The human heart is about the size of a clenched fist.

Red blood cells

Red blood cells are also called erythrocytes. These are disk-shaped cells produced in the bone
marrow. Red blood cells have no nucleus, and their cytoplasm is filled with hemoglobin.

Hemoglobin is a red-pigmented protein that binds loosely to oxygen atoms and carbon dioxide
molecules. It is the mechanism of transport of these substances. (Much carbon dioxide is also
transported as bicarbonate ions.) Hemoglobin also binds to carbon monoxide. Unfortunately, this
binding is irreversible, so it often leads to carbon monoxide poisoning.

Red blood cells commonly have immune-stimulating polysaccharides called antigens on the
surface of their cells. Individuals having the A antigen have blood type A (as well as anti-B
antibodies); individuals having the B antigen have blood type B (as well as anti-A antibodies);
individuals having the A and B antigens have blood type AB (but no anti-A or anti-B
antibodies); and individuals having no antigens have blood type O (as well as anti-A and anti-B
antibodies).

White blood cells

White blood cells are referred to as leukocytes. They are generally larger than red blood cells
and have clearly defined nuclei. They are also produced in the bone marrow and have various
functions in the body. Certain white blood cells called lymphocytes are essential components of
the immune system (discussed later in this chapter). Other cells called neutrophils and
monocytes function primarily as phagocytes; that is, they attack and engulf invading
microorganisms. About 30 percent of the white blood cells are lymphocytes, about 60 percent are
neutrophils, and about 8 percent are monocytes. The remaining white blood cells are eosinophils
and basophils. Their functions are uncertain; however, basophils are believed to function in
allergic responses.

Platelets
Platelets are small disk-shaped blood fragments produced in the bone marrow. They lack nuclei
and are much smaller than erythrocytes. Also known technically as thrombocytes, they serve as
the starting material for blood clotting. The platelets adhere to damaged blood vessel walls, and
thromboplastin is liberated from the injured tissue. Thromboplastin, in turn, activates other
clotting factors in the blood. Along with calcium ions and other factors, thromboplastin converts
the blood protein prothrombin into thrombin. Thrombin then catalyzes the conversion of its
blood protein fibrinogen into a protein called fibrin, which forms a patchwork mesh at the injury
site. As blood cells are trapped in the mesh, a blood clot forms.
The circulatory system is a vast network of organs and vessels that is responsible for the flow of blood,
nutrients, hormones, oxygen and other gases to and from cells. Without the circulatory system, the
body would not be able to fight disease or maintain a stable internal environment — such as proper
temperature and pH — known as homeostasis.

The circulatory system is a vast network of organs and vessels that is responsible for the flow of
blood, nutrients, hormones, oxygen and other gases to and from cells. Without the circulatory
system, the body would not be able to fight disease or maintain a stable internal environment —
such as proper temperature and pH — known as homeostasis.

Description of the circulatory system

While many view the circulatory system, also known as the cardiovascular system, as simply a
highway for blood, it is made up of three independent systems that work together: the heart
(cardiovascular); lungs (pulmonary); and arteries, veins, coronary and portal vessels (systemic),
according to the U.S National Library of Medicine (NLM).

Diseases of the circulatory system

One of the most common diseases of the circulatory system is arteriosclerosis, in which the fatty
deposits in the arteries causes the walls to stiffen and thicken the walls. According to the Mayo
Clinic, the causes are a buildup of fat, cholesterol and other material in the artery walls. This can
restrict blood flow or in severe cases stop it all together, resulting in a heart attack or stroke.

Stroke involves blockage of the blood vessels to the brain and is another major condition of the
circulatory system, according to Mitchell Weinberg of the North Shore-LIJ Health
System. “Risk factors include smoking, diabetes and high cholesterol,” he noted.

Another circulatory disease, hypertension — commonly called high blood pressure — causes the
heart to work harder and can lead to such complications as a heart attack, a stroke, or kidney
failure, the NLM noted.

An aortic aneurysm occurs when the aorta is damaged and starts to bulge or eventually tear,
which can cause severe internal bleeding. This weakness can be present at birth or the result of
atherosclerosis, obesity, high blood pressure or a combination of these conditions, according to
Weinberg.

Peripheral arterial disease (also known as PAD) typically involves areas of narrowing or
blockage within an artery, according to Jay Radhakrishnan, an interventional radiologist in
Houston, Texas. In addition, chronic venous insufficiency (also known as CVI) involves areas
reflux (or backward flow) within the superficial veins of the lower extremities.
PAD is diagnosed with noninvasive testing including ultrasound, CT scan, and/or
MRI. Ultrasound is the least expensive of these methods, but also gives the least amount of
detail, as CT and MRI show a much higher degree of anatomic detail when identifying areas of
narrowing/blockage within an artery. CVI is diagnosed with ultrasound as the venous reflux can
be measured accurately by ultrasound, which ultimately guides treatment.

Arteries are blood vessels that carry blood away from heart.

 Arterial walls are able to expand and contract.

 Arteries have three layers of thick walls.

Arterioles are small arteries that connect larger arteries with capillaries. Small arterioles branch into
collections of capillaries known as capillary beds.

Capillaries are thin-walled blood vessels in which gas exchange occurs.

 In the capillary, the wall is only one cell layer thick. .

 Capillaries are concentrated into capillary beds.
 Some capillaries have small pores between the cells of the capillary wall, allowing
materials to flow in and out of capillaries as well as the passage of white blood cells.
 Nutrients, wastes, and hormones are exchanged across the thin walls of capillaries.
 Capillaries are microscopic in size, although blushing is one manifestation of blood flow
into capillaries.
 Control of blood flow into capillary beds is done by nerve-controlled sphincters.

Venules are smaller veins that gather blood from capillary beds into veins. Pressure in veins is
low, so veins depend on nearby muscular contractions to move blood along.

Veins carry blood from capillaries to the heart.

 Veins have valves that prevent back flow of blood.

Blood Pressure
Ventricular contraction propels blood into arteries under great pressure. Blood pressure is measured in
mm of mercury; healthy young adults should have pressure of ventricular systole of 120mm, and 80 mm
at ventricular diastole. Higher pressures (human 120/80 as compared to a 12/1 in lobsters) mean the
volume of blood circulates faster (20 seconds in humans, 8 minutes in lobsters).
As blood gets farther from the heart, the pressure likewise decreases. Each contraction of the
ventricles sends pressure through the arteries. Elasticity of lungs helps keep pulmonary pressures
low.

Blood
Plasma is the liquid component of the blood. Mammalian blood consists of a liquid (plasma) and
a number of cellular and cell fragment components. Plasma is about 60 % of a volume of blood;
cells and fragments are 40%. Plasma has 90% water and 10% dissolved materials including
proteins, glucose, ions, hormones, and gases. It acts as a buffer, maintaining pH near 7.4. Plasma
contains nutrients, wastes, salts, proteins, etc. Proteins in the blood aid in transport of large
molecules such as cholesterol.

Red blood cells, also known as erythrocytes, are flattened, doubly concave cells about 7 �m in
diameter that carry oxygen associated in the cell's hemoglobin. Mature erythrocytes lack a
nucleus. They are small, 4 to 6 million cells per cubic millimeter of blood, and have 200 million
hemoglobin molecules per cell. Humans have a total of 25 trillion (about 1/3 of all the cells in
the body). Red blood cells are continuously manufactured in red marrow of long bones, ribs,
skull, and vertebrae. Life span of an erythrocyte is only 120 days, after which they are destroyed
in liver and spleen. Iron from hemoglobin is recovered and reused by red marrow. The liver
degrades the heme units and secretes them as pigment in the bile, responsible for the color of
feces. Each second 2 million red blood cells are produced to replace those taken out of
circulation.

White blood cells, also known as leukocytes, are larger than erythrocytes, have a nucleus, and
lack hemoglobin. They function in the cellular immune response. White blood cells (leukocytes)
are less than 1% of the blood's volume. They are made from stem cells in bone marrow. There
are five types of leukocytes, important components of the immune system.

 Neutrophils enter the tissue fluid by squeezing through capillary walls and engulfing
foreign substances.
 Macrophages release white blood cell growth factors, causing a population increase for
white blood cells.
 Lymphocytes fight infection.
 T-cells attack cells containing viruses.
 B-cells produce antibodies. Antigen-antibody complexes are phagocytized by a
macrophage. White blood cells can squeeze through pores in the capillaries and fight
infectious diseases in interstitial areas

Platelets result from cell fragmentation and are involved with clotting. Platelets are cell
fragments that bud off megakaryocytes in bone marrow. They carry chemicals essential to blood
clotting. Platelets survive for 10 days before being removed by the liver and spleen. There are
150,000 to 300,000 platelets in each milliliter of blood. Platelets stick and adhere to tears in
blood vessels; they also release clotting factors. A hemophiliac's blood cannot clot. Providing
correct proteins (clotting factors) has been a common method of treating hemophiliacs. It has
also led to HIV transmission due to the use of transfusions and use of contaminated blood
products.