Aerospace Materials

Week-1

Introduction to
Aerospace Materials
 Introduction to Aerospace Materials
v The materials used in airframe structures and in jet engine components
are critical to the successful design, construction, certification, operation
and maintenance of aircraft.

Materials affect virtually every aspect of the aircraft, including the:

– purchase cost of new aircraft;
– cost of structural upgrades to existing aircraft;
– design options for the airframe, structural components and engines;
– fuel consumption of the aircraft (light-weighting);
– operational performance of the aircraft (speed, range and payload);
– power and fuel efficiency of the engines;
– in-service maintenance (inspection and repair) of the airframe and engines;
– safety, reliability and operational life of the airframe and engines;
– disposal and recycling of the aircraft at the end-of-life.

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 Introduction to Aerospace Materials
The properties of materials that are important to aircraft;
- physical properties density
- mechanical properties stiffness, strength, toughness, elasticity
- chemical properties corrosion, oxidation
- thermal properties heat capacity, thermal conductivity
- electrical properties electrical conductivity

Relationship between materials science and materials technology*

v At the smallest scale the atomic and molecular structure of materials,

which includes the bonding between atoms , has a large influence on
properties such as stiffness and strength

* A. Mouritz, Introduction to Aerospace Materials, 2012

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Structural Factors at the Different Sizes

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 Classes and Examples of Engineering
Materials
Metals and Alloys Ceramics and Glasses
Irons and steels Clay products
Aluminum alloys Concrete
Titanium alloys Alumina (Al2O3)
Copper alloys; brasses, bronzes Tungsten carbide (WC)
Magnesium alloys Titanium aluminide (Ti3Al)
Nickel-base superalloys Silica (SiO2) glasses
Polymers Composites
Polyethylene (PE) Plywood
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Cemented carbides
Polystyrene (PS) Fiberglass
Nylons Graphite-epoxy
Epoxides SiC-aluminum
Rubbers
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Aramid-aluminum laminated (ARALL)
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 Structure and deformation in materials

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Mechanical Behavior of Materials: Engineering Methods for Deformation, Fracture, and Fatigue, Third Edition, by Norman E. Dowling. ISBN 0-13-186312-6.
 Main Types of Aerospace Materials
light, stiff, strong, damage tolerant,
v Aerospace materials must be durable, cost-effective and .....
Easy to manufacture
v The main groups of materials used in aerospace structures
are aluminium alloys, titanium alloys, steels and composites
Grading of aerospace materials on key design factors

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Structural Materials and their Weight Percentage
Used in Airframes

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 Aluminium
• High strength aluminium alloy is the most used material for the fuselage,
wing and supporting structures of many commercial airlines and military
aircraft
• Aluminium properties are controlled by their alloy composition and heat
treatment

Reasons for aluminium usage:

• Moderately low cost
• Ease of fabrication for complex shape
• Light weight
• Good stiffness , strength and fracture toghness
Sheet and Coil
Problems with using aluminium
alloys:
• Damage by corrosion
• Low fatigue resistance

Hard alloy shapes

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 Titanium
• Titanium alloys are used in airframe structures and jet engine components
• Engine components made of titanium include fan blades, low-pressure
compressor parts, and plug and nozzle assemblies in the exhaust section
• Titanium is generally used in the most heavily-loaded structures that must
occupy minimum space, such as the landing gear and wing–fuselage
connections
• The structural weight of titanium in most commercial airliners is typically
under 10%, in fighter aircraft is approximately 25-35%
Reasons for titanium usage:
• High stiffness, strength, toughness, fatigue
resistance
• Excellent corrosion resistance
• High temperature resistance
Problems with using titanium alloys:
• Expensive
• Heavier than aluminium

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 Magnesium
One of the lightest metals
Problems with using magnesium:
• High cost
• Lower stifness and strength compared with aluminium alloys
• Low corrosion resistance

• The use of magnesium in modern aircraft

and helicopters is typically less than 2%
of the total structural weight
• The use of magnesium alloys is largely
confined to non-gas turbine engine parts,
and applications include gearboxes and
gearbox housings of piston-engine
aircraft and the main transmission
housing of helicopters Magnesium (AM50) die-cast helicopter
components

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 Steel
• The steels used in aircraft are alloyed and heat-treated for very high
strength
• The use of steel in aircraft structures is nearly 5-10% of the total structural
weight
• Steel is a good choice for safety-critical structural components
Reasons for steel usage:
• High strength (three times stronger
than aluminium and twice as strong
as titanium)
• High elastic modulus ( three times
stiffer than aluminium)
• Good fatigue resistance
• High fracture toughness
Problems with using steel:
• High density (three times as dense
as aluminium and over 50% denser
than titanium)
• High corrosion for some alloy types
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 Superalloys
• Superalloys are a group of nickel, iron–nickel and cobalt alloys used in jet
engines
• The most important type of superalloy is the nickel-based material that
contains a high concentration of chromium, iron, titanium, cobalt and other
alloying elements
• Nickel superalloys can operate for long periods of time at temperatures of
800–1000 °C
• Superalloys are used in engine components such as the high-pressure
turbine blades, discs, combustion chamber, afterburners and thrust
reversers
Reasons for superalloys usage:
• Retain their stiffness, strength, toughness
and dimensional stability at high
temperatures
• Good corrosion and oxidation resistance
at high temperatures

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 Fibre-Polymer Composites
• Compoites are made of continuous fibres (usually carbon) in a polymer matrix
• Carbon fibre composites are used in the major structures of aircraft, including the
wings, fuselage, empennage and control surfaces
• Composites containing glass fibres are used in radomes and semistructural
components such as fairings
• Aramid fibres composites are used in components requiring high impact resistance
• Composites are also used in the cooler sections of jet engines, such as the inlet fan
blades, to reduce weight
Reasons for fibre-polymer composites usage:
• Lightweight
• High stiffnes, strength and fatigue resistance

Problems with using fibre-

polymer composites :
• High cost
• Low impact damage
tolerance

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 Fibre-Metal Laminates
• Fibre–metal laminates (FML) are structural materials consisting of thin
bonded sheets of metal and fibre–polymer composite
• The most common FML is GLARE (a name derived from glass reinforced
aluminium) which consists of thin layers of aluminium alloy bonded to thin
layers of fibreglass composite
Reasons for fibre-metal laminates usage:
• Lighter, higher in strength, and more fatigue resistant than the monolithic
metals
• Better impact strength and damage tolerance than the composites

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 Various Disciplines that Support Aerospace
Structural Design
• Materials: Wood, Plywood, Metals, Ceramics, Composites
• Mechanics: Statics, Dynamics, Mechanics of Solids,
Aerodynamics
• Load Analysis: Ground loads, Maneuver loads, Landing
loads
• Construction: Built-up, Integrally machined, Sandwich
construction, Co-cured
• Constraints: Low weight, low cost, ease of manufacture,
Fit with aircraft structures
• Physical Factors: Weight, Strength, Stability, Vibrations,
Aeroelasticity, Fatigue, Corrosion
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 Properties of Materials (PoM)
• strength; is the resistance offered by a material when subjected to external
loading. So, stronger the material the greater the load it can withstand.
Depending upon the type of load applied it can be tensile, compressive,
shear or torsional.
– Tensile stress: force acts to pull materials apart;
Compressive stress: the force squeezes material;
Shear stress: the force causes one part to slide on another part.
• elasticity; is power of coming back to its original position after deformation
when the stress or load is removed.
• plasticity; is ability to undergo some degree of permanent deformation
without failure.
• ductility; enables a metal to draw out into thin wire on application of the load.
• malleability; is ability to be flattened into thin sheets without cracking by hot
or cold working.
• toughness; is ability to withstand both plastic and elastic deformations.
• conductivity; is ability to conduct heat and electricity.
• hardness; is ability of a material to resist scratching, abrasion, indentation, or
penetration.
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 The Key Requirements and Factors in the
Selection of Materials
Costs Purchase, processing, in-service maintenance, recycling costs

Availability Plentiful, consistent and long-term supply of materials

Manufacturing Ease of manufacturing, low cost and rapid manufacturing processes

Density Low specific gravity for lightweight structures

Static mechanical Stiffness (elastic modulus),

properties Strength (yield and ultimate strength)

Fatigue durability Resistance against initiation and growth of cracks

Damage tolerance Fracture toughness and ductility, notch sensitivity, damage resistance

Environmental Corrosion, oxidation, moisture absorption, wear and erosion

durability resistance, space environment

Thermal properties Thermally stable at high temperatures, low thermal expansion

Electrical and High electrical conductivity, high radar transparency, radar absorbing
magnetic properties properties
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 Which Criteria When

Structural performence
Safety RELY ON Improvements to
Fuel Economy the airframe and
Speed engine materials
Range
Operating life
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 Weight Means Cost, Why?
• In aerospace structures, cost often means weight. Why?
• Saving a pound of weight means more than in other fields;
e.g.,
- payload (extra passengers, more satellites)
- fuel (longer distance, longer duration via extended station
keeping)
• Amount industries (civilian) are willing to pay to save a pound
(0.454 gr) of weight:
– Satellites $10,000 - $20,000 (w/o servicing)
– Transport Aircraft $100 - $200
– General Aircraft $25
– Automobile ∼ $0.00, but > $0
• Factors determining cost:
– Material cost
– Manufacturing
– Assembly-Subassembly
– Maintenance
– Durability…etc.

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Chronology of Main Aerospace Materials

• Many materials have been introduced, with most being developed

specifically for aerospace
• Continuous improvements have occurred with each type of material
since their introduction into aircraft

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 History of Wood
vLIGHT WEIGHT – STIFF – STRONG
vPlentiful – Inexpensive – Well Understood Properties
vEasily shape of wood by hand
• First generation of aircraft (1903-1930)
- Maximum strength for minimum weight = WOOD
- Weight had to be kept to an absolute minimum because of the low
power of early aircraft engines
v Variable and anisotropic mechanical properties
v Absorbing moisture, warps and decays over time, required
continuous maintenance
IMPROVEMENT : Laminated plywood construction
- Greater strength and toughness than single piece wood
- Reduced weight penalty
• Lack of high quality timber for many countries during the World War II, cause greater
use of alternative materials , such as aluminium
• Wood lacks the stiffness and strength required for heavy lift aircraft and high altitude
flying
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 History of Aluminium
Larger and Heavier Aircraft
WOOD ALUMINIUM
Stiffer – Stronger – Tougher – Durable
• 2.5 times lighter than steel
• Easily fabricated into thin panels
• Provide the capability to
increase the speed, range and
size of aircraft

Improvement of the strength

properties of aluminium
- Addition of alloying elements
- Development of heat-
treatment processes

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 History of Aluminium
Importent parameters while
development of aluminium
alloys
- Alloy composition
- Impurity control
- Processing condition
- Heat treatment

Achieved improvements
- Higher strength
- Longer fatigue life
- Greater fracture toughness
- Higher damage tolerance
- Better corrosion resistance

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 History of Magnesium
MAGNESIUM === ~40% lighter than ALUMINIUM

• High cost
• Lower stiffness, strength,
fatigue resistance, toughness
• Poor corrosion resistance

Decline in use of magnesium with successive versions of Tupolev

aircraft since the 1960s, reflecting its general decline as an aerospace
structural material

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 History of Titanium
Demand for Titanium === Development of supersonic aircraft
v Heat – resistant
v Stiffer, stronger and more fatigue
resistant than aluminium
v High static, fatigue and creep
strengths, excellent corrosion
resistance at elevated
temperatures

v High cost of titanium

v High costs of
manufacturing and
machining
• Uneconomical to use in
structural components
unless they need to be
designed for high loads
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 History of Superalloys
High temperature materials
SUPERALLOYS (1200-1400 °C), for a long time
+ Nickel, + Cobalt, + Iron without softening or degrading
used in jet
enines Advantages of using
since the superalloys for aerospace
lateand applications:
casting
methods
v Operating for long time at
(CC = chill extremely high temperatures
casting; v Increasing engine
DS = performance
directional v Reducing fuel consumption
solidificati v Reducing maintenance
on applications
casting; SC
Improvement in the temperature capability =(creepsingle-strength)of
nickel superalloys .(CC = chill casting; DS = crystal
directional
casting)are given.
solidification casting; SC = single-crystal casting)
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are given.
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 History of Composite Materials
Reducing in weight
Increasing in airframe life
ALUMINIUM COMPOSITE MATERIALS
vLightweight
vHigh strength to weight
ratio
vHigh fatigue resistant
vHigh corrosion resistant
v High cost
v Low temperature
applications
v Low impact
damage tolerance

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 History of Composite Materials
For specific applications
Composites PMC,MMC, CMC, FML
Ø Metal Matrix Composites (MMC)
- To improve the structural efficiency of monolithic metals
- Stiffer, harder, stronger, lighter and more fatigue resistance than the
base metals
- Expensive to produce, difficult to machine and join
- Low ductility and toughness
Ø Ceramix Matrix Composites (CMC)
- High temperature applications with higher strength and toughness
Ø Fibre-Metal Laminates (FML)
- Damage tolerant composite materials
- ARALL (thin layers of aramid fiber between layers of alumnium alloy)
• Difficult to manufacture, and moisture absorption problem
- GLARE (fiberglass composites and aluminium)
• Higher strength, fatigue resistance, damage tolerance and
corrosion durability than monolithic aluminium
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 Future Advances in Aerospace Materials
Cost effecive
Cost effective
extension of the
manufacture of
operating life of
new aircraft
existing air craft

Advanced
Materials

Advances in
Materials
Trends on design life for US military aircraft

Developing a new material, testing

and certifying its use in safety- Evolutionary
Revolutionary
critical components can cost Small, incremental
Application of new
hundreds of millions of dollars and improvements , made
materials
take 5-10 years or longer to existing materials

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 Materials for Aerospace Structures
• The choice of aerospace materials is depend on the design, function,
loads and environmental service conditions of the structure
Safety-critical structures;
Ø Fuselage
Ø Wings
Ø Landing gear
Ø Empennage
Ø Turbine blades and discs
Breakdown of structural weight for various aircraft types as a percentage of total weight
Structural Sailplane Light and Subsonic Military
Component executive aircraft airliner fighter
Fuselage 25 11 7 12
Wing 30 14 8 12
Stabilisers 3 2 4 4
Undercarriage 2 4 4 4
Total % 60 31 23 32
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 Major Structure Categories in Aerospace
Materials

• Aircraft (atmospheric • IMPORTANT: Many of the

vehicles)
• Launch vehicles
• Space structures (partially
a civil engineering task?)
• In fact, except for special
design considerations for
these vehicle categories
are different, but the same
techniques and concepts
of solid mechanics are
used to analyze the
structures
design considerations, the
techniques used for all
structures are basically the
same

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 Parts of an Airplane as a Reminder

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Parts of a Space Shuttle as a Reminder

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 Fixed Wing Aircraft Structures

Main structural components of a modern military aircraft

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 Shell-Like Structures
Monocoque Structures: unreinforced shell
that must be thick to avoid buckling
Semimonocoque Structures: thin shell
supported by longitudinal stiffening members
and transverse frames

LOADS

Ground Loads Flight Loads

- Surface Loads
- Body Loads
Examples of (a) monocoque and (b) semimonocoque
fuselage structures
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 Fuselage Materials
• A semi-monocoque fuselage consists of
a thin shell stiffened in the longitudinal
direction with stringers and longerons
and supported in the radial direction
using transverse frames or rings
Fuselage Materials:
- Aluminium Alloy
- Carbon-fiber epoxy composites
- GLARE
Important properties for fuselage materials:
- Stiffness
- Strength
- Fatigue resistance
- Corrosion resistance
- Fracture toughness

Semimonocoque fuselage structures made using (a)

aluminium alloys and (b) carbon–epoxy composite
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 Material property requirements for the main
aircraft structures

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 Wing Materials
Loads on the wing:
- Air loads
- Internal fuel pressure
- Landing gear forces
- Wing leading and trailing edge loads
- Engine weight (when wing mounted)
• Wings are constructed of thin skin supported on
the inside by stringers and spars, and are
Bending action of an aircraft wing during flight
designed to carry bending, shear and torsion
loads
Property requirements for wing • Several materials are used in a single aircraft
materials: according to upper and lower surface
- High stiffness requirements
- High strength • Wing skins consisting of carbon-epoxy
- Light weight composite and the stringers and spars made of
- Damage resistance high strength aluminium or titanium alloys
- Durability • Wing-box and wing connections are made of
- High fatigue strength with titanium alloy or carbon-epoxy composite
• Control surfaces are usually constructed with
thin skin supported by internal stiffeners or foam
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Empennage and Control Surface Materials
Important Material Properties:
- Elastic modulus
- Stiffness
- Strength
- Fatigue resistance
- Fracture toughness

Empennage Materials:
- Aluminium alloys
- Fiber-polymer composites

• The empennage in large aircraft also houses the

auxiliary power unit (APU)
• In older versions of passenger aircraft houses the
main turbine engine

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 Landing Gear Materials

Landing gear materials;

• must be strong enough to
support heavy take-off
weight
• Must have high static
strength, good fracture
toughness and fatigue
strength
• Are high strength steel and
titanium alloy

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 JET Engine Materials
Jet Engine Materials:
- Must have high tensile
strength, toughness, fatigue
strength and creep resistance
with excellent resistance
against corrosion and
oxidation at high temperature
- Superalloys, which includes
nickel-based, cobalt-based
and iron–nickel alloys, are
used in the hot sections
- Ceramic materials with high
- Titanium alloys and composites heat insulating properties are
which are lighter than superalloys but coated on the superalloys to
have lower temperature capacity are provide protection against the
used in cooler parts extreme heat.

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 Helicopter Structures
- The tail boom applies
torsionand bending loads
to the body during flight
whereas high tension
and shear forces occur
around the drive shaft
connection
- To carry these loads the
main body is constructed
with a truss frame
- The frame and skin of helicopters are constructed of network covered with a
aluminium alloy or carbon fibre-polymer composite thin skin.
- Glass-fibre composites are used in the more lightly
loaded body components
- Aramid composites are used in structures where vibration
damping is required
- Titanium alloy or stainless steel are used in regions of
high stress or heat

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 Space Shuttle Structures
- Titanium alloy strengthened with boron-epoxy
struts is used near the engines
- The outboard wing section is made with high
temperature nickel honeycomb sandwich
composite and the inboard wing section of
titanium honeycomb.
- The elevons, used for vehicle control during
atmospheric flight, are constructed of aluminium
honeycomb
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- The body skin panels, stringers,
frames and bulkheads are made
with aluminium alloy
- The mid-fuselage, includes the
wing carry through structutes, is
constructed with monolithic and
honeycomb sandwich panels of
aluminium
- Vertical and horizontal frames
are made with metal matrix
composite
- The payload bay doors are a
sandwich composite
construction with carbon fiber
composite stiffeners
- The aft fuselage skins are made
of aluminium alloy reinforced
with boron fibre-epoxy
composite struts
44
 Back-up Slides

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 Units are Important*

Some Rough Equivalents

• 1 packet of sugar substitute 1 Gram
• 1 small apple: 1 Newton
•1 football running back: 1 kN
•1 card table: 1 m2
•1 square toothpick end 1 mm2

Visualizing Pressure
1 Pascal (1 Pa, or 1 N/m2): Imagine apple sauce made from an apple
and spread thinly enough to cover the card table. (too small)

Experiencing Pressure
1 Mega-Pascal (1 MPa, or 1 MN/m2): Stick one end of the toothpick into
apple and balance the end on your finger.

*D.D. Johnson, 2006

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 Limit vs. Ultimate
• Two important definitions for static considerations
– Limit Load/Stress/Condition: Maximum
load/stress/condition where structure shows no
permanent deformation
– Ultimate Load/Stress/Condition: Maximum
load/stress/condition where structure does not “fail.”

The ultimate load provides a “factor of Design is usually conservative and an additional
safety” (FOS) for unknowns. “Margin of Safety” (M.O.S.) is used/results

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 Properties of Materials (PoM)- Strength

• Strength is the ability of a

material to resist deformation.
• Strength is also the ability of a
material to resist stress without
breaking.

0-A: Elastic Region A typical ductile metal stress strain plot

A-E/F: Plastic Region
A-B: Some plastic yielding take place
C: Yield Point. Primarily exist in ductile materials
C-D: Specimen continue to extend as load increases, not recoverable
D: Start necking
C-D: Diameter of specimen is reducing as strain increases. Result of a poisson effect
C-F: True Stress
D-E: Specimen
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will start lengthen UCK
with no increase in load.
353E Aerospace Materials Introduction 48
E: ductility of material. Listed in material standards %elongation at rupture
 More Stress Strain Curves

For Brittle Materials For Polymers For Ceramics

Engineering Stress Strain
Engineering stress = Force / Original Specimen
Area = F / So Engineering strain = extension/
Original Specimen Length = ( Lu - Lo ) / Lo
True Stress Strain
The true stress = Force / Actual Specimen
minimum area
True strain = logarithmic strain = Sum of
incremental elongations /current length

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 PoM- Hardness
• Hardness refers to the ability of a material
to resist abrasion, penetration, cutting
action, or permanent distortion.
• Hardness may be increased by cold
working the metal and, in the case of steel
and certain aluminum alloys, by heat
treatment. Structural parts are often formed
from metals in their soft state and are then
heat treated to harden them so that the
finished shape will be retained.
• Hardness and strength are closely
associated properties of metals.
• Various hardness measurements
– Indentation hardness
– Scratch hardness
– Rebound hardness

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 PoM-Elasticity
• Elasticity is that property that enables a metal to return to its original
size and shape when the force which causes the change of shape is
removed.
• Each metal has a point known as the elastic limit, beyond which it
cannot be loaded without causing permanent distortion. In aircraft
construction, members and parts are so designed that the maximum
loads to which they are subjected will not stress them beyond their
elastic limits.
• A material has a high elasticity, or is highly elastic, if it can be stretched
to large strains without failure. Rubber is an example of a highly elastic
material. The problem is, that RUBBER IS HIGHLY ELASTIC (can be
stretched a lot without being deformed permanently or breaking) BUT IT
HAS A LOW ELASTIC MODULUS (large strains are caused by
relatively small stresses). There are not very many materials with both
a high elastic modulus and high elasticity.

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 PoM- Toughness

• A material which possesses

toughness will withstand
tearing or shearing and may
be stretched or otherwise
deformed without breaking.
Toughness is a desirable
property in aircraft metals.

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 PoM-Brittleness

• Brittleness is the property of a

metal which allows little
bending or deformation without
shattering. A brittle metal is apt
to break or crack without
change of shape. Because
structural metals are often
subjected to shock loads,
brittleness is not a very
desirable property.
• Cast iron, cast aluminum, and
very hard steel, carbon are
examples of brittle metals

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 PoM-Fatigue
• The fatigue strength of a material is the maximum stress at which failure
may occur after a certain number of cyclic load applications.
• A component is designed to give a certain length of service under a
specified loading cycle.
• Many components of high speed aero and turbine engines are designed
for fatigue strength.
• Specimens are tested to failure using different loads. The number of cycles
is noted for each load. The results of such tests are plotted as graphs of
applied stress against the logarithm of the number of cycles of failure. The
curve is known as S-N curve.

Fatigue Curves for

Different Materials

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 PoM-Ductility & Malleability
Malleability
• A metal which can be
hammered, rolled, or pressed
into various shapes without
cracking, breaking, or leaving
some other detrimental effect,
is said to be malleable.
• This property is necessary in
sheet metal that is worked into
curved shapes, such as
cowlings, fairings, or wingtips.
• Copper is an example of a
malleable metal.
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Ductility
• Ductility of a material enables it
to draw out into thin wire on
application of the load.
• Mild steel is a ductile material.
The wires of gold, silver, copper,
aluminium, etc. are drawn by
extrusion or by pulling through a
hole in a die due to the ductile
property.
• The ductility decreases with
increase of temperature.
• Ductility is a tensile property,
whereas malleability is a
compressive property.
• Malleability increases with
increase of temperature.
55
 PoM-Creep
• The slow and continuous
elongation of a material with
time at constant stress and
high temperature below
elastic limit is called creep.
• At high temperatures,
stresses even below the
elastic limit can cause some
permanent deformation on
stress-strain diagram
• The creep strength is used
for the design of blades and
other parts of steam and
gas turbines working at high
temperatures.

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 PoM in short…
• strength; is the resistance offered by a material when subjected to external
loading. So, stronger the material the greater the load it can withstand. Depending
upon the type of load applied it can be tensile, compressive, shear or torsional.
– Tensile stress: force acts to pull materials apart;
Compressive stress: the force squeezes material;
Shear stress: the force causes one part to slide on another part.
• elasticity; is power of coming back to its original position after deformation when
the stress or load is removed.
• plasticity; is ability to undergo some degree of permanent deformation without
failure.
• ductility; enables a metal to draw out into thin wire on application of the load.
• malleability; is ability to be flattened into thin sheets without cracking by hot or
cold working.
• toughness; is ability to withstand both plastic and elastic deformations.
• conductivity; is ability to conduct heat and electricity.
• hardness; is ability of a material to resist scratching, abrasion, indentation, or
penetration.

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 How we classify elements?
With their electron
configuration in
periodic table

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 For Example: Metals

• 80% of periodic table, more than 100 elements are

classified as metals
• In particular where strength is needed metals is being
used
• Structural metals:
– Iron, al, copper, ti, magnesium
• Refractory metals for high T application
– Tungsten, molybdenum

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 Bonds and Interatomic Diffusion (Alloying)
Effects the PoMetals

• Binding Forces and Energies

• Metalic Bonding

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Reminder: Binding Forces and Energies

• Interatomic forces that

binds atoms together
explains the many
physical properties of
materials
• Similarly potential
energies between atoms
have the same effect on
material properties

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 Reminder: Interatomic Bonds in Solids
• Primary bonding (intramolecular);
Ø ionic
Ø covalent
Ø metallic
• Secondary bonding (intermolecular);
Ø Van der Waals
Ø Hydrogen bonds

Bonding Ionic Covalent Metallic

Structure ionic Simple covalent Metallic
molecular
Example Sodium Water Diamond Iron
chloride

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 Reminder: Ionic Bonding

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 Reminder: Covalent Bonding

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 Reminder: Covalent Boding

A methane molecule showing a good example of covalent bonding

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 Reminder: Metallic Bonding
• The (electrostatic) force of attraction between positively charged metal ions
and negatively charged free or mobile(delocalized) electrons.
• Each metal atom gives up its valence electrons to form positive ions.
• These electrons no longer belong to any metal atom they are delocalised.
• They move freely in the space between the metal ions.

Metallic bonding generally results in a

material being strong and stiff and gives:
• High elastic modulus
• High strength
• Good electrical conductivity
• Good ductility
9/25/18 UCK 353E Aerospace Materials Introduction 66
 As an example: Bonding energy, bond type
related to melting temperature

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 Summary of Atomic Bonding in Solids
Ionic Covalent Metallic

Bonding Ionic Covalent Metallic

Particles Positive and Atoms Positive Ions
Negative Ions Mobile Electrons
Electron Spherical Localized Localized between two Delocalized
at the ion atoms hybrid orbital
Electrical Ionic Conductor Insulator Conductor
Examples NaCl C, SiC, AlN Cu, Ag, Pt, Fe
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