 120
0.001 19984

25

20
Stress (MPa)

15

10

0
0 0.0002 0.0004 0.0006 0.0008 0.001 0.0012
Strain

Table 5.4: Modulus of elasticity of the SCC

S.no Type of mix Modulus of repture (GPa)

1 SCC-M1 26

2 SCC-M2 24

3 SCC-M3 22

86
 27
26
26
Modulus of elasticity (GPa)

25
24
24

23
22
22

21

20
SCC-M1 SCC-M2 SCC-M3
Type of mixes

5.2 Durability properties

5.2.1 Accelerated corrosion test

Figure 5.11: Rusted rebars after the accelerated corrosion test

87
 60

50

40
Current (mA

30
Normal
concrete
20
SCC-M1
10

0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000
Time (minutes)

Figure 5.12: Comparison of normal concrete with SCC-M1

60

50

40
Current (mA)

30
Normal
concrete
20
SCC-M2
10

0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
Time (min)

Figure 5.13: Comparison of normal concrete with SCC-M2

88
 60

50

40
Current (mA)

30
normal
concrete
20
SCC-M3
10

0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000
Time (min)

Figure 5.14: Comparison of normal concrete with SCC-M3

5.2.2 Half-cell potential

89
 250

Potential, -mA w.r.t to SCE

200

150
SCC-M1
100 SCC-M2
SCC-M3
50

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (Days)

Figure 5.16: Relation of half-cell potential value with respect to wet and dry
cycle

5.2.3 Rapid chloride penetration test

Table 5.5: Rapid chloride penetration test result

specimen Charge passed (coulombs)

Mix1 1008
Mix2 1312
Mix3 1353

90
 120

100

80

current (mA) 60 Mix 1

Mix 2
40
Mix 3

20

0
0 100 200 300 400
Time (min)

Figure 5.18:

5.2.4 Chloride penetration test

5.2.5 Water absorption test

Figure 5.20: Water absorption test

Table 5.6: Water absortion test result

S.no Type of mix % of water absorption

1 SCC-M1 2.4

2 SCC-M2 2.7

91
 3 SCC-M3 2.6

2.75
2.7
2.7
2.65
2.6
2.6
Absorption (%)

2.55
2.5
2.45
2.4
2.4
2.35
2.3
2.25
MIX1 MIX 2 MIX 3
Specimen

Figure 5.21: Comparison of water absorption for different mixes

5.2.6 Sorptivity test

14
y = 0.036x + 1.4373
12
R² = 0.8476
Absorption, I (mm)

10

6 MIX1

4 Linear (MIX1)

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Time (Sec½)

a) Mix 1

92
 20
18 y = 0.0555x + 1.0516
16

Absorption ,I (mm)
R² = 0.8838
14
12
10
8 mix 2
6 Linear (mix 2)
4
2
0
0 100 200 300 400
Time(sec ½)

b) Mix 2

25
y = 0.0657x + 3.528
Absorption ,I (mm)

20 R² = 0.7792

15

10 mix 3
Linear (mix 3)
5

0
0 100 200 300 400
time (sec ½)

c) Mix 3
Figure 5.23: Relation of absorption with respect to time

Figure 5.24: Absorption of water in the tested specimen

93
6.CONCLUSION

94
7.SCOPE FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

95
 8.REFERENCE

[1]Kumar, P.(2006).Methods of testing and design. IE (I) Journal- CV, Volume 86:
145-150.

[2] Bertil Persson, “A comparison between mechanical properties of self-

compacting concrete and the corresponding properties of normal concrete”
Cement and Concrete Research, 31, 2001, pp 193-198.

[3] Nan Su, Kung-Chung Hsu and His-Wen Chai, “A simple mix design method for
self-compacting concrete” Cement and Concrete Research, 31, 2001, pp 1799–
1807.

[4] N. Bouzoubaa and M. Lachemi, “Self-compacting concrete incorporating high

volumes of class F fly ash Preliminary results” Cement and Concrete Research,
31, 2001, pp 413-420.

[5] Dr. R. Sri Ravindrarajah, D. Siladyi and B. Adamopoulos, “Development of

High-Strength Self-Compacting Concrete with reduced Segregation Potential” 1
Vol., 1048 pp., ISBN: 2-912143-42-X, soft covers.

[6] Hajime okamura, Masahiro ouchi, “Self Compacting Concrete” Journal of

Advanced Concrete Technology, volume 1, 2003, pp 5-15.

[7] Paratibha Aggarwal, Aggarwal and Surinder M Gupta, “Self-Compacting

Concrete - Procedure for Mix Design” Leonardo Electronic Journal of Practices
and Technologies, Issue 12, 2008, pp 15-24.

96
[8] S. Girish, R.V. Ranganath and Jagadish Vengala, “Influence of powder and
paste on flow properties of SCC” Onstruction and Building Materials, 24, 2010, pp
2481–2488.

[9] E. Todorova, G. Chernev, G. Chernev.” Influence of metakaolinite and stone

flour on the properties of self-compacting concrete” Journal of Chemical
Technology and Metallurgy, 48, 2, 2013, 196-201.

[10] Cristian Druta, “Tensile strength and bonding characteristics of self-

compacting concrete” B.S. (Mechanical Eng.), Polytechnic University of Bucharest,
1995 August 2003.

[11] Manu Santhanam and Subramanian, S. “Current developments in self-

compacting concrete” Indian Concrete Journal, June, Vol., pp11-22.

[12] Jagadish Vengala Sudarsan, M.S., and Ranganath, R.V. “Experimental study
for obtaining self-compacting concrete”, Indian Concrete Journal, August, pp.
1261- 1266.

[13] Subramanian .S and Chattopadhyay, “Experiments for Mix Proportioning of

Self Compacting Concrete” Indian Concrete Journal, January, Vol., PP 13-20

[14] Bakshi D. Sinha (1976), "Housing Growth in India", Aronod - Heinemann, New
Delhi,pp. 1-87

[15] K.S. Sharma (1988), "Housing for the masses", Kurukshetra. November,
Vol. XXXVII, pp.8-10

97
 TECHNICAL BIOGRAPHY

Mohammed Rayyan.N (120011601092) was born on 20th Feb 1994, in

coimbatore, Tamil Nadu. He did his schooling in SBOA matriculation Higher
Secondary School, coimbatore and secured 84% in the Higher Secondary
Examination. He is currently pursuing his B.Tech. Degree in Civil Engineering in
the Department of Civil Engineering at B.S.Abdur Rahman University. His area
of interests include Construction Management and Quality control. The e-mail ID
is: rayss200@yahoo.com and the contact number is: 9585847858.

98
 TECHNICAL BIOGRAPHY

Jeelan Basha.C (120011601047) was born on 22th June 1994, in Tirupattur

vellore (dt) Tamil Nadu. He did his schooling in Al-Ameen Matriculation Higher
Secondary School, Tirupattur and secured 59.3% in the Higher Secondary
Examination. He is currently pursuing his B.Tech. Degree in Civil Engineering in
the Department of Civil Engineering at B.S.Abdur Rahman University. His area
of interests include Design of structures and Quantity surveying. The e-mail ID
is:jeelanibadsha1@gmail.com and the contact number is: 8015318921.

99
 TECHNICAL BIOGRAPHY

Junaith.A (120011601049) was born on 6nd April 1995, in Krishnagiri, Tamilnadu.

He did his schooling in Cambridge Matriculation Higher Secondary School,
Chennai and secured 67% in the Higher Secondary Examination. He is currently
pursuing his B.Tech. Degree in Civil Engineering in the Department of Civil
Engineering at B.S.Abdur Rahman University. His area of interests include
Designing of structures . The e-mail ID is: junaith.personal99@gmail.com and the
contact number is: 9791262292.

100
 TECHNICAL BIOGRAPHY

Mohammed Azarudeen B (120011602008) was born on 22nd march 1993, in

Krishnagiri, Tamilnadu. He did his schooling in Shayamadha Matriculation Higher
Secondary School, Chengam and secured 60% in the Higher Secondary
Examination. He did his Diploma in civil Engineering in swamy abedhanandha
polytechnic college thellar vandavasi . He is currently pursuing his B.Tech. Degree
in Civil Engineering in the Department of Civil Engineering at B.S.Abdur Rahman
University. His area of interests include Designing of structures . The e-mail ID is:
mohammed.2u@outlook.com and the contact number is: 9840280168

101