SUSTAINBLE PLANNING AND

ARCHITECTURE
 UNIT 1

Contents:

Concept of Sustainability – Carrying capacity,

Sustainable development – Bruntland report – Ethics and Visions of sustainability.

Sustainability:
The name sustainability is derived from the Latin sustinere .Sustain can mean ―maintain",
"support", or "endure‖.
Since the 1980s sustainability has been used more in the sense of human sustainability
on planet Earth and this has resulted in the most widely quoted definition of sustainability
as a part of the concept sustainable development, that of the Brundtland Commission of
the United Nations on March 20, 1987: ―sustainable development is development that
meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs.

Sustainable Development:

Sustainable development is a pattern of resource use that aims to meet human needs
while preserving the environment so that these needs can be met not only in the present,
but also for future generations.
Sustainable development ties together concern for the carrying capacity of natural
systems with the social challenges facing humanity.

Components:

Economic development, Social development and Environmental protection.

Principles:
Reduce dependence upon fossil fuels, underground metals, and minerals
Reduce dependence upon synthetic chemicals and other unnatural substances
Reduce encroachment upon nature
Meet human needs fairly & efficiently.

Concepts:
The philosophical and analytic framework of sustainability draws on and connects with
many different disciplines and fields; in recent years an area that has come to be called
sustainability science has emerged.
The United Nations Millennium Declaration identified principles and treaties on
sustainable development, including economic development, social development and
environmental protection.
 Scale and context:
Sustainability is studied and managed over many scales (levels or frames of reference)
of time and space and in many contexts of environmental, social and economic
organization. The focus ranges from the total carrying capacity (sustainability) of planet
Earth to the sustainability of economic sectors, ecosystems, countries, municipalities,
neighbourhoods, home gardens, individual lives, individual goods and services,
occupations, lifestyles, behaviour patterns and so on. In short, it can entail the full
compass of biological and human activity or any part of it.
As such, a long-running impediment to the design and implementation of practical
measures to reach global sustainability has been the size of planet Earth and the
complex processes and systems involved.
 Consumption:
A major driver of human impact on Earth systems is the destruction
of biophysical resources, and especially, the Earth's ecosystems. The environmental
impact of a community or of humankind as a whole depends both on population and
impact per person, which in turn depends in complex ways on what resources are being
used, whether or not those resources are renewable, and the scale of the human activity
relative to the carrying capacity of the ecosystems involved. Careful resource
management can be applied at many scales, from economic sectors like agriculture,
manufacturing and industry, to work organizations, the consumption patterns of
households and individuals and to the resource demands of individual goods and
services.
One of the initial attempts to express human impact mathematically was developed in the
1970s and is called the I PAT formula. This formulation attempts to explain human
consumption in terms of three components: population numbers, levels of consumption
(which it terms "affluence", although the usage is different), and impact per unit of
resource use (which is termed "technology", because this impact depends on
the technology used). The equation is expressed:
I=P×A×T
 Where: I = Environmental impact, P = Population, A = Affluence, T = Technology.

Carrying Capacity:

The carrying capacity of a biological species in an environment is the maximum

population size of the species that the environment can sustain indefinitely, given the
food, habitat, water, and other necessities available in the environment. In population
biology, carrying capacity is defined as the environment's maximal load, which is different
from the concept of population equilibrium.
For the human population, more complex variables such as sanitation and medical care
are sometimes considered as part of the necessary establishment. As population density
increases, birth rate often decreases and death rate typically increases. The difference
between the birth rate and the death rate is the "natural increase".
The carrying capacity could support a positive natural increase, or could require a
negative natural increase. Thus, the carrying capacity is the number of individuals an
environment can support without significant negative impacts to the given organism and
its environment. Below carrying capacity, populations typically increase, while above,
they typically decrease. A factor that keeps population size at equilibrium is known as
a regulating factor. Population size decreases above carrying capacity due to a range of
factors depending on the species concerned, but can include insufficient space, food
supply, or sunlight.
The carrying capacity of an environment may vary for different species and may change
over time due to a variety of factors, including: food availability, water supply,
environmental conditions and living space.

Bruntland Report:
Gro Harlem Brundtland:

• She was born 20 April 1939.

• She is a medical doctor with a public health degree. She is former director of the
World Health Organization.
• A feminist, she was Prime Minister of Norway (1981, 1986–89, 1990–96), the first
woman and youngest ever.
• She was chosen to direct the U.N. World Commission on Environment and
Development.
• Since 2007, she is a special U.N. envoy on climate change.
Bruntland Report:
The United Nations‘ 1987 Report of the World Commission on Environment and
Development (WCED), also known as ―Our Common Future‖ and the ―Brundtland
Report,‖ was the culmination of a several-year-long study that sought to identify
obstacles to the long-term health of the planet and its many inhabitants, on all scales,
and propose extensive but broad-based guidelines for their eventual resolution.

This Report has become one of the standards of reference for fields related to
sustainability and development, as it is sets out fundamental values and concerns related
to numerous aspects of these concepts, with particularly useful emphases on criteria for
successful sustainable development as including inter- and intra-generational equity,
respect for diversity, consideration of the wider networks (natural, social, constructed,
etc.) that any type of development affects, and valuation of both present and future
needs across a range of scales and stakeholder groups.
The study that led to the crafting of the Brundtland Report intentionally involved both
experts from a range of fields and less stereotypically authoritative – but still quite
knowledgeable – types of stakeholders (such as indigenous residents of at-risk areas),
all of whom could contribute to the Report‘s analysis of major issues for the appropriate
management of ―sustainable development‖ across the world. Consideration for the
values, experiences and concerns for all relevant community members in any
development process, including those who are normally disenfranchised from such
processes, is one of the recurring elements recommended throughout the Report, as well
as being one of the methods the WCED followed in the Report‘s creation. This
fundamental aspect to the Report‘s value system comes from its writers‘
acknowledgment that the concept of ―environment‖ should include not just the natural
world, but also many different ways in which people interact with that world and with each
other, as evidence clearly indicates the degree to which people of various classes,
interests, values, needs, resources, places, etc. iteratively affect each other and their
greater contexts.

In turn, this means that human interaction with the environment is inextricably linked to
development. This is because the term ―development‖ implies not just a progression
towards a Euro-American standard of living but rather all kinds of change, and as
interactions among people, or between people and systems of economics, ecology,
poverty, military power, industrial activity, food distribution, etc. all involve changes in
both physical and social components of the environment on a variety of scales. As such,
any decisions meant to support sufficiently healthy and sustainable development should
take into account a multitude of factors that reflect the conditions and needs of a wide
range of stakeholders, as well as the other relevant sections of the vast network that
constitutes the greater environment of those people.
While the cross-network and intra-generational emphases of the above concepts are the
clear foundation for the ―Our Common‖ phrase in the title of the Report, the ―Future‖
element derives from the idea that one of the main criteria for sustainability should be
how well any relevant development or management decisions fulfil the needs of both the
present and the future generations. In reaction to the common tendency within
development projects to serve a select few in the immediate future rather than the many
over the long-term, this insistence on considering the benefit of multiple generations
highlights the importance of thorough research and planning in such projects, as both are
required to properly account for past, current and foreseeable conditions that could affect
the project‘s overall success.

This recommended degree of accounting for extensive contextual documentation and

appropriate planning procedures would likely require more resources than many in
positions of power throughout the world tend to prefer to expend on non-immediate
benefits, meaning that although these recommendations are significant and appropriate,
they are difficult to enforce in practice. As the Report points out repeatedly, for the ideals
of sustainability to be met, in many cases it would be necessary for larger-scale
institutions, such as national governments or the United Nations, to actively enforce
regulations concerning the preparations for and application of sustainable practices, as
history indicates that short-term benefits tend to provide greater incentives for non-
sustainable practices than do the mere ethical considerations of the long-term, multi-
community well-being. This is one of the many challenges that the values of the
Brundtland Report face in order to be realized in practice, along with the sheer
complexity of what it takes to thoroughly account for the present and future needs of the
physical and social environment and community at hand.

The values and recommended practices of the WCED, as expressed in this Report,
seem to mirror those of the contemporary discipline of preservation planning, as the latter
often works to determine what of the past will be relevant to the future, how to balance
that with the needs of the present, how to best involve a range of relevant stakeholder
communities (including those without much institutionalized authority), and how to
thoroughly document, challenge and update extant knowledge about the history under
consideration, all in order to effectively plan what to do about the remnant past in the
present and with the interests of future stakeholders in mind. Although much of the
Brundtland Report is not explicitly connected to anything involving the preservation,
curation, promotion and use of history, it still serves to highlight the interconnectedness
of many elements of social, material and ecological environments in a way that is indeed
relevant to decisions made relating to the field of preservation: Several of the logical and
ethical incentives for following the aforementioned practices in preservation grow out of
the effects of development (including preservation-related decisions) on a potentially
wide range of stakeholders, on processes in society, and on the broader ecosystems of
which any such project is a part.

Moreover, the nature of preservation work as based in determining periods of

significance from symbols of the past in order to meet the interests of the present and the
future inherently involves decisions affecting the values and experiences of multiple
generations. As a result, it is no surprise that the field of preservation has many of its
values in common with that of the Brundtland Report‘s discussions of
sustainability. Indeed, subsets of other development-related industries apparently could
learn much from the sustainability-based values and methods of preservation planning,
as projects that actually do incorporate aspects of this field into those based in a range of
social and environmental concerns have been well received.

The application of these concepts, however, expectedly runs into difficulties when in the
context of people whose values differ from those required for sustainable development
as defined by the WCED. As I found throughout my research earlier this winter on the
problems faced at Angkor over the last two decades, many of those in positions to create
and enforce local policies, to manage the growth of tourist-related facilities and jobs, to
determine the degree of involvement on the part of locals, etc. clearly did not have the
sustainability, social equity or appropriate environmental resource care of Angkor and its
nearby inhabitants in mind. Similarly, there seemed to be a lack of incorporation of
planning methods beyond short-term circumstances among the various projects
undertaken by those involved in running the tourist industry in this area, which leads to
conflicts between such local forces and those trying to promote the sustainable
management of the site, whether in terms of its physical preservation, its cultural
integrity, or consideration for the interests of both the local poor and foreign investors,
tourists and academics, etc.

That does not necessarily mean that it is inappropriate to continue efforts to promote
sustainable development in this area, but rather that it is important to keep in mind that
the ideals of the United Nations‘ Brundtland Report, and other works like it, often face
tremendous challenges to their realization in practice, despite their respectable
intentions. However, this Report remains a useful starting point for dealing with such
circumstances, due to its extensive analysis of obstacles to sustainability and its concern
for integrating ideals into the complexity of the real world.
 UNIT 2

Contents:

Eco system and Food chain, Natural cycles – Ecological foot print – Climate change and
Sustainability

Ecosystem:

The only planet in the solar system that supports life is earth. The portion of the earth
which sustains life is called biosphere. Biosphere is very huge and cannot be studied as
a single entity. It is divided into many distinct functional units called ecosystem.

In nature several communities of organisms live together and interact with each other as
well as with their physical environment as an ecological unit. We call it an ecosystem.
The term ‗ecosystem‘ was coined by A.G. Tansley in 1935. An ecosystem is a functional
unit of nature encompassing complex interaction between its biotic (living) and abiotic
(non-living) components. For example- a pond is a good example of ecosystem.

Components of ecosystem:

They are broadly grouped into:-

(a) Abiotic and (b) Biotic components
(a) Abiotic components (Nonliving):

The abiotic component can be grouped into following three categories:-

(i) Physical factors: Sun light, temperature, rainfall, humidity and pressure. They
sustain and limit the growth of organisms in an ecosystem.
(ii) Inorganic substances: Carbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus,
sulphur, water, rock, soil and other minerals.
(iii) Organic compounds: Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and humic substances.
They are the building blocks of living systems and therefore, make a link between the
biotic and abiotic components.

(b) Biotic components (Living):

(i) Producers: The green plants manufacture food for the entire ecosystem
through the process of photosynthesis. Green plants are called autotrophs, as they
absorb water and nutrients from the soil, carbon dioxide from the air, and capture solar
energy for this process.
(ii) Consumers: They are called heterotrophs and they consume food
synthesized by the autotrophs. Based on food preferences they can be grouped into
three broad categories. Herbivores (e.g. cow, deer and rabbit etc.) feed directly on
plants, carnivores are animals which eat other animals (eg. lion, cat, dog etc.) and
omnivores organisms feeding upon both plants and animals e.g. human, pigs and
sparrow.
(iii) Decomposers: Also called saprotrophs. These are mostly bacteria and
fungi that feed on dead decomposed and the dead organic matter of plants and animals
by secreting enzymes outside their body on the decaying matter. They play a very
important role in recycling of nutrients. They are also called detrivores or detritus
feeders.

Functions of ecosystem:

Ecosystems are complex dynamic system. They perform certain functions. These are:-

(i) Energy flow through food chain

(ii) Nutrient cycling (biogeochemical cycles)
(iii) Ecological succession or ecosystem development
(iv) Homeostasis (or cybernetic) or feedback control mechanisms
Ponds, lakes, meadows, marshlands, grasslands, deserts and forests are examples of
natural ecosystem.

Types of ecosystems

Ecosystems are classified as follows:

(i) Natural ecosystems (ii) Man made ecosystems

(i) Natural ecosystems

 (a) Totally dependent on solar radiation e.g. forests, grasslands, oceans, lakes,
rivers and deserts. They provide food, fuel, fodder and medicines.
(b) Ecosystems dependent on solar radiation and energy subsidies (alternative
sources) such as wind, rain and tides. e.g tropical rain forests, tidal estuaries and
coral reefs.

(ii) Man made ecosystems

(a) Dependent on solar energy-e.g. Agricultural fields and aquaculture ponds.

(b) Dependent on fossil fuel e.g. urban and industrial ecosystems.

POND AS AN EXAMPLE OF AN ECOSYSTEM

A pond is an example of a complete, closed and an independent ecosystem. It is

convenient o study its basic structure and functions. It works on solar energy and
maintains its biotic community in equilibrium. Following components are found in a pond
ecosystem.

(a) Abiotic components

(i) Light: Solar radiation provides energy that controls the entire system.
Penetration of light depends on transparency of water, amount of dissolved or
suspended particles in water and the number of plankton.

On the basis of extent of penetration of light a pond can be divided into

euphotic (eu=true,photic=light), mesophotic and aphotic zones. Plenty of
 light is available to plants and animals in euphotic zone. No light is available in
the aphotic zone.

(ii) Inorganic substances: These are water, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus,

calcium and a few other elements like sulphur depending on the location of the
pond. The inorganic substances like O2 and CO2 are in dissolved state in
water. All plants and animals depend on water for their food and exchange of
gases- nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur and other inorganic salts are held in
reserve in bottom sediment and inside the living organisms. A very small
fraction may be in the dissolved state.

(iii) Organic compounds: The commonly found organic matter in the pond are
amino acids and humic acids and the breakdown products of dead animals
and plants. They are partly dissolved in water and partly suspended in water.

(b) Biotic components

(i) Producers or autotrophs: synthesize food for all the heterotrophs of the pond. They
can be categorized into two groups:-
(a) Floating microorganisms and plants
(b) Rooted plants

(a) Floating microorganisms (green) and plants are called phytoplankton

(―phyto‖- plants,―plankton‖ –floating). They are microscopic organisms. Sometimes they
are so abundant in pond that they make it look green in colour e.g. Spirogyra, Ulothrix,
Cladophora, Diatoms, Volvox.

(b) Rooted plants: These are arranged in concentric zones from periphery to the
deeper layers. Three distinct zones of aquatic plants can be seen with increasing deapth
of water in the following order:

i) Zone of emergent vegetation: . eg. Typha, Bulrushes and Sagittaria

ii) Zone of rooted vegetation with floating leaves . eg. Nymphaea
iii) Zone of submergent vegetation: eg. All pond weeds like Hydrilla etc

(ii) Consumers/Heterotrophs are animals which feed directly or indirectly on autotrophs

eg. Tadpole, snails, sunfish, bass etc.

Pond animals can be classified into the following groups

(a) Zooplanktons are floating animals. Cyclops, Cypris
(b) Nektons are the animals that can swim and navigate at will. Eg. fishes
(c) Benthic animals are the bottom dwellers: beetle, mites, mollusks and
some crustaceans.

(iii) Decomposers: They are distributed through out the entire in the whole pond but in
the sediment most abundant. There are bacteria and fungi. (Rhizopus, Penicillium,
Curvularia ,Cladosporium) found at the bottom of the pond.
ECOSYSTEM FUNCTION–ENERGY FLOW THROUGH ECOSYSTEM
Food chains and energy flow are the functional properties of ecosystems which make
them dynamic. The biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem are linked through
them.

Food Chain
Transfer of food energy from green plants (producers) through a series of organisms with
repeated eating and being eaten is called a food chain. e.g.

Grasses Grasshopper Frog Snake Hawk/Eagle

Each step in the food chain is called trophic level. In the above example grasses are
1st, and eagle represents the 5th trophic level.

P = Producer, H = Herbivore, C = Carnivore, C1 = First level carnivore, C2 = Top Carnivore

During this process of transfer of energy some energy is lost into the system as heat
energy and is not available to the next trophic level. Therefore, the number of steps are
limited in a chain to 4 or 5. Following trophic levels can be identified in a food chain.

(1) Autotrophs: They are the producers of food for all other organisms of the ecosystem.
They are largely green plants and convert inorganic material in the presence of solar
energy by the process of photosynthesis into the chemical energy (food). The total rate at
which the radiant energy is stored by the process of photosynthesis in the green plants is
called Gross Primary Production (GPP). This is also known as total photosynthesis or
total assimilation. From the gross primary productivity a part is utilized by the plants for
its own metabolism. The remaining amount is stored by the plant as Net Primary
Production (NPP) which is available to consumers.

(2) Herbivores: The animals which eat the plants directly are called primary consumers
or herbivores e.g. insects, birds, rodents and ruminants.
(3) Carnivores: They are secondary consumers if they feed on herbivores and tertiary
consumers if they use carnivores as their food. e.g. frog, dog, cat and tiger.

(4) Omnivores: Animals that eat both plant and animals e.g. pig, bear and man

(5) Decomposers: They take care of the dead remains of organisms at each trophic
level and help in recycling of the nutrients e.g. bacteria and fungi.

There are two types of food chains:

(i) Grazing food chains: which starts from the green plants that make food for
herbivores and herbivores in turn for the carnivores.

(ii) Detritus food chains: start from the dead organic matter to the detrivore organisms
which in turn make food for protozoan to carnivores etc.
In an ecosystem the two chains are interconnected and make y-shaped food chain.
These
two types of food chains are:-
(i) Producers Herbivores Carnivores
(ii) Producers Detritus Feeders Carnivores

Food web

Trophic levels in an ecosystem are not linear rather they are interconnected and make a
food web. Thus food web is a network interconnected food chains existing in an
ecosystem.
One animal may be a member of several different food chains. Food webs are more
realistic models of energy flow through an ecosystem
The flow of energy in an ecosystem is always linear or one way. The quantity of energy
flowing through the successive trophic levels decreases as shown by the reduced sizes
of boxes.
At every step in a food chain or web the energy received by the organism is used to
sustain itself and the left over is passed on to the next trophic level.

Model of energy flow through an ecosystem. Boxes indicate the standing

crop biomass and pipes indicate the energy flowing. (NU = Not utilized, R =
Respiration)

Ecological pyramid

Ecological pyramids are the graphic representations of trophic levels in an ecosystem.

They are pyramidal in shape and they are of three types: The producers make the base
of the pyramid and the subsequent tiers of the pyramid represent herbivore, carnivore
and top carnivore levels.

(1) Pyramid of number: This represents the number of organisms at each trophic level.
For example in a grassland the number of grasses is more than the number of herbivores
that feed on them and the number of herbivores is more than the number of carnivores.
In some instances the pyramid of number may be inverted, i.e herbivores are more
than primary producers as you may observe that many caterpillars and insects feed on a
single tree.
 # of carnivores
# of herbivores
# of producers

(2) Pyramid of biomass: This represents the total standing crop biomass at each trophic
level. Standing crop biomass is the amount of the living matter at any given time. It is
expressed as gm/unit area or kilo cal/unit area. In most of the terrestrial ecosystems the
pyramid of biomass is upright. However, in case of aquatic ecosystems the pyramid of
biomass may be inverted e.g. in a pond phytoplankton are the main producers, they have
very short life cycles and a rapid turn over rate (i.e. they are rapidly replaced by new
plants). Therefore, their total biomass at any given time is less than the biomass of
herbivores supported by them.

Carnivores

Herbivores

Producers

(3) Pyramid of energy: This pyramid represents the total amount of energy at each
trophic level. Energy is expressed in terms of rate such as kcal/unit area /unit time or
cal/unit area/unit time.eg. in a lake autotroph energy is 20810 kcal/m/year
Energy pyramids are never inverted.
 Carnivores

Herbivores

Producers

ECOLOGICAL EFFICIENCY:

It is clear from the trophic structure of an ecosystem that the amount of energy
decreases at each subsequent trophic level. This is due to two reasons:

1. At each trophic a part of the available energy is lost in respiration or used up in

metabolism.
2. A part of energy is lost at each transformation, i.e. when it moves from lower to higer
trophic level as heat.
It is the ratio between the amount of energy acquired from the lower trophic level and the
amount of energy transferred from higher trophic level is called ecological efficiency.

Lindman in 1942 defined these ecological efficiencies for the 1st time and proposed 10%
rule e.g. if autotrophs produce 100 cal, herbivores will be able to store 10 cal. and
carnivores 1cal. However, there may be slight variations in different ecosystems and
ecological efficiencies may range from 5 to 35%. Ecological efficiency (also called
Lindman‘s efficiency) can be represented as

Significance of studying food chains

1. It helps in understanding the feeding relations and interactions among different
organisms of an ecosystem.
2. It explain the flow of energy and circulation of materials in ecosystems.
3. It help in understanding the concept of biomagnification in ecosystems.

BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
In ecosystems flow of energy is linear but that of nutrients is cyclical. This is because
energy flows down hill i.e. it is utilized or lost as heat as it flows forward The nutrients on
the other hand cycle from dead remains of organisms released back into the soil by
detrivores which are absorbed again i.e. nutrient absorbed from soil by the root of green
plants are passed on to herbivores and then carnivores. The nutrients locked in the dead
remains of organisms and released back into the soil by detrivores and decomposers.
This recycling of the nutrients is called biogeochemical or nutrient cycle (Bio = living,
geo = rock chemical = element). There are more than 40 elements required for the
various life processes by plants and animals. The entire earth or biosphere is a closed
system i.e. nutrients are neither imported nor exported from the biosphere.

There are two important components of a biogeochemical cycle

(1) Reservoir pool - atmosphere or rock, which stores large amounts of nutrients.
(2) Cycling pool or compartments of cycle-They are relatively short storages of
carbon in the form of plants and animals.

Carbon cycle
The source of all carbon is carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere. It is highly soluble
in water; therefore, oceans also contain large quantities of dissolved carbon dioxide.
The global carbon cycle consists of following steps-



Photosynthesis
Green plants in the presence of sunlight utilize CO2 in the process of photosynthesis and
convert the inorganic carbon into organic matter (food) and release oxygen. A part of the
food made through photosynthesis is used by plants for their own metabolism and the
rest is stored as their biomass which is available to various herbivores, heterotrophs,
including human beings and microorganisms as food.
Annually 4-9 x1013 kg of CO2 is fixed by green plants of the entire biosphere. Forests
acts as reservoirs of CO2 as carbon fixed by the trees remain stored in them for long due
to their long life cycles. A very large amount of CO2 is released through forest fires.

Respiration
Respiration is carried out by all living organisms. It is a metabolic process where food is
oxidized to liberate energy, CO2 and water. The energy released from respiration is used
for carrying out life processes by living organism (plants, animals, decomposers etc.).
Thus CO2 is released into of the atmosphere through this process.

Decomposition
All the food assimilated by animals or synthesized by plant is not metabolized by them
completely. A major part is retained by them as their own biomass which becomes
available to decomposers on their death. The dead organic matter is decomposed by
microorganisms and CO2 is released into the atmosphere by decomposers.

Combustion
Burning of biomass releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

Impact of human activities

The global carbon cycle has been increasingly disturbed by human activities particularly
since the beginning of industrial era. Large scale deforestation and ever growing
consumption of fossil fuels by growing numbers of industries, power plants and
automobiles are primarily responsible for increasing emission of carbon dioxide.

Carbon dioxide has been continuously increasing in the atmosphere due to human
activities such as industrialization, urbanization and increasing use and number of
automobiles. This is leading to increase concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere, which
is a major cause of global warming.
Nitrogen cycle
Nitrogen is an essential component of protein and required by all living organisms
including human beings.
Our atmosphere contains nearly 79% of nitrogen but it can not be used directly by the
majority of living organisms. Broadly like corbondioxide, nitrogen also cycles from
gaseous phase to solid phase then back to gaseous phase through the activity of a wide
variety of organisms. Cycling of nitrogen is vitally important for all living organisms. There
are five main processes which essential for nitrogen cycle are elaborated below.

(a) Nitrogen fixation: This process involves conversion of gaseous nitrogen into
Ammonia, a form in which it can be used by plants. Atmospheric nitrogen can be fixed by
the following three methods:-
(i) Atmospheric fixation: Lightening, combustion and volcanic activity help in
the fixation of nitrogen.
 (ii) Industrial fixation: At high temperature (400oC) and high pressure (200
atm.), molecular nitrogen is broken into atomic nitrogen which then
combines with hydrogen to form ammonia.
(iii) Bacterial fixation: There are two types of bacteria-

(i) Symbiotic bacteria e.g. Rhizobium in the root nodules of

leguminous plants.
(ii) Freeliving or symbiotic e.g. 1. Nostoc 2. Azobacter 3.
Cyanobacteria cancombine atmospheric or dissolved nitrogen with
hydrogen to form ammonia.

(b) Nitrification: It is a process by which ammonia is converted into nitrates or nitrites by

Nitrosomonas and Nitrococcus bacteria respectively. Another soil bacteria
Nitrobacter can covert nitrate into nitrite.

(c) Assimilation: In this process nitrogen fixed by plants is converted into organic
molecules such as proteins, DNA, RNA etc. These molecules make the plant and animal
tissue.

(d) Ammonification : Living organisms produce nitrogenous waste products such as

urea and uric acid. These waste products as well as dead remains of organisms are
converted back into inorganic ammonia by the bacteria This process is called
ammonification. Ammonifying bacteria help in this process.

(e) Denitrification: Conversion of nitrates back into gaseous nitrogen is called

denitrification. Denitrifying bacteria live deep in soil near the water table as they like to
live in oxygen free medium. Denitrification is reverse of nitrogen fixation
Water Cycle
Water is essential for life. No organism can survive without water. Precipitation (rain,
snow, slush dew etc.) is the only source of water on the earth. Water received from the
atmosphere on the earth returns back to the atmosphere as water vapour resulting from
direct evaporation and through evapotranspiration the continuous movement of water in
the biosphere is called water cycle (hydrological cycle). You have already studied that
earth is a watery planet of the solar system, about 2/3rd of earth surface is covered with
water. However a very small fraction of this is available to animals and plants.

Water is not evenly distributed throughout the surface of the earth. Almost 95 % of the
total water on the earth is chemically bound to rocks and does not cycle. Out of the
remaining 5%, nearly 97.3% is in the oceans and 2.1% exists as polar ice caps. Thus
only 0.6% is present as fresh water in the form of atmospheric water vapours, ground
and soil water.

The driving forces for water cycle are 1) solar radiation 2) gravity .
Evaporation and precipitation are two main processes involved in water cycle. These two
processes alternate with each other

Water from oceans, lakes, ponds, rivers and streams evaporates by sun‘s heat energy.
Plants also transpire huge amounts of water. Water remains in the vapour state in air and
forms clouds which drift with wind. Clouds meet with the cold air in the mountainous
regions above the forests and condense to form rain precipitate which comes down due
to gravity.

On an average 84% of the water is lost from the surface of the through oceans by
evaporation. While 77% is gained by it from precipitation. Water run off from lands
through rivers to oceans makes up 7% which balances the evaporation deficit of the
ocean. On land, evaporation is 16% and precipitation is 23%.

Unit 2 – Points to remember:

An ecosystem is a functionally independent unit of abiotic and biotic components of

the biosphere.

Climatic regime, inorganic substances, organic compounds, producers, macroconsumers

and microconsumers are of structural components of the ecosystem.

Functional processes an ecosystem are energy flow, food chains, nutrient cycles,
ecosystem development and homeostasis.
All the abiotic factors such as light, temperature, pressure, humidity, salinity, topography
and various nutrients limit the growth and distribution of animals and plants.

All the living organisms of an ecosystem are interdependent through food chains and
food webs. Removal of any single species of the community causes ecological
imbalance.

Source of energy for all the ecosystems is solar radiations which is absorbed by
autotrophs and passed on to the consumers in the form of food (organic substances).
Energy flow is always down hill and unidirectional.

Gross primary productivity (GPP) is the total amount of solar energy captured and
stored in the form of organic substances by the green plants. Net primary productivity is
the amount of organic substances left in the plant after its own metabolism i.e. GPP =
NPP + plant respiration.

Trophic relationships of the organisms in an ecosystem can be represented graphically in

the form of ecological pyramids the base of the pyramid represents the producers and
successive tiers represent subsequent higher levels.

The nutrients move from the nonliving to the living and back to the nonliving component
of the ecosystem in a more or less circular manner. These nutrient cycles are known as
biogeochemical cycles.

The main components of all the biogeochemical cycles are:-

a) the reservoir pool that contains the major bulk of the nutrients soil or atmosphere.
b) cycling pool which are the living organisms (producers, consumers and
decomposers), soil, water and air in which it stays temporarily.

UNIT – 3

Contents:

Selection of materials- Eco building materials and construction – Low impact

construction, and recyclable products and embodied energy. Life cycle analysis.
Energy sources – Renewable and non-renewable energy.

ECO FRIENDLY BUILDING MATERIALS

Why?
Phenomenal growth in the construction industry that depends upon depletable
resources.
Production of building materials leads to irreversible environ mental impacts.
Using eco-friendly materials is the best way to build an eco-friendly building.
What?
Dictionary describes a product that has been designed to do the least possible
damage to the environment
US EPA – EPP program defines as:
"...products or services that have a lesser or reduces effect on human health and
the environment when compared with competing products or services that serve
the same purpose..."
Sustainable building materials can be defined as materials with overall superior
performance in terms of specified criteria. The following criteria are commonly
used:

• Locally produced and sourced materials

• Transport costs and environmental impact
• Thermal efficiency
• Occupant needs and health considerations
• Financial viability
• Recyclability of building materials and the demolished building
• Waste and pollution generated in the manufacturing process
• Energy required in the manufacturing process
• Use of renewable resources
• Toxic emissions generated by the product
• Maintenance costs

Properties of Eco-Friendly Materials?

Sustainable Materials:
Several sustainable building materials are ,

recycled materials and bricks made from building rubble

earthbag construction
abobe bricks
stabilized earth blocks
compressed sand bricks
Hydraform bricks

In our current global setting, building construction and operation results in 50% of
all CO2 emissions worldwide.
Five to ten tons of cement are used to build the average middle class house, and
for every ton of cement manufactured, a ton of CO2 is released, (Department of
Local Government and Housing. 2007),
Thermally effi cient, low CO2 emission, structurally sound and inexpensive
materials and technologies exist, some of which have been used for centuries.
Materials that have great potential for building include adobe, sandbag
construction, cob, thatch, brick, stone, hemp and the use of recycled materials.
Other low-cement options, including compressed earth blocks (CEBs) are
currently being investigated and proposed for sustainable neighbourhood designs
Examples of Sustainale Building Materials:
It is important to use local and unprocessed building materials that minimize
transport and manufacturing energy and air pollution. This also creates local
employment. The more localized the project, the more money stays within the
community. The next section explores building options that use local and
recyclable materials which are thermally efficient and cost effective.
Recycled Building Materials

Recycling is an essential ingredient of green building that reduces non-renewable

inputs, especially mining activities, energy use and transportation costs. This
includes the use of waste products and used building materials. It is especially
important to reuse environmentally unfriendly materials that leach toxic materials
into the soil and ground water, or release methane into the atmosphere when
dumped in landfills.

Case Study 1:
A low-cost home built from rubble, Mbekweni, Paarl

A ‗rubble house‘ known as the ‗Stonehouse‘ was built in December 2005 by Cape
Town architects Vernon Collis and Associates, to demonstrate the construction of
a low-cost aesthetically pleasing and energy-efficient eco-home using recycled
building materials. It was a People‘s Housing Process (PHP) project of the
Western Cape Housing Department.
The inner walls were built with dumped bricks recovered from a local landfi ll and
the outer north and south elongated walls were built with natural stone found on
site. The side walls were recycled concrete plaster bricks from Cape Brick.
Building rubble was used in the foundation trenches to enhance thermal mass. An
insulated ceiling was installed using recycled carpet under-felt, and the ceiling
consists of industrial wood pallets. The window frames were constructed from
local wood off-cuts, with recycled glazing.

The ‗Stonehouse‘ in Mbekweni

under construction, with Cape
Brick masonry in the foreground

Earthbag construction

Earthbag construction has recently become a popular natural building technique.

Sandbags have long been used by the military to create bunkers and other
structures. They are literally dirt cheap, as they use local sand and low-cost
polypropylene or geo-fabric bags. The technique is ideal in sandy areas.
No bricks or concrete blocks have to be moved, which means there is no energy
embodied in transport.
Eco Beam Technologies in Epping developed a sandbag home building kit and a
process consisting of three steps. A structure is erected using eco-beams/lattice
beams made of two wooden struts connected with zig-zagged aluminium strips to
provide rigidity and strength. The frame is then filled in with sand bags to form the
walls. The bags rest on each other and are not cemented together like concrete
blocks. Plumbing and wiring are routed through the timber uprights. The sandbag
walls are then covered with chicken mesh wire, dampened and plastered.
Sandbag walls cannot crack, are fi reproof, good insulators and resist water
penetration.

Construction is much cheaper than with brick or concrete blocks, and sandbag
houses are ‗eco-friendly‘.
Sandbag building is adaptable to a wide range of site conditions and available fi ll
materials. It demands fewer skills, sandbag construction is easy to learn and
sandbag buildings can be built much faster than conventional brick and mortar
buildings. The eco beam system is suited for housing delivery on scale and
provides job opportunities in local communities.

Case study 2 : Sandbag houses, Mitchell’s Plain

Sandbag houses have been erected in Freedom Park, Mitchell‘s Plain using eco
beam technology, and 10 more units are planned. They were designed by MMA
Architects, Cape Town, as a Design Indaba project which won an international
innovative design award from the University of Kentucky, College of Design. The
eye-catching 52m² double-storey houses have a living area and kitchen on the
ground floor, two bedrooms upstairs, and a balcony that can be turned into
another room. They cost
less than the government full housing subsidy of R43 000.00 for construction of
the top structure.

Recycled concrete bricks

It makes environmental sense to recover rubble from demolished buildings and

reuse it in recycled concrete bricks. Not only are substantial energy savings
achieved in the brick-making process, but building rubble, otherwise dumped in
landfi lls, can be recycled.

Cape Brick in Salt River manufactures recycled reinforced concrete bricks and a
range of concrete products from building material recovered at demolition sites in
and around the city centre. After separating materials such as wood, paper, plastic
and metals, the demolition waste consisting mainly of reinforced concrete
aggregate (RCA) is crushed and reused in their masonry products. The brick
making
process using building rubble is described by Cobus Kotze in ―One man‘s waste –
is another man‘s treasure,‖

Quarried material is becoming increasingly scarce and expensive, as it has to be

mined and transported from quarries to cities and building sites, which taxes the
road system and increases greenhouse gas emissions.

Cape Brick sources most of its demolition waste within 5 km of its plant, resulting
in significant transport energy saving. To further reduce embodied energy, Cape
Brick use 50% recycled cement slag in their mix, making the embodied energy
value of their ‗green brick‘ less than half that of a standard concrete block, and a
sixth that of a clay fi red brick. Cape Brick recycles some 70 000 tons of reinforced
concrete and manufactures about 30 million concrete bricks and blocks per year.

Cape Brick‘s crushing

facility in Salt River,
Cape Town is 5 km from
the CBD, where most
demolition takes place.

Cape Brick‘s crush

Adobe brick building
Adobe bricks are made of earth, water and dried in the sun. They can be made in
various ways, depending on the local climate, site, available materials, tools and
labour.
Mc Hendry, a Mexican architect in Kennedy (2002) provides the following
guidance:
―The simplest way is with a single mould. Mud is mixed and placed in the moulds
by hand on a smooth surface.
The mould is removed and the bricks allowed to dry suffi ciently to stand on edge,
after which they are trimmed and allowed to dry completely before stacking or
use.
The whole process takes about one week in most favourable dry climates. The
brick making process can be expanded with the use of shovels, wheelbarrows,
multiple forms, front-end loaders and concrete or plaster mixers. The use of a
hydraulic pressing machine that can create a large number of bricks (compressed
earth
blocks) – up to 4,000 a day – is another option. Once they are dry, adobe bricks
are stacked to make walls. The bricks are cemented together with a mud mortar
made up of water and screened soil taken from the same sources as the soil used
to make the bricks.
…. Adobe walls should be built on a foundation of concrete or stone to protect
them from moisture damage. Frames for windows and doors are set in place as
the wall goes up.‖

Case Study 3:

Lynedoch Ecovillage, near Stellenbosch

A number of adobe brick homes have been erected for staff members of the
Sustainability Institute and the Lynedoch community. Adobe bricks were made on
site using a single hand hold form and then cured for a few weeks on the
premises. Adobe soils contain a mixture of clay, silt, sand and aggregate. Clay
provides the glue which holds the bricks together. It is important that they should
be dry, hard and crack-free.
Adobe bricks have the capacity to absorb, store and release solar heat, i.e.
thermal mass, though their thermal capacity is much lower than that of clay-fi red
bricks or concrete. The walls were built on a concrete foundation and set on a
two-brick pre-wall to protect the adobe bricks from moisture damage (damp). The
external walls were also protected by a lime and clay mix plaster. Insulated
wooden ceiling were installed, and corrugated roof cladding. Vines and trees can
be grown to protect
them from driving rains. Vine overhangs also provide shading from the sun on
north-facing windows during the summer months.
Insulation can include building cavity walls fi lled in with materials such as mineral
wools, strawboard, wood, glass fi bre, and cellulose fi bre or recycled carpet under
felt as used in the Stonehouse project.
However, insulation is only really necessary in the colder climate regions of
Northern Europe and America.

Conclusion

Sustainable building materials by definition are materials that are locally produced
and sourced (which reduces transportation costs and CO2 emissions), they can
include recycled materials, they have a lower environmental impact, they are
thermally efficient, they require less energy than more modern,
conventional materials, they make use of renewable resources, they are lower in
toxic emissions and they are financially viable.

Sustainable building materials should be utilised appropriately and contextually in

each neighbourhood development. The use of sustainable building materials not
only reduces transport costs , carbon emissions, and in most cases materials
costs, it also provides employment and skills development opportunities for
community members.

Embodied energy

Embodied Energy is the sum of all the energy required to produce any goods or
services, considered as if that energy was incorporated or 'embodied' in the product
itself.

Embodied energy is one part of a building material‘s overall environmental impact.

 Embodied energy is defined as the available energy that was used in the work of
making a product.
 It can be taken as the total primary energy consumed (carbon released over its life
cycle).
 This would normally include (at least) extraction, manufacturing and
transportation.
 Ideally the boundaries would be set from the extraction of raw materials (including
fuels) until the end of the products lifetime (including energy from manufacturing,
transport, energy to manufacture capital equipment, heating and lighting of
factory, maintenance, disposal etc.), known as ‗Cradle-to-Grave‘.
 It has become common practice to specify the embodied energy as ‗Cradle-to-
Gate‘, which includes all energy (in primary form) until the product leaves the
factory gate.
 The final boundary condition is ‗Cradle –to-Site‘, which includes all of the energy
consumed until the product has reached the point of use (i.e. the building site).
 The embodied energy varies from material to material.
 Also, it can be observed that the embodied energy of traditionally used materials
is much less as compared to conventional building materials being used now-a-
days.
 Embodied energy is an accounting method which aims to find the sum total of the
energy necessary for an entire product life-cycle.
 Determining what constitutes this life-cycle includes assessing the relevance and
extent of energy into raw material extraction, transport, manufacture, assembly,
installation, dis-assembly, deconstruction and/or decomposition as well as human
and secondary resources.
 Different methodologies produce different understandings of the scale and scope
of application and the type of energy embodied.
 Embodied energy is the total energy required for the extraction, processing,
manufacture and delivery of building materials to the building site.
  Energy consumption produces CO2, which contributes to greenhouse gas
emissions, so embodied energy is considered an indicator of the overall
environmental impact of building materials and systems.
 Unlike the life cycle assessment, which evaluates all of the impacts over the whole
life of a material or element, embodied energy only considers the front-end aspect
of the impact of a building material.
 It does not include the operation or disposal of materials.

Why reduce embodied energy?

Energy consumption during manufacture can give an approximate indication of the

environmental impact of the material, and for most building materials, the major
environmental impacts occur during the initial processes.

The total amount of embodied energy may account for 20% of the building‘s energy use,
so reducing embodied energy can significantly reduce the overall environmental impact
of the building.

Embodied energy must be considered over the lifespan of a building, and in many
situations, a higher embodied energy building material or system may be justified
because it reduces the operating energy requirements of the building. For example, a
durable material with a long lifespan such as aluminium may be the appropriate material
selection despite its high embodied energy.

As the energy efficiency of a building increases, reducing the energy consumption, the
embodied energy of the building materials will also become increasingly important.

How is embodied energy measured?

 Embodied energy is measured as the quantity of non-renewable energy per unit of

building material, component or system.
 It is expressed in megajoules (MJ) or gigajoules (GJ) per unit weight (kg or tonne)
or area (m2) but the process of calculating embodied energy is complex and
involves numerous sources of data.

Reducing embodied energy

Buildings should be designed and materials selected to balance embodied energy with
factors such as climate, availability of materials and transport costs.

Lightweight building materials often have lower embodied energy than heavyweight
materials, but in some situations, lightweight construction may result in higher energy
use. For example, where heating or cooling requirements are high, this may raise the
overall energy use of the building.
Conversely, for buildings with high heating or cooling requirements but where there is a
large diurnal (day/night) temperature range, heavyweight construction (typically with high
embodied energy) and the inclusion of high levels of insulation can offset the energy use
required for the building.

When selecting building materials, the embodied energy should be considered with
respect to:

 the durability of building materials

 how easily materials can be separated
 use of locally sourced materials
 use of recycled materials
 specifying standard sizes of materials
 avoiding waste
 Selecting materials that are manufactured using renewable energy sources.

ASSESSING EMBODIED ENERGY

Whereas the energy used in operating a building can be readily measured, the embodied
energy contained in the structure is difficult to assess. This energy use is often hidden.

It also depends on where boundaries are drawn in the assessment process. For
example, whether to include:

The energy used to transport the materials and workers to the building site.
Just the materials for the construction of the building shell or all materials used to
complete the building such as bathroom and kitchen fittings, driveways and
outdoor paving.
The upstream energy input in making the materials (such as factory/office lighting,
the energy used in making and maintaining the machines that make the
materials).
The embodied energy of urban infrastructure (roads, drains, water and energy
supply).

Gross Energy Requirement (GER) is a measure of the true embodied energy of a

material, which would ideally include all of the above and more. In practice this is usually
impractical to measure.

Process Energy Requirement (PER) is a measure of the energy directly related to the
manufacture of the material. This is simpler to quantify. Consequently, most figures
quoted for embodied energy are based on the PER. This would include the energy used
in transporting the raw materials to the factory but not energy used to transport the final
product to the building site.

In general, PER accounts for 50-80 per cent of GER. Even within this narrower definition,
arriving at a single figure for a material is impractical as it depends on:

Efficiency of the individual manufacturing process.

The fuels used in manufacture of the materials.
 The distances materials are transported.
The amount of recycled product used, etc.

Each of these factors varies according to product, process, manufacturer and application.
They also vary depending on how the embodied energy has been assessed.

Estimates of embodied energy can vary by a factor of up to ten. As a result, figures

quoted for embodied energy are broad guidelines only and should not be taken as
correct. What is important is to consider the relative relationships and try to use materials
that have the lower embodied energy.

Embodied energy can be the equivalent of many years of operational

energy.

 Operational energy consumption dependes on the occupants.

 Embodied energy is not occupant dependent – the energy is built into the
materials.
 Embodied energy content is incurred once (apart from maintenance and
renovation) whereas operational energy accumulates over time and can be
influenced throughout the life of the building.

 Research by CSIRO has found that the average household contains about 1,000
GJ of energy embodied in the materials used in its construction.
 This is equivalent to about 15 years of normal operational energy use.
 Embodied energy content varies greatly with different construction types.
 In many cases a higher embodied energy level can be justified if it contributes to
lower operating energy.
 For example, large amounts of thermal mass, high in embodied energy, can
significantly reduce heating and cooling needs in well designed and insulated
passive solar houses.
 As the energy efficiency of houses and appliances increases, embodied energy
will become increasingly important.
 The embodied energy levels in materials will be reduced as the energy efficiency
of the industries producing them is improved.
 However, there also needs to be a demonstrated demand for materials low in
embodied energy.
GUIDELINES FOR REDUCING EMBODIED ENERGY

 Lightweight building construction such as timber frame is usually lower in

embodied energy than heavyweight construction.
 This is not necessarily the case if large amounts of light but high energy materials
such as steel or aluminium are used.
 There are many situations where a lightweight building is the most appropriate
and may result in the lowest lifecycle energy use (eg. hot, humid climates, sloping
or shaded sites or sensitive landscapes).
 In climates with greater heating and cooling requirements and significant day/night
temperature variations, embodied energy in a high level of well insulated thermal
mass can significantly offset the energy used for heating and cooling.

There is little benefit in building a house with high embodied energy in the thermal mass
or other elements of the envelope in areas where heating and cooling requirements are
minimal or where other passive design principles are not applied.

Each design should select the best combination for its application based on climate,
transport distances, availability of materials and budget, balanced against known
embodied energy content.

Guidelines for reducing embodied energy:

 Design for long life and adaptability, using durable low maintenance materials.
 Ensure materials can be easily separated.
 Avoid building a bigger house than you need. This will save materials.
 Modify or refurbish instead of demolishing or adding.
 Ensure materials from demolition of existing buildings, and construction wastes
are reused or recycled.
 Use locally sourced materials (including materials salvaged on site) to reduce
transport.
 Select low embodied energy materials (which may include materials with a high
recycled content) preferably based on supplier-specific data.
 Avoid wasteful material use.
 Specify standard sizes, don‘t use energyintensive materials as fillers.
 Ensure off-cuts are recycled and avoid redundant structure, etc. Some very
energy intensive finishes, such as paints, often have high wastage levels.
 Select materials that can be re-used or recycled easily at the end of their lives
using existing recycling systems.
 Give preference to materials manufactured using renewable energy sources.
 Use efficient building envelope design and fittings to minimise materials (eg. an
energy efficient building envelope can downsize or eliminate the need for heaters
and coolers, water-efficient taps allow downsizing of water pipes).
 Ask suppliers for information on their products and share this information.
LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS
Because the term ―life cycle analysis‖ is becoming a more frequently used phrase in
multiple industries, it is important to understand the process. Life cycle analysis (LCA) is
the systematic approach of looking at a product‘s complete life cycle, from raw materials
to final disposal of the product. Life cycle analysis (LCA) is the systematic approach of
looking at a product‘s complete life cycle, from raw materials to final disposal of the
product. It offers a “cradle to grave” look at a product or process, considering
environmental aspects and potential impacts

How does it work

Life cycle analysis examines the environmental impacts of a product by considering the
major stages of a product‘s life, which are:
• Raw material acquisition,
which includes material harvesting and transportation to manufacturing sites;
• Processing,
which involves materials processing and transportation to production sites;
• Manufacturing
which includes product manufacture and assembly, packaging, and transportation to final
distribution;
• Product life
which includes energy and emissions during normal product life, required maintenance,
and product reuse (refurbishing, material reuse);
• Waste management/end of life
which includes recycling, landfills, liquid waste, gas emissions, etc.
Four Main steps
LCA technique can be narrowed down to four main steps which address one or more of
the product‘s life stages at a time:
1. The definition and scope is determined along with information needs, data specificity,
collection methods and data presentation.
2. The life cycle inventory (LCI) is completed through process diagrams, data collection,
and evaluation of the data.
3. The life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) is determined with impact categories and
their
weights, as well as any subsequent results.
4. The final report should include significant data, data evaluation and interpretation, final
conclusions, and recommendations.

Step 1: Create a definition and scope

When developing the scope and definition, consider the following topics:
 Goal of this life cycle analysis
o Available data and possible data gaps
o Current legislation
o Currently available designs of the product/process
o Environmental impacts of current processes and products
o Product or process comparison options
 Audience
o End consumer, stakeholders, policy makers, manufacturers, processors, recyclers,
refurbishers
 Production and process information
o Product usage
o Product or process materials
o Identifying the least environmentally damaging product/process
o Inclusion of all necessary data
o Possible result impacts (uncertainties, assumptions)
o Possible process or product changes
 Data accuracy
o Type of data
o Specificity and required amount of data
o System boundaries (regional, national, or global)
o Availability of current data
o Need for additional data collection
o Data discrepancies
o Data equivalency for comparisons
 Result interpretation and display
o Data comparison of products and process steps
o Units for comparison
o Required data for accurate results
o Data clarity
o Amount of data to display
o Data gaps
 Ground rules
o Assumptions
o Quality assurance
o In line with goal and scope
o Ground rule implementation during data collection

Step 2: Complete a life cycle inventory (LCI)

LCI is a process which quantifies all inputs and outputs of a process or product. Consider
inputs like energy and raw materials. The process outputs include any material emissions
to the environment, such as water, air, and solid waste.

Consider the following when completing a LCI:

 Process flow
o Energy inputs
o Raw materials
o Transportation (mode of transportation, weight, and distance of transport)
o Production quantity
o Final product and by-products
o Industrial scrap
o Production duration (includes plant shut downs, startup activities, fluctuations in
production, etc.)
o Environmental impacts of product use
o Final product disposal
o Environmental impacts of disposal
o Energy and materials consumed from product use
 Data gathering
o Data type and quality
o Data quality indicators (DQIs)
o Data generation and accuracy
o Necessary spreadsheets
o Decision areas
Purpose of the inventory
System boundaries
 Geographic scope
Types of data used
Data collection procedures
Data quality measures
Computational spreadsheetconstruction
Presentation of results
o Possible omissions or double counting
o Data sensitivity
o Data collection methods (research, interviews, surveys, available data)
o Data inventory; options are:
Providing all data, no matter how minor
Excluding data which may be outside of the predetermined scope
Excluding data which may be negligible, as determined by the sensitivity analysis
Excluding certain types of input, such as capital equipment replacement
o Units of measure and their consistency
 Results
o Boundaries
o Environmental impacts
o Basis of comparison
o Relative process contributions
o Result trends
o Environmental impact recommendations
o Geographical limitations
o Environmental and health impacts
o Clear result summary (table or graph)
o Information organization (by life cycle stage, media, process, or a combination)

Step 3: Complete the life cycle impact assessment (LCIA)

The LCIA is a way to interpret how the processes and products in the LCA impact human
health and the environment. The LCIA addresses concepts like the depletion of
resources and possible health effects by analyzing the stressors found within the
manufacturing process or product. In order to complete a life cycle impact assessment,
the following should be taken into account:
• Impact categories
o Global warming, acidification,
terrestrial toxicity (―natural system
effects‖)
o Input/output effects on human health,
plants, animals, future availability of
natural resources
• Result categorization (e.g. Carbon
dioxide effects global warming)
o LCI categorization
o Conversion factors
o Impact factors
• Impact comparisons
o Single life cycle stage or whole life
cycle comparison
o Indicator grouping (By location,
industry, process, product, and
manufacturer)
o Baseline comparison
• Important potential impacts
o Sorting (By severity, characteristics)
o Weighting (Determination, bias)
• Results
o Accuracy
o Conclusions
o Recommendations
o Limitations
o Assumptions
o Uncertainties

Step 4: Interpret the results and make recommendations

Life cycle assessments are performed in order to systematically examine a product‘s life
cycle, from raw materials to the final disposal of products When interpreting LCA results,
consider:
• Final results
o Consistency check
o Evaluate completeness, sensitivity and consistency of LCIA
o Contribution or dominance
o Result expectation
o Result discrepancies
o Anomaly check
o Completeness check
o Sensitivity check
• Conclusions
o Most significant issues
o Comparison data
o Data differences
o Environmental and health impacts
o Impact magnitude
o Boundary conditions
• Limitations
o Assumptions and estimates
o Data bias
o Result specifications
o Observations and recommendations
• Recommendations
o Data availability
o Product/process change
o Maintain initial scope and goal
• Report information
o Administration information
o Goal and scope
o Data collection methods and results
o Results, assumptions, limitations, and conclusions
o Peer review
o Reviewer comments and recommendations
OPTIMIZING ENERGY PERFORMANCE & DESIGNING WITH
RENEWABLE AND ALTERNATIVE ENERGY

ENERGY
Power derived from the utilization of physical or chemical resources, especially to provide
light and heat or to work machines.
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY:
Sustainable energy is the sustainable provision of energy that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.
RENEWABLE ENERGY:
Renewable energy is generally defined as energy that comes from resources which are
naturally replenished on a human timescale such
as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves and geothermal heat.

The sun,wind and biomass are the three renewable energy sources.
Renewable energy replaces conventional fuels in four distinct areas:
 Electricity generation.
 hot water/space heating.
 motor fuels.
 Rural (off-grid) energy services.
TECHNOLOGIES THAT PROMOTE SUSTAINABLE ENERGY:
Renewable energy sources:
 Hydroelectricity.
 Solar energy.
 Wind energy.
 Wave power.
 Geothermal energy.
 Artificial photosynthesis.
 Tidal power.
 Technologies designed to improve energy efficiency.
TOTAL WORLD ENERGY CONSUMPTION:

Benefits of Renewable Energy

Renewable energy has a host of social, environmental, and economic benefits. To be

truly sustainable, an energy source must meet these criteria:

 Have minimal or no negative environmental or social impact.

 No depletion of natural resources.
 Meet the needs of people today and in the future in an accessible, equitable and
efficient manner.
 Protect air, land and water.
 Have little or no net carbon or other greenhouse gas emissions.
 Be safe today and not burden future generations with unnecessary risk.
 The facilities used to create renewable energy require less maintenance.
 In regions that produce renewable energy, economic growth is seen with the creation
of high paying jobs.

DISADVANTAGES OF RENEWABLE ENERGY:

 A disadvantage is that it is difficult to generate in large quantities due to most of the

resources being natural.
 The supply is not reliable, which forces producers to always have a back-up source or
alternative material on hand.

SOLAR ENERGY
Solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, is harnessed using a range of ever-
evolving technologies such as solar heating, solar photovoltaic, solar thermal
electricity, solar architecture and artificial photosynthesis.
Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active
solar depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy.
Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic panels and solar
thermal collectors to harness the energy.
Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with
favourable thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces
that naturally circulate air.
 Cost efficiency is the primary reason to design a home with a passive heating
system. While a passive heating system may not be able to satisfy the heating
needs of a home completely, it will dramatically save on energy costs.
 Another benefit of passive solar heating is that it has no negative impact on the
environment. Passive solar heating systems do not emit greenhouse gases and
does not depend on the use of fossil fuels. This form of heating is completely
renewable and clean.
Solar power is produced by collecting sunlight and converting it into electricity. This is
done by using solar panels, which are large flat panels made up of many individual solar
cells. It is most often used in remote locations, although it is becoming more popular in
urban areas as well.

APPLICATION OF SOLAR ENERGY IN ARCHITECTURE:

Sunlight has influenced building design since the beginning of architectural history.
The common features of passive solar architecture are:
 Orientation relative to the Sun,
 Compact proportion (a low surface area to volume ratio),
 Selective shading (overhangs) and thermal mass.
When these features are tailored to the local climate and environment they can produce
well-lit spaces that stay in a comfortable temperature range. Active solar equipment such
as pumps, fans and switchable windows can complement passive design and improve
system performance.
o Urban heat islands (UHI) are metropolitan areas with higher temperatures than
that of the surrounding environment.
o The higher temperatures are a result of increased absorption of the Solar light by
urban materials such as asphalt and concrete, which have lower albedos and
higher heat capacities than those in the natural environment.
o A straightforward method of counteracting the UHI effect is to paint buildings and
roads white and plant trees.

Water heating

Solar hot water systems use sunlight to heat water. In low geographical latitudes (below
40 degrees) from 60 to 70% of the domestic hot water use with temperatures up to 60 °C
can be provided by solar heating systems. The most common types of solar water
heaters are
 Evacuated tube collectors (44%) and

 Glazed flat plate collectors (34%)

generally used for domestic hot water; and unglazed plastic collectors (21%) used mainly
to heat swimming pools.

Heating, cooling and ventilation

 Thermal mass is any material that can be used to store heat—heat from the Sun
in the case of solar energy. Common thermal mass materials include stone,
cement and water. Historically they have been used in arid climates or warm
temperate regions to keep buildings cool by absorbing solar energy during the day
and radiating stored heat to the cooler atmosphere at night. However they can be
used in cold temperate areas to maintain warmth as well. The size and placement
of thermal mass depend on several factors such as climate, daylighting and
shading conditions.

 A solar chimney (or thermal chimney, in this context) is a passive solar ventilation
system composed of a vertical shaft connecting the interior and exterior of a
building. As the chimney warms, the air inside is heated causing an updraft that
pulls air through the building. Performance can be improved by using glazing and
thermal mass materials in a way that mimics greenhouses.
PHOTOVOLTAIC
Photovoltaic (PV) is a method of generating electrical power by converting solar radiation
into direct current electricity using semiconductors that exhibit the photovoltaic effect.
Some materials exhibit a property known as the photoelectric effect that causes them to
absorb photons of light and release electrons. When these free electrons are captured,
an electric current results that can be used as electricity. Photovoltaic power generation
employs solar panels composed of a number of solar cells. Mainstream materials
presently used for photovoltaic include mono crystalline silicon, polycrystalline silicon,
amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride, and copper indium gallium selenite/sulphide. Due
to the increased demand for renewable energy sources, the manufacturing of solar cells
and photovoltaic arrays has advanced considerably in recent years.
The operation of a photovoltaic (PV) cell requires 3 basic attributes:
 The absorption of light, generating either electron-hole pairs or excitants.
  The separation of charge carriers of opposite types.
 The separate extraction of those carriers to an external circuit.
Photovoltaic cell (solar cell)

 Solar cells are made of the same kinds of semiconductor materials, such as
silicon, used in the microelectronics industry.
 For solar cells, a thin semiconductor wafer is specially treated to form an electric
field, positive on one side and negative on the other.
 When light energy strikes the solar cell, electrons are knocked loose from the
atoms in the semiconductor material.
 If electrical conductors are attached to the positive and negative sides, forming an
electrical circuit, the electrons can be captured in the form of an electric current --
that is, electricity. This electricity can then be used to power a load, such as a light
or a tool.
Photovoltaic Module or Array
 A number of solar cells electrically connected to each other and mounted in a
support structure or frame is called a photovoltaic module.
 Modules are designed to supply electricity at a certain voltage, such as a common
12 volts system.
 The current produced is directly dependent on how much light strikes the module.

Solar Water Heaters

Components of solar water heaters:
 A typical domestic solar water heater consists of a hot water storage tank and one
or more flat plate collectors.
 The collectors are glazed on the sun facing side to allow solar radiation to come
in.
 A black absorbing surface (absorber) inside the flat plate collectors absorbs solar
radiation and transfers the energy to water flowing through it. Heated water is
collected in the tank which is insulated to prevent heat loss.
 Circulation of water from the tank through the collectors and back to the tank
continues automatically due to density difference between hot and cold water
 Flat plate collectors:
 It consists of an absorber plate which is coated on its sun facing surface with
an absorbent coating, also called selective coating.
 The absorber consists of a grid of metallic tubes and sheets. Water flows
through the tubes.
 Sheet absorbs the solar radiation falling on it and transfers it to water.
 The absorber plate is placed in a top open box to protect it from weather.
 The space between back and sides of the absorber and the box is filled with
insulation to reduce heat losses.
 The front of the box is covered with a high transmittance glass plate.
 Flat plate collectors are specified on the basis of their area and are of
commonly 1x2 m size.

Hot water storage tank

 The hot water storage tank in domestic solar water heating systems is typically a
double walled tank.
 The space between the inner and the outer tanks is filled with insulation to prevent
heat losses.
 The inner tank is generally made of copper or stainless steel to ensure long life.
 The outer tank could be made of stainless steel sheet, painted steel sheet or
aluminum.
 Electrical heating elements controlled by thermostats can be provided as an
option in the tank itself to take care of those days when sun is not there or
demand of water has gone up.
 The capacity of the tank should be in proportion to the collector area used in the
system.
 A commonly used thumb rule is to provide 50 litres of storage for every sq. m of
collector area. Too large or too small tanks are both detrimental to efficiency.
  Multiple modules can be wired together to form an array.
 In general, the larger the area of a module or array, the more electricity that will be
produced.
 Photovoltaic modules and arrays produce direct-current (dc) electricity.
 They can be connected in both series and parallel electrical arrangements to
produce any required voltage and current combination.
SOLAR ARCHITECTURE:
Solar photovoltaics enable Architects to create buildings which produce their own low
carbon energy, whilst creating unique and visually stunning designs.
BUILDING INTEGRATED PHOTOVOLTAICS (BIPV)
These are photovoltaic materials that are used to replace conventional building materials
in parts of the building envelope such as the roof, skylights, or facades. They are
increasingly being incorporated into the construction of new buildings as a principal or
ancillary source of electrical power, although existing buildings may be retrofitted with
similar technology. The advantage of integrated photovoltaics over more common non-
integrated systems is that the initial cost can be offset by reducing the amount spent on
building materials and labor that would normally be used to construct the part of the
building that the BIPV modules replace.
FORMS
1. Flat roofs
 The most widely installed to date is a thin film solar cell integrated to a flexible
polymer roofing membrane.[clarification needed]
2. Pitched roofs
 Modules shaped like multiple roof tiles.
 Solar shingles are modules designed to look and act like regular shingles, while
incorporating a flexible thin film cell.
 It extends normal roof life by protecting insulation and membranes from ultraviolet
rays and water degradation. It does this by eliminating condensation because the
dew point is kept above the roofing membrane.
3. Facade
  Facades can be installed on existing buildings, giving old buildings a whole new
look. These modules are mounted on the facade of the building, over the existing
structure, which can increase the appeal of the building and its resale value.
4. Glazing
 Semi-transparent modules can be used to replace a number of architectural
elements commonly made with glass or similar materials, such as windows and
skylights.

ADVANTAGES:
Versatility:
Photovoltaics (PV) provide a unique way for buildings to harvest energy from their
environment, capitalising on solar radiation as well as minimising solar gain. As rain
screen cladding, plant screens, louvres and even glass laminates, photovoltaics can be
considered as a unique and truly versatile building material.
Revenue generation:
Solar photovoltaic panels can be used in the same way as conventional materials for the
external building envelope but with the unique advantage that they generate energy. This
means the building can utilise the electricity generated to displace mains electricity,
fulfilling the twin objectives of minimising environmental impact and saving money.
High-tech aesthetics:
Solar PV is also a high-tech solution with a unique aesthetic, which can be cheaper than
other prestige materials such as marble or bronze. As well as providing a state-of-the-art
finish for any building, solar PV helps reduce carbon emissions and demonstrates a
serious commitment to the environment.
SOLAR ARCHITECTURE OPTIONS:
Solar Louvres
Shading is an important part of low energy building design that minimises glare and
overheating caused by excessive solar gain. The use of louvres or brise soleil to shade
south facing facades is a proven means of reducing solar gain, reducing the need for
artificial cooling. Solar shading also reduces glare for PC users and increase occupant
comfort whilst generating clean renewable electricity.

Plant Screens
Photovoltaics are an obvious choice as a protective solution for plant equipment and roof
mounted facilities. Plant screens are naturally well positioned to incorporate solar panels,
receiving a large amount of solar radiation on at least two sides of the building.
Solar Glazing
Solar Glazing is a unique combination of solar photovoltaics and glass, where the PV
cells are laminated between two panes of specialised glazing. The resulting glass
laminate serves the dual function of creating energy and shade at the same time. Solar
Glazing can be used wherever conventional glass would be specified - such as curtain
walling, atria, windows and shading canopies, and can be integrated into sealed glazing
systems or conventional bolted glass structures. The finished effect of Solar Glazing
offers a unique aesthetic, where natural lighting is combined with dappled shading to
provide comfortable naturally lit spaces.

SOLAR FACADES
There are two different Solar Facade options, both of which can be designed to meet
specific building requirements:
1. Rain Screen Cladding
Vertical Solar Facades directly replace conventional rainscreen cladding materials
providing a smooth, flat facade surface for any building, with a striking aesthetic. Vertical
facades allow building designers to fit the most solar PV per square metre, giving the
highest possible electrical power output for a given area. This solution is best for
buildings where the area available for Solar Facade is limited.
2. Optimised Rain Screen Cladding
Optimised Facades replace conventional rainscreen cladding with rows of PV panels
tilted towards the sun. This maximises the amount of electricity generated, offering up to
30% more energy from each square metre of PV panel. However, rows of panels are
spaced to avoid self shading which means less PV panels per square metre. It is best for
buildings with large areas available for Solar Facade installation.

Case Study: Solar Louvres - Environment Agency, Red Kite House

Red Kite House is an Environment Agency office in Wallingford, England. The
Environment Agency comissioned Solarcentury to design a brise-soleil canopy to provide
shade to the interior.
The PV panels form a louvre canopy on the concave south facade, by fixing the PV
louvres to existing steel beams.
Solar louvres were created by fixing the modules and the aluminium cowling to telescopic
spindles on the ground, which were then lifted into position.
Energy from the solar louvres, complemented by the energy efficient design of the
building, will meet around 20% of the building‘s annual demand for electricity.
The solar louvres also reduce solar glare to the offices, which helps to keep the building
cool during summer months by minimising thermal gain. This application therefore
minimises the buildings cooling load to further reduce overhead energy costs.

WIND ENERGY
It is a form of solar energy and is a result of the uneven heating of the atmosphere by the
sun, the irregularities of the earth's surface, and the rotation of the earth. Wind flow
patterns and speeds vary greatly across the United States and are modified by bodies of
water, vegetation, and differences in terrain. Humans use this wind flow, or motion
energy, for many purposes: sailing, flying a kite, and even generating electricity.
The terms wind energy or wind power describe the process by which the wind is used to
generate mechanical power or electricity. Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy in the
wind into mechanical power. This mechanical power can be used for specific tasks (such
as grinding grain or pumping water) or a generator can convert this mechanical power
into electricity.

Wind power
Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form of energy, such as using
wind turbines to make electrical power, windmills for mechanical power, wind pumps for
water pumping or drainage, or sails to propel ships.

Large wind farms consist of hundreds of individual wind turbines which are connected to
the electric power transmission network. For new constructions, onshore wind is an
inexpensive source of electricity, competitive with or in many places cheaper than fossil
fuel plants. Small onshore wind farms provide electricity to isolated locations. Utility
companies increasingly buy surplus electricity produced by small domestic wind turbines.
Offshore wind is steadier and stronger than on land, and offshore farms have less visual
impact, but construction and maintenance costs are considerably higher.
Wind power, as an alternative to fossil fuels, is plentiful, renewable, widely distributed,
clean, produces no greenhouse gas emissions during operation and uses little land.
Distribution of wind speed
Distribution of wind speed (red) and energy (blue) for all of 2002 at the Lee Ranch facility
in Colorado. The histogram shows measured data, while the curve is the Rayleigh model
distribution for the same average wind speed.
The strength of wind varies, and an average value for a given location does not alone
indicate the amount of energy a wind turbine could produce there. To assess the
frequency of wind speeds at a particular location, a probability distribution function is
often fit to the observed data. Different locations will have different wind speed
distributions.
High altitude winds
Power generation from winds usually comes from winds very close to the surface of the
earth. Winds at higher altitudes are stronger and more consistent, and may have a global
capacity of 380 TW. Recent years have seen significant advances in technologies meant
to generate electricity from high altitude winds.
Wind farm
A wind farm or wind park is a group of wind turbines in the same location used to
produce energy. A large wind farm may consist of several hundred individual wind
turbines and cover an extended area of hundreds of square miles, but the land between
the turbines may be used for agricultural or other purposes. A wind farm can also be
located offshore.
Working
A wind turbine is a device that converts kinetic energy from the wind into electrical power.
A wind turbine used for charging batteries may be referred to as a wind charger. The
wind passes over the blades creating lift (like an aircraft wing) which causes the rotor to
turn. The blades turn a low-speed shaft inside the nacelle: gears connect the low speed
shaft of the rotor with a high speed shaft that drives a generator. Here, the slow rotation
speed of the blades is increased to the high speed of generator revolution. Some wind
turbines do not contain a gearbox and instead use a direct drive mechanism to produce
power from the generator.
The rapidly spinning shaft drives the generator to produce electric energy. Electricity from
the generator goes to a transformer which converts it to the right voltage for the electricity
grid. The electricity is then transmitted via the electricity network.
Types of turbines
Modern wind turbines fall into two basic groups: the horizontal-axis variety and the
vertical-axis design. Horizontal-axis wind turbines typically either have two or three
blades. These three-bladed wind turbines are operated "upwind," with the blades facing
into the wind.

Wind power in Architecture

AeroVironment‘s small, modular wind turbine solution is designed to provide an
attractive, kinetic, clean energy generating solution that integrates easily into new and
existing commercial buildings. Whereas solar thermal and solar photovoltaic systems are
typically located on top of roofs, out of sight, it provides a visible, compelling and
architecturally enhancing statement of the building‘s commitment to renewable energy.
Unlike other small wind turbine designs this combines the functional with the aesthetic to
create the first modular and architecturally enhancing small wind turbine system. The
patented design and innovative positioning method takes advantage of the natural
acceleration in wind speed resulting from the building‘s aerodynamic properties. This
accelerated wind speed can increase the turbines‘ electrical power generation by more
than 50% compared to the power generation that would result from systems situated
outside of the acceleration zone. The sleek and modular units also operate with less
noise and vibration compared to conventional wind turbine designs.

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
The word geothermal comes from the Greek words geo (earth) and therme (heat).
 Geothermal energy is thermal energy generated and stored in the Earth. Thermal
energy is the energy that determines the temperature of matter. The geothermal energy
of the Earth's crust originates from the original formation of the planet (20%) and
from radioactive decay of minerals (80%).[1][2] The geothermal gradient, which is the
difference in temperature between the core of the planet and its surface, drives a
continuous conduction of thermal energy in the form of heatfrom the core to the surface.
Earth's internal heat is thermal energy generated from radioactive decay and continual
heat loss from Earth's formation. Temperatures at the core-mantle boundary may reach
over 4000 °C (7,200 °F).The high temperature and pressure in Earth's interior cause
some rock to melt and solid mantle to behave plastically, resulting in portions of mantle
convecting upward since it is lighter than the surrounding rock. Rock and water is heated
in the crust, sometimes up to 370 °C (700 °F).
Geothermal energy has been used to provide heat for as long as people have been
around to take advantage of it. For example, in some places the natural groundwater,
heated by this geothermal energy, finds its way to surface and emerges in hot springs or
steam geysers, which have been used by humans for bathing and agriculture since pre-
history.

People can capture geothermal energy through:

 Geothermal power plants, which use heat from deep inside the Earth to generate
steam to make electricity.
 Geothermal heat pumps, which tap into heat close to the Earth's surface to heat
water or provide heat for buildings.

Geothermal Power Plants

 At a geothermal power plant, wells are drilled 1 or 2 miles deep into the Earth to pump
steam or hot water to the surface. You're most likely to find one of these power plants in
an area that has a lot of hot springs, geysers, or volcanic activity, because these are
places where the Earth is particularly hot just below the surface.

1. Hot water is pumped from deep underground through a well under high pressure.
2. When the water reaches the surface, the pressure is dropped, which causes the water
to turn into steam.
3. The steam spins a turbine, which is connected to a generator that produces electricity.
4. The steam cools off in a cooling tower and condenses back to water.
5. The cooled water is pumped back into the Earth to begin the process again.

Geothermal heat pumps can do all sorts of things—from heating and cooling homes to
warming swimming pools. These systems transfer heat by pumping water or a refrigerant
(a special type of fluid) through pipes just below the Earth's surface, where the
temperature is a constant 50 to 60°F.

During the winter, the water or refrigerant absorbs warmth from the Earth, and the pump
brings this heat to the building above. In the summer, some heat pumps can run in
reverse and help cool buildings.
1. Water or a refrigerant moves through a loop of pipes.
2. When the weather is cold, the water or refrigerant heats up as it travels through the
part of the loop that's buried underground.
3. Once it gets back above ground, the warmed water or refrigerant transfers heat into
the building.
4. The water or refrigerant cools down after its heat is transferred. It is pumped back
underground where it heats up once more, starting the process again.
5. On a hot day, the system can run in reverse. The water or refrigerant cools the building
and then is pumped underground where extra heat is transferred to the ground around
the pipes.
Forms of geothermal energy
Geothermal energy comes in either vapor-dominated or liquid-
dominated forms. Larderello and The Geysers are vapor-dominated. Vapor-dominated
sites offer temperatures from 240-300 C that produce superheated steam.

Advantages of Geothermal Energy

1) It is a renewable source of energy.

2) By far, it is non-polluting and environment friendly. Extensive GHG emissions
reductions and, unlike fossil fuel power stations, no pollution
3) There is no wastage or generation of by-products.
4) Geothermal energy can be used directly. In ancient times, people used this source of
energy for heating homes, cooking, etc.
5) Maintenance cost of geothermal power plants is very less.
6) Geothermal power plants don't occupy too much space and thus help in protecting
natural environment. Compact plant equipment that uses just one thirtieth of the land of a
coal fired power plant.
7) Unlike solar energy, it is not dependent on the weather conditions.
8)Available 24 hours a day, 365 days a year, producing ―base load‖ electricity unlike
many other renewable technologies that are affected by weather and seasonal
variations.
9)No need for power storage and no issues dispatching electricity to the grid making
them a more direct substitute for fossil fuel power stations than many other mature
renewable technologies

11)Extremely reliable power source available 95% of the time on average, compared to
60-70% for coal and nuclear

Disadvantages of Geothermal Energy

1) Only few sites have the potential of Geothermal Energy.

2) Most of the sites, where geothermal energy is produced, are far from markets or
cities, where it needs to be consumed.
3) Total generation potential of this source is too small.
4) There is always a danger of eruption of volcano.
5) Installation cost of steam power plant is very high.
6) There is no guarantee that the amount of energy which is produced will justify the
capital expenditure and operations costs.
7) It may release some harmful, poisonous gases that can escape through the holes
drilled during construction.
8) Construction of geothermal energy plants can affect the seismic stability to a large
extent. Even though there are lesser emissions, digging deep holes causes seismic
disturbances which have led to earthquakes.

HYDRO ELECTRICITY
 Hydro Electricity Is The Electricity Generated By Hydropower.

 Accounting For 16% Of Global Electricity Generation-3427 Terawatts-hours Of

Electricity Produced In 2010.

 Hydropower Is Produced In 150 Countries.

 China Is The Largest Hydro Electricity Producer With 721 Terawatts Hrs.

 INDIA HAS ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF 115.6TWh @2009

 Once A Hydro Electric Complex Is Constructed, the Project Produces No Direct

Waste, And Has A Lower Output Level Of Greenhouse Gases(co2)than Fossil
Fuel Fuel Power Plants.
GENERATION METHODS

METHODS EFFECTS

CONVENTIONAL DAMS Potential energy of dammed water driving

a water drivig a turbine and generator.
PUMPED STORAGE To supply high peak demands by moving
water b/w reservoirs at different elevation.
RUN OF THE RIVER Water coming from upstream must be
used for generation at moment.
TIDE Daily rise and fall of ocean water due to
tides
UNDERGROUND Large natural height difference
b/w 2 waterways such as water
falls,mountainlake

SIZE AND CAPACITIES

 SIZE PRODUCTION

Large Upto 10 GW

Small Upto 10 Mw

Micro Upto 100 Kw

Pico Under 5kw

ADVANTAGES
 Flexibility

 Low Power Costs

 Suitability For Industrial Application

 Reduced Co2 Emissions

DISADVANTAGES
 ECOSYSTEM DAMAGE AND LOSS OF LAND

 SILTATION AND FLOW SHORTAGE

 METHANE EMISSION FROM RESERVOIRS

 RELOCATION

 FAILURE RISKS

BENEFITS
 Cut your electricity bills

 Be paid to generate energy

 Cheap heating and hot water

 Cheaper option for off grid homes

 Cut your carbon foot prints.

BIOGAS

Biogas is the gas produced by the biological breakdown of organic materials.

Fermentation, or anaerobic digestion, is the most common process that breaks down the
organic materials. The organic materials are then oxidized and create energy, which
dates back to ancient Persians who observed that rotting vegetables produce flammable
gas. Anaerobic digestion is a process that uses microorganisms to break down the
organic material in the absence of oxygen, which creates energy. An anaerobic digestion
plant was built to process sewage in Bombay in 1859, and has been used in the United
Kingdom since 1895.

The types of organic materials include biomass, landfill waste, sewage, manure, and
plant material. The most common gases produced are methane and carbon dioxide.
Other common gases that can be formed include hydrogen, nitrogen, and carbon
monoxide. Methane, hydrogen, and carbon monoxide can be combusted to create heat
and electricity. When biogas is created from existing waste streams, it reduces odors and
methane emissions and creates two renewable resources. Sewage sludge and animal
slurries usually end up as fertilizer, so it is better to obtain fuel from them first, while
preventing runoff and methane emissions at the same time. Biogas is not a widely used
renewable energy technology for most new construction or major renovation projects
since most buildings do not have a large source of organic material. However, projects
located near a landfill or contained animal feeding operation may want to consider this
option since it can provide low-cost energy.

Methane is a very potent greenhouse gas—more than 21 times stronger than carbon
dioxide—and is a key contributor to global climate change. The U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA)Landfill Methane Outreach Program estimates that a landfill gas
energy project will capture roughly 60% to 90% of the methane emitted from the landfill,
depending on system design and effectiveness. As of December 2010, there are 541
operational landfill gas energy projects in the United States and approximately 510
landfills that are good candidates for projects.

This overview is intended to provide specific details for Federal agencies considering
biogas technology as part of a major construction project. Further general information is
available on the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Office of Energy Efficiency and
Renewable Energy (EERE)Anaerobic Digestion Energy Basics website.
APPLICATION:

There are two primary methods of recovering biogas for use as energy. The first process
is to create an anaerobic digestion system to process waste, most commonly manure or
other wet biomass. The second process is to recover natural biogas production formed in
existing landfills. Once recovered, biogas can be converted to energy in a number of
methods.

 Anaerobic Digestion

 An anaerobic digestion system is made up of several key components, including:

 Manure collection systems

 Anaerobic digesters

 Biogas handling systems

 Gas use devices.

A manure collection system is needed to gather manure and transport it to the digester.
Existing liquid/slurry manure management systems can readily be adapted to deliver
manure to the anaerobic digester. Anaerobic digesters, commonly in the form of covered
lagoons or tanks, are designed to stabilize manure and optimize the production of
methane. A storage facility for digester effluent, or waste matter, is also required. In the
biogas handling system, biogas—a product of the decomposition of the manure, typically
comprising about 60% methane and 40% carbon dioxide—is collected, treated, and
piped to a gas use device. Biogas can then be used to generate electricity, as a boiler
fuel for space or water heating, upgraded to natural gas pipeline quality, or for a variety
of other uses. Flares are also installed to destroy extra gas and as a back-up mechanism
for the primary gas use device.

The stages of the anaerobic digestion process.

Anaerobic digesters are made out of concrete, steel, brick, or plastic. All anaerobic
digestion system designs incorporate the following same basic components:

 A pre-mixing area or tank

 A digester vessel

 A system for using the biogas

 A system for distributing or spreading the effluent.

Batch digesters and continuous digesters are the two basic types of anaerobic digesters.
Batch-type digesters are the simplest to build. Their operation consists of loading the
digester with organic materials and allowing it to digest. The retention time depends on
temperature and other factors. Once the digestion is complete, the effluent is removed
and the process is repeated.

In a continuous digester, organic material is constantly or regularly fed into the digester.
The material moves through the digester either mechanically or by the force of the new
feed pushing out digested material. Unlike batch-type digesters, continuous digesters
produce biogas without the interruption of loading material and unloading effluent. There
are three types of continuous digesters: vertical tank systems, horizontal tank or plug-
flow systems, and multiple tank systems.

Proper design, operation, and maintenance of continuous digesters produce a steady

and predictable supply of usable biogas, which is better suited for large-scale operations.
Landfill Gas Recovery

A landfill gas treatment station with blower and flare.

The same anaerobic digestion process that produces biogas from wastewater and
animal manure occurs naturally underground in landfills. The waste is covered and
compressed by the weight of the material that is deposited above. This material prevents
oxygen exposure, thus allowing chemical reactions and microbes to act upon the waste,
and encouraging an uncontrolled process of biomass decay. The rate of production is
affected by waste composition and landfill geometry. Landfill gas is about 40% to 60%
methane, with the remainder consisting mostly of carbon dioxide.

Landfill gas is extracted from landfills using a series of wells and a blower/flare system.
According to the Landfill Methane Outreach Program, the system directs the collected
gas to a central point where it can be processed and treated depending upon the ultimate
use for the gas. A landfill gas collection system includes the following components:

 Landfill gas well

 Landfill gas wellhead

 Landfill gas processing and treatment

 Landfill gas flare.

SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS

The following are important special considerations for biogas systems.

Interconnection

A biogas system that will be used for power production will need to be connected to the
local utility grid and must meet interconnection requirements of the local utility. Many
states or localities have guidelines that require interconnection of many customer-owned
power projects. Some guidelines limit the size of a project that can be interconnected, or
place a grid-wide limit on the amount of capacity a utility must interconnect. The local
utility for the site is the best resource for interconnection rules.

A Federal agency should confirm early in the discussion with the utility if it can sign the
utility interconnection agreement as there have been some cases where utility
indemnification clauses prevented an agency from legally signing the agreement.

The Database of State Incentives for Renewables & Efficiency (DSIRE) is a

comprehensive source of information on state, local, utility, and Federal incentives and
policies that promote renewable energy and energy efficiency.

Environmental Review / Permitting

If the project is located on Federal land or uses Federal funding (besides a tax credit), it
must comply with the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA). Although both
anaerobic digestion and landfill gas recovery systems have a net positive effect of
removing harmful emissions from the air, they can still face issues with NEPA review.
However, if the projects are not on Federal lands and are not owned by the agency, the
NEPA process may not be required for certain systems. Consulting with an agency
environmental expert on procedures for implementing NEPA is recommended.
BIOGAS CYCLE:

HOUSEHOLD BIOGAS

In North America, use of biogas would generate enough electricity to meet up to 3% of

the continent's electricity expenditure In addition, biogas could potentially help reduce
global climate change. Normally, manure that is left to decompose releases two main
gases that cause global climate change: nitrous oxide and methaneNitrous oxide (N2O)
warms the atmosphere 310 times more than carbon dioxide and methane 21 times more
than carbon dioxide
BIOMASS

Biomass is any organic material which has stored sunlight in the form of chemical
energy. As a fuel it may include wood, wood waste, straw, manure, sugar cane, and
many other by-products from a variety of agricultural processes.

Biomass applications

Depending on the type of biomass, it can be combusted either to generate heat or to

produce electricity. It can also be digested to generate biogas, processed to produce
bioliquids for heat or power generation, or used as a transport fuel, a "biodiesel".

Why use Biomass?

Biomass is a renewable, low carbon fuel that is already widely, and often economically
available. Its production and use also brings additional environmental and social benefits.
Correctly managed, biomass is a sustainable fuel that can deliver a significant reduction
in net carbon emissions when compared with fossil fuels.

Categories of biomass materials

Biomass in various forms can be used for a range of energy options, through a variety of
technologies, to achieve various end purposes.

Within this definition, biomass for energy can include a wide range of materials. There
are five basic categories of material:

 Agricultural residues: residues from agriculture harvesting or processing

 Food waste, from food and drink manufacture, preparation and processing, and post-
consumer waste
 Industrial waste and co-products from manufacturing and industrial processes
 Virgin wood, from forestry, arboricultural activities or from wood processing
 Energy crops: high yield crops grown specifically for energy applications
Using biomass to achieve a carbon balance

The combustion (direct or indirect) of biomass as a fuel also returns CO2 to the
atmosphere.

Source: Environment Agency (2009): 'Minimising greenhouse gas emissions from

biomass energy generation'

However this carbon is part of the current carbon cycle: it was absorbed during the
growth of the plant over the previous few months or years and, provided the land
continues to support growing plant material, a sustainable balance is maintained
between carbon emitted and absorbed.
4 Good reasons to use biomass as a sustainable fuel:

1. Correctly managed, biomass is a sustainable fuel that can both offer a significant
reduction in net carbon emissions compared with fossil fuels.
2. Biomass can be sourced locally, contributing to security of supply.
3. Biomass can offer local business opportunities and support the rural economy.
4. Woodlands, forestry and agriculture are generally perceived to be an
environmentally and socially attractive amenity by the population, providing
opportunities for recreation and leisure activities.

UNIT -4
Contents:
Green building design – Rating system – LEED, GRIHA, BREEAM etc.,
case studies – ( your own case studies on Green buildings. Pass it on with yourselves)

GREEN BUILDINGS:

• Green building (also known as green construction or sustainable building)

expands and complements the building design concerns of economy, utility,
durability, and comfort.
• A Green Building is one which uses less water, optimizes energy efficiency,
conserves natural resources, generates less waste and provides healthier
space for occupants as compared to conventional buildings.

Objectives of Green Buildings:

• Green Buildings are designed to reduce the overall impact on human

health and the natural environment by the following ways:
• Using energy, water and other resources efficiently.
• By reducing waste, pollution, and environmental degradation.

Evaluation System :

INDIAN GREEN BUILDING COUNCIL

• The Indian Green Building Council (IGBC) was formed in the year 2001 by
Confederation of Indian Industry (CII).
• The aim of the council is to bring green building movement in India and
facilitate India to become one of the global leaders in green buildings by
2015.

Rating System:

IGBC has developed green building rating programmes to cover commercial,

residential, factory buildings, etc.
Each rating system divided into different levels of certification are as follows:
 ‗Certified‘ to recognise best practices.
 ‗Silver‘ to recognise outstanding performance.
 ‗Gold‘ to recognise national excellence.
 ‗Platinum‘ to recognise global leadership.

Green Building Projects in India:

Suzlon Energy Limited-Pune

Biodiversity Conservation India-Bangalore
Olympia Technology Park-Chennai
ITC Green Centre-Gurgaon
The Druk White Lotus School-Ladakh
Doon School-Dehradun
Raintree Hotels-Chennai
Nokia-Gurgaon
Rajiv Gandhi International Airport-Hyderabad
Hiranandini-BG House, Powai
ABN Amro Bank, Chennai
Palais Royale at Worli, Mumbai
Punjab Forest Complex,Mohali

Benefits of Green Buildings

Buildings have a large effect on the enviornment,human health and the economy.
The successful adoption of GREEN BUILDING development can maximize both
the economic and enviornmental performance of the buildings.

Environmental Benefits:

• Protect biodiversity and ecosystems

• Improve air and water quality
• Reduce waste streams
• Conserve natural resources

Social Benefits:

• Enhance occupant comfort and health.

• Heighten aesthetic qualities.
• Minimize strain on local infrastructure.
• Improve overall quality of life.

Economic Benefits:

• Reduce operating costs

 • Create, expand, and shape markets for green product and services
• Improve occupant productivity

Evaluating Systems

Introduction :

The market place of the design and construction of high performance buildings is
dynamic and evolving. Professionals through out the building industry use assessment
rating systems to evaluate and differentiate their product or design. GSA (General
Services Administration) is a significant participant in the building industry and it is critical
for GSA to evaluate the performance of projects. Since 2003, all GSA projects are to use
and achieve a certified rating from the U.S. Green Building Council‘s Leadership in
Enviromental and Energy
Design (LEED®) green building rating system.

Types of Rating Systems

The five rating systems which progressed through the screening criteria were:
• BREEAM (Building Research Establishment‘s Environmental Assessment
Method)
iv
• CASBEE (Comprehensive Assessment System for Building Environmental
Efficiency)
• GBTool
• Green Globes™ U.S.
• LEED® (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design)

Introduction to LEED

LEED is currently the dominant system in the United States market and is being adapted
to multiple markets worldwide.
 Effective in India from 1st Jan 2007
 Version of the LEED rating system administered by IGBC.
 Green Building Rating System
• Framework for assessing building performance against set criteria and
standard points of references
 Internationally accepted benchmark for design, construction and operation of
green buildings.
 Encourages and accelerates global adoption of sustainable green building and
development practices .
 65 LEED certified green buildings in India.
 Based on professional reference standards like NBC, ASHRAE, and ECBC etc.
Review Criteria
Applicability

Type of Projects: Rating system can be used on all GSA project types, such as New
Construction,
Major Renovations, Tenant Build-Out (leases), and Operations & Maintenance.

Type of Buildings: Rating system can be used on all GSA building types, such as Office
Buildings,
Courthouses, and Border Stations.

Development

System Management: Identify the level of involvement in the development, funding, and
management of the rating system by Government, Private Industry, Non-Governmental
Organizations, and others.

Development Approach: Identify if system was developed using a consensus-based

approach, life cycle analysis, expert opinion approach, or other.

Openness of Operations: Ability to gather information on the rating system membership

and
represented organizations.

Transparency of Rating System: Ability to access relevant information either from the
internet or
other sources.
Usability

Cost: Identify the cost of using a system, including cost for use or rating system
materials, cost of project registration, fees associated with certification, and time typically
needed to complete an application.

Ease of Use: Complexity of the tools and technical knowledge needed to complete rating
system
process, especially for the optimization of energy use, environmentally preferable
products use, and indoor environmental quality enhancement.

Product support: Availability and responsiveness of direct requests for assistance,

availability of
training, and usability of information available on the website, through case studies,
documented
inquiries, and frequently asked questions.

System Maturity
System Age: Identify when the rating system was developed, first used, first available for
public use, and when the most recent revision was completed.

Number of Buildings: Identify the number of buildings participating in the rating system
and the
number of buildings that have completed the process for denotation as a green building.

Stability of system: Identify the processes that allow for full implementation of a rating
system,
including development, testing, and review process, systems for upgrades, process for
modifications, and expected frequency of modifications.

Technical Content

Relevance to Sustainability: Representative of sustainable design needs of the Federal

government as identified in the Whole Building Design Guide.

Thoroughness: Detailed review of how rating system addresses key sustainable design
characteristics such as optimizing Energy Use, using Environmentally Preferable
Products, and
enhancing Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ).

Measurement comparison: Identify the mechanism used as the baseline for comparison,
such as
industry benchmark or checklist.

Measurability & Verification

Standardization: Established collection procedures exist.

Quantification: Numeric measurements facilitate absolute and relative performance

evaluation.

Certification/Verification Process: Define system for verifying sustainable design

practices for a
particular application, including who evaluates the application and at what level of detail
do they
review the applications.

Documentation: Identify what type of documentation is necessary and at what stages of

the project the information is collected.

Verifiable/Defendable: Provide documentation of the actual state of the building with

respect to the rating system evaluation; include costs and benefits of using the rating
system.

Communicability

Clarity: Well-defined, easily communicated, and clearly understood among multiple

parties.
Versatility: Number of systems that use it as its basis for development or comparison.

Comparability: Amenable to normalization for comparisons over varying building types,

locations, years, or different sustainable design characteristics.

Results Usability: Usability of rating system documentation for communicating the

accomplishments of the building project.

CREDITS:
Guide presents detailed information on how to achieve the credits within the following
major categories:

• Sustainable Sites (construction related pollution prevention, site development

impacts, transportation alternatives, stormwater management, heat island effect,
and light pollution)

• Water Efficiency (landscaping water use reduction, indoor water use reduction,
and wastewater strategies)

• Energy and Atmosphere (commissioning, whole building energy performance

optimization, refrigerant management, renewable energy use, and measurement
and verification)

• Materials and Resources (recycling collection locations, building reuse,

construction waste management, and the purchase of regionally manufactured
materials, materials with recycled content, rapidly renewable materials,
salvaged materials, and sustainably forested wood products)

• Indoor Environmental Quality (environmental tobacco smoke control, outdoor

air delivery monitoring, increased ventilation, construction indoor air quality,
use low emitting materials, source control, and controllability of thermal and
lighting systems)

• Innovation and Design Process (LEED® accredited professional, and innovative

strategies for sustainable design)
FOR CASE STUDIES : FOLLOW WHATEVER YOU HAVE DONE FOR THE
ASSESMENT 3.
 UNIT 5
Contents:

Urban ecology, social and economic dimensions of sustainability, urban heat Island
effects,
sustainable communities – Case studies.

Urban Ecology:

Urban ecology is the scientific study of the relation of living organisms with each other
and their surroundings in the context of an urban environment. The urban environment
refers to environments dominated by high-density residential and commercial buildings,
paved surfaces, and other urban-related factors that create a unique landscape dissimilar
to most previously studied environments in the field of ecology.

Urban ecology is a recent field of study compared to ecology as a whole. The methods
and studies of urban ecology are similar to and comprise a subset of ecology. The study
of urban ecology carries increasing importance because, more than 50% of the world's
population today is living in urban areas. At the same time, it is estimated that within the
next forty years, two-thirds of the world's population will be living in expanding urban
centres.

The ecological processes in the urban environment are comparable to those outside the
urban context. However, the types of urban habitats and the species that inhabit them
are poorly documented. Often, explanations for phenomena examined in the urban
setting as well as predicting changes because of urbanization are the centre for scientific
research.

Urban ecology methods

Since urban ecology is a subfield of ecology, many of the techniques are similar to that of
ecology. Ecological study techniques have been developed over centuries, but many of
the techniques use for urban ecology are more recently developed.

Methods used for studying urban ecology involve

 chemical and biochemical techniques,

 temperature recording,
 heat mapping remote sensing,
 long-term ecological research sites.
Chemical and biochemical techniques:

Chemical techniques may be used to determine pollutant concentrations and their

effects. Tests can be as simple as dipping a manufactured test strip, as in the case of pH
testing, or be more complex, as in the case of examining the spatial and temporal
variation of heavy metal contamination due to industrial runoff.

In that particular study, livers of birds from many regions of the North Sea were ground
up and mercury was extracted. Additionally, mercury bound in feathers was extracted
from both live birds and from museum specimens to test for mercury levels across many
decades. Through these two different measurements, researchers were able to make a
complex picture of the spread of mercury due to industrial runoff both spatially and
temporally.

Other chemical techniques include tests for nitrates, phosphates, sulphates, etc.
which are commonly associated with urban pollutants such as fertilizer and
industrial by products. These biochemical fluxes are studied in the atmosphere
(e.g. greenhouse gasses), aquatic ecosystems and soil vegetation.

Broad reaching effects of these biochemical fluxes can be seen in various aspects
of both the urban and surrounding rural ecosystems.

Temperature data and heat mapping:

Temperature data can be used for various kinds of studies. An important aspect of
temperature data is the ability to correlate temperature with various factors that
may be affecting or occurring in the environment. Oftentimes, temperature data is
collected long-term by the Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research (OAR),
and made available to the scientific community through the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Data can be overlaid with maps of terrain,
urban features, and other spatial areas to create heat maps. These heat maps
can be used to view trends and distribution over time and space.

Remote sensing

Remote sensing is the technique in which data is collected from distant locations
through the use of satellite imaging, radar, and aerial photographs. In urban
ecology, remote sensing is used to collect data about terrain, weather patterns,
light, and vegetation. One application of remote sensing for urban ecology is to
detect the productivity of an area by measuring the photosynthetic wavelengths of
emitted light.Satellite images can also be used to detect differences in
temperature and landscape diversity to detect the effects of urbanization.

LTERs and long-term data sets:

Long-term ecological research (LTER) sites are research sites funded by the
government that have collected reliable long-term data over an extended period of
time in order to identify long-term climatic or ecological trends. These sites provide
long-term temporal and spatial data such as average temperature, rainfall and
other ecological processes. The main purpose of LTERs for urban ecologists is
the collection of vast amounts of data over long periods of time. These long-term
data sets can then be analyzed to find trends relating to the effects of the urban
environment on various ecological processes, such as species diversity and
abundance over time.Another example is the examination of temperature trends
that are accompanied with the growth of urban centres.

Urban effects on the environment

Humans are the driving force behind urban ecology and influence the environment
in a variety of ways, such as modifying land surfaces and waterways, introducing
foreign species, and altering biogeochemical cycles. Some of these effects are
more apparent, such as the reversal of the Chicago River to accommodate the
growing pollution levels and trade on the river. Other effects can be more gradual
such as the change in global climate due to urbanization.

Modification of land and water ways

Humans place high demand on land not only to build urban centers, but also to
build surrounding suburban areas for housing. Land is also allocated for
agriculture to sustain the growing population of the city. Expanding cities and
suburban areas necessitate corresponding deforestation to meet the land-use and
resource requirements of urbanization. Key examples of this are deforestation in
the United States and Brazil.

Along with manipulation of land to suit human needs, natural water resources
such as rivers and streams are also modified in urban establishments.
Modification can come in the form of dams, artificial canals, and even the reversal
of rivers. Reversing the flow of the Chicago River is a major example of urban
environmental modification. Urban areas in natural desert settings often bring in
water from far areas to maintain the human population and will likely have effects
on the local desert climate.Modification of aquatic systems in urban areas also
results in decreased stream diversity and increased pollution.

Trade, shipping, and spread of invasive species

Both local shipping and long-distance trade are required to meet the resource
demands important in maintaining urban areas. Carbon dioxide emissions from
the transport of goods also contribute to accumulating greenhouse gases and
nutrient deposits in the soil and air of urban environments. In addition, shipping
facilitates the unintentional spread of living organisms, and introduces them to
environments that they would not naturally inhabit. Introduced or alien species are
populations of organisms living in a range in which they did not naturally evolve
due to intentional or inadvertent human activity. Increased transportation between
urban centres furthers the incidental movement of animal and plant species. Alien
species often have no natural predators and pose a substantial threat to the
dynamics of existing ecological populations in the new environment where they
are introduced. Such invasive species are numerous and include house
sparrows, ring-necked pheasants,European starlings, brown rats, Asian
carp, American bullfrogs, emerald ash borer, kudzu vines, and zebra
mussels among numerous others, most notably domesticated animals

Human effects on biogeochemical pathways

Urbanization results in a large demand for chemical use by industry, construction,

agriculture, and energy providing services. Such demands have a substantial
impact on biogeochemical cycles, resulting in phenomena such as acid
rain, eutrophication, and global warming. Furthermore, natural biogeochemical
cycles in the urban environment can be impeded due to impermeable surfaces
that prevent nutrients from returning to the soil, water, and atmosphere.

Demand for fertilizers to meet agricultural needs exerted by expanding urban

centers can alter chemical composition of soil. Such effects often result in
abnormally high concentrations of compounds including sulfur, phosphorus,
nitrogen, and heavy metals. In addition, nitrogen and phosphorus used in
fertilizers have caused severe problems in the form of agricultural runoff, which
alters the concentration of these compounds in local rivers and streams, often
resulting in adverse effects on native species. A well-known effect of agricultural
runoff is the phenomenon of eutrophication. When the fertilizer chemicals from
agricultural runoff reach the ocean, an algal bloom results, then rapidly dies
off. The dead algae biomass is decomposed by bacteria that also consume large
quantities of oxygen, which they obtain from the water, creating a "dead zone"
without oxygen for fish or other organisms. A classic example is the dead zone in
the Gulf of Mexico due to agricultural runoff into the Mississippi River.
Just as pollutants and alterations in the biogeochemical cycle alter river and
ocean ecosystems, they exert likewise effects in the air. Smog stems from the
accumulation of chemicals and pollution and often manifests in urban settings,
which has a great impact on local plants and animals. Because urban centres are
often considered point sources for pollution, unsurprisingly local plants have
adapted to withstand such conditions.

Urban effects on climate

Urban environments and outlying areas have been found to exhibit unique local
temperatures, precipitation, and other characteristic activity due to a variety of factors
such as pollution and altered geochemical cycles. Some examples of the urban effects
on climate are urban heat island, oasis effect, green house gases, and acid rain. This
further stirs the debate as to whether urban areas should be considered a unique biome.
Despite common trends among all urban centers, the surrounding local environment
heavily influences much of the climate. One such example of regional differences can be
seen through the urban heat island and oasis effect.

Urban heat island effect

Graphical representation of the rising temperature in Kanto, Japan due to urban

heat island.
The urban heat island is a phenomenon in which central regions of urban centers
exhibit higher mean temperatures than surrounding urban areas. Much of this effect can
be attributed to low city albedo, the reflecting power of a surface, and the increased
surface area of buildings to absorb solar radiation. Concrete, cement, and metal surfaces
in urban areas tend to absorb heat energy rather than reflect it, contributing to higher
urban temperatures. Brazel et al. found that the urban heat island effect demonstrates a
positive correlation with population density in the city of Baltimore. The heat island effect
has corresponding ecological consequences on resident species. However, this effect
has only been seen in temperate climates.

Greenhouse gases

Greenhouse gas emissions include those of carbon dioxide and methane from the
combustion of fossil fuels to supply energy needed by vast urban metropolises. Other
greenhouse gases include water vapor, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Increases
in greenhouse gases due to urban transport, construction, industry and other demands
have been correlated strongly with increase in temperature. Sources of methane are
agricultural dairy cows and landfills.

Acid rain and pollution

Smokestacks from a wartime production plant releasing pollutants into the atmosphere.
Processes related to urban areas result in the emission of numerous pollutants, which
change corresponding nutrient cycles of carbon, sulfur, nitrogen, and other
elements. Ecosystems in and around the urban center are especially influenced by these
point sources of pollution. High sulfur dioxide concentrations resulting from the industrial
demands of urbanization cause rainwater to become more acidic.Such an effect has
been found to have a significant influence on locally affected populations, especially in
aquatic environments. Wastes from urban centers, especially large urban centers in
developed nations, can drive biogeochemical cycles on a global scale.
Urban environment as an anthropogenic biome
The urban environment has been classified as an anthropogenic biome,which is
characterized by the predominance of certain species and climate trends such as urban
heat island across many urban areas. Examples of species characteristic of many urban
environments include, cats, dogs, mosquitoes, rats, flies, and pigeons, which are all
generalists. Many of these are dependent on human activity and have adapted
accordingly to the niche created by urban centres.

Sustainable communities :
Sustainable communities tend to focus on environmental and economic sustainability,
urban infrastructure, social equity, and municipal government. The term is sometimes
used synonymously with ―green cities,‖ ―eco-communities,‖ ―livable cities‖ and
―sustainable cities.‖

Case Studies:

Entities Empowering Rural Communities – Solar

Case Study 1: Solar Electrification & Night Schools in Village Patan, Rajasthan
Location: Patan, Rajasthan
Activity: Solar Electrification and Night Schools for children living in Patan.
Patan is a small village, 7 kms from Tilonia (near Ajmer district of Rajasthan). It has been
provided not only light to this village through solar lanterns, it has also organized a night
school for all the children living where the children attend their classes using solar lights.
The schools run every day from 6p.m. to 10p.m. These children who come to study go to
work in the morning like helping in the farm, cattle grazing and doing other day to day
chores but still have energy left to sing the rhymes and poems taught at their night
school. The teachers teaching the kids at Village Patan undergo a ten day training
programme, once in a year during off season of farming and meet monthly to discuss
new methods, drawbacks and improve their teaching skills.

Case Study 2: Lighting 1500 households in West Bengal

Location: Villages in West Bengal
Community population: 1500 households
Activity: Solar electrification
An NGO is working towards electrifying villages in West Bengal by bringing solar lights to
more than 1500 rural households residing in villages in and around the place. The project
also aims to reduce monthly family expenditure on lighting by 50 percent, increase family
income by 20-30% and empower local partners to promote sustainable and clean energy
for these poor and excluded communities in West Bengal. The NGO has also developed
a financing mechanism that allows poor communities to leapfrog the grid and move
straight to solar light since around 85% of the people living in these villages are earning
less that Rs 3000 per month. This means that they will not be able to pay up for Rs.
10,000 solar lights upfront.

Case Study 3: Providing Employment for Musahars (or) Rat Catchers of Bihar

Location: Patna
Community population: 2000
Activity: Solar Thermal Installations.

Musahars, more commonly known as rat catchers are a scheduled caste found in the
states of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh in india.
In the rural areas, Musahars are primarily bonded agricultural labourers, but often go
without work for as much as eight months in a year. Children work alongside their
parents in the fields or as rag pickers, earning as little as 25 to 30 rupees daily. (Less
than US$/day)
The Musahar literacy rate is 3%, but falls below 1% among women. By some estimates,
as many as 85% of some villages of Musahars suffer from malnutrition and with access
to health centres scant, diseases such as malaria and kala-azar, the most severe form of
Leishmaniasis, are prevalent. (Source: Wikipedia)
Besides eating rats, the Musahars are known for producing a good and cheap alcohol.
An NGO named SAAP has taken initiatives to empower this socially and economically
depressed group - MUSAHARS‘ living in parts of Bihar to assist them in solar fabrication.
In the solar fabricating side these rat catchers are working with SAAP for the last six
years.
This has enabled this group of people to have an improved economic status thereby
increasing their quality of life.
Case Study 4: 100% Solar Village, Orissa

Location: New Keringa village, Southern Orissa

Activities: Use of solar lanterns instead of kerosene lamps. (100% solar lit and is the
first solar village in India)

New Keringa is a village in Southern Orissa with about 50 families living there. The
villagers earn their living by breaking stones into construction-grade materials, and
seasonal sale of agricultural products, primarily rice, in nearby markets, sale of plates
made out of leaves etc

The villagers of New Keringa were considered to be the poorest in India since they had a
annual income of about Rs. 7250 per year , which is less than USD 150 per year. The
villagers were unable to work beyond evenings as it would get terribly dark and they had
to return home very early.

New Keringa is the first Indian village to be lit by solar energy. The lives of the villagers
have changed dramatically and each house has been provided with solar lamps.

This project of making this village 100% solar lit was successfully executed by Beyond
Solar ( a US based non-profit) along with D. Light Design, a solar lantern manufacturer
with an office in New Delhi and distribution capabilities throughout India, and South
Orissa Voluntary Action (SOVA), a registered non-government organization (NGO) of
Orissa.

The solar lantern that the village is presently using has a back-up of 40 hours on a single
charge.

Earlier, each family was consuming 11 litres of kerosene spending around Rs.150 per
month (USD $3). Now they are not only saving their money that was earlier spent on
kerosene, they also save 9 hours/week that was earlier spent on commuting to bring the
kerosene to the village.

The lives of the villagers have changed dramatically and each house has been provided
with solar lamps. The average monthly salary of the villagers went up by 50%. The
villagers are also able to work at night using their solar lamps. The children in the village
are now using their solar lamps and are able to study at night.

Entities Empowering Rural Communities – Biomass

Case Study 1 : Smokeless Chulas @ Nandal Village, Maharashtra

Location: Satara District, Maharasthra

Community Population: 500 households.
Activities: Smokeless Chulas Running on Biomass
Nandal is a Village in Phaltan Taluk in Satara District in Maharashtra State. It is located
about 200 kms from Mumbai .
Every family in this village is now an owner of a Bharatlaxmi Stove, which is reducing
their fuel consumption by 30% and smoke emissions by 80% as compared to their
traditional stoves.
The women also report 30% reduction in cooking time, which is a bonus on top of the
health benefits of reduced indoor air pollution.
Smokes free Village Nandal has been made possible through financial assistance of
Cummins Diesel Foundation and technical know-how of ARTI.
The stoves have been supplied by SamuchitEnviro Tech Pvt Ltd. Each family has
contributed just about INR 100 (approx USD 2.5) worth of materials for stove installation.
The total cost for installing each Bharatlaxmi Stove was not more than INR 700 (approx
USD 15).

Case Study 2: First village in India to sell power to grid

Location: Kabbigere village in the Southern Indian state of Karnataka

Community Population: 1000 +
Activity: Biomass Powered Village with self-run biomass power plants.

Kabbigere is a tiny hamlet and a semi-arid village tucked deep inside the Tumkur district
of Karnataka in the Southern Indian state of Karnataka, 2 hours north of Bengaluru.

The households of this village mostly earn their living through agriculture or work at
farms.

Since 2007, this village has been generating power and selling it to the grid through
biomass. The gram panchayat sells the biomass generated power @ Rs. 2.85 kWhto
BESCOM (Bengaluru Electricity Supply Company)

This project is a joint initiative between UNDP- BERI along with the GEF, ICEF and
Government of Karnataka‘s Department of Rural Development and Panchayati Raj.

The biomass gasification plant @ Kabbigere is designed to operate on woody biomass

with a maximum ash content of 6%. The feedstock required for the plant operation is
supplied from the captive plantation being developed over 3000 ha of land growing fast
growing species trees. Kabbigere has a lot of eucalyptus trees and this is commonly
used as a biomass source to generate power. The village also has other trees.
Therefore, eucalyptus is one such feedstock that is commonly used.

There is a reduction in carbon generation through energy plantations. Locals are

regularly trained by the Indian Institute of Science in Bengaluru and employed in the
power plants, increasing generation of skilled labor and employment.
The biogas plants obtain the organic waste for fuel from nurseries set up by 81 self-help
groups, providing income generation opportunities for women from marginalized
communities
Irrigation needs of the villages have been met by building 130 bore wells from the
electricity produced, each shared by five families.

175 households cook with cleaner fuel without any increase in operational costs.
Average household income has increased by 20 per cent because of the income
generating opportunities provided by project.

Case Study 3: Electrification through Biomass Plants in Madhya Pradesh

Location: Kasai village in Madhya Pradesh

Activity: Biomass to Power (Gasifier System designed by Aruna Electrical Works)
Kasai village located @ Madhya Pradesh is a remote, forest-fringe adivasi (tribal) village
with 55 households and a population of 392. The village is not connected to the grid and
therefore has no access to electricity.
The village is endowed with abundant biomass resources in the form of wood (from
forests and farmland), crop residues, and cattle dung and oil seeds. Traditional biomass
(dung, wood and charcoal) continues to be used for cooking and heating purposes in the
village.
In 2005, the Government has been supporting a project in this village to generate
electricity from a small, 10 KW biomass plant. Although the government is funding 100%
of the capital costs, studies reveal that the project is being managed by the local
community, with some technical support from the local Forest Department.
For instance, villagers are responsible for gathering biomass for the plant and collecting
Rs.120 a month from each household (£1.55p) to meet the plant‘s operating and
maintenance costs.
The village now has access to fuel efficient stoves, biogas, biodiesel and biomass
gasification systems for electricity generation.
The village has 2*10 KWe gasification plant installed under this project. These gasifier
systems have been installed by Aruna Electricals.
The uniqueness of this power plant is that electricity is generated using a producer gas
engine, which has been specially developed for this purpose.

Entities Empowering Rural Communities – Biogas

Case Study 1 : Biogas Plants Hermarlahalla Village, Karnataka

Location: Hermarlahalla village, State of Karnataka

Activity: Biogas Plants

An NGO - SKG Sangha has installed biogas plants in the village of Hermarlahalla in
Karnataka.
The biogas plants installed in this village have a capacity of about 25-50 m3 gas per day.
The output residue (slurry) from the biogas plant can be used directly on nearby land as
a fertilizer. SKGS has enabled biogas owners to produce a better quality and saleable
fertilizer from the residue, by including vermicomposting units with biogas plants.
Using these units, women of this village make compost from biogas residue and fibrous
organic material, which is then re-digested by earthworms.
The resultant vermicompost improves the quality of family crops (such as rice, ragi,
coconuts and vegetables), and the liquid output from the vermicomposting unit can be
used to suppress insect pests.
Women can earn about Rs 12,000 per year from selling about half the vermicompost that
they produce, which nearly doubles the family income.
The villages also have toilets attached to domestic biogas plants.

Entities Empowering Rural Communities – Organic Farming

Case Study 1: Village kitchen garden @ Pondicherry

Location: Villages around Auroville region (near Puducherry)
Activities: Organic farming

Volunteers along with Heal the Soil team, organic farming experts and community
leaders visit several villages in different places and help those villagers to grow their own
organic vegetables and fruits near their house. Permaculture training will be given to
those villagers.

This is an on-going project, every Sunday the team visits a village and introduces the
permaculture introduction workshop.

Volunteers will be charged Rs.200/head which will be used for the buying seeds, tools
and providing free trainings to the village communities.

Entities Empowering Rural Communities – Waste Management

Case Study 1: Waste Management @ Pammal, Chennai

Location: Pammal, Chennai

Community population: 200,000 Residents
Activities: Waste management

( Exnora Green Pammal (EGP), a non-governmental Organization,works with residents,

authorities, schools and the private sector to minimize waste and pollution in a suburb of Chennai
– Pammal)
EGP serves over 200,000 residents and provide employment for over 400 people.
Everyday, 9 tons of recyclable materials and 25 tonnes of biodegradable are removed
from waste streams by EGP thereby reducing the waste stream by 80%
Their model of waste management earned EGP certification as a AAA-rated Green
Business for preventing the emission of 5,062 tons of carbon dioxide from waste in 2009.
EGP pays Rs 500 to the municipality for each tonne of compost that EGP produces from
the municipality‘s waste, and Rs 100 per tonne of recyclable material recovered.
Therefore, EGP pays around Rs 35,000 and Rs 45,000 per month to the municipality
They have taken considerable efforts for nearly a decade in managingMuncipal Solid
Waste (MSW) in India and are working towards making India litter free!
The plants electricity that illuminates about 50 street lamps @ Pammal.

Entities Empowering Rural Communities – Energy Efficiency

Case Study 1: Sustainable Water Management Program @Buchkewadi Village, Pune

Location: Junnar District, Maharashtra

Community Population: 1625
Activity: Water Conservation and Management

Buchkewadi Village located in Junnartaluka, Maharashtra. The water requirement of the

entire village is met through a minor irrigation dam built under a USAID program.
The village uses the pumps by rotation under each society to irrigate the individual land
holdings. The pumps are generally in service during the month of October to March.
The village reduces the wastages through smart monitoring and effective controls. The
daily water and energy use is closely monitored by the water committee set up by the
village.

Key Benefits of this Project:

Meter Monitor Audit and continuously Optimize Water and Energy use

Improve water availability for effective utilization by 71%

Immediate energy savings of 27.57% and an overall saving potential of 67%

Reduction in CO2 emissions by the village by 35 Tons/annum

Improvement in livelihood and income by 33% with additional employment months, with
an increase in the income of the village.

Entities Empowering Rural Communities – Water Conservation and Management

Case Study 1: Sustainable Drinking Water Programme @ Kerala

Location: Idukki district, Kottayam district, Alappuzha district – Kerala State

Operational Features:
Demonstrate application of integrated low cost modern and traditional technologies to
solve drinking water scarcity.
Eco restoration through natural catchment area treatment measures.
Strengthen Participatory water shed management model in the context of Kerala State

Result:
Provided safe and adequate drinking water to 94% of the households in midland project
area and 76% of families in Highland project area.
Reduced soil erosion and increased ground water recharge.
Made innovations to make RWHS cost effective and user friendly.
Successfully implemented Bi-dimensional approach in addressing the issues. Short term
measures for intensive problems and long term measures for sustainable solutions.

Entities Empowering Rural Communities – All Renewable Energy Sectors

Case Study 1: Power to Remote Areas of Padarwadi Village, Pune

Location: Padarwadivillage, Pune

Community population: 250+
Activity: Rural electrification

Cummins Power Generation, working in partnership with the Indian Institute of

Technology (IIT) and a local non-government organization (NGO), developed, delivered
and installed a bio-fuel generator in Padarwadi, to power a rice husker and also to pave
the way for a rural electrification model.

The village of Padarwadi is located about 110 kilometres from Pune. The people of
Padarwadi are essentially subsistence farmers than rely on the income from their 35-ton
annual rice harvest. A key step in processing the raw rice is de-husking.

Problem Faced by the Villagers - Throughout the year, the villagers would transport the
rice by hand to another village to use its electric de-husker. The journey required scaling
over a kilometer of steep foothills and a return trip for the final cleaning and polishing
process. Without electricity, the residents had no way to de-husk the harvest efficiently
themselves.

Working with the Cummins Engine Research Facility (CERF), a partnership with IIT
Mumbai, and Maharashtra Arogya Mandal, Cummins India met with villagers to explore
solutions. The result was an electric generator that could use oil extracted from local
pongamia seeds for fuel.

The seeds are readily available and considered a renewable (green) fuel as well. The
emission by products are equally innocuous. The energy produced powers the village‘s
new electric de-husker and other needs—making the village much more self-sufficient.
Now, the entire harvest process is conducted efficiently and more cost-effectively in
Padarwadi.
The company as a part of its corporate sustainability program provided a Cummins
generator that run on vegetable oil using 3 edible seeds from the village thereby
providing power to the village.

This village is located in a rocky mountain and can be reached by foot. Cummin team
visited this place and helped them to carry all the equipments along with the village
residents, including the engine which weighed 250kgs.

Once all the equipments‘ where brought to the village it was assembled and set for work.
They had power and the rice mill was set to work.

Thanks to the new generator, they are selling hulled rice, rick husks and oil and cake
from harvesting and milling Pongomia seeds. The oil and can be used for medicinal
purposes and the cake can be used as fertilizer. This has resulted in significantly more
revenue that‘s helping to improve the quality of life in the village.