Basics of Manmade fibers

INTRODUCTION

Previously in Textile Fibers ---- Fibers that exist in a ready

made form in nature

Textile fibers are also made by man starting from various kinds
of raw materials. The starting raw materials for fiber making can
be natural and synthetic polymers.

Accordingly man- made fibers are classified in to regenerated

and synthetic
Basic principle in fiber manufacturing
 Conversion of the fiber-forming substance into a fluid
solution or melting
 Extrusion of the fluid through spinnerets
 Solidification of the extruded filaments
TECHNOLGY OF MAN MADE FIBERS
 The technology of man made fiber manufacturing --- SPINNING
 A spinneret (perforated plate) may have from one to several hundred holes.

Monofilament: when the spinneret has only single hole

Multi-filament: the bunch of filaments from a

multi-hole spinneret.

 Spinneret hole may be circular or some other shape based on requirement.

This enables production of filaments having different cross-section.
 SPINNING METHODS

1. MELT SPINNING

 In melt spinning, the fiber-forming substance is melted for extrusion

through the spinneret and then directly solidified by cooling in an air
stream.

requirements: Ease of melting,

Key requirements:
melt stability and optimum
melt viscosity

Examples: Nylon, Polyester

 SPINNING METHODS

2. SOLUTION SPINNING
• In solution spinning the fiber forming polymer is dissolved in a suitable
solvent for extrusion through a spinnerette.

• The major solution spinning operations are dry spinning and wet
spinning.
spinning.

 In dry spinning the polymer solution is extruded into a stream of warm air,
which evaporates the volatile solvent and solidifies the filaments.

 In wet spinning the polymer solution is extruded into a bath containing

chemicals, which neutralize the solvent and coagulate (solidify) the filaments.
DRY SPINNING WET SPINNING

Examples: Acetate, Acrylic Example: Viscose rayon

Key requirements:
requirements: Polymer solubility & solution viscosity
 Post Spinning Operations

 After the fiber is spun, it may undergo one or more different processing treatments
to meet the required physical or handling properties.

 SPIN-FINISH APPLICATION, DRAWING, TEXTURIZING, HEAT SETTING

 The filaments from several spinnerets can be combined into a tow and then chopped
or broken into staple fibers.

 Tow, staple, or continuous filament

Spin finishes are applied for lubrication to

minimize frictional effects in further processing.
 POST SPINNING OPERATIONS

 Drawing (stretching between two rollers) results rearrangement and

orientation of chains.
chains.
 POST SPINNING OPERATIONS

 Texturing is the formation of crimps, loops, coils, or crinkles in

filaments to give bulkiness.
bulkiness.

 Heat setting is carried out to provide dimensional

stability to filaments by heat treatment.
treatment.
 SPINNING SPIN FINISH
POLYMER CHIPS Melt/Solution

HEAT SETTIING TEXTURIZING DRAWING

TOW

FINISHED PRODUCT STAPLE

CONTINOUS FILAMENT
 REGENERATED FIBERS

• The raw materials used for the production of regenerated

fibers are natural polymers.

• Nature has done the work of preparing something that can be

converted into fiber.

• The only involvement of man is converting this material in to

a suitable fiber.

• Most widely used regenerated fibers are viscose rayon and

acetate.
 VISCOSE RAYON

The raw material for viscose rayon production is cellulose
obtained from wood pulp.

Viscose rayon fiber is produced by wet spinning technology.

The firs step is preparation of a spinnable solution of cellulose
known as viscose.

Next wet spinning is carried out which involves extrusion
through spinnerets & coagulation.

The coagulation bath which consists acids and salts responsible
for neutralization and regeneration of the original cellulose as
continuous filaments.
 CELLULOSE SHEETS STEEPING PRESSING

PRE-AGEING XANTHATION DISSOLVING

FILTERATION
RIPENING WET SPINNING
DEARATION

(C6H10O5)n + nNaOH ---> (C6H9O4ONa)n + nH2O

Steeping
Xanthation (C6H9O4ONa)n + nCS2 ----> (C6H9O4O-SC-SNa)n

Ripening (C6H9O4O-SC-SNa)n + nH2O ---> (C6H10O5)n + nCS2 + nNaOH

Spinning (C6H9O4O-SC-SNa)n + (n/2)H2SO4 --> (C6H10O5)n + nCS2 + (n/2)Na2SO4

 THE PROCESS

• Steeping:
Steeping Swelling of cellulose from pulp in alkali solution (caustic
soda)

• Pressing:
Pressing Removal of excess alkali for recovery

• Shredding: Open up the soda cellulose and reduce density

• Pre-
Pre-Ageing:
Ageing Reduction in DP by oxidative depolymerization for proper
viscosity

• Xanthation:
Xanthation Reaction of soda cellulose with CS2 to produce cellulose
xanthate which is alkali soluble

• Dissolving:
Dissolving Dissolution of cellulose xanthate in caustic soda to produce
the viscose solution

• Ripening:
Ripening Uniform distribution of CS2 on the cellulose chains
 THE PROCESS

• Steeping:
Steeping Swelling of cellulose from pulp in alkali solution (caustic
soda)

• Pressing:
Pressing Removal of excess alkali for recovery

• Shredding: Open up the soda cellulose and reduce density

• Pre-
Pre-Ageing:
Ageing Reduction in DP by oxidative depolymerization for proper
viscosity

• Xanthation:
Xanthation Reaction of soda cellulose with CS2 to produce cellulose
xanthate which is alkali soluble

• Dissolving:
Dissolving Dissolution of cellulose xanthate in caustic soda to produce
the viscose solution

• Ripening:
Ripening Uniform distribution of CS2 on the cellulose chains
 VISCOSE RAYON: FIBER STRUCTURE AND PROPERTY

• The chemical structure of viscose is comparable to cotton.

• The cellulose molecules are much shorter than those of cotton

• Their organization in the fiber is also different (low degree of

crystallinity) DP = 250 -350

• The fiber cross-section is serrated and longitudinally striations

are observed along the length of the fiber.

 The tenacity is lower than cotton and much lower wet strength

 The elongation at break is higher than cotton

 Viscose wrinkles easily and has high moisture regain than cotton

 Low tendency of static charge build up

Mostly used ----

 APPAREL FABRICS

 HOME FURNISHINGS

 BLENDS
Cotton Substitute
 PARAMETER CHARCTERISTIC VALUE
Tenacity 2-3
Elongation 10 – 20%
Elastic recovery Between silk and cotton
Specific gravity 1.51
Heat Conductivity Moderate
Moisture regain 11- 13%
 CELLULOSE ACETATE FIBERS
• Acetate rayon is the generic name for cellulose acetate fiber
in at least 74% of the hydroxyl groups of cellulose are
acetylated.

• The raw material for the production of cellulose acetate fibers is cotton
linters/wood pulp.

• The hydroxyl groups of cellulose are replaced by acetate groups.

(CH3COO )
 ACETATE FIBER MANUFACTURING

• Cotton Purification: Cotton linters are first purified to remove impurities.

• Pretreatment: Stepping in glacial acetic acid to make reactive for

acetylation

• Acetylation: Hydroxyls (OH) in cellulose are replaced by acetyl

groups (CH3COO )

Treatment with an excess of glacial acetic acid and acetic

anhydride

Sulphuric acid dissolved in acetic acid is added to complete

acetylation.

All the cellulose is converted into cellulose triacetate

The cellulose triacetate thus formed is known as Primary Acetate


Hydrolysis: The primary acetate is run together with excess of
acetic acid and acetic anhydride into water to convert into
secondary acetate (di-acetate)
A precipitate of chalky flakes of cellulose acetate is formed.
The acetate is precipitated, thoroughly washed, centrifuged and
dried.
 SYNTHETIC FIBERS
INTRODUCTION

 The raw materials for the manufacturing of synthetic fibers are synthetic
polymers made from small molecules obtained from pertochemicals.
pertochemicals

 Various kinds of synthetic polymers are available. But limited amount are used
as a fiber forming substance.
substance

 Conventional synthetic fibers can be produced by melt and solution spinning.

 The major conventional synthetic fibers: -

NYLON, POLYESTER, ACRYLIC,POLYPROPYLENE
 NYLON FIBERS

Nylon fiber is defined as a manufactured fiber in which the

fiber forming substance is a long chain synthetic
polyamide in which less than 85% of the amide linkages
(-CO-NH-) are attached directly to two aliphatic groups.

The synthetic polyamide is obtained by poly-condensation

of bi-functional monomers.
Bi-functional monomers: Aminiacids or stoichiometric pairs
of dicarboxylic acids and diamines
 POLYAMIDE COMPOSITION

• Nylons are identified either as Nylon XY or Nylon Z, where X, Y,

and Z signify the number of carbon atoms in the respective
monomeric units. XY refers to AABB-type nylons, Z refers to
AB-type nylons
Name Repeat Unit

Nylon 6,10 -[-NH-(CH2)6-NH-CO-(CH2) 8-CO-]-

Nylon 6 -[-NH-(CH2)5-CO-]-

Nylon 6,6 -[-NH-(CH2)6-NH-CO-(CH2) 4-CO-]-

Nylon 11 -[-NH-(CH2)10-CO-]-

Major types of nylon fibers

 NYLON 66

 The polyamide is made from hexamethylene diamine and

adipic acid.

 Nylon 66 has two sets of six carbons.

 Nylon Fibers
NYLON 6

The polyamide is obtained from caprolactam or amino acid.

Nylon 6 has six carbon in the repeating unit.

 Salient features in manufacturing

Both Nylon 66 and Nylon 6 are manufactured by melt spinning.

spinning

 Direct spinning from molten polymer or from dried chips [MC

MC =0.12%
12%]

 Emerging from spinneret and solidification by passage of cold air

 Spinning temperature: 250 – 2600C for nylon-6 [M.Pt ≈ 2200C]

280 - 2900C for nylon -66 [M.Pt ≈ 2600C]

 Drawing to three to fourfold in length for molecular chain alignment

 Other post spinning operations are carried out as per end requirement
 MANUFACTURING PARAMETERS EFFECT

SPINNING SPEED DRAW RATIO

Structure and Property of Nylon Fibers
[Nylon 6 and 6,6 are very similar in properties and structure]

DP = 100 – 250 and M.Wt =14,000 to 20,000

Extensive H-
H-bonding between amide groups

Vander walls forces between flexible methyl chains

Tendency of hydrophobicity
 NYLON FIBERS
Important Fiber Characteristics
Round & rod like with smooth surface

• High tenacity

• High elongation and elastic recovery

• Lustrous [Depends on delustrant addition]

• Resistant to damage from most chemicals and biological agents

• Low moisture absorbency

• Light weight

• Melt by heat and affected by sunlight

 NYLON FIBERS

PARAMETER CHARACTERISTIC VALUE

Tenacity 4-9gpd

Elongation 20-50%

Elastic recovery 95 - 100% up to 3% elongation

Moisture regain 4 – 4.5%

Specific gravity 1.14

Static charge Susceptible

 SOME MAJOR NYLON USES

 APPAREL: Blouses (loose outerwear), dresses, foundation

garments, hosiery, lingerie (women under and night wear),
raincoats, and swimwear

 HOME FURNISHINGS: Carpets, curtains, and upholstery

 INDUSTRIAL: Tire-cord, conveyer and seat-belts, parachutes,

ropes, tents, and thread
 POLYESTER FIBERS
The raw materials for fiber manufacturing are polyesters
containing recurring ester functional groups [-COO-].

PET [polyethylene terephthalate] is the most important

polyester in synthetic fiber category.
Polyester fiber is the largest volume synthetic fiber produced
worldwide.
PET is a polyester made by step growth polymerization of
terephthalic acid and ethylene glycol.
Salient features in manufacturing

Polyester is manufactured by melt spinning

Chip drying is easier.

easier.

Solidification by passage of cold air

temperature: 280 - 2900C

Spinning temperature:

Drawing for molecular chain alignment

Other post spinning operations

STRUCTURE AND PROPERTY OF POLYESTER
FIBERS

Vander walls forces

Hydrophobic interactions

Tendency of hydrophobicity
 Important Polyester Fiber Characteristics

Usually smooth and rod like with round or trilobal cross sections

The polyester molecular chains are fairly stiff and rigid

Moderate elongation and elastic recovery

High wrinkle resistance

The fiber is quite hydrophobic with minimal moisture regain

High electrical resistivity (static charge build is high)

Moderate heat conductivity

Melt by heat @ about 260 - 2650C and affected by sunlight

Highly resistant to most chemicals/biological agents

 POLYESTER FIBERS
PARAMETER CHARACTERISTIC VALUE

Tenacity 3-9gpd

Elongation 15-40%

Elastic recovery Up to 95%

Moisture regain 0.1 – 0.4%

Specific gravity 1.38

Static charge Highly Susceptible

 MAJOR POLYESTER USES

 Polyester is used extensively as a staple and filament fiber in

apparel

 Polyester is used as staple fiber in blends with cellulosic fibers

for apparel

 Polyester is also used extensively in home furnishings and as

fiberfill.

 Polyester is used in threads, rope, nets as industrial product.

 ACRYLIC FIBERS
• If the chief constituent of a fiber is PAN (Polyacylonitrile).

• Due to problems associated with spinnability and further

processibility such as dyeing, acrylic fiber manufacturing always
takes place from the copolymer.

ABSENSE OF SOLVENT

DECOMPOSITION BEFORE MELTING

 If there are at least 85% acrylonitrile units in the copolymer the fiber is
called ACRYLIC.
ACRYLIC.

If there are 35 – 85% acrylonitrile units in the copolmer the fiber is called
MODACRYLIC .

Morphology

Comonomers: Sodium styrene sulfonate, Vinyl Acetate, Vinyl Chloride

 SALIENT FEATURES OF ACRYLIC FIBERS

Acrylic fibers are produced by solution spinning technology

1. Dry spinning using dimethyl formamide [DMF] as solvent

2. Wet spinning using dimethyl acetamide (DMAC) as solvent

and water as non-solvent

Different fiber crossections are possible: round, bean-shaped,

and dog-bone
ROUND

BEAN SHAPED

DOG BONE SHAPED


Acrylic fibers have a light bulky wool-like hand and overall
wool-like aesthetics.
PARAMETER` CHARACTERISTIC VALUE

Tenacity 24gpd

Elastic recovery 99% at 2% elongation, 50 – 95% at 5% elongation

Moisture regain 1 – 2%

Specific gravity 1.16

1.161.18

Static charge Less Susceptible than PET

 Acrylic fibers are applied where soft, warm, wool-like

characteristics are desired.
 Sweaters, suits, outerwear and knitwear, blankets, carpets
 POLYOLEFIN FIBERS

• Polyolefin fibers are those fibers produced from polymers formed

by polymerization of olefins (alkenes).

• They contain polymerized ethylene, propylene, or other olefin units.

Linear high -density stereo regular polyethylene and polypropylene

• Polypropylene dominates polyethylene

polyethylene Polypropylene
 POLYPROPYLENE FIBER
• Polypropylene [PP] fiber is manufactured by melt
spinning technology. Fiber forming polypropylene polymer:
Isotactic polypropylene

• Isotactic chains are regular and pack into regular structure

resulting formation of crystalline regions. The chains associate
with each other through vander Waals interactions

• PP fiber is smooth, and the fiber cross section is round

 POLYPROPYLENE FIBER CHARACTERISTICS

 Medium tenacity and moderate elongation and recovery

properties
 Moisture does not affect PP, since polyolefins are
hydrophobic
 The moisture regain of PP is nearly Zero.
 PP are the lightest of the major fibers in commerce [specific
gravities of 0.90-0.91]
 The polyolefins are extremely inert and resistant to chemical
attack.
 They exhibit excellent heat and electric insulation
characteristics
 PP fibers melt at about 170°C.
OTHER SYNTHETIC FIBERS

Polyvinyl chloride [Vinyon]

Polyvinyl alcohol [Vinal]

Polyvinylidine chloride [Saran]

Polytetrafluoroethylene [PTFE]

Spandex [Polyurethane] –Elastomer

 SPANDEX – ELASTOMERIC FIBER
Urethane groups [- NHCOO -] The soft segments in spandex are
amorphous and in state of random
disorder.
disorder.

Straightening of the soft segments

till limitation by hard segments.
When stretching force is released,
molecules revert back to their
folded state;
state; fiber returns to its
original length.
length.

Extremely high elongation: 400 -700%

Rubber - like elasticity