Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
PRESSURE
Synopsis
Gravity dependent and independent units of force and pressure are given. The concepts
of liquid head, static pressure and various other pressure definitions are introduced.
Important manometer types are surveyed and the essential principles of operation
explained.
Secondary elements (bellows, metallic diaphragm, force balance, bourdon spring) are
compared to more modern electronic versions (strain gauge, variable reluctance and
capacitance, vibrating wire and solid state sensors).
The important principles of pressure transmitter selection are outlined and reinforced
by the case study. Calibration of transmitters is outlined.
❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖
Force
Force can be defined independently of weight.
The amount of effort it takes to accelerate an object horizontally (say) is the same no matter what
the gravity. Even on the moon!
The Newton is the unit of force which is gravity independent.
Pressure Fundamentals
Pressure is a force applied to or distributed over a surface. The pressure (P) of a force (F) distributed
over an area (A) is defined as:
P= F
A
Consider the following arrangement whereby multiples of equal weights compress a volume of air
within a cylindrical container.
Fig. 4.1 The air compresses to its minimum Fig. 4.2 For the same cylinder (A =
volume and exerts a force in all directions within constant), the increased downward push is
the cylinder. This is the static pressure exerted proportional to the height of the
by the gas. accumulated weights h 1 and h2 as long as
the gas has not not approached the limits of
As the weight increases, the pressure within the its easy compressibility.
cylinder increases.
The downward forces referred to above are all weight forces which are local gravity dependent. It is
always necessary to compensate for local gravity when “head” pressures are cited in widely different
localities. The higher above sea level one goes, the less an object weighs. It is also latitude dependent.
Liquid Head
- Inches of water 1" W.G. @ 200C = 248.7 Pa
(in.WG or inH2O)
- mm of water 1 mm W.G. @ 200C = 9.79 Pa
- mm of Mercury 1 mm Hg @ O0C = 1 Torr
The usage of “liquid head” stems from the practical historical usage of manometers.
Manometers
Meniscus
Fig. 4.4a U-Tube Fig. 4.4b Well (Reservoir) Fig. 4.4c Inclined Manometer
Manometer Manometer
a. The U-Tube is the easiest to manufacture and most widely used type. Measurements are
taken from the topmost point of the curved surface (meniscus) of Hg and the lowest point of
H20.
Fig. 4.6
b. The Well manometer amplifies the smaller level movement in the larger reservoir by using a
narrower scaled tube. This increases sensitivity of measurement in the ratio of the areas of the
tubes.
c. In the Inclined manometer, the inclined leg further amplifies the small level fluctuations of
the larger well by the sine of the angle of inclination. The narrower tube can be parabolically
curved to extract the square root and read flow rate directly.
Often dyed oil is used in these devices and detergent is added to reduce frictional effects with
the glass. The instrument is supplied with the quoted specific gravity of the oil used.
d. The Mercury Float manometer uses a metallic displacer which floats in mercury. The pointer
passes through the gland and indicates against a scale.
e. The Bell-type manometer is used extensively in industry to measure low pressures, with a
range generally from 2 - 20cm of water. With proper design to minimise friction, this gauge
can be made responsive to the smallest pressure variations normally encountered in industry,
except for those measurements which might be termed high vacuum.
The theory of the bell-type gauge is extremely simple. When no pressure above atmosphere
or other reference pressure is applied, the bell just rests on the bottom. The counterbalance is
so adjusted that with no extra pressure under the bell, the bell will just sink. As pressure is
applied to the inside of the bell, the difference between the external atmospheric pressure and
the inside pressure becomes a lifting force. As the bell leaves the liquid, it loses some of its
buoyant force. It will rise until the forces balance again: the gravitational pull (weight) plus
the exterior force must equal the internal lifting force plus the buoyant forces.
Actual design will employ springs, lever, and weights to establish the force systems. The
range can be governed.
Fig 4.7 With this design of the bell-type instrument, most of the
bell will be out of the liquid when the differential pressure is zero.
Increasing the differential will then force the bell down against
the action of the spring and the lower pressure. Whether the
pressure forces the bell up or down is of no concern in studying
the characteristics of this type of instrument.
Other Manometers
Ring Balance Type
This type of instrument is frequently used for the
measurement of low differential pressures of the order of a
few inches of water gauge. The essential portion of this
instrument consists of a hollow ring of circular section,
partitioned at its upper part and partially filled with a liquid
in order to form two pressure-measuring chambers. The body
of the ring is supported at its centre by a knife edge resting
on a bearing surface, or by roller-bearings or ball-bearings.
The force which operates the instrument is due to the
difference between the pressures on the two sides of the Fig. 4.8 Ring balance
partition.
The fluids whose pressure difference is required are fed into the ring by flexible connections. These
are placed so that their length and movement are at the minimum. The ring is balanced by a control
weight which is at its lowest point when the pressure is the same on both sides of the partition.
This ring will therefore rotate in a counter-clockwise direction until this moment is balanced by the
torque of the counterweight.
The ring is attached directly to a pointer.
Differential Pressure
Differential head type
flowmeters are the most
economical of all the flow-rate
devices. They perform well
with both liquids and gases. A
great deal of data and
experience are available to
support their position. Their
major limitations are difficulty
in reading low flow rates, a
square-root relationship in
readout, and inability to cope
with certain types of fluids (e.g.
slurries).
Some of these difficulties can
be overcome by other types of
flowmeters, such as the
magnetic flowmeter.
As the picture shows, the effect
of the measured pressure is to
increase the height of a column
of material above its Fig. 4. 10 Differential Pressure Profile with Orifice Plate
equilibrium state. The
difference in pressure between the process and reference is proportional to the height of fluid
supported.
Fig. 4.11
Secondary Elements
A. Mechanical Transducers
Any material will be distorted when any force, no matter how small, is applied.
The most useful applications of this principle are:
i. Bellows
ii. Bourdon Tubes
iii. Metallic Diaphragm
iv. Force Balance
The first three act as springs and, as such, display the following properties.
a. Deformation is proportional to applied force (Hooke’s Law)
b. Hysteresis is negligible
c. Very small percentage strain, ie. little potential movement, within elastic range, for an applied
force.
1. Bellows
The practical limitations of material selection usually limit the bellows to measurements from 0.5
to 70 psi. By increasing the diameter of the bellows force, pressures as low as 0.06 psi (400Pa) can
be measured.
2. Bourdon Tube
4. Force Balance
Force balance pressure transmitters are closed loop feedback devices. In a force balance unit,
pressure displaces an element. The amount of displacement is detected and the element is returned
to a null or zero displacement position by a restoring force which can be pneumatic.
Force balance type transmitters have been around for a long time and are familiar to many users.
They are rugged and work well with high pressures. But, they are big and can be sensitive to
vibration and temperature.
In the situation above, a “force-balance” principle is employed to generate a pneumatic signal
proportional to the diaphragm deformation.
As the force bar is deflected towards the nozzle, back pressure in the nozzle is communicated to the
output signal and the feedback bellows.
These bellows bring the force bar to a new equilibrium position.
B. Electronic Transducers
The common pressure measurement techniques are strain gauge, force balance, variable reluctance,
capacitance, vibrating wire, and solid state.
- Strain gauges exhibit a change in electrical resistance that is proportional to a deformation that
occurs when they are stretched. Thus, strain gauge elements can be used to convert mechanical
displacement caused by pressure into an electronic signal. Strain gauge pressure sensors are classified
by the material used for the strain gauge element and the method used to mount it to a mechanical
element (diaphragm or beam) that will be deformed under pressure. In most instances, variable
resistive strain gauge elements are configured into a Wheatstone bridge. The circuit will also
include other resistors to provide adjustment capability and temperature compensation.
Metallic strain gauge elements are generally bonded or thin film types. In bonded strain gauges,
the metallic element is cemented to the strained element. In thin film sensors, the strain gauge is
vapour deposited or sputtered onto a mechanical sensing element. Piezoresistive strain gauges are
solid state devices in which the resistive element is imbedded or diffused in the strained member.
There is a difference in pressure transmitters using thin film or diffused strain gauge sensors so it’s
worth taking a moment to examine them a little closer. Diffused strain gauges are more sensitive
than metallic thin film devices and thus produce a measurable signal at lower strains. However,
they require extra circuitry for temperature compensation and they will not operate at as high a
temperature as those devices using a thin film strain gauge. The upper temperature limit for diffused
silicon strain gauge based transmitters runs between 125 0C and 2000C, depending upon the
manufacturer.
A strain gauge is accurate but non linear. They are inherently temperature sensitive and require
compensation. In addition, some mechanical method must be included in the overall sensing element
to provide overpressure protection.
Accuracy of strain gauge based transmitters can vary from 0.1% to 1.0% F.S., depending upon the
amount of temperature compensation and other circuitry built into them. Obviously, then, price is
a function of accuracy.
- Variable reluctance transmitters operate on the principle of a moveable element changing position
within a magnetic field. As a result, inductance changes to produce an output voltage that is
proportional to the pressure applied to the moveable element. The transmitters are small and
accurate, but they have complicated circuitry and mechanical overpressure protection is required.
- Variable capacitance transmitters operate by having one plate of a capacitor moved when a
pressure is applied. The movement changes the capacitance signal in proportion to the applied
pressure. Capacitance based transmitters are accurate and small in size and weight. They are
simple, reliable, and remain stable over a wide temperature range. These are still the most widely
used method of measuring differential pressure.
The important member of the variable
capacitance family is the differential capacitance
transducer shown right.
Different pressures applied to the external
diaphragms compress silicon oil along ceramic
channels which in turn deform the capacitor
plates (up to .1mm maximum) differently relative
to the sensing diaphragm. The errors inherent in
the separate capacitance measurement are
negated when the difference is taken
electronically. The rigid insulation is glass.
The potential damage to external diaphragms due
to overpressure is significantly reduced by the Fig. 4.18 Electronic Transmitter
moulded face of the sensor body. The diaphragm
is simply pushed back into this moulding and its own shape thereby reinforced.
- Vibrating wire devices rely on an applied pressure to change the frequency of a vibrating wire.
The change in frequency is proportional to the applied pressure. Transmitters using this measurement
method are very accurate, but the sensor tends to be complicated and its operating pressure range is
limited.
- Solid state pressure sensors are usually made of a single silicon crystal and measure a change in
resistance or capacitance as pressure is applied. As pressure is applied, the diaphragm distorts.
Capacitive sensors detect the distortion directly and resistive sensors detect the resulting strain in
the diaphragm. Resistive sensors typically have four resistors in the diaphragm, connected as a
Wheatstone bridge. The resistors are formed by diffusion or ion implantation inside the silicon, or
deposited in a thin film on top of the silicon.
Single crystal silicon is an excellent material for sensors because it exhibits almost no hysteresis
and its electrical properties can be controlled with semiconductor processing.
The sensors are small (less than 1 cm on a side) and the processing equipment is borrowed from the
semiconductor electronics industry, so many sensors can be put on a single wafer. Rather than
handling each sensor individually, 100 sensors can be processed in each operation. Often the
wafers can be handled in a group, allowing the manufacturing cost per sensor to be cut dramatically.
Pressure transmitters using a solid state sensor retain the media isolation benefit of a stainless steel,
oil filled isolator to transmit the pressure signal to the sensor. Because the sensors are so small,
little oil is needed. As a result, sensor performance is not compromised.
Table 4.1
preventing ignition of a specified gas or vapor surrounding the enclosure from sparks or flames
from the explosion of the specified gas or vapor within the enclosure.
To make a system flame-proof, the enclosure must be capable of withstanding an explosion and the
system must be installed per the national standards for hazardous locations.
5. Intrinsically Safe Equipment
Intrinsically safe equipment and wiring are incapable of releasing sufficient electrical energy under
normal or abnormal conditions to cause ignition of a specific hazardous atmospheric mixture.
Abnormal conditions will include accidental damage to any part of the equipment or wiring, insulation
or other failure of electrical components, application of overvoltage, adjustment and maintenance
operations, and other similar conditions.
6. Damping
There are applications where pumps or other process noise pulses must be damped out to get good
control or indication. The more the unit is damped, the slower the response time.
Fig. 4.19
Damping is defined in terms of the “time constant”. It is the time taken to complete 63.2% of the
total rise or decay.
However, there are other cases where system dynamics require a fast transmitter response for ultimate
performance. In this case, one needs to consider that a unit’s output will be affected by the
compounded time constants of its mechanical and electronic operation.
7. Zero Elevation or Suppression
Zero Elevation - for an elevated zero range the amount the measured variable zero (“true” zero) is
above the lower range value. It may be expressed either in units of measured variables or in percent
of span.
Fig. 4.20
Zero Suppression - for a suppressed zero range, the amount the measured variable zero (true zero)
is below the lower range value. It may be expressed either in units of the measured variable or in
percent of span.
These become important when the transmitter needs to be mounted remotely from the process. For
example, in a high temperature application, a wet leg may be employed to distance the transmitter
and allow the process fluid to cool to an amount that won’t damage the sensor.
Compensation for the wet leg will be required in the calibration of the transmitter. In the case
above, zero will be suppressed.
Fig. 4.21
The two-wire device, as the name implies, has only two wires to the transmitters. These wires are
used for both power and signal. The two-wire unit requires an external DC voltage power supply.
The three-wire device also requires an external DC voltage power supply with one lead as common
for both signal and power.
The four-wire device has two wires for signal and two for power. The power required is usually 115
or 230 VAC, and the unit has a built-in transformer, rectifier and regulator.
Fig. 4.22
Wiring should consist of twisted pairs. Most transmitters do not require shielding, but it is
recommended to eliminate noise pickup from electric motors, inverters or other noise generating
electrical equipment in the area.
The size of the wire is usually not critical; 18 gauge is usually sufficient. The resistance of the wire
adds to the total load, and in most cases simply requires a
power supply of sufficient voltage to handle the entire
voltage drop across the System.
Special consideration is required when using computers,
especially where sampling times are short. Electronic
transmitters often have internally generated driving
frequencies which may show up as high frequency noise
on the output. As an example, assume the sample time is
85 micro-seconds, and assume some 50 kHz frequency noise
on the line, which would have an equivalent period of
approximately 6.4 micro-seconds. The integration time to
average out this noise is only 13.4 cycles. This does not
allow enough time to completely integrate a high level noise.
If it is significantly high, a filter should be considered.
Fig. 4.23
B. Performance Specifications
In order to evaluate the performance specifications of a transmitter and be able to compare the
specifications of various manufacturers, their definitions must be understood.
a. Reference Accuracy - Point Accuracy?
% URL?
% Span?
b. Hysteresis
c. Repeatability
d. Reproducibility
e. Temperature Effect
f. Overpressure Effect
g. Static Pressure Effect
h. Vibration Effect
k. Power Supply & load limitations
Case Study
Fig. 4.26
Model 3051C
Differential Pressure Transmitter
Introduction
The Model 3051C Coplanar Smart Pressure Transmitter is a high-performance extension of the
Rosemount ® pressure instrument line. The Model 3051C is one of a distinguished Rosemount
SMART FAMILY group of microprocessor-based field instruments.
The Model 3051C benefits from the proven capacitance cell technology pioneered by the Rosemount
Model 1151. Digital technology used in the Model 3051C ensures maximum accuracy and
rangeability, as well as an easy interface between the field and the control room. In addition, the
output is software-selectable for linear or square root.
The extensive use of application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs) and surface-mount electronic
technology significantly reduces the size and weight of the transmitter. This, coupled with the
Coplanar process connection, ensures easy installation.
All SMART FAMILY instruments communicate using the HART (Highway Addressable Remote
Transducer) protocol with the hand-held HART Communicator and Rosemount System 3 process
control systems. Figure 4.29 shows the Model 3051C and the HART Communicator.
In addition to remote communications, the Model 3051C allows you to adjust the analog output
span and zero locally through the use of integral adjustments. An optional digital meter adds
diagnostic capabilities and allows you to read the digital process variable at the transmitter.
Definitions
Table 4.2
Fig 4.27
Communication Format
The Model 3051C communicates via the HART protocol, which uses an industry standard Bell 202
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) technique. Remote communiation is accomplished by superimpos-
ing a high-frequency signal on top of the 4-20 mA output signal. The Rosemount implementation
of this technique allows simultaneous communications and output without compromising loop
integrity. The Model 3051C will communicate with any host that incorporates the HART protocol.
Software Functionality
The HART protocol allows the user easy access to the Configuration, Test, and Format capabilities
of the Model 3051C.
Configuration
The Model 3051C can be configured easily from the Model 268 or 275 hand-held interface or a
Rosemount control system. Configuration consists of two parts. First, the transmitter operational
parameters are set, which include:
* 4 and 20 mA points
* Linear or square root output
* Damping
* Engineering unit selection
Second, informational data can be entered into the transmitter to allow identification and physical
description of the transmitter. This data includes:
• Tag: 8 alphanumeric characters
• Descriptor: 16 alphanumeric characters
• Message: 32 alphanumeric characters
• Date
• Integral Meter Installation
• Flange Type
• Flange Material
• Drain/Vent Material
• 0-ring Material
• Remote Seal Information
In addition to the configurable parameters discussed here, the Model 3051C software contains
several kinds of information that are not user-changeable: transmitter type, sensor limits, minimum
span, fill fluid, isolator material, module serial number, and transmitter software revision level.
Test
The Model 3051C performs continuous self-tests. In the event of a problem, the transmitter acti-
vates the user-selected analog output warning. A Model 268 or 275 or Rosemount control system
can then interrogate the transmitter to determine the problem. The transmitter outputs specific
information to the Model 268 or 275 or control system identifying the problem for fast and easy
corrective action. If an operator believes there is a loop problem, the transmitter can be directed to
give specific outputs for loop testing.
Format
The format function is used during the initial setup of a transmitter and for maintenance of the
digital electronics. It allows the sensor and the 4-20 mA output to be trimmed to meet plant
pressure standards. In addition, a characterize function allows the user to prevent accidental or
deliberate adjustment of the 4 and 20 mA setpoints.
Specifications
Functional Specifications 4 -300 to 300 psi.
Static Pressure Limit will be from 0 to 36 seconds for one time con-
stant. This is in addition to sensor response time
Operates within specifications between static line of 0.2 second (0.4 second for inert fill).
pressures of 0.5 psia and 3,626 psig (2,000 psig
for Range 1). Performance Specifications
For Options Fl, F2, GI, and G2, limit is 0.5 psia
(Zero-based spans, reference conditions, silicone oil fill,
to the flange rating. 316 SST isolating diaphragms, and digital trim values
Temperature Limits equal to the 4-20 mA span setpoints.)
Silicone fill sensor: -40 to 250 0F (-40 to 121 ±0.075% of span for spans from 1:1 to 10:1 of
0
C)(2). Inert fill sensor: 0 to 185 0F (-18 to 85 URL.
0
C)(3). For Range 1, accuracy equals ±0.1% of span
Ambient: for spans from 1:1 to 15:1 of URL.
-40 to 185 0F (-40 to 85 0C). For spans less than 10:1 (15:1 for Range 1)
rangedown, accuracy =
With integral meter: -4 to 175 0F (-20 to 80 0C). URL
±[0.025 + 0.005 ( Span ) ]% of Span
Storage:
-50 to 230 0F (-46 to 110 0C). (Reference accuracy includes hysteresis, termi-
nal-based linearity, and repeatability of the pres-
With integral meter: -40 to 185 0F (-40 to 85
sure sensor.)
ºC).
(1) Process temperatures above 185 0F (85 0C) Stability
require derating the ambient limits by a 1.5:1
ratio. ±0.1% of URL for 12 months (±0.2% for Range
(2) 220 0F (I 04 0C) limit in vacuum service. 1).
(3) 160 0F (71 0C) limit in vacuum service.
Static Pressure Effect
Failure Mode Alarm
Zero Error (can be calibrated out at line
If self-diagnostics detect a gross transmitter fail- pressure)
ure, the analog signal will be driven either be-
low 4 mA or above 20 mA to alert the user. High ±0.1% of URL/1,000 psi (6.9 MPa) for line
or low alarm signal is user-selectable by internal pressures from 0 to 2,000 psi (0 to 13.7 MPa),
jumper. ±0.2% of URL/ 1,000 psi (6.9 MPa) for line
pressures above 2,000 psi (13.7 MPa).
Humidity Limits
±0.25% of URL/1,000 psi (6.9 MPa) for
0-100% relative humidity. Range 1.
Turn-on Time
Span Error
Performance within specifications less than 2.0
±0.2% of reading/1,000 psi (6.9 MPa).(1)
seconds after power is applied to transmitter.
±0.4% of reading/1,000 psi (6.0 MPa) for
Volumetric Displacement Less than 0.005 in3
Range 1.
(0.08 cm3).
(1) Ranges 4 and 5; See manual for calibration pro-
Damping cedure.
Analog output response to a step input change
Activity
Use the information in the Case Study to deal with the following considerations.
(i) Very high static pressures can be a source of error in some types of capacitative transduc-
ers.
(ii) Increased R & D costs in specialised electronics need to be offset by efficient design.
(iii) In the field, interfacing with the instrument should be convenient and safe.
(iv) The instrument should withstand a hostile environment.
(v) Mounting the instrument should be as direct as possible, be low cost and protected from
spurious effects.
(vi) A wide rangeability is pivotal to greater application flexibility and hence lower inventory
and design planning costs result.
(vii) Zero and span adjustments should be convenient.
(viii) Trouble-shooting should be easy.
(ix) Overpressure rating at least 150% above maximum rating pressure is desirable.
Fig. 4.36
Summary
Pressure is defined as Force per Area.
The Newton is a unit of force which is independent of gravity.
The S.I. Unit for pressure is the Pascal = Newton/m2.
Pressure can also be expressed as ‘head”.
Absolute Pressure is measured from full vacuum, whereas Gauge Pressure is measured above at-
mospheric pressure.
Differential pressure can be used with devices to infer flow.
Mechanical Pressure Transducers include bellows, Bourdon tube, metallic diaphragms and force
balance.
Electronic Pressure Transducers include strain gauges, variable reluctance, variable capacitance,
vibrating wire and solid state.
In selecting a pressure transmitter consideration should be given to: temperature, pressure, envi-
ronment, calibration, power supply.
Transmitters should be mounted according to the process conditions.
For accurate readings pressure transmitters should periodically be re-calibrated against a known
standard.
Test
Pressure
1. What is the S.I. Derived unit of pressure:
a. kPa
b. kg/cm 2
c. psig
d. psia
e. Pa
2. In the figure below, what will be the readings on the following gauges?
Differential Pressure Gauge (a) kPa
Gauge Pressure Gauge (b) kPa
Absolute Pressure Gauge (c) kPa
Fig. 4.37
3. A vessel has a pressure of 1305 kPa (gauge) registering on its pressure gauge. Atmos-
pheric pressure is 101.3 kPa.
What would be the absolute pressure in the vessel?
Fig 4. 38
5. Two objects of identical mass are dropped from identical heights at precisely the same
time, one over Sydney, the other over Melbourne. Assuming the resistance to motion due
to air buoyancy and friction is identical, which object will reach mean sea level first?
a. Sydney
b. Melbourne
c. both the same
6. A pressurised vessel has a pressure gauge to measure internal pressure with the main
objective of ensuring that it does not reach a point where the vessel may burst. Would you
use an instrument to measure:
a. Absolute pressure
b. Gauge pressure
c. Differential pressure
7. What is the differential pressure (P1 - P2) being applied to the manometer in the figure.
_______________________ kPa
Fig. 4.40
Third Printing: October 1996
Second Printing: July, 1993
First Printed: October 1991