HEAT EXCHANGERS

CDB 2023: PROCESS HEAT

TRANSFER

Sep Semester 2018

AP DR. YEONG YIN FONG

1
 Outline
Chapter 11: Heat Exchangers
• Types of Heat Exchangers
• Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
• Analysis of Heat Exchangers
• The Log Mean Temperature Difference Method
• The Effectiveness-NTU Method
• Selection of Heat Exchangers

2
 Reference Books:
Cengel, A. Y. and Ghajar, J. A., Heat and Mass
Transfer: Fundamentals and Applications, 5th Ed.
McGraw Hill 2015.

Holman, J. P. Heat Transfer, 10th Ed., McGraw Hill,

2009.

3
Lesson Outcomes:
At the end of this session:

1) Recognize numerous types of heat exchangers equipment

and classification.
2) Develop an awareness of fouling on surfaces, and determine
the overall heat transfer coefficient for a heat exchanger.
3) Perform a general energy analysis on heat exchangers.
4) Obtain a relation for the logarithmic mean temperature
difference for use in the LMTD method, and correction factor.
5) Analyze heat exchangers using the effectiveness-NTU
method.
6) Know the primary considerations in the selection of heat
exchangers.

4
 Outline
Chapter 11: Heat Exchangers
• Types of Heat Exchangers
• Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
• Analysis of Heat Exchangers
• The Log Mean Temperature Difference Method
• The Effectiveness-NTU Method
• Selection of Heat Exchangers

5
 Introduction
Heat exchangers are devices that facilitate the
exchange of heat between two fluids that are at
different temperatures while keeping them from
mixing with each other.

Used in wide range of applications

•Heating and air-conditioning systems
•Food and chemical processing
•Oil refining
•Power production plants
•Waste heat recovery
•Vehicles
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Heat transfer in a heat exchanger involves
convection in each fluid and conduction through
the wall separating the two fluids.

Overall heat transfer coefficient U, that accounts

for the contribution of all these effects on heat
transfer.

The rate of heat transfer between the two fluids

at a location in a heat exchanger depends on
the magnitude of the temperature difference at
that location, which varies along the heat
exchanger.

7
 Outline
Chapter 11: Heat Exchangers
• Types of Heat Exchangers
• Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
• Analysis of Heat Exchangers
• The Log Mean Temperature Difference Method
• The Effectiveness-NTU Method
• Selection of Heat Exchangers

8
 Types of Heat Exchangers
By Transfer Process:
1. Direct contact
• Heat transfer takes place
between two immiscible fluids.
• Mixing takes place between
the fluids.
• Gas and liquid coming into
direct contact for exchanging
heat
• Cooling towers, jet
condensers of water vapor

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2.Indirect contact
• Hot and cold fluids are
separated by impervious
surface
• Car radiators, shell and
tube heat exchangers
• No mixing of fluids

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By Compactness:
i. Compact heat exchanger
It has a large heat transfer surface area per
unit volume (e.g., car radiator). A heat
exchanger with the area density β > 700
m2/m3 is classified as being compact.
Automobile, marine, air craft, aero space and
cryogenic applications.
Fins are used to increase the heat transfer
area

ii. Cross-flow
In compact heat exchangers, the two fluids usually
move perpendicular to each other. The cross-flow is
further classified as unmixed and mixed flow.
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By Construction Type
1. Tubular Heat Exchangers
• Common design is shell and
tube heat exchangers
• Wide range of operating
pressures and temperature,
ease of manufacturing, low
cost.

2. Plate Heat Exchangers

• The hot and cold fluids flow
in alternate passages
• Can increase the size by
simply mounting more
plates
• Moderate temperature and
pressures
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3. Plate-Fin Heat Exchanger
• The compactness factor is
improved by the fins.
• Generally used for gas to
gas applications.
• Low pressure applications
only (< 10 bar)

4. Tube-Fin Heat Exchangers

• High pressure on tube side
can be accommodated.
• Gas turbine, nuclear, fuel
cell, automobile, airplane,
heat pump, refrigeration, air
conditioning, electronics,
cryogenics etc.

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By Flow Arrangement

1.Parallel-flow
• Hot and cold fluids enters at
the same end of heat
exchanger.

2. Counter-flow
• Hot and cold fluids enters in
the opposite ends of heat
exchanger

3. Cross-flow
• Two fluids flow right angles to
each other

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The most common type of heat exchanger in
industrial applications :Shell and tube heat exchanger

They contain a large number of tubes packed in a shell

with their axes parallel to that of the shell.

Heat transfer takes place as one fluid flows inside the

tubes while the other fluid flows outside the tubes
through the shell.

Shell-and-tube heat exchangers are further classified

according to the number of shell and tube passes
involved.

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 Outline
Chapter 11: Heat Exchangers
• Types of Heat Exchangers
• Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
• Analysis of Heat Exchangers
• The Log Mean Temperature Difference Method
• The Effectiveness-NTU Method
• Selection of Heat Exchangers

19
 THE OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER
COEFFICIENT
A heat exchanger typically involves two flowing fluids
separated by a solid wall.
Heat is first transferred from the hot fluid to the wall by
convection, through the wall by conduction, and from the wall
to the cold fluid again by convection.
Any radiation effects are usually included in the convection
heat transfer coefficients.

Eq (11-2)

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 Thermal resistance
network associated
with heat transfer in a
double-pipe heat
exchanger.

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 Eq (11-3)
U the overall heat transfer coefficient,
W/m2⋅°C

Eq (11-4)

When

22
The overall heat transfer coefficient U is
dominated by the smaller convection coefficient.

When one of the convection coefficients is much

smaller than the other (say, hi << ho), we have
1/hi >> 1/ho, and thus U ≈ hi.

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The overall heat transfer coefficient ranges from about 10 W/m2⋅°C for
gas-to-gas heat exchangers to about 10,000 W/m2⋅°C for heat
exchangers that involve phase changes.

24
 Fouling Factor
The performance of heat exchangers usually
deteriorates with time as a result of accumulation of
deposits on heat transfer surfaces.

The layer of deposits represents additional

resistance to heat transfer. This is represented by a
fouling factor Rf.

Eq (11-8)
The fouling factor increases with the operating
temperature and the length of service and decreases
with the velocity of the fluids.
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 Example 11-2: Effect of Fouling on the
Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
A double-pipe (shell-and-tube) heat exchanger is
constructed of a stainless steel (k=15.1 W/m·K) inner
tube of inner diameter Di = 1.5 cm and outer diameter
Do = 1.9 cm and an outer shell of inner diameter 3.2 cm.
The convection heat transfer coefficient is given to be
hi = 800 W/m2·K on the inner surface of the tube and
ho = 1200 W/m2·K on the outer surface, For a fouling
factor of Rf,i = 0.0004 m2·K/W on the tube side and
Rf,o = 0.0001 m2·K/W on the shell side, determine (a) the
thermal resistance of the heat exchanger per unit length
and (b) the overall heat transfer coefficients, Ui and Uo
based on the inner and outer surface areas of the tube,
respectively.

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 Solution
Given :k=15.1 W/m·K, Di = 1.5 cm, Do = 1.9 cm, hi = 800
W/m2·K , ho = 1200 W/m2·K, Rf,i = 0.0004 m2·K/W on the
tube side, Rf,o = 0.0001 m2·K/W on the shell side.

Determine (a) the thermal resistance of the heat

exchanger per unit length and
(b) the overall heat transfer coefficients, Ui and Uo based
on the inner and outer surface areas of the tube,
respectively.

Eq (11-8)
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Surface areas:

Substitution into Eq 11-8

The thermal resistance of the heat exchanger per unit

length = 0.0532 °C/W
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The overall heat transfer coefficients, Ui and Uo
based on the inner and outer surface areas of the
tube are:

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 Outline
Chapter 11: Heat Exchangers
• Types of Heat Exchangers
• Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
• Analysis of Heat Exchangers
• The Log Mean Temperature Difference Method
• The Effectiveness-NTU Method
• Selection of Heat Exchangers

31
 ANALYSIS OF HEAT
EXCHANGERS
1. to select a heat exchanger that will achieve a
specified temperature change in a fluid stream of
known mass flow rate - the log mean temperature
difference (or LMTD) method.

2. to predict the outlet temperatures of the hot and

cold fluid streams in a specified heat exchanger -
the effectiveness–NTU (number of transfer units)
method.

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The rate of heat transfer in heat exchanger
(steady-flow operation, well-insulated):

Eq (11-9)

Eq (11-10)

Heat capacity rate:

Eq (11-11)

Eq (11-12) Eq (11-13)
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Two fluid streams that have the same capacity rates experience
the same temperature change in a well-insulated heat
exchanger.
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For Phase change (Boiling and Condensation)

Eq (11-14)

is the rate of evaporation or condensation of the fluid

hfg is the enthalpy of vaporization of the fluid at the
specified temperature or pressure.

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 Outline
Chapter 11: Heat Exchangers
• Types of Heat Exchangers
• Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
• Analysis of Heat Exchangers
• The Log Mean Temperature Difference Method
• The Effectiveness-NTU Method
• Selection of Heat Exchangers

36
THE LOG MEAN TEMPERATURE
DIFFERENCE METHOD

Variation of the
fluid
temperatures in a
parallel-flow
double-pipe heat
exchanger.

37
 THE LOG MEAN TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE
METHOD

Rearranged: Energy
Analysis

Integration

Substitution into Eq 11-9 and Eq 11-10:

Eq (11-25)
log mean
Eq (11-15)
temperature
difference
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The arithmetic mean temperature
difference
The logarithmic mean temperature
difference ∆Tlm is an exact
representation of the average
temperature difference between the
hot and cold fluids.
Note that ∆Tlm is always less than
∆Tam. Therefore, using ∆Tam in
calculations instead of ∆Tlm will
overestimate the rate of heat transfer
in a heat exchanger between the two
fluids.
• When ∆T1 differs from ∆T2 by no more
than 40 percent, the error in using the
arithmetic mean temperature
difference is less than 1 percent. But
the error increases to undesirable
levels when ∆T1 differs from ∆T2 by
greater amounts.
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Multipass and Cross-Flow Heat Exchangers:
Use of a Correction Factor

Eq (11-26)
F correction factor depends on the
geometry of the heat exchanger and the
inlet and outlet temperatures of the hot and
cold fluid streams.
F for common cross-flow and shell-and-tube
heat exchanger configurations is given in
the figure versus two temperature ratios P
and R defined as

Eq (11-27) Eq (11-28)

1 and 2 inlet and outlet

T and t shell- and tube-side temperatures
F = 1 for a condenser or boiler
40
Correction
factor F
charts for
common
shell-and-
tube heat
exchangers

41
Correction
factor F
charts for
common
cross-flow
heat
exchangers

42
The LMTD method is very suitable for determining the size of a
heat exchanger to realize prescribed outlet temperatures when
the mass flow rates and the inlet and outlet temperatures of the
hot and cold fluids are specified.
With the LMTD method, the task is to select a heat exchanger
that will meet the prescribed heat transfer requirements. The
procedure to be followed by the selection process is:
1. Select the type of heat exchanger suitable for the
application.
2. Determine any unknown inlet or outlet temperature and the
heat transfer rate using an energy balance.
3. Calculate the log mean temperature difference ∆Tlm and the
correction factor F, if necessary.
4. Obtain (select or calculate) the value of the overall heat
transfer coefficient U.
5. Calculate the heat transfer surface area As.
The task is completed by selecting a heat exchanger that has a
heat transfer surface area equal to or larger than As.
43
Example 11-5: Heating of Glycerin
in a Multipass Heat Exchanger
A 2-shell passes and 4-tube passes heat
exchanger is used to heat glycerin from 20 oC to
50 oC by hot water, which enters the thin-walled
2-cm diameter tubes at 80 oC and leaves at
40 oC. The total length of the tubes in the heat
exchanger is 60 m. The convection heat transfer
coefficient is 25 W/m2·K on the glycerin (shell)
side and 160 W/m2·K on the water (tube) side.
Determine the rate of heat transfer in the heat
exchanger (a) before any fouling and (b) after
fouling with a fouling factor of 0.0006 m2·K/W
occurs on the outer surfaces of the tube.

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 Solution
Given : 2-shell passes and 4-tube passes, Tc,in = 20°C,
Tc,out = 50°C, Th,in = 80°C, Th,out = 40°C, L = 60 m,
hshell = 25 W/m2·K, htube =160 W/m2·K, Rf = 0.0006.

Determine rate of heat transfer in the heat exchanger

(a) before any fouling and (b) after fouling with a fouling
factor of 0.0006 m2·K/W occurs on the outer surfaces of
the tube

Eq (11-15) Eq (11-25)

For multi-pass heat

Eq (11-26)
exchangers

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The tubes are said to be thin-walled assume that the
inner and outer surface areas of the tube to be equal.
Then the heat transfer surface area is:

Calculate ∆ Tlm,CF

46
Calculate correction factor, F:

Referring to Figure 11-19b, F = 0.91.

(a) In the case of no fouling, the overall heat transfer

coefficient, U is:

47
Correction
factor F
charts for
common
shell-and-
tube heat
exchangers

48
Then, the rate of heat transfer becomes:

(b) When there is fouling on the surface,

and the rate of heat transfer becomes:

49
 Example 11-6: Cooling of Water in
an Automotive Radiator
A test is conducted to determine the
overall heat transfer coefficient in an
automotive radiator that is a compact
cross-flow water-to-air heat exchanger
with both fluids (air and water)
unmixed. The radiator has 40 tubes of
internal diameter 0.5 cm and length
65 cm in a closely spaced plate-finned
matrix. Hot water (cp = 4.195 kJ/kg·K)
enters the tubes at 90 oC at a rate of
0.6 kg/s and leaves at 65 oC. Air flow
across the radiator through the interfin
spaces and is heated from 20 oC to 40
oC. Determine the overall heat transfer

coefficient Ui, of this radiator based on

the inner surface area of the tubes.

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 Solution
Given : Compact cross flow heat exchanger, Tc,in = 20°C,
Tc,out = 40°C, Th,in = 90°C, Th,out = 65°C, L = 65 cm, 40
tubes, internal diameter Di= 0.5 cm, flow rate of hot
water = 0.6 kg/s, cp = 4.195 kJ/kg·K
Determine the overall heat transfer coefficient Ui, of this
radiator based on the inner surface area of the tubes.

Analysis:
Eq (11-10)

Eq (11-15) Eq (11-25)

For cross-flow
Eq (11-26)
heat exchangers
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The rate of heat transfer in this radiator from the hot
water to the air is determined from an energy balance on
water flow:

Therefore:

The tube side heat transfer area is the total surface area
of the tubes, and is determined from:

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Calculate ∆ Tlm,CF

Determine correction factor, F:

Referring to Figure 11-19c (cross-flow, unmixed), F = 0.97.

53
Correction
factor F
charts for
common
cross-flow
heat
exchangers

54
Substituting, the overall heat transfer coefficient Ui is
determined to be:

55
 Example
A shell-and tube heat exchanger is used for
heating 10 kg/s of oil (cp = 2.0 kJ/kg·K) from 25 °C
to 46 °C. The heat exchanger has 1-shell pass
and 6-tube passes. Water enters the shell side at
80 °C and leaves at 60 °C. The overall heat
transfer coefficient is estimated to be 1000
W/m2·K. Calculate the rate of heat transfer and
the heat transfer area.

Answer: Q = 420 kW, As = 13.1 m2

56
 Outline
Chapter 11: Heat Exchangers
• Types of Heat Exchangers
• Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
• Analysis of Heat Exchangers
• The Log Mean Temperature Difference Method
• The Effectiveness-NTU Method
• Selection of Heat Exchangers

57
THE EFFECTIVENESS–NTU METHOD
A second kind of problem encountered in heat
exchanger analysis is the determination of the heat
transfer rate and the outlet temperatures of the hot
and cold fluids for prescribed fluid mass flow rates
and inlet temperatures when the type and size of the
heat exchanger are specified.

The heat transfer surface area A of the heat

exchanger in this case is known, but the outlet
temperatures are not.

Here the task is to determine the heat transfer

performance of a specified heat exchanger or to
determine if a heat exchanger available will do the
job
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Heat Transfer Effectiveness

Eq (11-29)
The actual heat transfer rate from energy
balance

The maximum possible heat transfer rate

Eq (11-32)

Cmin is the smaller of Ch and Cc

59
 Example11-7: Upper Limit for Heat
Transfer in a Heat Exchanger
Cold water enters a counter-flow heat
exchanger at 10 °C at a rate of 8 kg/s, where it
is heated by a hot water stream that enters the
heat exchanger at 70 °C at a rate of 2 kg/s.
Assuming the specific heat of water to remain
constant at cp = 4.18 kJ/kg·K, determine the
maximum heat transfer rate and the outlet
temperatures of the cold and hot water streams
for this limiting case.

60
 Solution

Given Tc,in =10 °C at a rate of 8 kg/s, Th,in = 70 °C at

a rate of 2 kg/s, cp = 4.18 kJ/kg·K.

Determine the maximum heat transfer rate and the

outlet temperatures of the cold and hot water
streams, Qmax, Tc,out and Th,out .

Eq (11-32)

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The heat capacity rate:

Therefore,

The maximum heat transfer rate:

62
The outlet temperature of the cold stream:

The outlet temperature of the hot stream:

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Discussion:

Hot water is cooled to the limit of 10°C (the inlet

temperature of the cold water stream) , but cold water is
heated to 25 °C only when the maximum heat transfer
occurs in the heat exchanger the mass flow rate of the
hot water is only one-fourth that of the cold water.

The cold water should be heated up to 70°C, however, this

will require the temperature of hot water to drop to -170 °C
impossible.

Therefore, heat transfer in a heat exchanger reaches its

maximum value when the fluid with the smaller heat
capacity rate (or the smaller mass flow rate when both
fluids have the same specific value) experiences the
maximum temperature change.

64
The determination of Qmax requires the availability of
the inlet temperature of the hot and cold fluids and
their mass flow rates.
Once the effectiveness of the heat exchanger is
known, the actual heat transfer rate can be
determined from

Eq (11-33)

65
With the effectiveness of a heat exchanger, the heat
transfer rate can be determined without knowing the
outlet temperatures of the fluids.
The effectiveness of a heat exchanger depends on the
geometry of the heat exchanger as well as the flow
arrangement.
Therefore, different types of heat exchangers have
different effectiveness relations.
We illustrate the development of the effectiveness
relation for the double-pipe parallel-flow heat exchanger.

Eq (11-38)

66
Effectiveness relations of the heat exchangers typically
involve the dimensionless group UAs /Cmin.
This quantity is called the number of transfer units NTU.

Eq (11-39)

For specified values of U and Cmin, the value of NTU is a

measure of the surface area As. Thus, the larger the NTU,
the larger the heat exchanger.
It is convenient to define another dimensionless quantity
called the capacity ratio c as:

Eq (11-40)

The effectiveness of a heat exchanger is a function of the

number of transfer units NTU and the capacity ratio c.

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68
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Effectiveness for heat exchangers.

70
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72
 Observations from the effectiveness
relations and charts
• The value of the effectiveness ranges from 0 to 1. It
increases rapidly with NTU for small values (up to about
NTU = 1.5) but rather slowly for larger values. Therefore,
the use of a heat exchanger with a large NTU (usually
larger than 3) and thus a large size cannot be justified
economically, since a large increase in NTU in this case
corresponds to a small increase in effectiveness.

• For a given NTU and capacity ratio c = Cmin /Cmax, the

counter-flow heat exchanger has the highest effectiveness,
followed closely by the cross-flow heat exchangers with
both fluids unmixed. The lowest effectiveness values are
encountered in parallel-flow heat exchangers.

• The effectiveness of a heat exchanger is independent of the

capacity ratio c for NTU values of less than about 0.3.
73
 Summary on Analysis Methods

When all the inlet and outlet temperatures are

specified, the size of the heat exchanger can easily be
determined using the LMTD method.

Alternatively, it can be determined from the

effectiveness–NTU method by first evaluating the
effectiveness from its definition and then the NTU from
the appropriate NTU relation.

74
 Example 11-8:The Effectiveness-
NTU Method
A counter-flow double pipe heat exchanger is
to heat water (cp = 4.18 kJ/kg·K) from 20 oC to
80 oC at a rate of 1.2 kg/s. The heating is to be
accomplished by geothermal water (cp = 4.31
kJ/kg·K) available at 160 oC at a mass flow rate
of 2 kg/s. The inner tube is thin-walled and has
a diameter of 1.5 cm. The overall heat transfer
coefficient of the heat exchanger is 640
W/m2·K. Using the effectiveness-NTU method,
determine the length of the heat exchanger
required to achieve the desired heating.

75
 Solution

Given Tc,in =20 °C at a rate of 1.2 kg/s, Tc,out= 80 oC,

Th,in = 160 °C at a rate of 2 kg/s, U = 640 W/m2·K,
cpc = 4.18 kJ/kg·K, cph = 4.31 kJ/kg·K.

Determine the length of the heat exchanger using

effectiveness-NTU method.

Table 11-4, Table 11-5 or

Figure 11-26

76
In the effectiveness-NTU method, we first determine the
heat capacity rates of hot and cold fluids and identify
Cmin.

Therefore,

And,

Then the Qmax is

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The actual rate of heat transfer:

Thus, the effectiveness of the heat exchanger is:

Know the effectiveness, the NTU of this counter-flow

heat exchanger can be determined from Fig 11.26b or
the appropriate relation from Table 11-5 for c< 1.

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79
The heat transfer surface becomes:

Thus, the length of the tube is:

80
 Example 11-9: Cooling Hot oil by
water in Multipass heat Exchanger
Hot oil is to be cooled by water in a 1-shell-pass
and 8-tube-passes heat exchanger. The tubes
are thin-walled and are made of copper with an
internal diameter of 1.4 cm. The length of each
tube pass in the heat exchanger is 5 m, and the
overall heat transfer coefficient is 310 W/m2·K.
Water flows through the tubes at a rate of
0.2 kg/s, and the oil through the shell at a rate of
0.3 kg/s. The water (cp = 4.18 kJ/kg·K) and the
oil (cp = 2.13 kJ/kg·K) enter at temperatures of
20 °C and 150 °C, respectively. Determine the
rate of heat transfer in the heat exchanger and
the outlet temperatures of the water and the oil.
81
 Solution
Given Tc,in =20 °C at a rate of 0.2 kg/s, Th,in = 150 °C
at a rate of 0.3 kg/s, U = 310 W/m2·K,
cpc = 4.18 kJ/kg·K, cph = 2.13 kJ/kg·K.
Determine Q, Tc,out and Th,out .
Analysis, outlet temperatures are not given, used
effectiveness-NTU method.

Table 11-4, Table 11-5 or

Figure 11-26

82
In the effectiveness-NTU method, we first determine the
heat capacity rates of hot and cold fluids and identify
Cmin.

Therefore,

And,

Then the Qmax is

83
The heat transfer surface area is:

Then, the NTU of this heat exchanger becomes:

The effectiveness of this heat exchanger corresponding

to c = 0.764 and NTU = 0.854 is determine from Fig 11-
26 c to be:

Noted that the effectiveness can also be determined

using correlation from Table 11-4.
84
85
The actual rate of heat transfer:

Then, the outlet temperatures of the cold and hot fluid

streams are determined to be

86
 Outline
Chapter 11: Heat Exchanger
• Types of Heat Exchanger
• Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
• Analysis of Heat Exchangers
• The Log Mean Temperature Difference Method
• The Effectiveness-NTU Method
• Selection of Heat Exchangers

87
SELECTION OF HEAT EXCHANGERS
The uncertainty in the predicted value of U can exceed 30
percent. Thus, it is natural to tend to overdesign the heat
exchangers.

Heat transfer enhancement in heat exchangers is usually

accompanied by increased pressure drop, and thus higher
pumping power.

Therefore, any gain from the enhancement in heat transfer

should be weighed against the cost of the accompanying
pressure drop.

Usually, the more viscous fluid is more suitable for the shell
side (larger passage area and thus lower pressure drop) and
the fluid with the higher pressure for the tube side.

88
The proper selection of a heat exchanger depends on
several factors:
• Heat Transfer Rate
• Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
• Cost
• Pumping Power
• Size and Weight (surface area)
• Type (configuration)
• Materials (hot and cold fluid)

The rate of heat transfer in the prospective heat exchanger

The annual cost of electricity associated with the operation of

the pumps and fans

89
 Summary
Types of Heat Exchangers
The Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
Fouling factor
Analysis of Heat Exchangers
The Log Mean Temperature Difference
Method
Counter-Flow Heat Exchangers
Multipass and Cross-Flow Heat Exchangers:
Use of a Correction Factor
The Effectiveness–NTU Method
Selection of Heat Exchangers

90
End of Topic

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