Fluid

Machine Design: The Basics of Design Engineering
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Fluid Transfer Pumps and Controls • Accumulators,
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Fluids, Connectors, Fluid Handling Components

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● 1.1 Fluids
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● 1.2 Fluid Performance Factors Password
● 1.3 Piping & Tubing
● 1.4 Tube Fittings
● 1.5 Hydraulic Hose
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● 1.7 Quick-action Couplers password emailed to
● 1.8 Manifolds you.
● 1.9 Reservoirs
Filters, Heat Exchangers, and Flow Sensors
● 2.1 Hydraulic and Pneumatic Filters

● 2.2 Air Dryers
● 2.3 Pneumatic Lubricators
● 2.4 Heat Exchangers
● 2.5 Flow Sensors
● 2.6 Gages & Meters
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Seals
● 3.1 O-Rings(Compression Seals)

● 3.2 Pressure-energized Seals
● 3.3 Exclusion Seals
● 3.4 Split-ring Seals
● 3.5 Circumferential Seals
● 3.6 Compression Packings
● 3.7 Diaphragms
Hydraulic & Fluid Transfer Pumps and Controls
● 4.1 Hydraulic Pumps

● 4.2 Fluid Transfers Pumps
● 4.3 Pump Controls
● 4.4 Power Units
Accumulators, Compressors, Vacuum Pumps
● 5.1 Accumulators
● 5.2 Intensifiers
● 5.3 Compressors
● 5.4 Vacuum Pumps
Power Actuators, Motors, and Shock Absorbers
● 6.1 Cylinders
● 6.2 Electrohydraulic Actuators
● 6.3 Electropneumatic Cylinders
● 6.4 Rotary Actuators
● 6.5 Fluid Motors

● 6.6 Hydrostatic Drives

● 6.7 Hydrokinetic
● 6.8 Hydroviscous
● 6.9 Shock Absorbers
● 6.10 Hydraulic Speed Control
Power Modulation and Control
● 7.1 Pressure Valves

● 7.2 Flow Valves
● 7.3 Proportional Valves
● 7.4 Servovalves
● 7.5 Fluid Transfer Valves
● 7.6 Pneumatic Pressure Regulators
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A key element in fluid systems is the means of transmitting power customize your own
from one location to another. page with quick access
Constructing a hydraulic or pneumatic system involves the design sites, news of interest,
or selection of numerous components, and determining how they and previous searches!
will all interact. A point that is often overlooked is that the fluid,
and the means of moving it from one location to another, are
critical in any fluid-power system.
Because the functions of hydraulic fluid are rather basic -- to your login information.
transmit power efficiently and lubricate moving parts, with low E-mail:
maintenance -- it is often taken for granted. But using the wrong
fluid, or not maintaining it properly, means less than optimum
performance, and can even destroy a system. Likewise, dirty air Password:
can foul compressors, jam valves, and ruin instrumentation.
In addition to fluids, the various lines that transmit fluid -- tubing, Remember My
hose, and connectors -- and the components that keep the fluid in Password
good working order -- heat exchangers, filters, lubricators, and
dryers -- are essential ingredients to fluid-power systems.
Fluids Please enter your email

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Petroleum-based fluids (hydrocarbons) traditionally have

been the principal choice for hydraulic work. This choice
remains popular where there is no danger of fire, no
possibility of leakage into spoilable industrial products,
no wide temperature variations, and no environmental
considerations.
Fire protection, however, may dictate selection of a

nonpetroleum fluid, especially when a broken hydraulic
line could spray fluid into an ignition source. Work
environment may suggest a nonhydrocarbon fluid where
a hydrocarbon fluid could spoil food-related products or
pollute a river.
Hydraulic fluid must also be evaluated for general
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compatibility with the system. Fluids are divided into five

classifications for purposes of evaluation: premium
antiwear, standard antiwear, rust and oxidation-inhibited
nonantiwear, water-based, and phosphate esters. Also,
standard antiwear and nonwear fluids are ranked
according to their stability properties.
Premium antiwear fluids are recommended for systems

using both piston and vane equipment. The fluids permit
operation at full catalog rating with maximum life
expectancy. Seal materials usually considered for these
fluids are Buna-N or Viton-A; temperature range is 0 to
160°F.
Standard antiwear fluids are somewhat less stable

than the premium fluids because they contain more
additives. The fluids can be used with piston pumps, but
speed must be limited to 1,800 rpm, temperature to
150°F, and pressure to 3,000 psi.
Vane equipment, on the other hand, can be used at

maximum catalog ratings with maximum life expectancy.
Recommended seal materials are Buna-N or Viton-A ;
temperature range is 0 to 160°F.
This class of fluids includes a less-stable group. The

group contains fluids such as crankcase oils for gasoline
and diesel engines. The same operating restrictions
apply, but no stability criteria are given. Hence, systems
using these fluids should have special controls for
filtration, water contamination, foaming, and
temperature.
Nonantiwear, rust and oxidation-inhibited fluids are also

divided into stable and less-stable types. The stable
fluids, such as turbine oils, are the preferred fluids for
piston equipment. The fluids permit operation at full
catalog ratings with maximum life expectancy.
These fluids can be used with specially designed severe-

duty vane equipment but at reduced ratings and life.
Recommended seal materials are Buna-N or Viton-A;
temperature limits are 0 to 160°F.
The less-stable class of these fluids includes tractor and

transmission fluids. They are suitable for use in piston

equipment at full catalog rating, but life expectancy is
difficult to predict. Again, the fluids should be used only
with specially designed vane equipment at reduced
ratings and life expectancy.
Water-based fluids include invert emulsions and water

glycols. Piston pumps operate satisfactorily on these
fluids but have certain limitations. For instance, absolute
inlet pressure should be about 25% higher than with
petroleum-based fluids, and minimum inlet pressure is
13 psia. Because these fluids have lower lubricity,
operating pressure is limited to about 3,500 psi, and
speed to 1,800 rpm.
Only specially designed severe-duty vane pumps can be

used with these fluids. Again, absolute inlet pressure
should be 25% higher than with petroleum-based fluids,
and minimum inlet pressure is 13 psia. Recommended
seal materials are Buna-N or Viton-A. Operating
temperature range is 50 to 120°F.
Phosphate esters can be used with piston and vane

equipment at full catalog ratings. However, absolute
inlet pressure should be about 35% higher than for
petroleum-based fluids. Viton-A seals are compatible
with most phosphate esters; however, some of these
fluids require EPR seals. Temperature range is 0 to
160°F.
VITON® is a registered trademark of DuPont Dow

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The trade-offs necessary to choose a fluid involve a

consideration of application requirements such as
health, safety, and environmental effects, and fluid
properties such as viscosity, stability, compressibility,
gas solubility, and lubricity.
Viscosity measures how a fluid resists flow. It is the

single most important property of a hydraulic fluid. A
hydraulic fluid that is too viscous usually causes high-
pressure drop, sluggish operation, low-mechanical
efficiency, and high-power consumption. High-pressure,
high-precision systems are particularly sensitive to
viscosity at low temperatures. They can be penalized
harshly by pump cavitation and sluggish response of
critical actuators.
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Low-viscosity fluids permit efficient low-drag operation,

but tend to increase wear, reduce volumetric efficiency,
and promote leakage. In theory, this leakage can be
predicted on the basis of fluid viscosity and streamline
flow through a known gap. But the clearance of some
pump leakage paths depends on operating pressure
and temperature, so leakage may show considerable
deviation from the theoretical viscosity-flow curves.
Viscosity index measures how viscosity changes with

temperature. Ideally, the fluid should have the same
viscosity at very low temperatures as at high
temperatures. In reality, this goal is unattainable. Fluids
that come close to achieving the goal have high
viscosity indexes; low indexes, on the other hand,
indicate wide fluctuations of viscosity with temperature.
Typical viscosity indexes for petroleum oils range from
90 to 105, and those for polyglycols from 160 to 200.
A high viscosity index is most important in applications

subjected to a wide temperature range: mobile hydraulic
systems used outdoors, industrial systems that are
stopped and started during the winter in an unheated
plant, and the like. These systems require a high
viscosity-index fluid. An industrial system in a heated
plant, on the other hand, could get by with a low
viscosity-index fluid.
Some fluids have fairly high viscosity indexes to begin

with. Others commonly have the viscosity index
bolstered through the use of special additives. The
additives are expensive, and tend to lose effectiveness
under high shear rates during long service. But if
monitored carefully, oils with viscosity-index additives
perform well in industrial service.
Pour point is the lowest temperature at which oil flows

when chilled under specified test conditions. It is
important if the system is regularly exposed to low
ambient temperatures, but relatively insignificant if the
system is to be used inside a heated plant. Pour point of
the oil should be about 20°F below the lowest expected
temperature.

Compressibility is the degree to which a fluid

undergoes a reduction in volume under pressure. As a
rule of thumb, compressibility is about 0.5% for each
1,000-psi pressure increase up to 4,000 psi.
Compressibility, or bulk modulus, has its greatest effect

on performance in servo applications. It determines
system static rigidity and strongly influences system
gain, or amplification. Because compressibility increases
with pressure and temperature, it is important to
systems with high-pressure pumps and motors.
In positive-displacement pumps, the effect of bulk

modulus shows up as a loss in volume. This loss
represents a power loss, because few actuators recover
the compressive energy in the fluid.
Stability is the most important property for longevity of

service. Ideally, the properties of hydraulic fluids should
not change with use. But certain factors can adversely
affect fluid performance.
Mechanical stress from flow and cavitation can shear

polymer chains, breaking down viscosity improvers and
reducing viscosity. Oxidation and hydrolysis tend to
cause chemical changes and the formation of volatile
components, insoluble materials, and corrosive
products.
Heat can also destroy a fluid, and the higher the

temperature, the shorter the life of the fluid. A hydraulic
system should operate below 250°F, ideally between
100 and 150°F. An old rule of thumb states that for
every 10°C or 18°F of temperature rise, the rate of
oxidation doubles. Thus, a fluid used at 110°C has
about half the life as at 100°C.
When a system operates at high temperatures, additives

must be selected carefully. Some additives, while doing
an excellent job at normal operating temperatures, have
limited thermal stability. Chemical breakdown occurs,
and the additive, instead of being a benefit, begins to
harm the system.
Contaminant particle sizes that can be tolerated in a

hydraulic system are the same whether a fluid is

synthetic or petroleum based, emphasizing the need
and importance of good filtration and diligent
maintenance practices. Insoluble contaminants can be
hard particles or sludges and gums. Hard particles can
accelerate wear of closely mated moving parts such as
pumps, motors, and valves. Sludges and gums can slow
valve action, particularly if these agents harden into
varnish films. Furthermore, silting caused by all forms of
solid materials will slow servovalves. Excessive
production of these solids can clog even large filters.
Corrosive agents usually form because of thermal or

oxidative decomposition, or in the course of hydrolysis.
These corrosives are usually acidic, but not all acidic
materials are corrosive. In most instances, corrosion
increases leakage by opening up tolerances of close-
fitting parts. But where pitting occurs, there can be
substantial localized loss of strength.
Lubricating ability is an important quality factor in

hydraulic fluids, since the fluid must lubricate moving
parts of the system to minimize wear. Most petroleum
fluids satisfy the lubrication requirement in pumps,
motors, and valves. However, certain types of hydraulic
pumps and motors place severe load-carrying
requirements on the oil; fluids for these applications
should be fortified by antiwear additives. Where
boundary lubrication conditions prevail, glycol-based
fluids are satisfactory. They are stable in hydraulic
service and their viscosities are unaffected by high rates
of shear. They also resist the formation of varnish and
sludge, and resist viscosity increases caused by soluble
oxidation products.
Volatility is rarely the cause of pump cavitation. The

reason: Vapor pressures of most hydraulic fluids are too
low to cause boiling at the pump inlet. In most systems,
the cause of cavitation is dissolved air.
The amount of gas dissolved in hydraulic fluid depends

on the partial pressure of the gas in contact with the
fluid. Although gas solubility increases slightly with
temperature, pressure has a far greater effect.

Volumes shown in the accompanying graph were

calculated under the assumption that fluids were
saturated with nitrogen at 30 psia, that gas phase
follows the gas laws, that gas evolving from solution is
saturated with vapor of the liquid, and that equilibrium is
established. For pumps with short inlet lines and laminar
flow within the line, the actual volume evolved may be
less, because the fluid does not reach equilibrium.
However, turbulence agitates the fluid and speeds gas
evolution.
To prevent cavitation, some reservoirs -- particularly in

aircraft systems -- are pressurized. Systems pressurized
by pumping air into the reservoir require higher reservoir
and inlet pressure than those pressurized mechanically.
The reason is that air pressurization automatically
dissolves more gas in the fluid.
Aeration and foaming resistance is another important

indicator of fluid quality. Fluid in a hydraulic system
always contains air as entrained bubbles, as well as in
solution. The entrained air tends to increase
compressibility of the fluid, making the system elastic,
noisy, and erratic. Compression of this air generates
heat and can increase oxidation.
Volumetric efficiency of the pump is reduced because

air bubbles in the oil on the inlet side expand as the oil
enters the pump. When the bubbles collapse on the
discharge side, they can produce damage similar to
cavitation erosion. Many high-quality fluids contain
antifoaming additives to release air readily.
Corrosion prevention capabilities of an oil are

important because moisture is always present in
hydraulic systems. Since most components have ferrous
metal surfaces, subject to rusting, corrosion prevention
is essential. It is normally provided through an additive
called a rust inhibitor in the oil. The inhibitor plates out
on the metal surfaces to form a protective film.
Materials compatibility enters the picture as a final

arbiter of which seals and components can be used with
a certain fluid. For example, natural rubber is not oil
resistant and should not be used in hydraulic systems

using petroleum oils.
Synthetic rubbers vary widely in their behavior when

exposed to different fluids. In contact with a given fluid,
some are unaffected, but others swell, shrink, or
otherwise deteriorate.
Most seals in contact with oil are made from nitrile

rubbers. Other materials suitable for oil systems include
Neoprene, silicones, and fluorocarbon rubbers. Most
tubing and fitting manufacturers present extensive
tables of materials compatible with their product
specifications.
Some antirust additives used in hydraulic systems may

attack zinc. Therefore, galvanized and other zinc-coated
surfaces should be avoided. Zinc is also objectionable in
a hydraulic system because products of oil oxidation can
react with it to form metallic soaps.
Other materials susceptible to corrosion are magnesium-

based alloys and lead. Magnesium alloys generally
suffer heavy corrosion when water is present. Lead is
attacked by products of oxidation.
Copper should also be avoided in hydraulic systems, but

for a different reason. It is an effective catalyst in
promoting oxidation of all types of oils. So heat
exchangers should be of steel, rather than copper or
brass.

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Pipe and tubing are used when rigid lines are preferred.
No matter which conductor is used, certain requirements
must be met. The line must be large enough to carry the
flow required, and it must be strong enough to withstand
internal pressures.
Line size can be determined from the amount of fluid

that must be carried and the maximum velocities at
which the fluid may travel. Normally, good design
practice dictates that fluid velocities should not exceed:
● Pressure lines -- 10 to 15 fps.

● Short pressure lines -- to 20 fps.
● Inlet or suction lines - 2 to 5 fps.
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To determine the required wall thickness of pipe and

tubing, apply this basic equation:T=pdM/2S, where p =
pressure, psi; d = outside diameter, in.; M = safety
factor; and S = material tensile strength, psi.
Pipe selection: Pipe generally costs less than tubing,

and is normally used where:
● The pipe can be connected directly to pipe-

threaded connections on system components.
● Disassembly is improbable or very infrequent.
● Large volumes of fluid must be handled, or where
the line is long and straight.
Outside pipe diameter conforms to the corresponding

series for pipe threads. Therefore, the outside diameter
of each nominal size remains constant regardless of
wall thickness. Today, the range of wall thicknesses
available provides an equivalent range of inside
diameters. Inside and outside diameters in nominal pipe
sizes are listed in any standard reference source.
The pipe schedules most commonly used for hydraulic

systems are schedule 40, nearly equal to the former
"standard" designation; schedule 80 (formerly extra
heavy); and schedule 160 (somewhat lighter than the
former double extra heavy). Wall thickness tolerance for
all commercial quality pipe is +12%.
Experts recommend that the following safety factors be

used for noncritical applications:
● 6 for systems in which hydraulic shock, vibration,

and extra stress are not expected.
● 8 for average system conditions.
● 10 for systems where considerable pressure
shock or mechanical abuse is expected.
Tubing selection: Tubing is stronger and neater than

pipe, and has a wider variety of fittings. Whereas pipe is
relatively rigid and unbendable, tubing is easily bent into
forms required for a system. Four common materials are
normally used for tubing.
Steel tubing is the only type permitted by JIC standards

without restrictions. Both seamless and electric-welded

tubing meet requirements.
Copper tubing is restricted by JIC standards to low-

pressure stationary applications and air circuits because
it acts as an oil-oxidation catalyst and tends to work
harden when flared. In addition, copper tubing has poor
resistance to vibration.
Aluminum tubing of seamless quality has good bending

and flaring properties and is approved by JIC for low-
pressure tasks.
Plastic tubing is made from four basic materials: PVC,

polyethylene, nylon, and PTFE. PVC can be used for
pneumatic lines at pressures to 125 psi with continuous
temperatures to 100°F. It can be used with compression
tube fittings designed for plastic tubing and has
excellent abrasion resistance, but loses flexibility below
30°F.
Polyethylene tubing is used for liquids and gas lines at

temperatures from -60 to 160°F. Compression fittings
are acceptable.
Nylon tubing is used for pneumatic lines and low-

pressure hydraulic lines to 250 psi. It is useful at
temperatures from -60 to 200°F. Nylon has good impact
and abrasion resistance but some nylons can be
damaged by moisture.
PTFE tubing can be used to 400°F and 1,000 psi in

certain sizes.
Tubing sizes are designated by a dash system in which

the number given is the numerator of a fraction listed in
16ths of an inch. For example, -- 12 tubing has a 12/16-
in. OD. Hose sizes are similarly designated, except that
the dash number refers to ID rather than OD.
Wall thicknesses of metal tubing can be calculated from

the equation given earlier. Use the safety factor of 4 for
aircraft and missiles and for industrial, stationary,
noncritical applications with minimal shock and abuse; 6
for average industrial applications with normal vibrations

and impulse shock; 8 for JIC standard applications and

for systems exposed to severe hydraulic and
mechanical shock and abuse.

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Temperature and pressure decide which type of tube

fitting is needed. Metal fittings are used for high
temperature and pressures, plastic fittings for low.
Typically, metal fittings are used with metal tubes, but
plastic fittings are sometimes used with metal tubes to
reduce galvanic corrosion.
The fittings used on hydraulic tubing for high-pressure

applications are categorized as either permanent or
separable. Most separable fittings are threaded.
Threaded flare fittings press the flared end of the

tubing against the mating surface of the fitting. As the
fitting pieces are drawn up tight, a conical seal is
formed. Two flare configurations are standard with the
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Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE). The 45° flare is

used extensively in nonhydraulic automotive, refrigerant,
and marine systems. The 37° flare (formerly known as
the JIC flare) is extensively used in hydraulic
applications. The 45° fittings are commonly made of
brass, but 37° fittings are commercially available in
brass, steel, and stainless steel.
Several types of flare fittings are available. Two-piece

fittings place pressure against the flare with a long-
necked nut that aligns and supports the tubing.
Application of tightening torque tends to twist the tubing.
Friction between nut and flare may produce unequal
distribution of the compression force on the flare. The
long-necked nut requires its full length of tubing before a
bend can start.
A three-piece fitting (nut and sleeve) creates tightening

force with a short nut which is transmitted by a sleeve to
the flared tube. No twisting action is transmitted to the
flare and, because the nut is short, tubing bends can be
placed closer to the fitting.
The 60° cone fittings seal by metal-to-metal contact,

with a tapered cone seating onto the tube (or nose in the
hose swivel) in the most widely used version. The
fittings exhibit good sealing reliability, but are highly
torque sensitive in small sizes.
O-ring face-seal fittings compress an O-ring against a

flat face, providing a positive, leak-free seal. They
provide near-instantaneous torque rise when the
connection is tight, ensuring proper installation. And
once hand tight, they require less rotation to seal
properly, making them suitable for plumbing in tight
spaces. O-ring materials must be compatible with the
sealed fluid.
Inverted flare fittings have a 42° flare on the inside of

the fitting body. Inverted flare fittings are used primarily
in automotive applications.
Threaded self-flaring fittings do not require a special

flaring operation. During nut tightening, a special wedge-
shaped sleeve presses against the tubing end to create

a flare. The fitting works best on thin-walled tubing,

where high torque is not required to produce a flare.
This joint is mechanically strong and vibration resistant,
with good reusability.
Threaded flareless fittings do not require a flaring

operation and are usually used with thick-wall tube.
Ferrule type flareless fittings seal by forcing the ferrule
or sleeve cutting edge into the tubing wall to create an
interference seal. The resulting spring-action
mechanical joint offers a leakproof seal and resistance
to vibration.
The 24° cone flareless fitting is second only to the 37°

flared fitting in popularity, and is the most widely used
fitting in Europe. Sometimes called an EO style fitting,
the design incorporates a 24° tapered throat on the
fitting body, and a nut that drives a ferrule into the tube
as it is tightened. Metric threads are specified by DIN
2353 (the SAE J514 version of the 24° cone has UN
and UNF threads). Three different series are offered, LL
for low-pressure, L for high-pressure, and S for high-
pressure, severe-service applications. Sealing is by
metal-to-metal contact, but there is a welded option for L
and S-series fittings that seal with an O-ring as well.
These fittings offer excellent sealing reliability.
The ferrule-fitting principle is also used in an inverted

flareless arrangement, wherein the internal design
configuration is machined in the boss part. The tubing is
inserted directly into the boss and connected with a
male threaded nut which eliminates one seal and
permits closer bends.
Compression fittings seal when both ends of the

sleeve are compressed during assembly and deflect into
the tubing diameter to form two parallel grooves. Since
sealing results from nondestructive surface contact
between sleeve and tubing, longitudinal defects can
affect the seal. Application of this fitting is limited to thin-
walled soft tubing, usually copper, and low-pressure
vibration-free systems.
Permanent fittings may be welded, brazed, swaged, or

adhesively bonded. These fittings were developed by

the aerospace industry, where high reliability, low

installation cost, and light weight are prime factors.
Though developed for aerospace, many of these fittings
are now used in industry. Obviously, they cannot be
reused.
Plastic fittings cannot tolerate extreme heat or high

pressures. But they cost less than metal, stop galvanic
corrosion, deaden noise, and withstand assault by a
wide range of corrosive fluids.
Generally, plastic fittings are well suited to low-

temperature fluid-transfer applications. At pressures
below 500 psi and temperatures below 250°F, plastic
fittings are highly competitive with steel, stainless-steel,
or brass fittings.
Plastic fittings have a pullout resistance ranging from 20

to 300 lb, depending on size, tubing material, and
locking devices. Plastic or metal grippers are used to
increase pullout resistance. Plastic grippers are used
only with plastic tubes, and are so strong that the tubing
tears before it pulls out of the fitting. Metal grippers are
used with metal tubes, and can resist pullout forces over
300 lb.
Although plastic fittings are usually used at pressures of

500 psi or less, some fittings have been tested at much
higher pressures without failure. With polyethylene
tubing, the tubing always fails before the fitting. With
nylon, copper, and steel tubing, failure pressures range
from 250 to 3,000 psi.
Because plastic fittings are molded with smooth internal

surfaces, they have inherently low resistance to flow.
Furthermore, plastic resists scale buildup and does not
rust, so flow passages tend to remain free of
obstructions.

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Hose is widely used in applications where lines must

flex and bend. System pressure, pressure pulses, fluid
velocity, temperature, fluid, and environmental
conditions form important factors in the use of hydraulic
hose.
Pressure: Hoses are impulse tested from 100 to 133%

of rated pressure, to allow for transient pressures. Proof
pressures are 50% of burst pressure. The SAE
recommends that the operating pressure be no more
than 25% of minimum burst pressure. This is an
acceptable safety margin for industrial use, and it also
allows the hose to accept some surge pressures.
Size: Required hose size depends on volume and
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velocity of fluid flow. If fluid velocity is too high, flow is

turbulent and energy is lost.
Sizes available for fluid-power applications range from

3/16 to 3-in. ID. Sizes are designed in 16ths of an inch
by using a "dash" equivalent to the numerator of the
fraction. Thus, "--10" is 10/16 or 5/8-in. size. These dash
sizes are marked on the hose.
Temperature: Hydraulic or pneumatic hoses must be

able to tolerate both the external ambient and the
internal fluid temperatures. A hose with a broad
recommended operating range -- for example, -40 to
200°F -- can accommodate most operating conditions.
Some hose elastomers permit operation at rated
pressure and temperatures up to 300°F; others are
rated for temperatures down to -65°F.
Reinforcement type: The reinforcement may be a

natural or synthetic yarn or fiber, a metal wire, or
combinations. The reinforcement may be braided, spiral
wound, or both. Wire-braid reinforcement, commonly
used for hydraulic applications, provides good service
life at moderate cost. The wire is usually braided with 2
plaits over 2, which is economical and reliable with good
dimensional stability.
Spiral wire-wound hoses are often used for applications

with high-frequency surges in high-pressure systems.
As pressure surges, normal braided reinforced hoses
tend to fail at the wire crossover points in the weave.
These points cause bending and shear in wires that are
already highly stressed. The advantage of spiral wire
reinforcement is that it eliminates touchy crossover
points permitting up to 97% of theoretical total coverage.

Elastomers
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Hose fittings Please enter your email

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Wrong fittings can render even the best hose useless.

The best systems require the right type of fitting, using
the right attachment method, and made of the right
material. Fittings and hoses can be assembled in-house
or purchased as assemblies from manufacturers.
Fittings types: Most fittings can be categorized as

either reusable or permanently attached. Reusable
fittings are screwed onto a hose or are bolted together.
They can be removed from a failed hose and installed
on a new one. Thus, they can save money, and time as
well. Permanent fittings, such as crimped or swaged
fittings, are squeezed onto the hose at assembly. As the
name implies, these are only for onetime use, and must
be discarded when the hose assembly fails. However,
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these fittings generally cost less than reusable fittings,

and require less time to make a hose assembly.
Materials: Fittings are available in a wide variety of

materials; material selection is usually based on
compatibility with the fluid and the environment. Carbon-
steel fittings are most widely used for both high and low-
pressure hydraulic systems. Stainless steel, brass, or
Monel can be used for systems carrying corrosive fluids
or systems used in corrosive environment. Fitting
suppliers can provide a detailed list of materials
available and the fluids that they can handle.
Connections: Hose fittings terminate in a wide variety

of connections that can be used to mate with the
components in the system. Most common connections
are pipe thread, split-flange, straight thread, O-ring seal,
and 37° joints. Pipe threads have limited use on high-
pressure systems; otherwise, all of the systems work for
their appointed tasks.
High-pressure permanently attached fittings are usually

factory assembled on to a standard hose that has been
stripped to the bare metal ("skived"). If crimped, the
fitting is attached by squeezing the socket to compress
the hose between the inner nipple and the radially
squeezed socket. Swaged fittings are assembled by
drawing a fitting through a tapered die to reduce the
outside diameter. These fittings tolerate working
pressure to 12,500 psi.
Medium-pressure screw-assembled fittings are

commonly used for SAE 100R5 series hose plus some
air and refrigerant hoses. With these fittings, no special
preparation of the hose (other than lubrication) is
required before assembly. Such fittings are suitable for
hydraulic and air applications to 5,750 psi.
Field-assembled permanently attached fittings are

similar to the swaged or crimped hoses, but are
assembled on special portable crimping or swaging
machines. Field-assembled units are typically not
skived; instead, SAE 100R hoses with thin covers are
used. They can handle pressures to 5,000 psi.

Bolt-on and segmented reusable fittings are typically

used on large hoses. They are suitable for both air and
hydraulic applications, as well as a variety of other
fluids, at working pressures to 4,000 psi.

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Quick-action couplers Please enter your email

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Many fluid systems require that hose be disconnected

without excessive fluid loss. For these applications,
quick-action couplers are used. They are also used to
reduce the time, effort, and skill required to make and
break fluid connections. Quick-action couplers are
available for hoses from 1/8 to 10 in. diameter. They can
typically handle 3,000-psi pressures. Some connectors
cannot accept pressures this high; a trade-off is
necessary to obtain other important operating
characteristics.
Self-sealing couplers can be used in any part of a

system where the pressure-drop rating on the coupler is
permissible. They are suitable for vacuums down to 10³
torr. On pump supply lines, a size should be selected
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that will not produce about 1.5-psi pressure drop at

required flow.
A wide variety of seals and materials are available for

these couplers: carbon steel, stainless steel, brass,
aluminum, many different plastics, bronzes, titanium,
and proprietary metals that are inert to most chemicals.
Seals are available in Buna N, Neoprene, butyl,
VITON®, silicone, PTFE fluorocarbon, and natural
rubber, plus many proprietary compounds. Selection of
the right materials is simplified by the compatibility
charts furnished by most coupler manufacturers.
Many types of couplers are available but all have a few

factors in common. Each coupler consists of two halves.
Either half may contain a leakproof shutoff valve that
closes automatically when the halves are separated,
and opens when they are connected. The halves are
fitted with a locking device for connecting to each other.
Plain connectors are the simplest and least expensive

quick-action coupler. They consist simply of a male
nipple and a female coupler, joined usually by a spring-
loaded ball-bearing sleeve lock. Typical applications are
in laboratory equipment and machine tools, where
frequent hydraulic connections are required but spillage
is unimportant.
Single-poppet connectors have one plain side and one

side automatically closed by a poppet valve. They
typically cost about 1.5 times as much as comparably
sized and rated plain connectors. In hydraulic circuits
they are usually used where lines can be exhausted
before disconnection, and as the exit connectors for
small portable pumps that spill only a small amount of
fluid. Single-poppet connectors are often used in
pneumatic circuits, where the poppet closes off the air
supply and there is no need to block flow from the
actuators.
Double-poppet connectors are the most common type

for hydraulic applications. They are typically found on
farm equipment, off-road vehicles, and aircraft. The
main advantage of the double-poppet connector is that it
automatically shuts off flow from both sides of the circuit,

allowing only a small volume trapped between the

valves to spill when the coupler is disconnected. This
feature eliminates the need to drain lines before
disconnection, or to provide a means to capture large
volumes of spilled oil. However, a double-poppet
connector costs about twice as much as a comparable
plain connector, has the highest pressure loss of any
type, and usually has the lowest pressure rating for a
given size. In addition, they are mechanically more
complex than plain or single-poppet connectors, and
have more potential leakage paths.
Sleeve and poppet couplers have a self-sealing

poppet in one half and a tubular valve-and-sleeve
arrangement in the other. There is no space for trapped
air. When the coupler halves are disconnected, poppet
and sleeve are fully closed before the external seal is
closed. No fluid is lost upon disconnection; no air is
entrained by the fluid upon connection, so freedom from
fluid loss and air inclusion is the most important
advantage of this type of coupler.
Double rotating ball couplers use a ball in each

coupler half. A passageway through the ball is rotated to
permit flow. Air trapped between the balls enters the
fluid system. This type of coupler causes only a slight
pressure drop but is responsible for significant air
inclusion on connection and fluid loss on disconnection.
Some users report difficulty in sealing when the couplers
are disconnected.
Sliding-seal connectors are generally the Cadillacs of

the line. When they are opened, the seals are flush with
the ends of the coupler and nipple, so spillage is
typically less than 0.12 cc -- even for connectors as
large as 1 in. diameter. In addition, flush seals leave
little space for dirt to collect, and are easily wiped clean.
As a result, sliding-seal connectors are almost always
used for hazardous or toxic fluids and for other
applications where minimum spillage is important.
However, these connectors require the highest forces
for connection under pressure, and cost about 3.5 times
as much as plain connectors.
Stapled coupler is held together with a barbed staple

that eliminates the need for wrenches and other

assembly tools. The coupler consists of an outer half
with openings that accept the staple, and a mating inner
half with grooves. Hoses are connected by pushing the
coupler halves together and installing the staple so that
it passes through the complete assembly. Barbs at the
end of the staple lock the coupler. The coupler can be
disconnected by squeezing the staple to disengage the
barbs.

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Manifolds Please enter your email

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you.
As the number of connections in hydraulic systems

increases, so does the likelihood of leaky fittings and of
tortuous flow paths that stretch out response time. As a
result, hydraulic manifolds are finding greater use in
both mobile and industrial systems.
Manifolding drastically reduces the number of external

connections required, slashing assembly time and
reducing the chance of leakage. But there are other,
almost equally important advantages:
● Space requirements are reduced because many

valves are combined in a single package.
● Actuator response time can be reduced --
sometimes as much as 50% -- because flow
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paths are shortened and straightened.

● System cost can be reduced because of
decreased requirements for tube, hose, and
fittings, and because of decreased assembly
time.
● Maintenance costs are reduced because valves
can be replaced as units.
With these advantages come some limitations. Probably

the most important is that more design time and testing
time are required. Whereas a simple list specifying
fittings, tubing, and hose for a system can usually be
generated in-house within a day, the design of a
manifold block is considerably more complex, usually
calling for the services of outside experts. Manifold
manufacturers typically require one to three weeks to
generate a technical proposal. Fabrication of a prototype
may take as little as one week if only standard
components are used, but may take considerably longer
for special components. And the vital step of prototype
testing adds another few weeks.
Manifold design and testing are costly, but the cost must
be balanced against reduced system assembly costs.
For simple manifolds of three to five valves, the break-
even point may be as few as 20 units; few manifolds are
so costly that the break-even point is more than 1,000
units.
Other factors may limit manifold use in some systems:
● Unit-block manifolds, which combine many valves

and flow paths in one manifold block, are
sensitive to large contaminant particles such as
metal chips, pieces of rag, and sealing tape. In
some systems, a coarse screen is used at the
manifold inlet to filter out these contaminants, but
in most cases the pump filter provides adequate
protection. In systems without a pump filter, a
manifold filter rated at 20 to 25 µm absolute is
recommended.
● Because manifolds and valve packages enclose
flow paths and place valves close to each other,
they tend to produce fluid temperatures
somewhat higher than those encountered in
conventionally plumbed systems. The higher

temperature may affect seal and gasket selection,

and may require a larger oil cooler.
● Although valve replacement is easy in both unit-
block manifolds and valve packages, fault
location is typically more difficult with manifolds
than with valve packages or conventional
systems. The difficulty arises because flow
passages in manifolds are not easily blocked off
to isolate different portions of the circuit.
One way to retain many of the benefits of manifolding

while avoiding much of the design time and cost
associated with unit-block manifolds is to use valve
packages, or "modular manifolds." These packages
consist essentially of valves that bolt directly to each
other, without intermediate plumbing. One set of lines
connects all valves in the package.
In addition to directional-control valves, components

such as flow dividers, flow regulators, check valves, lock
valves, and relief valves are available in modular form.
These attachments can be added to a bank of
directional-control valves to form packages tailored to
specific applications. Because all components are
standard units, design effort is minimal. The valve
packages are typically furnished without extra assembly
charges.
The questions that follow can serve as a quick guide for

evaluating the potential benefits of manifolding valves. If
half or more of the answers are "yes," chances are good
that the use of manifolds will prove cost effective.
● Are valve fittings placed in inaccessible locations?

● Is fluid leakage likely to pose a hazard to
personnel or the environment?
● Is space at a premium?
● Is actuator response time significant?
● Is easy valve maintenance important to the
system user.
● Are locking or crossover valves needed in
association with directional-control valves?
● Is a long production run expected?


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Reservoirs Please enter your email

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Many functions in hydraulic systems are provided by

reservoirs. First, a reservoir holds the fluid in a
convenient spot for the pump inlet. It supplies extra fluid
to the circulating system in the event of leakage or
cylinder extension. In addition, most reservoirs are
called upon to perform a fluid-conditioning role, in which
the turbulent fluid returning from the hydraulic system is
allowed to settle and deaerate. And to complete the
complex list, many users expect a reservoir to exchange
heat with the outside air, thus cooling the heated fluid.
From these complex and occasionally conflicting

requirements have grown a body of folklore about
reservoirs. Elegant rules of thumb proclaim that the
reservoir should be at least three to five times the size of
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the per-minute flow; accordingly, a 50-gpm hydraulic

system is thought to need at least a 150-gallon
reservoir. Actually, most of these intricate rules are
based on the thought that the reservoir must dissipate
much of the system heat. If a heat exchanger is not
available, the rules are generally accurate. If a heat
exchanger is used, the reservoir can be as small as one
time the per-minute flow -- or, a 50-gallon reservoir for
the example system. With astute design of internal
baffles and settling areas, the reservoir can be much
smaller, perhaps as little as one-half to one-third the
flow. And, of course, certain types of closed hydraulic
systems require almost no reservoir at all, using instead
an external makeup pump to put more fluid into the
system as required.
Rules of thumb aside, most applications require a

standard industrial reservoir that performs the standard
gamut of tasks. In general, the reservoirs can be
categorized as integral, dual purpose, or separate.
Integral reservoirs are those built into the structural

members of the hydraulic system or machine. For
example, space within a machine base can often be
made fluid tight at little extra cost, or tubular structural
members in a machine can be used as reservoirs, thus
eliminating the need for extra additional space.
Integral reservoirs offer maximum performance in

minimum space and usually provide an excellent
cosmetic appearance. They must be designed carefully
to surmount possible operating problems such as
localized heating and poor accessibility.
For example, localized heating of a machine base by

high-temperature hydraulic fluid can cause thermal
distortions that produce machine inaccuracies.
Accessibility for cleaning of the reservoir and servicing
intake filters may be difficult or even impossible.
Dual-purpose reservoirs are those in which a common

reservoir is used for hydraulic fluid and lubricating fluid.
For example, a tractor-transmission case is also used as
the reservoir for the tractor hydraulic system. Primary
benefit is the space saved.

Offsetting this are several limitations. The fluid must

meet the requirements of both the hydraulic system and
the transmission gears. In some high-performance
systems, these requirements may be almost mutually
exclusive. In addition, temperature control of the fluid
may be difficult because there are two sources of heat
for the reduced total amount of fluid. If a separate heat
exchanger must be added, space required tends to
offset the saving.
Separate reservoirs are most commonly used for

industrial jobs. They may be rectangular (with pump and
motor mounted on the top), vertical, or L-shaped. With a
rectangular system, the pump inlet line is short and can
be opened without difficulty for servicing. The inlet filter
is readily accessible. A vertically mounted motor and
pump can be combined to reduce space requirements.
The drive motor extends above the tank top, and the
pump is supported on the underside of the top. Although
this arrangement protects the pump and keeps lift
requirements to a minimum, maximum size of the
system is limited. The motor pump cover and any
attached controls must be removed as a unit for
servicing the reservoir.
L-shaped packages have a tall, narrow rectangular tank

with pump and motor mounted beside the tank on a
common base. The pump suction line enters the tank
through the side, either below or above the fluid level. If
the line enters below the fluid level, the reservoir fluid
provides a positive feed to the pump; however, a shutoff
valve must be included to permit servicing the pump
without draining the tank.
A rectangular tank placed above the pump and motor, in

an overhead configuration, again provides positive inlet
pressure for the pump and permits easy tank access for
servicing. However, access for pump service is limited,
and a shutoff valve must be included to permit servicing
the pump without draining the reservoir.
As mentioned earlier, the traditional rules of thumb for

determining reservoir size are inadequate. The only
accurate method is to determine the heat balance of the
hydraulic system, calculate the amount of heat that will

be generated in it through lost work, then determine the

amount of space available and the amount of heat that
can be dissipated in that amount of reservoir space.
Such a calculation will quickly reveal the necessity for a
heat exchanger, if it exists. After a decision is made on a
heat exchanger, the reservoir size can be determined.
Whatever the size and type of reservoir used, experts
recommend that extra features be included.

Elastomers

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Hydraulic and Pneumatic Filters customize your own
and previous searches!
The typical hydraulic system is cleaned by a single filter
in the circuit. Often this filter is located on the inlet line in
front of the pump, to protect the pump and downstream
components; so used, it is occasionally called a "suction To log in, please enter
filter" or "suction strainer." Many pump manufacturers your login information.
object to this filter location, claiming that it "starves" the E-mail:
pump inlet, so the filter may be located at other points in
the circuit, such as on the return line, in a pressure line,
or on a bypass line. Password:
Filtration for pneumatic systems is handled quite Remember My

differently. In most industrial pneumatics, compressed Password
air is supplied from a single compressor to a large
number of operating systems, as a plant resource, much
like light or electricity. Individual filters are used on the
separate systems -- sometimes more than one filter per address to have your
system. Often the filters are found in conjunction with password emailed to
regulators and sometimes lubricators comprising a filter- you.
regulator-lubricator (frl) for the system.
Filters are rated on the ability to retain contaminants of

certain size levels.
ISO 4406:
ISO 4406 is a hydraulic cleanliness rating system based
on the number of particles larger than 5 and 15 µm in a
1-ml fluid sample. A standardized chart is then
referenced to convert the particle counts into the ISO
4406 rating format. For example, a 1-ml sample
containing 140 5-µm particles (ISO 4406 range number
= 14) and 28 15-µm particles (ISO 4406 range number =
12) has an ISO 4406 cleanliness rating of 14/12.
ISO 4406 is an internationally recognized standard for
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expressing the level of particulate contamination in

hydraulic fluid, and for specifying required cleanliness
levels for hydraulic components and systems. The
widely accepted system provides a consistent and
meaningful vehicle for dialog between manufacturers
and users.
Pall cleanliness code: Some users and manufacturers

of hydraulic systems have complained about a potential
problem with interpreting portions of ISO 4406.
According to Pall Industrial Hydraulics Corp., fluid
samples with a high silt content (0 to 3 µm) can be
reported as clean according to ISO 4406. To
differentiate between usable fluids with a clean rating
and silt-loaded fluids with the same rating, Pall has
proposed a cleanliness code with a three-number
format. Rather than invent a new rating system, Pall
suggests to simply expand ISO 4406 to include a third
range number that considers the contamination level of
particles larger than 2 µm.
Absolute rating: Absolute filtration rating specifies the

diameter of the largest hard, spherical particle that
passes through a filter under controlled conditions. The
rating is also an indication of the largest opening
through a filter.
To determine absolute rating, the filter is installed in a

test system. Test fluid is first circulated through a clean-
up filter until fluid sampling indicates no more than
0.0004 g of contamination per 100 ml. A specific amount
of artificial contaminant is mixed with the clean test fluid,
thoroughly agitated, and then a measured quantity of
the mixture is passed through the test filter and collected
in a container. The fluid is then passed through a very
fine membrane filter with a typical pore size of 0.45 µm.
The membrane filter is then examined under high
magnification to determine the diameter of the largest
particle captured. The diameter of the particle,
expressed in microns, is the absolute filtration rating of
the tested filter element.
Nominal rating: Nominal filtration rating is an arbitrary

value determined by the filter manufacturer. The rating
system refers more to the types and sizes of holes in the

filter medium than actual filter performance.
Nominal filter ratings have many limitations. First, they

do not present a clear indication of the largest-size
particle that can pass through a filter. Second, it is a
nonstandard system that lacks consistency from one
manufacturer to another. As can be expected, nominal
filtration ratings can lead to problems in the field. In fact,
perhaps the most common filter-related application error
is selecting an element based on nominal rating. This
typically leads to contaminated systems and accelerated
component failure. Due to these factors, nominal ratings
have lost favor to the more sophisticated Beta filtration
rating system.
The life of a hydraulic or pneumatic component depends

on the type, amount, and size of contaminant particles
passing through it. Since each component has a
different resistance to contamination, the filtration level
must be matched to the system's most sensitive
component.
To ensure maximum reliability, ß ratio could be specified

to maintain contaminant levels far below those actually
required. But this approach increases both initial and
maintenance costs; therefore, filter rating and size must
be carefully matched to system needs to produce the
most economical system.
Another important factor controlling system reliability is

filter location. Placement of the filter in the suction,
pressure, return, or bypass line could require different
filter specifications because system parameters such as
pump flow rate, reservoir size, reservoir contaminant
level, contaminant ingestion rate, and flow rate can
change with filter location. All these parameters combine
to control the required filter ß ratio.
A suction-line filter removes contaminants before they

enter the pump. Since the reservoir collects all
generated and ingested contaminants, it can be
considered as the contaminant ingestion point for the
circuit.
A pressure-line filter removes contaminant either

between the pump and the other components or

between any of the components. The ingestion point is
either between the pump and filter or at the reservoir.
Similarly, with a return-line filter, the ingestion point can
be either between the work components and filter or at
the reservoir.
A bypass circuit allows a large portion of the total pump

flow to bypass the filter. In such a circuit, the filter
handles only the amount of flow necessary to maintain
the contamination level required by the system
components. This lower flow specification allows the use
of a smaller, less-costly filter, but can still provide
maximum component life. In the bypass circuit, the
ingestion point can be after the work components but
before the bypass line or at the reservoir.
Filter cost generally increases with increasing size and

increasing ß ratio, with size having more effect. Since
suction and pressure-line filters must handle higher-
pressure flows, these installations may require larger,
more-expensive filters. Return-line and bypass filters, on
the other hand, operate at lower pressure and, thus, are
usually less expensive.
Pneumatic filters also require careful selection, but the

process is not quite as involved. The reasons for this are
simple: Because pneumatic devices operate at lower
pressures than hydraulic components, tolerances in
them are typically much larger. Accordingly, the
opportunity for abrasive and silt-induced wear is
considerably reduced. Also, air does not entrain and
carry along particles at the same density as hydraulic
fluid, so the task of filtering a pneumatic system is
reduced.
The situation is much more critical if the air is to be used

with fluid logic components that are sensitive to the
presence of oil aerosols. For these jobs, most experts
recommend various types of coalescing filters. A typical
coalescing filter passes through four levels of filter
media, including a foamlike core, a special filter which
may be fiberglass, a perforated shroud of steel, and a
foam cover. Such a filter is claimed to coalesce over
99% of all oil and water aerosols, in addition to removing
solid particles of 0.01 µm or larger. In systems with

significant quantities of oil, condensate, or scale, a

roughing filter extends the life of the coalescing filter.
Most pneumatic filters of up to 2-in. pipe size are made

with a removable reservoir bowl. This feature permits
maintenance of the filter without the need to break pipe
connections. When the filter is depressurized, the bowl
can be removed and cleaned, and the filter element can
be replaced or cleaned as required. Filter bowls are
available in transparent plastic and in metal. Bowl
guards to fit over transparent bowls are available from
most manufacturers; metal bowls are considered safer
in severe environments. To provide visibility, metal
bowls may include a sight glass.
All compressed air filters must be drained. Manual

drains on small filters are usually simple petcocks at the
bottom of the bowl; large filters are drained manually
through a valve. Automatic drains are available for all
sizes of filters to simplify maintenance.
Normally, the choice of a specific element is pretty easy.

If simple chip control is required of a filter, the element
can usually be a straight wire mesh or screen with
relatively coarse holes. Such screens are often rated by
mesh size or by pore size.
For chip control, a so-called 100-mesh screen provides

absolute filtration of about 220 µm. A 200-mesh screen
filters to 105 µm, a sintered-woven wire mesh may filter
to as fine as 25 µm absolute, and resin-impregnated
paper (disposable) will filter to around 30 µm absolute.
If silt control is the required function, special filters that

are capable of 1 to 5-µm absolute filtration are
necessary. Unlike the various metal chip-control filters,
which are cleanable, the silt-control filters are nearly
always made of a material that cannot be cleaned; they
must be disposed of when they become filled.
Whichever filter element is used, its collapse pressure

should be considerably higher than the pressure flow
through the filter bypass valve at peak surge. A
generous margin of safety here insures against filter
collapse.

If the system requires that no dirt be allowed to pass

through the bypass valve, experts recommend a filter
without bypass; such a filter element must have a
collapse pressure equal to the operating system
pressure.
All materials used in the filter element must be

compatible with the hydraulic fluid to be used over the
entire temperature range expected in service.
Because most hydraulic systems fluctuate pressure and

flow, filter elements used in them must be designed to
withstand resultant cyclic stress. Filter elements
designed for long life under fatigue conditions are
available and required in most hydraulic systems.
Filter elements chosen must have adequate on-stream

life. Element life is measured by manufacturers with a
dirt-capacity test, in which the weight of an artificial
contaminant added to the filter to attain a preselected
differential pressure is measured. Normally, filter
manufacturers can recommend a filter with adequate life
for a particular application. Because service conditions
may vary, this service life is seldom guaranteed; for
critical applications, it may be necessary to "derate" the
filter to ensure that the filters do not fill or break up
toward the end of service lives.
Also, most manufacturers can furnish filter housings that

will adequately support the filter element and restrain
the fluid. Make sure that the housing selected allows
easy servicing: An inconvenient filter simply isn't
changed or serviced often enough, to the detriment of
the hydraulic system. The housing should open quickly
with a minimum of tools for element changes.
If the flow of filtered fluid cannot be interrupted, a duplex

filter can be used. A duplex provides two filters
separated by a three-way valve. Flow continues through
one while the other can be serviced. Or if the system
must be continued in operation, but can tolerate short
periods of unfiltered flow, a conventional filter with a
servicing bypass can perform the same functions as a
duplex unit.

Bypass valves in filters must be capable of handling the

maximum flow that can be expected through the filter
assembly if it clogs up. With full flow through the bypass
valve, the orifice should be large enough to avoid
excessive differential pressure on the filter element.
Bypass valves should be located so that collected dirt
on the filter element is not swept downstream by the
flow of oil passing through the valve.
Differential pressure indicators are options on nearly all

filter housings; they are useful and should be
considered. Typically, they inform operating personnel
of accumulated contaminant buildup in the filter, and
provide danger signals so that the elements can be
serviced.
The devices include electrical switches, continuous-

reading visual indicators, visual indicators with memory.
The memory indicators show the highest differential
pressure that the filter element has experienced, and
are useful for jobs where an operator cannot watch the
differential-pressure indicator continuously.

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Air Dryers customize your own
Water vapor is contained in high-pressure air. In vapor
form, the water does little damage in most components.
But if the water is allowed to condense in the system, it
can rust pipes, freeze up actuators, and damage a To log in, please enter
process, tool, or instrument. your login information.
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Manufacturers of pneumatic components normally
specify that air of a certain dryness be supplied for best
Password:
operation. For example, some pneumatic instruments
and logic elements require ultradry air; at the other end
of the scale, most pneumatic hand tools require only Remember My
that moisture not actually turn to liquid during the air- Password
expansion process.
Main-line pneumatic system dryers are installed close to Please enter your email
the compressor, usually between the air receiver and address to have your
distribution lines. Such a unit dries the whole pneumatic password emailed to
system in a plant and prevents a host of filtration you.
problems throughout the system. Individual dryers may
be used directly upstream of specific components that
require dry or ultradry air. For providing either mainline
or point drying, three types of dryers can be used.
Deliquescent dryers are simply large pressure vessels

filled with a chemical having an affinity for water -- salt,
urea, and calcium chloride are common. As the
compressed air passes through the vessel, the salt
dissolves in the water vapor and drips to the bottom of
the tank where it is drained. The dried air is then
discharged through the outlet port at the same
temperature at which it entered.
Deliquescent air dryers are inexpensive and simple;

however, they require that the salt be replenished
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regularly. In addition, the corrosive salt solution can

cause drain traps to clog. Also, a fine salt mist can be
entrained in the air and be carried downstream to
corrode system components.
Deliquescent air dryers can suppress the dew point by

only about 20°F below the inlet temperature. Newer
models are somewhat more efficient, but these types
are limited to inlet air temperatures of 70°F or lower.
Refrigerated air dryers remove moisture from air by

cooling it so that water vapor precipitates out. Where
dew point requirements are above 32°F, these dryers
are the most economical choice because of their low
initial cost. They are available for a wide range of dew
point requirements -- from 33 to 100°F -- and require
little operator attention. Refrigerated dryers cannot
suppress dew point below 33°F because ice forms and
clogs the heat exchangers.
Generally, refrigerated air dryers use two heat

exchangers in series to condense entrained moisture
and reheat the outlet air. Most dryers of this type precool
the incoming air before it reaches the refrigeration
chiller. Precooling reduces the load on the chiller so that
smaller, less-expensive heat exchangers and
compressors can be used.
The precooling arrangement is usually an air-to-air heat

exchanger that uses outgoing cold air to cool the inlet
air. Since this setup requires cold air to precool inlet air,
the dryer has a start-up delay before it reaches the
required dew point.
Where slow start-up cannot be tolerated, dryers

employing air-to-refrigerant heat exchangers are
available. Although more costly than standard designs,
these dryers provide a nearly constant dew point, even
with fluctuations in airflow and ambient temperature.
Desiccant dryers use nonconsumable chemicals such

as silica gel or active alumina, and can remove almost
all the moisture from compressed air. A desiccant dries
air by adsorbing moisture on its surface and holding the
water as a mono or biomolecular film. The method of

regeneration, the process of removing adsorbed water

from the desiccant, is the primary distinguishing feature
among the various types of desiccant dryers.
Most regenerative desiccant dryers are dual-chamber

systems with one chamber on-stream drying the
compressed air while the other is off-stream being
regenerated. There are three ways to regenerate a
desiccant: with air, internal or external heaters, or a heat
pump.
Heaterless dryers regenerate desiccant by passing a

quantity of the dried air through the offstream vessel.
These dryers are the most expensive desiccant types to
operate because they require high purge airflows to
regenerate the desiccant. For example, a pressure dew
point of -40°F uses about 14% of the compressed
airflow for regeneration. To minimize air usage, some
dryers are equipped with controls so that purge rate can
be adjusted to accommodate variations in ambient
temperature.
Heaterless dryers produce dew points down to -150°F.

Maintenance costs are low because they have few
moving parts, and desiccant can last 10 to 15 years if
the air is prefiltered to prevent oil contamination.
Heat-regenerative dryers are similar to heaterless

dryers except that the desiccant vessels contain heating
elements. Depending on the amount of heat applied,
these types still require 2 to 6% purge airflow to produce
a pressure dew point of -40°F. The less purge air used,
the higher the cost of power to run the heaters.
Heat-regenerative dryers have the same dew-point

range as heaterless types. However, since high
regenerative temperatures can damage equipment and
desiccant, maintenance costs and downtime can be
higher.
Heat-pump dryers combine the best features of

heaterless desiccant and refrigerated dryers. These
dryers use refrigeration cooling to remove most of the
incoming moisture and to cool the onstream vessel for
maximum adsorption efficiency. Thermal energy from

the inlet air then is used to heat the offstream vessel

and a small amount of purge air for regeneration.
In this type of dryer, a -40°F pressure dew point requires

1.5% purge airflow to regenerate the desiccant. Thus,
heat-pump dryers have considerably lower operating
costs than the other types.
Heat-pump dryers produce stable dew points down to -

100°F. Also, because regeneration takes place at a
lower temperature, the hazards and maintenance
problems of heat-regenerated dryers are eliminated.

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Pneumatic lubricators customize your own
The increased use of manifolding, complex valves, and
miniature components have increased the difficulty of
transmitting lubricants to pneumatic components. The
problem is to get enough oil to the components without To log in, please enter
flooding them. Even in a straight line, oil particles with your login information.
diameters larger than about 80 µin. tend to coalesce E-mail:
within about 25 ft from the lubricator. They form pools in
the bottom of the line, and must depend on the
sweeping action of the air to reach their intended Password:
destination.
Remember My
Manifolds and complex valves contribute to this Password
coalescing action by inserting restrictions and turbulent
areas in the flow path. Smaller components use less air,
so oil particles take longer to reach their destination.
But these difficulties are not insurmountable. Flow paths password emailed to
that are too tortuous or lengthy for a direct-flow you.
lubricator may present no problem to a recirculating flow
lubricator. And pulse lubricators are available for still
more difficult applications.
Direct-flow lubricators spray a mist of oil directly into

the air line. They are inexpensive, and can adequately
lubricate most pneumatic systems if air lines are
reasonably straight, do not exceed about 25 ft in length,
and include no sections where air must rise vertically.
Oil particles emitted from direct-flow lubricators have
diameters ranging from 0.4 µin. to 0.02 in. About 96 to
97% of these particles are larger than 80 µin., and tend
to coalesce on air lines fairly rapidly.
Recirculating-flow lubricators are similar to direct-flow

lubricators, except that they recirculate misted oil past a
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baffle and into the bowl. Large particles remain in the

bowl because of their mass, and medium particles
coalesce on the baffle. As a result, particles injected into
the air stream have diameters ranging from 0.4 to 80
µin. These smaller particles can traverse up to 100 ft of
straight pneumatic line. Recirculating-flow lubricators
cost about the same as comparable direct flow models,
but cannot be refilled under pressure.
Pulse lubricators do not spray an oil mist into the line,

but instead inject a small, accurately measured amount
of liquid oil directly into a pneumatic actuator. Because
the injection point is at the actuator, the length and
complexity of the pneumatic line leading to the actuator
is irrelevant. The amount of oil directed to each actuator
can be controlled individually to match actuator
requirements. Pulse lubricators are mechanically more
complex and more costly than either direct-flow or
recirculating-flow lubricators.
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Heat exchangers customize your own
Unwanted heat is a problem for all hydraulic systems.
Even a well-designed system operating at top efficiency
converts about 20% of its input power to heat. An
inefficient system, or one poorly matched to its task, To log in, please enter
may convert nearly 100% of input power to heat at your login information.
certain times in the cycle. The heat input can be E-mail:
dissipated through natural cooling; if this is insufficient, a
heat exchanger is added to the system.
Password:
Liquid-to-liquid exchangers draw heat from the

hydraulic fluid and transmit it into a cooling fluid, usually Remember My
water. Most liquid-to-liquid exchangers use a shell-and- Password
tube package, consisting of a bundle of small tubes
inserted into a shell. The coolant flows through the small
tubes, and the hydraulic fluid passes around and
between the tubes. These units are compact, reliable, address to have your
and are often less expensive to install and maintain than password emailed to
other types. you.
There are two basic types of shell-and-tube exchangers:

the U-tube (or hairpin) type and the straight-tube type.
Either type can have either a fixed or removable tube
bundle. Removable bundles can be withdrawn from the
shell as an assembly for maintenance, but fixed bundles
must remain in the shell. A normal rule of thumb is that
U-tube exchangers are best suited for high-temperature,
high-pressure applications, with the straight-tube units
most thermally efficient and least expensive.
Liquid-to-liquid exchangers are available in single or

multiple-pass, parallel, or reverse-flow arrangements.
The multiple-pass, reverse-flow units provide the
greatest heat transfer for a given size. Standard liquid-to-
liquid units have a working pressure of 150 psi and can
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handle temperatures to 300°F, although the actual

temperature difference between oil and water should not
exceed 200°F. Special units are available to operate at
pressures to 300 psi.
Liquid-to-air heat exchangers transfer heat from

hydraulic fluid to ambient air. Working much like an
automobile radiator, they allow air to be passed over
finned tubes containing the hot liquid. The finned tubes
can be made of aluminum, copper, steel, or stainless
steel, and are brazed or roller expanded to the header
tank. Air is moved through the core by forced or induced-
draft fans.
Air-cooled exchangers are most commonly used where

water is costly or unavailable in sufficient quantities to
dissipate the required heat, or where a portable heat
exchanger is required. In some instances, they have
been used to help supply plant heating requirements
during winter months. These liquid-to-air heat
exchangers are available in sizes to 100 hp, operating at
pressures to 300 psi. Units up to 600 hp are available on
special order.
Typically, liquid-to-air exchangers are larger, heavier,

and noisier than liquid-to-liquid units. In return, they
operate without necessity for water and they are
portable. They require ambient air at least 10 to 15°F
below the required oil output temperature for efficient
operation. The only requirement for long life is that fins
must be protected from clogging and dirty environments;
a single mesh (window screen) overlay avoids fin
clogging and provides for easy cleaning.
The heat pipe is a high-performance thermal conductor.

In its basic form, it consists of an enclosure containing a
fluid that can be vaporized and a material or structure,
called a wick, that provides capillary action. In an
essentially isothermal process, heat at the input, or
evaporator, end causes the fluid to evaporate. Vapor
travels through the center of the container to the output,
or condenser, end. There the vapor condenses, giving
up its latent heat, returns to a fluid state, and travels
back to the evaporator end through the wick.

Although called heat pipes, not all of these devices are

cylindrical. Tubular heat pipes predominate because
most are fabricated from stock tubing materials. Any
geometry that preserves the essential evaporation-
condensation cycle can be used. Flat heat pipes are
being made, and flexible heat pipes are used where the
evaporator and condenser cannot be in line or where
both heat-pipe ends oscillate independently.
Pipe materials are usually metal, such as copper or

aluminum, but for some electrical applications they can
be made from a dielectric material.
Working fluid depends on the temperature range over

which the heat pipe is to operate, and the amount of
heat to be moved. For cryogenic applications, hydrogen,
which operates between -259 and -248°C, may be used.
For high temperatures, sodium, lithium, and silver may
be the working fluids. Sodium, for example, functions in
the 550 to 1,000°C range. Most commonly used tubes
operated in the 0 to 500°C range using water, one of the
Freons, or a variety of organic fluids such as Dowtherm
A.
The wicking material or structure performs two

functions: channeling liquid through the tube, and
wetting the tube interior. The wick design used depends
on the working fluid, the tube orientation and desired
heat flow. Slits or spirals, cut or formed into the tube wall
may be sufficient in some cases. Sometimes, special
wicking material, such as sintered metal, mesh, or
various types of cloth, are necessary.
Location: All heat exchangers should be installed in the

low-pressure side of a hydraulic circuit. This location
eliminates the need for a high-pressure unit, which may
be comparatively expensive. Heat exchangers should
be protected against damage from high-pressure surges
by a relief valve.
For large hydraulic systems operating at high pressures,

a separate cooling circuit from a reservoir to the heat
exchanger may be used to circulate the oil independent
of changing flows in the main circuit.

For systems that are to be used outside, a system

bypass line should be provided around the heat
exchanger. Such a bypass line permits efficient year-
round operation; the heat exchanger can be bypassed
during cold weather starting until fluid has reached the
operating temperature. Such a bypass line also permits
maintenance of the heat exchanger without shutdown of
the hydraulic system.
Experts recommend that line filters be installed

upstream of the unit to protect the exchanger from
excessive accumulations of dirt and scale, which can
degrade thermal efficiency.
Protection: Generally, the colder the chilling fluid (air or

water), the more heat will be removed from the oil -- up
to a point. At temperatures below a certain level, the
fluid may be too cold for efficient operation of the
exchanger. Most hydraulic fluids tend to form viscous
layers on contact with an extremely cold surface, and
this stagnant fluid can create a thermal barrier within the
heat exchanger. The colder the chilling fluid, the thicker
is the viscous layer in the hydraulic fluid. For example, a
1-in. layer of noncirculating fluid has the insulating
quality of a ¼ -in.-thick layer of rock-wool insulation.
Therefore, the heat-transfer capability of an exchanger
under cold-weather operation may be improved by
restricting the temperature or supply of the chilling fluid.
Clean, soft water should be used in water-type heat

exchangers to prevent corrosion and scaling in the tube
bundle. If the only available water is hard (with
excessive minerals) or brackish (with excessive salt),
scale and dirt deposits can form in the small-diameter
tubes. These deposits cut heat efficiency. Where fouling
is possible, low cooling-fluid velocities should be
avoided.
Another potential hazard to cooling efficiency is tube

corrosion. Corrosion restricts coolant flow and can
eventually perforate the tubes, permitting water to
pollute the hydraulic fluid. Experts recommend use of a
zinc anode or chemical inhibitor in the cooling water
circuit to prevent or reduce this deterioration in the tube
bundle.

Doubling up: If the flow requirements of the hydraulic

system exceed the capacity of standard heat
exchangers, two smaller standard units of equal
capacity can be connected in parallel to dissipate the
heating load. In this arrangement, the thermal load is
shared equally by each small exchanger at a total
system cost much less than a single large unit custom
built for a system.
Many hydraulic circuits generate high thermal loads for

relatively short periods. During normal operation, normal
loads can be carried away by a standard liquid-air
exchanger but, under extreme operating conditions, a
small liquid-to-liquid unit is required to carry the
additional load. In such circuits, the liquid-to-liquid
exchanger is installed in series with, but downstream of,
the liquid-to-air unit. With a bypass line around it, the
water-type exchanger is held in standby during normal
system operation. Again, this "ganged" arrangement is
simpler and more efficient than use of a single, very
large exchanger capable of handling peak loads.

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Flow Sensors customize your own
Recent advances in flow sensing have resulted in more
accurate, durable, and economical meters. Increasingly
important is the ability to interface meters with a
computer for instantaneous flow readout to remotely To log in, please enter
control flow, or to allow unattended process operation. your login information.
To meet such demands, new types of flowmeters are E-mail:
being introduced, and older designs are being improved
and updated.
Password:
Prime considerations when selecting a flow sensor

include: the type of fluid being measured, its Remember My
temperature and pressure, viscosity, conductivity, Password
corrosiveness, and cleanliness. Equally important are
the requirements of the sensor itself: Flow velocity
range, accuracy, ease of installation, and maintenance
requirements. Finally, cost can be a major factor in the address to have your
decision. password emailed to
you.
Two basic classes of flowmeters are differential
producers and linear flowmeters. Differential-producer
flowmeters create a restriction in the flow field. When
flow is contracted, either gradually or abruptly, kinetic
energy increases at the expense of potential energy
(static pressure). The difference between pressure at
the full pipe section and that in the vicinity of the
contraction is related to the square root of the velocity at
the full section minus the square root of the velocity at
the contraction. Fluid properties and the abruptness of
the contraction also play a role in the operation of these
meters. General range is 4:1.
The pressure/flow relationship depends on the length

and condition of the reference piping, pressure tap
locations, and the geometry of the restricting element
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(differential producer). Any change in these

characteristics alters the relationship, making these
devices extremely sensitive to installation conditions.
The greatest disadvantage to this class of flowmeters is
that they require a secondary measuring system -- flow
is determined based on a pressure-flow relationship.
Orifice-plate flow sensors are the most widely used of

the differential pressure flow sensors; others being
nozzle, venturi, and flow tube. Generally, an orifice
sensor is a circular plate inserted between flanges of a
pipe with a round or other shape hole bored in the plate
center, matching system flow range and characteristics.
Pressure taps on each side of the orifice plate measure
the pressure differential, and a transmitter produces a
signal that is proportional to the square of flow rate.
Because the relationship between flow and pressure
involves a square root, the differential drops off quickly
as flow decreases. For this reason, the dynamic range
for these sensors is limited to about 4:1. Accuracy also
varies with flow rate, from 1 to 3%.
Venturi tubes produce differential pressure through a

section of pipe with a tapered inlet and diverging outlet.
The contoured surfaces allow measurement of dirty gas
and liquid. Line sizes are typically 2 in. and larger, and
accuracy ±1 to 2%. However, the devices are costly.
Flow nozzles are generally used in steam/vapor flows

at high velocities. Differential pressure is produced by a
pipe section with an elliptical entrance and nozzle exit.
In general, line sizes are 2 in. greater, and accuracy is
±1 to 2%. Flow nozzles are expensive and may cause
permanent pressure loss.
Pitot tubes provide basic flow measurement for

laboratory tasks. A pitot tube consists of a special tube
facing into the flow to measure a velocity-augmented
impact pressure and a second tube that measures static
pressure. Difference between the two pressures is
normally measured on a U-tube manometer. A pitot tube
measures velocity at only one point in the fluid stream.
Accordingly, the sensor must be moved around in the
stream so that a variety of readings can be taken to
yield a velocity profile.

The annular orifice, consisting of a disk supported

concentrically in a pipe section, was developed to
overcome the problem of dirt buildup in front of a
standard orifice. Operating principle is the same as with
a standard orifice meter. It works with both clean or dirty
gases and liquids, generally 4 in. and larger line sizes;
accuracy is ±2%.
Volumetric flowmeters whose output is not proportional

to the square root function are termed linear flowmeters.
Meters are either linear due to the principle of operation
or linearized through electronic means. Typical range of
this class of flowmeters is 10:1.
Turbine flowmeters use a turbine, positioned in a tube,

which rotates with passing fluid flow. A proximity sensor
detects turbine blade movement and generates a
frequency signal that is analogous to flow rate. These
sensors are compatible with a variety of fluids, and
provide a wide flow range. The dynamic range or
turndown ratio (that is, the ratio of maximum to minimum
flow rates) is up to 35:1 in some turbine flow sensors.
Accuracy over this range is generally about 1%, and
response is linear over the entire range, simplifying
electronics. Pressure drop across the turbine is quite
low (generally about 20 psi at maximum flow), which is
an advantage turbine sensors hold over some other
types.
Positive-displacement meters offer the ultimate in

volumetric accuracy, but require maximum interference
with the flow stream. Basically, they function like a
hydraulic or pneumatic motor, with the "output shaft" of
the motorlike device driving the gage readout. Because
these meters are very similar to the hydraulic and
pneumatic motors used in fluid-power applications, they
are suitable for extremely high pressures. A big
advantage of positive-displacement types is their ability
to discern extremely low flow, down to a few cc per
minute. They are also highly accurate (typically 0.5 to
1% of flow rate), have a dynamic range up to 400:1, and
are bidirectional. Hydraulic pulsation has no effect on
these sensors, and they can be placed almost anywhere
in the system.

Rotameters are the most common variable-area

meters, consisting of a tapered tube in which a float is
supported by the fluid flowing up through the tube. As
the fluid flow increases, the float is lifted higher in the
tapered tube, as greater orifice area is required around
the float to transmit the flowing fluid. The reading is
taken directly from the float position. Rotameters are
typically used for low-pressure flow readings; they are
most suitable when used for a single fluid.
Vortex-shedding sensors detect flow from viscosity-

related effects of a blunt object in a flow stream.
Basically, when fluid flows around an object, vortices are
shed alternately from one side of the object, and then
the other, in a regular pattern. Sensing the rate of vortex
passage gives a measure of flow velocity. A number of
methods have been developed to detect vortex
passage. One is a piezoelectric crystal element that
senses induced strain in the shedder bar; another is
diaphragm pressure sensors located just beyond the
shedder bar. Both have good dynamic range (20:1) and
excellent accuracy (0.8%).
Fluid-oscillator meters are based on the Coanda

effect, in which a fluid jet adheres to the walls of a
Venturi nozzle. When the jet attaches itself to the lower
wall, it encounters a flow diverter that splits the flow
toward the upper wall. At the upper wall, it encounters a
second flow diverter that splits flow back to the lower
wall. Flow oscillation is a linear function of flow rate. A
heated thermistor placed in the upper feedback passage
measures oscillation rate, and hence flow.
Jet-deflection meters use measured flow to detect a

high-speed jet from receiving ports. Flow is proportional
to the amount of deflection. In some models, the nozzle
and port assembly can be moved to obtain a complete
velocity-profile distribution curve.
Ultrasonic meters use one of two methods, time-in-flight

or Doppler. In the time-in-flight method, used with clean
liquids, a high-frequency pressure wave is transmitted
across the pipe at an acute angle. The time required for
the beam to cross the pipe relates to flow rate. In the
Doppler method, used with dirty liquids, the pressure

wave is refracted back to a detector by particulates in

the fluid. The difference between reflected frequency
and transmitted frequency relates to flow rate. The
meters are expensive, and accuracy ranges from ±1 to
4%, depending on particulate concentration.
Magnetic flow sensors operate on the principle that the

movement of a conductor through a magnetic field
induces a voltage. They consist of a flow tube which
generates the magnetic field in the pipeline, and an
electronic converter that measures induced voltage. The
prime limitation of magmeters is that they require a
conductive fluid. (Most fluids are, with the notable
exception of petroleum-based fluids.) Because there is
no obstruction in the pipeline, magmeters have no
pressure drop and no parts that will wear out. Solids and
contaminants are not a problem, nor is viscosity. These
meters are highly accurate, typically 0.5% of flow rate
over a dynamic range up to 300:1. But to maintain their
accuracy, they must have a flow rate above 1.5 fps.
Magnetic piston flowmeters feature only one moving

part, and accurately measure flow from 10 cc/min to 3.5
gpm, at pressures to 3,000 psi. Located in the flow path
is a piston-shaped magnet, generally encapsulated in
Teflon, that is free to travel in the flow-path bore. A
second magnet of opposite polarity is located external to
the flow stream, in line with the piston. The resulting
magnetic repulsion opposes piston movement and
provides resistance to flow.
In operation, flow lifts the piston off its seat, and the
piston rises or falls as flow increases or decreases.
Adjacent to the flow path, a Hall-effect transducer
senses the resulting magnetic field and converts it to a
millivolt signal. Because the magnetic field changes with
piston position, the voltage produced by the transducer
can be directly related to flow.
Laser-Doppler flow sensors differ from other types in

that they measure flow at a point, not over an entire
area. They are typically used to scan a flow field to gain
specific details. The principle of operation involves
crossing two laser beams in the flow path, creating
interference fringe patterns with alternating light and
dark areas. When flow passes through this pattern, light

reflected by particles in the fluid correspondingly follows

the light density variations, cyclically brighter and darker.
The frequency of this cyclic variation is directly related to
flow velocity. Dynamic range is about 100,000:1.
Typically, these devices can measure velocities in the
mm/sec range at the low end, and a few thousand
m/sec at the high end. Accuracy in the range of a
fraction of 1% is typical, and they are very good at
following high-speed transients.

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Gages and Meters customize your own
Any fluid system may need to measure pressure, flow,
or fluid level. Typically, measurements can be made
with dozens of different types of gages connected
directly to the system; alternatively, special sensors on To log in, please enter
the equipment can generate air or electrical signals that your login information.
are displayed remotely on electrical meters or gages. If E-mail:
switches are necessary to initiate system action, they
can be readily obtained; pressure and temperature
switches are typically gaging elements with a snap- Password:
action or solid-state switch included.
Remember My
Fluid level in the reservoir can be monitored Password
inexpensively. The simplest level-monitoring devices are
dipsticks and sight gages. Dipsticks are most common
on mobile systems; sight gages, on industrial systems.
Together, these two devices take care of level- address to have your
monitoring needs of most fluid-power systems. Where password emailed to
fluid level is critical, or where the level is unlikely to be you.
observed periodically by the operator, low-level alarms
actuated by float switches should be used, sometimes in
conjunction with remote-reading gages. If potential
damage from loss of fluid could be costly, the alarm
circuit can be wired to shut down the system.
An alternative to the analog electromechanical system

consists of a microprocessor (MPU), an analog-to-digital
converter, a piezoresistive pressure sensor, and an
operational amplifier. In this system, the pressure
sensor generates a voltage in response to the pressure
applied to it by the liquid in the tank. The pressure is a
function of the liquid level in the tank. The sensor signal
is converted from analog form into a digital signal by the
analog-to-digital (a/d) converter. Most a/d converters
require the millivolt sensor output to be amplified. For
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this reason, an operational amplifier (op amp) is

included in the system.
The digital signal that the MPU receives from the a/d
converter is manipulated so that it can be compared with
data in lookup tables, which are stored in ROM. This
comparison is used to determine the volume of liquid in
the tank. Measurement accuracy depends largely on the
number of levels chosen to define the tank and system
calibration. The MPU then drives a display, either digital
or analog, to show the level of liquid in the tank.
Temperature monitoring is often omitted from mobile

systems, although some systems have remote-reading
thermometers with a readout on the operator's control
panel. Industrial systems typically have a thermometer
installed as part of the sight-level gage or as a probe in
the suction or return line. High and low-temperature
alarms operated by thermostats are often used and may
automatically shut down the system. A word of warning:
A thermometer installed in a sight-level gage does not
indicate maximum system temperature. It indicates only
the temperature of the fluid adjacent to that wall of the
reservoir. Maximum system temperature can easily be
as much as 130°F higher than that measured in the
reservoir. The advantage of measuring reservoir
temperature is that it indicates whether or not the
system is operating normally -- a substantial benefit
considering that the thermometer typically costs less
than a dollar.
Manometers are the simplest of all pressure gages.

They permit readings of both absolute and differential
pressure, with excellent accuracy. Dynamic response is
poor, but static response is excellent. In basic form,
manometers consist of a U-shaped tube about half-full
of liquid. Pressure to be measured is fed into one tube,
while the other (the reference tube) is either left open to
the atmosphere or connected to a differential source.
The height difference between the fluid legs is
proportional to the applied pressure.
Bourdon-tube gages are the most commonly used of

all pressure gages. They are used almost exclusively for
measurements in industrial hydraulic, and pneumatic
systems, where pressures above 15 psi are expected.

Accuracy of Bourdon gages is good to excellent,

dynamic response is fair, and static response is
excellent. The main working element in the gage is a
tube (a Bourdon tube) shaped like a letter "C." As the
pressurized fluid enters this tube, it tends to straighten it,
moving the tube tip. The movement displaces a
connecting linkage that actuates a pointer on the gage
face.
Differential-pressure gages are available in Bourdon-

tube mechanisms. Typically, they have two independent
measuring chambers, each connected to a different
pressure source. However, they have only one pointer,
which shows the pressure difference between the two
gages. The major types of Bourdon gages, and the
qualities recommended for specific jobs, are:
● Commercial gages are designed for low unit cost.

They are usually less expensive to replace than
repair and they have only modest accuracy.
● Industrial gages are widely used for plant services
such as steam, oil, and waterline pressure, and
on equipment designed for installation in
industrial plants, including commercial hydraulic,
and pneumatic systems. Industrial gages have
rugged cast cases and higher accuracy than
commercial gages.
● Process gages are used in equipment such as
autoclaves, pressure vessels, piping, and oil
refineries; they have cast metal or plastic cases
and are highly accurate.
● Test gages are the super-accurate specials used
for calibrating other gages. Normal test gages are
used for most such jobs; laboratory test gages
are used for maximum accuracy and readability.
Diaphragm gages are based on a flexible diaphragm

that is distended by pressurized fluid. As the diaphragm
moves, it actuates a direct mechanical linkage attached
to an indicator. Because of the way the diaphragm
expands, these gages have a linear pressure-
displacement relationship only over a comparatively
narrow pressure range. They are normally used to
measure pressures less than 15 psi.

Diaphragm gages can read both absolute and

differential pressures with fair accuracy, fair dynamic
response, and excellent static response. Diaphragm
gages should not be confused with diaphragm-protected
gages. In these gages, the diaphragm does not actuate
the pointer, but merely isolates the gage from the fluid
being measured. Diaphragm-protected gages are
usually filled with a temperature-stable fluid.
Bellows gages work like diaphragms, but have much

greater extension to cope with wider pressure ranges.
They are most useful over maximum pressure ranges
from 0.5 to 150 psi. In this range, they can be used to
measure both absolute and differential pressures with
fair to good accuracy. Dynamic response is only fair, but
static response is excellent. Bellows gages are troubled
somewhat more by hysteresis and zero shift than other
gages.

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Preventing leaks and contaminant ingression keeps a customize your own
system operating as intended. page with quick access
Seal selection is often an imprecise and time-consuming process, sites, news of interest,
involving numerous compromises. Some qualities a seal must and previous searches!
have are obvious such as containing the fluids for which it is
designed. Also, the seal must be compatible with the fluids it
contacts to maintain its physical integrity. Dynamic seals must
have good wear resistance to ensure long life. To log in, please enter
Other, not so obvious factors include having sufficient strength to E-mail:
resist extrusion under maximum temperature and pressure.
Stability is required to resist twisting and deformation in the seal
cavity. Finally, overall economics must be considered. Password:
Unfortunately, some compromise is almost always necessary

because the desired features conflict with one another. Loading of Remember My
a dynamic seal is a good example. High loading between seal Password
and moving surface results in good sealability but also produces
high friction and wear. Reducing this load increases seal life but
permits more fluid to escape at low pressure.
Seal selection is by no means an exact science. In any address to have your
application, the designer must decide which factor has password emailed to
precedence. The seal often is so critical to the system that it you.
should be considered early in the design. In struggling with these
design factors, many OEM designers use the seal manufacturers'
expertise.
Compression seals
Compression seals come in a variety of shapes and are

characterized by the high unit load exhibited between
seal and walls. These are generally the seals of choice
in static sealing applications, which are presumed to be
totally leak free. This is especially important at low
pressures, when the seal alone and not system
pressure must supply the sealing force. They can also
be used in light-duty dynamic applications because of
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their adequate performance at low cost.
Probably the most widely used compression seal is the

simple O-ring. An O-ring can be considered an
incompressible viscous fluid with very high surface
tension. This "fluid" is forced by mechanical or hydraulic
pressure to flow into the sealing cavity, blocking the flow
of the less-viscous fluid being sealed. Properly installed,
the O-ring is squeezed about 10 to 15% of its original
cross-sectional diameter. The compression absorbs the
tolerance stack up between mating surfaces (or
between shaft and gland in dynamic applications), and
forces the elastomer into microscopic surface grooves
on mating parts.
Under moderate pressure, the O-ring flows up to, but

not into, the clearance gap between components. As
pressure rises, both sealing force and contact area
increase. At its pressure limit, which depends on seal
dimensions and hardness, part of the O-ring starts to
extrude into the clearance gap. At this point, the seal
can shear, leading to failure.
Backup rings protect O-rings and other squeeze

packings from extrusion by high pressures. They are
generally used at pressures exceeding 1,500 psi and
can be used at lower pressures when diametral
clearances are large.
Like backup rings, caps or slippers prevent extrusion at

high pressure. However, caps also protect against
friction in reciprocating applications. They are made of
PTFE and come in a variety of shapes.
Compression set of the elastomer is of prime

importance when choosing a static seal. Excessive
compression set found in lower grade rubber reduces
the effective sealing force, resulting in leakage. High
temperatures accelerate this condition.
To counteract compression set, a controlled amount of

volume swell of the rubber, caused by absorption of
hydraulic fluid, is preferred. In most applications, 5 to
15% swell is recommended for a static seal. In light-duty
dynamic applications, volume swell can soften the

elastomer and increase friction, leading to heat buildup.

Thus, swell in dynamic applications should be limited to
5 to 6%.
O-rings are also suitable for light-duty rotary

applications. Generally, they provide satisfactory life if
running speeds are limited to 750 fpm, and sealed
pressures to 200 psi. However, some seal
manufacturers permit O-ring use at speeds to 1,500 fpm
and pressures to 800 psi.
The key to using O-rings in rotary applications is

avoiding the Gow-Joule effect -- the tendency of
elastomers under tension to shrink when heated. This
sets up a destructive cycle in which friction and heat
give rise to even more friction and heat until the seal
fails. This is avoided by using the O-ring in compression,
rather than tension.
Compression seals are available in a wide variety of

shapes. Rectangular rings, quad rings, and H-rings are
examples of seals that do much the same job as O-
rings, but fill the gland better and have a more stable
geometry.
Teflon cap seals consist of a compression seal with a

Teflon cap. They are primarily used in applications
where high velocity may cause frictional heat buildup.
PTFE is used because of a low coefficient of friction and
excellent wear characteristics. But PTFE does not seal
as well as rubber and is susceptible to damage from
solid contaminants.
O-ring loaded lip seals are a good choice when wear

resistance and low-pressure sealing are necessary.
Urethane, for example, exhibits excellent abrasion and
tear resistance, but has poor compression set
characteristics. Adding an O-ring to a urethane lip seal
provides the compressive sealing force needed at low
pressure.

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Converting mechanical energy to fluid form provides the customize your own
"muscle" in a fluid-power system. page with quick access
The power source is the key element in a fluid-power system. In a sites, news of interest,
pneumatic system the power source is an air compressor, while in and previous searches!
fluid-power systems it is a pump. These normally are driven by an
electric motor or internal combustion engine. Various concepts
are applied to convert the mechanical energy from a motor or
engine to fluid energy in the system. To log in, please enter
Most systems can be made to work more efficiently when E-mail:
something is installed in the system to allow storage of
temporarily unneeded fluid delivered from the pump or
compressor. In hydraulic systems, the storage device, of course, Password:
is an accumulator; in pneumatic systems, it is a tank or receiver.
However, most pneumatic systems are used with a receiver. The
decision to use an accumulator in a hydraulic system is less clear- Remember My
cut, but that decision can affect the choice and application of a Password
hydraulic pump.
In some hydraulic systems, intensifiers or "boosters" replace

pumps or compressors. They are most often used when one form Please enter your email
of fluid energy is available, but a specific system must use address to have your
another form. Most commonly, such need exists in a plant in password emailed to
which compressed air is readily available, and a hydraulic system you.
is required for a specific small job. In that kind of task, an air-
powered intensifier lets the pneumatic system power the hydraulic
circuit, without requiring a new prime mover. Because these
devices are directly competitive with pumps on some jobs, and
complementary on others, they are included in this section.
Hydraulic pumps
Most hydraulic pumps receive fluid from a reservoir and

pump it to a loaded actuator in such a fashion that the
actuator can perform work. The pumps may deliver
flows of less than one to as much as 600 gpm. They are
capable of withstanding output pressures in the range of
500 to about 15,000 psi.
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Pressure: Pump pressure rating is one of the major

considerations in determining whether it can do the job.
Nearly all hydraulic pumps work in rotary fashion. As a
pump rotates, it develops a partial vacuum on the inlet
("suction") side, permitting fluid under atmospheric
pressure in the reservoir to flow into the pump inlet.
Then the pump ejects this fluid, usually at a pressure
higher than atmospheric. It is worth noting that a pump
does not create pressure. It merely moves fluid, causing
the flow. Pressure is created by the load on the fluid; if
no load exists, the fluid has very little pressure. As the
load is placed on the fluid, the pressure at the outlet side
of the pump increases to a value that is normally
indicated as the pump maximum. Therefore, a 3,000-psi
pump is a unit that can maintain flow against a load of
3,000 psi.
Pump pressure rating is generally limited by the

capability of the pump to withstand pressure without
undesirable increase in internal leakage, and without
damage to the pump parts. Although many pumps can
withstand pressures within the very wide range of 500 to
15,000 psi, ratings for maximum continuous service are
often clustered in the 2,000 to 4,000-psi range.
Typically, maximum pressure for external gear and vane
pumps are from 2,000 to 4,000 psi. Internal-gear units
run somewhat lower, with maximums in the range of
1,500 to 2,000 psi. Most piston pumps are designed for
a maximum rating of 3,000 psi, although some are
suitable for 5,000-psi service. A few permit higher
pressures for intermittent peak loads
Flow: The second most important consideration in

selecting a pump is its size and delivery. Size is usually
expressed as volumetric flow output (gpm). Other words
with the same meaning are flow, size, capacity, or
delivery rate.
Flow rating of a pump is based on performance under a

specific set of conditions. For example, pumps used in
mobile applications are generally tested at 1,200 rpm, at
an outlet pressure of 100 psi and atmospheric inlet
pressure. Typically, manufacturer's literature states the
conditions under which the rating is made.

Speed: A third consideration is the speed rating, which

may be limited by the ability of the pump to fill without
cavitating or by other mechanical considerations. The
permissible speed range and inlet pressure
requirements for any design are usually clearly defined.
Efficiency: Pump quality is rated in efficiency, with

three efficiency ratings commonly given.
● Volumetric efficiency is the ratio of actual to

theoretical delivery. Difference between actual
and theoretical delivery is normally due to internal
leakage necessary to lubricate the pump (called
"slippage") and other factors. Volumetric
efficiency is typically very high, often in the mid to
high 90s.
● Overall efficiency is the ratio of hydraulic power
output to mechanical power input.
● Mechanical efficiency is the ratio of overall
efficiency to volumetric efficiency. Mechanical
losses are due principally to internal friction, and
fluid compression.
Fluid compatibility: For years, petroleum oils have

been the "standard" hydraulic fluid used in power
circuits. This situation remains today, but is changing as
safety considerations and government compliance
agencies force greater acceptance of fire-resistant
hydraulic fluids.
Most pumps used today were designed for petroleum

fluids -- oil -- and nearly all worked well with them. When
other fluids are used in these pumps, some suffer.
Accordingly, a pump must be specially selected to
operate with special fluids. Certain types of pumps do
not work well with some hydraulic fluids.
Even when pump and fluid are basically compatible,

pump seals must often be changed for compatibility with
the other fluid. In addition, stability characteristics of fire-
resistant fluids are often different than those of hydraulic
oils. Different system operating temperatures and drain
periods may be required for optimum performance.
Maximum speed and pressure permitted may also be
reduced, with pump life cut up to 50% with some fluids.

Wear of hydraulic pumps, motors, and valves is

relatively low during full-film lubrication, but high during
boundary lubrication. The simplest way to guard against
excessive wear is to maintain reasonably high viscosity.
Some manufacturers recommend that fluids have an
adequate concentration of antiwear additives that can
protect against wear, even during boundary lubrication.
While no all-encompassing standard for rating hydraulic

fluid performance exists today, some component
manufacturers and users have developed widely
recognized specifications for fluids. The guidelines
evolved to meet the needs of the particular
manufacturer, and overcome deficiencies each saw
when certain fluids were used in their equipment. Most
premium hydraulic fluids used today meet the
requirements of these rating systems. The design
engineer, in general, should not be concerned with the
exact nature of the tests, but merely that the fluid meets
the recommendations for a particular type of pump and
application.
Test data on "typical" pumps is readily available from

most fluid suppliers, but there are some instances where
field and bench experience do not correlate well. Subtle
differences in pump design and conditions of use can
drastically change wear rates.
Size and weight: Straightforward comparison of size

and weight characteristics by basic pump type is
prevented by the overlap of individual designs. For
instance, the axial-piston design that is widely used in
industrial, marine, and aircraft applications can have
many power/weight ratios, depending on the
applications for which it is built. One common type of
mobile pump has a ratio around 0.75 hp/lb; others may
be 2.5 hp/lb. The additional expense of a highly refined
piston pump capable of delivering 4 hp/lb is warranted
for aircraft use, where every pound carries a double
penalty. When reduced to miniature size for missile use
(and when life is sacrificed for power), the same basic
mechanism may deliver 8 hp/lb.
Environment: Usually, effect of ambient temperature

and altitude on performance is independent of the type

of pump. Limits for satisfactory operation are

established primarily by the effect of the environment on
the fluid rather than by the type of pumping action.
Humidity only affects requirements for the exterior
casing.
When minimum or maximum temperatures are specified

for a hydraulic system, the operating temperature of the
fluid, not ambient temperature, is the critical factor. In
most cases, it is possible to compensate for extremes of
ambient temperature and to control fluid temperatures
within a satisfactory range.
Minimum operating temperature is generally set by the

increase in fluid viscosity as temperature falls. When
fluid thickens to the point where inlet conditions can no
longer keep the pump completely full, cavitation -- with
possible pump damage -- occurs. Fire-resistant fluids
have a higher specific gravity than petroleum oils,
accompanied in some cases by higher viscosities at low
temperatures. Many fire-resistant fluids contain water,
which can vaporize if pressures are low or temperatures
high. Thus, pump-inlet conditions are more sensitive
when these fluids are used. High altitudes can produce
a somewhat similar effect when the fluid reservoir is not
pressurized. The usual solution is to supercharge the
main pump with an auxiliary pump, or to flood the inlet
by locating it below the fluid level in the reservoir.
Maximum allowable operating temperature depends on

the properties of the fluid seals being used. Above
allowable temperatures, many oils will be too thin to
maintain proper lubrication at high-load points, and may
progressively deteriorate as a result of oxidation. Under
elevated temperatures, some seals may harden.

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hydraulic pump.

Fluid-transfer pumps
Fluid-handling or transfer devices are not basically

concerned with the modulation or transfer of power, but
only with the movement of fluid. Two major types of fluid-
transfer pumps are positive-displacement (either bulk-
handling or metering pumps) and nonpositive-
displacement (centrifugal).
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Plunger or piston pumps are one type of commonly

used positive-displacement pump. They usually consist
of one or more pistons that draw fluid through an inlet
check valve and expel it through an outlet valve. Fluid
volume delivered depends on plunger diameter and
stroke length; diameter cannot be varied in a given
pump, so stroke length is made adjustable. Most
plunger pumps must be stopped for stroke adjustment,
but a few offer the option of in-service adjustment.
Outlet pressures delivered by plunger pumps are as
high as 50,000 psi for some lab units. Maximum
pressures for industrial pumps usually range from 5,000
to 30,000 psi. Maximum flow is as high as 26 gpm for
traditional plunger pumps and much higher for
multipiston units.
Circumferential-piston pumps use counterrotating

rotors driven by external timing gears. They are self-
priming and have high suction lift capability. With
capacities up to 450 gpm, the pumps are often used for
shear-sensitive fluids, or those with entrained particles
or gases.
Diaphragm and bellows pumps are used when pump

leakage or process-fluid contamination cannot be
tolerated. They offer the freedom from external leakage
of a peristaltic pump, yet permit higher pressures and
easy flow adjustment. Of course, they tend to cost more
than peristaltic pumps for the same flow delivered.
Generally, diaphragm pumps are built like a plunger
unit, except that a bellows or diaphragm is fitted to the
end of the plunger shaft. This configuration, while
providing a positive seal, stresses the diaphragm
because of unequal loading from the plunger. To
equalize diaphragm loading, some pumps are built so
the plunger never contacts the diaphragm; instead, the
plunger pressurizes a small volume of hydraulic fluid as
it moves, and the fluid displaces the diaphragm.
Diaphragm pumps of this type can deliver outlet
pressures to 5,000 psi.
Gear pumps, often used in fluid-power applications,

perform equally as well as fluid-handling pumps. The
gears can be arranged as a pair of similarly sized gears,
as three stacked gears, as separated internal gears, or

as gerotors. Displacement of gear pumps is fixed, and

cannot be varied during operation.
Lobed pumps resemble gear pumps. Motion of the

rotors creates an expanding cavity on the inlet side, a
constant-volume cavity that carries fluid to the outlet
side, and a contracting cavity that forces fluid out. In
some models, rotors are driven by external timing gears
to avoid rotor contact in the fluid stream. Lobed pumps
have relatively large displacement, so they are often
used for shear-sensitive fluids, as well as fluids with
entrained gases or particles.
Flexible-vane pumps are similar to sliding-vane

hydraulic pumps, but they substitute flexible elastomeric
vanes for rigid vanes. These relatively inexpensive
pumps pass medium solids and are easy to maintain in
the field. Flexible-impeller pumps usually operate at
discharge pressures of 20 to 30 psi. High-pressure
blades with thicker cross sections boost operating
pressure to about 60 psi. However, high-pressure
impellers fatigue more rapidly because higher stresses
develop when flexing. Operating temperature is limited
to about 180°F.
Nutating pumps have a disc, held between two plates,

that wobbles without rotating and creates line contact
with both plates. As the contact lines pass the inlet port,
liquid is pulled into the cavities between the disc and
plates. The fluid, then, is swept through the pump to the
discharge port (much as a squeegee wipes water from a
window) where it is released under pressure. A so-
called bridge separates inlet flow from outlet flow.
Nutating action provides a number of operating benefits.

The pumps are self-priming from 6 in. when dry and 21
ft when wet. Also, because pump parts do not rotate, a
bellows seal can be used on the shaft in place of a
mechanical face or lip seal, providing longer seal life.
Finally, the disc excursion flattens to relieve excessive
pressure, bypassing flow and preventing damage to the
pump parts. This feature eliminates the need for a
separate pressure relief valve in the system.
Peristaltic pumps consist of a flexible tube that is

progressively compressed by a series of rollers. As the

rollers move along the tube, they force fluid through it. A
chief advantage of these pumps is freedom from
external leakage. Fluid is contained within the tube, and
can leak only if the tube ruptures. Peristaltic pumps are
simple and quite inexpensive for the flow rates they
provide.
Displacement is determined by tube size, so delivery

rate can only be changed during operation by varying
pump speed. However, some models have an
adjustable track height, so flow rate can be changed by
stopping the pump, changing tubes, adjusting track
height, and restarting the pump.
Two-roller pumps do a relatively poor job of drawing

liquid into the pump, and often require gravity feed or a
pressurized intake. However, three-roller pumps are
said to pull a vacuum of 28 in. Hg when equipped with
tubing that has a hardness of 60 Shore A.
Most pumps permit a maximum outlet pressure of only

50 psi or less. Two-roller pumps provide flows as high
as 3.5 gpm, but three-roller pumps providing flows up to
40 gpm are available.
Centrifugal pumps are a practical choice for fairly

constant, large flows of over 100 gpm at moderate
pressures and low fluid viscosities. The first step in
selecting a centrifugal pump is to determine application
requirements: quantity of flow, pressure rise (or change
in head) in ft of fluid, and other conditions such as high
fluid viscosity or temperature.
After operating requirements have been set, specific

speed, Ns, should be determined. Specific speed is a
characteristic quantity used to describe a centrifugal
pump, and is found from:
Ns = N * (Q^½ / h ^¾)
where N = impeller speed, rpm; Q = flow rate, gpm; and

h = net positive suction head, ft. The result is usually
expressed as a dimensionless number.

If the required specific speed falls between 500 and

15,000, a volute, diffuser, or propeller pump becomes
the best selection. If specific speed is less than 500, a
peripheral or even a positive-displacement pump should
be considered. For a specific speed above 15,000, a
parallel system of two or more pumps is usually
necessary.
Within the limits of net positive suction head (NPSH)

available, the pump with the highest specific speed is
generally the best choice, because it operates at the
highest rotational speed and is the smallest that can be
used. (NPSH is the total of potential and kinetic energy
heads in the fluid at the intake to a pump, minus fluid
vapor pressure.)
Volute and diffuser pumps draw liquid into the impeller

at its center and fling it outward by centrifugal force. The
liquid leaves the impeller with higher pressure and
velocity than when it entered. The velocity -- especially
its tangential component -- is then partially transformed
into additional pressure by the pump casing. The
amount of energy transformed and efficiency of the
transformation depend upon the shape of the casing.
In a volute pump, the impeller discharges the liquid into

a "volute" -- a channel of gradually increasing area. In a
diffuser pump, stationary diffuser blades in the casing
around the outside circumference of the impeller blades
are curved in the opposite direction from the blades. The
diffuser has less slippage and higher pump efficiency
than the volute, but the additional blades increase
complexity and cost.
Most single-stage horizontal pumps are built with volute

casings. Diffusers are usually used in mixed and axial-
flow vertical pumps, and in multistage pumps.
Propeller and mixed-flow pumps are commonly used

at very high flow rates and low heads (above 300 gpm
and below 40 ft); in this range, they provide more
efficient pumping in a smaller package than volute or
diffuser types.
Propeller pumps operate like a boat propeller encased

in a tube. Liquid is drawn into the pump, parallel to the

axis of the impeller, and is pushed out with no change in
the direction of flow. Propeller pumps are available for
vertical or horizontal operation, with specific speeds
from 10,000 to 15,000. Suction characteristics of
propeller pumps are not good, so intakes must be
located below (or only slightly above) the surface of the
liquid being pumped.
Mixed-flow pumps can produce a larger range of heads

than straight pumps. Because the rotors are similar to
those in water turbines, this pump is often called a
turbine pump. In a mixed-flow pump, the head is
generated partly by propeller action and partly by
centrifugal force in a volute casing. As with the propeller
type, the mixed-flow pump can have only a single-
section inlet. Thus, the mixed flow pump bridges the gap
between the propeller and purely centrifugal types.
Peripheral pumps have circular, rotating impellers but

provide characteristics similar to those of a positive-
displacement pump. These low-volume, high-head
pumps deliver 1 to 50 gpm and up to 500 ft of head
discharge. They have excellent suction characteristics,
drawing up to 28 ft of head. They are sometimes called
turbine-vane, viscous-drag, or regenerative pumps.
Peripheral pumps usually cost less than centrifugal or
positive-displacement pumps, but often have a much
shorter life.
Options often determine the usefulness and applicability

of a centrifugal pump. Among the most important
options are impeller type, number of stages, shaft
positions, and suction intakes.
The impeller in a centrifugal pump can be open,

semiopen, or closed. An open impeller consists of
blades attached to a hub. A semiopen impeller has a
circular plate, or inner shroud, on the inside of the
blades. This may extend to the outer ends of the blades.
The shroud supports the use of thinner blades. A closed
impeller has an outer shroud (attached to the outer edge
of the blades) as well as an inner one. Liquid is, thus,
confined to the space between the shrouds. The
confined passage reduces friction losses in the pump
and thus increases efficiency.

Staging is used to increase head or flow of centrifugal

pumps. A two-stage pump is essentially two pumps in
series -- volume flow remains about the same, but
output pressure is almost doubled. The impellers of a
multistage pump are on the same shaft, and the
housings are a single unit. Because liquid velocity can
be kept high as it moves through the housing, a two-
stage pump is more efficient than two single-stage
pumps connected in series to produce the same head
and volume.
Suction intake can also affect pump performance. An

impeller can be designed for either single or double-
suction operation. A double-suction impeller draws in
liquid at both sides, so flow is almost twice that of a
single-suction type for the same net positive suction
head.

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hydraulic pump.

Pump controls
To minimize wasted energy in hydraulic systems,

variable-displacement pumps were developed. They
reduce power loss by adjusting the relationship between
pressure and flow for various power levels.
Electrohydraulic control of flow and pressure directly at
the pump often permits more flexibility and more
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efficient operation of variable-volume pumps, and

reduces the number of valves in a circuit.
The basics of electronic pump control are rather

straightforward. A programmable controller, PC,
microprocessor, potentiometer, or other such device
provides a signal to an electronic driver board, or
amplifier card. This low-current signal is amplified into
either a pulse-width-modulated signal sufficient to drive
proportional solenoids on the pump, or an amplified
current signal to drive proportional pressure controllers
(PPC).
The solenoids or PPC convert current to a proportional

force, providing pressure control to a piston which
adjusts the ring position in a variable vane pump, or the
swash plate in an axial piston pump, in turn controlling
pressure and flow.
Repeatability when moving from low to intermediate

pressure is typically within 1%. Linearity is generally
within 3% for flow, and 4% for pressure control. Due to
hysteresis when cycling up and down, pressure
differential can be as much as 4%. Usually, this is not a
problem, because the input signal can be adjusted to
compensate for the difference. However, when precise
linearity is a must, closed-loop feedback is necessary.
With closed-loop control, command inputs, amplifier

card, and pump hardware remain the same. Sensors
are added to the system to measure the desired
parameter, along with an electronic summing card that
compares input with actual output. If pressure must be
controlled precisely, a pressure transducer is added to
the system. For flow control, an LVDT can be connected
to the cam ring or swash plate to monitor position and,
thus, flow. If the pump is driving a hydraulic motor, a
tachometer can be used to sense motor speed and
adjust pump flow as necessary.
The benefits to using electrohydraulic control are

numerous. A major factor is the tremendous energy
savings -- 40 to 50% is not uncommon -- realized by
applying these controls. Accuracy is enhanced,
especially with closed-loop feedback control.

A circuit can be substantially simplified by moving to

electronic pump control, because valving is eliminated.
For a complicated circuit, the cost of pressure and flow
control valves, manifolds, connectors and other
plumbing, often exceeds that of the controller and other
electronics. Because the circuit is generally simplified,
and control and power elements are separate entities,
tracking down a problem area is usually simplified. By
disconnecting the electronics and actuating the pump
manually, one quickly determines if the problem is a
hydraulic one. If not, the problem probably lies in the
electronics. The error can then be isolated by checking
inputs and outputs at the controller and boards.
Programming these controls is not very complicated,

because pump outputs are directly proportional to
command inputs. Programmable controllers are used
most often, so programming is really just a matter of
setting voltage or current, and timing. Loading a new
program to the controller is all that is necessary to
change operation, resulting in more flexibility and
substantial setup time savings.
Because of precise control over acceleration and

deceleration, cycles times can be decreased without
introducing detrimental impact loads. Because the pump
always operates at the lowest possible pressure, pump
life can be extended dramatically, and these controls
are, for the most part, adapted for retrofit onto standard
pumps in the field today.
One possible drawback to electrohydraulic pump control

is that there is only one pressure or flow to work with at
one time. For applications that require two or more
simultaneous pressure or flows, some sort of valving
must be used.
This method cannot be used to control stationary

position of an actuator. Acceleration to a general
location is performed well by electrohydraulic pumps,
but stopping a specific position requires valves.
Because the pump is controlled by pressure

compensation, it will not work if system pressure falls
below the pump's minimum deadhead value. If control is

needed at low load pressures, either an artificial load

pressure must be generated at the pump outlet, or
another means of control must be used. Also, controls
affect only swash plate or ring position, and do not
compensate for pump inefficiency or fluid compression.
Closed-loop feedback is needed should such
compensation be necessary.

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hydraulic pump.

Power units
Sometimes the complexity and magnitude of a job

suggest that a system of separate hydraulic components
would be difficult to put into action. In such a case, a
power unit consisting of a reservoir, pump, drive motor,
filter, heat exchanger, and basic system valving could
be used. The pump includes integral controls, perhaps
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an auxiliary supercharge pump, and relief valves. The

reservoir includes inlet filter, all necessary line
connections, fluid level and temperature gages, lifting
lugs, and observation and clean-out covers. This type of
power unit is a fine example of operational convenience.
Manufacturers agree that an assembled unit is more

expensive than a combination of components purchased
separately. But they suggest that the additional cost is
offset by the fact that the user need not select the
components, design the system, build it, or troubleshoot
it. They point out that hydraulic power units with
compatible components, supplied by one manufacturer
for a specific system, usually provide maximum system
efficiency, controllability, and durability, with minimum
noise.
The heart of a system is one or more pumps. For simple

push-pull applications or constant power drive, a fixed
delivery, one-way pump may be adequate. In
applications requiring more complex functions, a
variable-displacement unit is probably necessary. In
either case, the system should have adequate reserve
capacity.
Although most pump controls merely select the output

volume or flow, other functions can be provided. These
include controls of generative and regenerative direction
of flow, acceleration, and deceleration of flow, zero flow,
limiting pressures, constant power, automatic
decompression, and automatic interlocks.
Many control modes are possible: Mechanical,

hydraulic, pneumatic, electric, and electrohydraulic
controls are available. The simplest direct control is a
hand-operated screw. Mechanical extensions or electric
pilot motors with geared head, brakes, and limit
switches provide remote operation. Low-pressure
hydraulic control circuits or low-power electrical circuits
permit remote selection of multiple volumes. And
hydraulic servomotor controls can be used to provide
automatic control of high accuracy.
Any type of drive can be supplied with a power unit:

electric motor, diesel engine, gas turbine, line shaft, or

others. The most widely used drive is an electric motor

directly coupled to the pump through a flexible coupling.
To design and build a power unit, the project engineer

must know, among other things: 1. Type of machine or
application. 2. Work to be performed. 3. Maximum force
and working pressure required. 4. Minimum and
maximum working speeds. 5. Size and weight of
machine moving parts. 6. Type and accuracy of control
and functions. 7. Type of service cycle. 8. Type of input
power available to power unit. 9. Space available. 10.
Heat-exchange method required. 11. Noise
specifications. 12. Any unusual conditions of the
application, special requirements, or environmental
conditions.

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Accumulators customize your own
Accumulators are simple devices that store energy in
the form of fluid under pressure. Because of their ability
to store excess energy and release it when needed,
accumulators are useful tools in developing efficient To log in, please enter
hydraulic systems. They are generally classified by the your login information.
means of stored energy: gas loaded, spring loaded, or E-mail:
weight loaded. The latter are typically very large
devices, with concrete disks loaded onto an oversized
piston. Often found in older, high-demand applications Password:
such as steel mills, weight-loaded accumulators have a
large capacity and uniform output pressure but present Remember My
problems with installation and servicing. Password
Spring-loaded accumulators are at the other extreme.

Generally small and lightweight, making them useful in
mobile applications, a spring gives a repeatable output address to have your
force. However, spring-loaded accumulators are limited password emailed to
to small volumes and pressure below 500 psi. you.
The bulk of hydraulic accumulators are gas loaded.

They use the compressibility of a gas -- usually nitrogen -
- for storing energy. Basically, a hydropneumatic
accumulator has a fluid compartment and a gas
compartment, with a gas-tight element separating the
two. (Some types, however, such as air receivers, have
no separating element.) The fluid section connects to
the hydraulic circuit so that as pressure rises fluid enters
the accumulator and the gas compresses. Then, as
pressure in the system falls, the compressed gas
expands and forces the stored fluid back into the
system.
Hydraulic accumulators with separating elements are

further divided into bladder, diaphragm, and piston
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designs.
Bladder accumulators consist of a pressure vessel

and an internal elastomeric bladder that contains the
gas. The bladder is charged through a gas valve at the
top of the accumulator, while a poppet valve at the
bottom prevents the bladder from being ejected with the
outflowing fluid.
The poppet valve is sized so that maximum volumetric

flow (typically to 15 liter/sec, but up to 140 liter/sec for
high-flow designs) cannot be exceeded. The bladder
can be replaced, usually through the fluid end of the
vessel.
To operate, the bladder is charged with nitrogen to a

pressure specified by the manufacturer according to the
operating conditions. When system pressure exceeds
gas-precharge pressure of the accumulator, the poppet
valve opens and hydraulic fluid enters the accumulator.
The change in gas volume in the bladder between
minimum and maximum operating pressure determines
the useful fluid capacity.
Diaphragm accumulators are usually comprised of a

spherical or cylindrical pressure vessel, containing the
separating element -- an elastomeric diaphragm. There
are two different designs: welded and threaded. In the
former, the diaphragm is pressed into the bottom half of
the vessel before the seam is electron-beam welded; in
threaded models, the diaphragm is held between top
and bottom halves of the vessel by a threaded ring. As
in the bladder type, a poppet prevents the diaphragm
from being ejected through the fluid connection.
Threaded models can be disassembled and the

diaphragm replaced. Welded diaphragm accumulators
are nonrepairable. However, they are lighter and cost
substantially less than threaded or bladder designs.
Another difference is the ratio of maximum operating

pressure to gas-precharge pressure. Pressure ratios are
generally 10:1 for threaded, 8:1 for welded, and 4:1 for
bladder accumulators. In other words, for an
accumulator with a maximum operating pressure of

3,000 psi, minimum gas-precharge pressures would be

300 psi for threaded, 375 psi for welded, and 750 psi for
bladder types. Accumulators with a higher pressure ratio
are more efficient because they have a greater volume
of usable fluid.
Piston accumulators have an outer cylinder tube, end

caps, a piston element, and sealing system. The
cylinder holds fluid pressure and guides the piston,
which forms the separating element between gas and
fluid. Charging the gas side forces the piston against the
end cover at the fluid end. As system pressure exceeds
the minimum operating level for the accumulator, the
piston moves and compresses gas in the cylinder.
Each type of separated, hydropneumatic accumulator

has advantages, but bladder designs are generally
considered the most versatile of the three. For shock
and pulsation, for example, bladder and diaphragm
models are ideal. Piston units are not recommended
because they are too slow to react to shock waves. For
emergency service, though, many users prefer piston
accumulators. However, the seals in piston types are
not designed to hold pressure indefinitely without being
cycled. The system can leak and fail with no obvious
indication to the outside. An advantage diaphragm
accumulators hold is that they can be mounted in any
position. For piston and bladder accumulators vertical
mounting is the preferred orientation, with the gas side
up.
Diaphragm accumulators are the least expensive, but

maximum capacity is only about one gallon. Bladder
designs predominate between one and 15 gallons, but
are available to about 125 gallon capacity. The largest
piston designs are typically about 100 gallon capacity.
For similar quality and performance, bladder and piston
models are competitively priced.

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Intensifiers customize your own
Intensifiers, also known as boosters, use a large quantity of low-pressure fluid to produce
a smaller quantity of higher-pressure fluid. There are three classes of intensifiers: air-to-
oil, oil-to-oil, and air-to-air.
Hydraulic boosters can develop and maintain high pressure for long periods of time your login information.
without using power or generating heat in the circuit. They deliver fluid only when the E-mail:
cylinder demands it. Since all the oil from the booster is directed to the cylinder, there are
no relief-valve losses.
Password:
Other advantages exist:

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● Because heat is not generated while static hydraulic pressure is maintained and Password
little is generated during rapid cycling, small oil reserves are required.
● Direction control of booster-operated cylinders is through air valves which are
usually less expensive than hydraulic valves, but just as reliable. Pressure
regulation of booster discharge is controlled by an economical air pressure-
regulator valve.
● Because high hydraulic pressure is easily attained, booster-operated cylinders can
be smaller in diameter. Booster systems are generally more compact than
equivalent pump-and-tank units.
● Because pressure and direction-control valves are located in the air portion of the
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air-oil booster circuits, few fittings and usually no valves are required in the booster- Please enter your email
to-cylinder connection. address to have your
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● Air-to-air boosters permit the use of low-cost air cylinders at line pressures greater you.
than those available from normal shop-air compressors.
Generally, boosters can be used as a hydraulic power source only in single-cylinder

applications. A booster can drive more than one cylinder if the cylinders work in unison.
However, to sequence two or more cylinders, additional boosters are required.
Boosters are limited in their volumetric capacity. For large quantities of high-pressure air
or oil, large boosters are required. The double-pressure booster circuit can be used, but
only if the driven cylinder load can be divided into a low-pressure traverse stroke and a
reasonably short high-pressure stroke. If the high-pressure stroke must be long, and if
the cycle must repeat rapidly, single-ram boosters offer little advantage.
Single-ram boosters are limited in their capacity to supply high-pressure oil. Therefore,
only certain types of hydraulic valves can be used in air-to-oil booster circuits. Valves that
have tank drainbacks should be avoided, because they use booster capacity during
operation. Four-way hydraulic valves should also be avoided, because they generally
cause momentary pressure drops in the system and throw the booster out of phase with
the cylinder.
Because air is compressible, air-to-air boosters are somewhat less predictable than other
types. However, if a stroke/diameter ratio of 3.7:1 is used to determine size of the output
cylinder, calculated volumetric ratios of slave cylinder versus output cylinder should
produce accurate results.
Selection of a booster type is probably the easiest decision of all. If a ready supply of
shop air is available, an air-to-oil booster will be used. If low-pressure hydraulic fluid is
readily available, an oil-to-oil booster is the best choice. If a one-shot source of fluid for
clamping and holding is required, a normal one-shot booster will be used. However, if a
continuous supply of fluid is required to reciprocate a cylinder or rotate a motor, a
continuous booster should be considered.
Continuous boosters replace a pump in the system because they provide a steady output
of high-pressure fluid. The two types are double acting and single acting. Both require
valving or external controls to produce the necessary reciprocating action, but the single-
acting model is generally simpler. Double-acting continuous boosters supply oil during
both parts of the stroke. Therefore, output generally has less ripple.
Three major steps are involved in selecting the right booster for an application. First,
booster size must be determined, making provisions for fluid compressibility. Next, the
size of the makeup fluid tank must be determined, allowing for bleeding air from the fluid.
Finally, output speed of the actuator must be checked to ensure that it is sufficient for the
selected booster.
Booster size: If a cylinder requires high-pressure delivery throughout the stroke, a single-
pressure booster circuit is needed. A double-headed booster can be used if the number
of cycles per minute is low, and automatic bleeding and filling are not important. A triple-
headed type must be used where rapid cycling is required. If the cylinder size is known,
stroke, L, for a single-pressure booster can be calculated from
L = ( (Vc + Vo) / Ar ) + l
where Vc = total cylinder volume, Vo = oil volume loss due to compressibility, Ar =

booster ram area, and l = booster ram pretravel.
If the maximum cylinder force is required only for the last portion of the stroke, a double-
pressure booster can be used, with savings in booster size and air consumption. With
such a booster, the normal circuit extends the actuator, and the booster supplies fluid
only for the maximum force portion of the stroke. Booster stroke L for this arrangement
is:

L = ( (Vp + Vo) / Ar ) + l
where Vp = volume required to move the cylinder through the high-pressure portion of
the stroke.
Both equations contain a term for oil compressibility. In most hydraulic applications, oil is
considered incompressible. But in high-pressure applications, it is safer to assume that
oil can be compressed at the rate of approximately 1% per 1,000 psi.
Tank size: The air-oil tanks in booster circuits perform three general functions: 1. Make
up for leakage. 2. Act as pressure sources to traverse or return cylinder. 3. Provide
outlets for entrained air.
When the tank functions as a reservoir, its size depends on how much the system leaks.
However, tanks are also outlets for entrained air. Here, the tank is not pressurized and
acts primarily as a reservoir.
When functioning as a pressure source, tanks must have a volume slightly greater than
the displaced volume of the cylinder. Volume of the tank should be enough to preclude
oil level reaching the upper tank baffle at the high-level point. When at the low-level point,
the lower tank baffle should not be exposed to air pressure. Pressurized tanks must also
serve as an outlet for entrained air.
In rapid-cycle booster applications, oil has a tendency to churn as it flows back into the
tank. This churning aerates the oil and produces excessive foaming. Each cycle then
sprays foam out the air-valve exhaust. Well-designed tank baffles eliminate churning at
oil velocities below 15 fps. A tank larger in diameter than the cylinder results in better
surface quiescence during the fill stroke.
Tanks for rapid-cycle booster applications should have:

● Ports equal to or larger than the cylinder ports. Cycle rate should be set so that the
flow through the interconnecting pipes does not exceed 15 fps.
● A diameter larger than the cylinder diameter. Tank height should be specified by
matching rated-tank capacity with the cylinder displacement.
● Properly designed baffles.
● A location above cylinders and boosters so the system can be self-bleeding.
● A fill rate less than 4 fps.
Experts recommend that self-bleeding boosters be used wherever possible. This type of
operation ensures that air does not build up in the system, causing "spongy" operation
that impairs function and efficiency.
Air gets into the system in many ways, the most common being the use of two-position
air valves. This results in high-pressure air being left "on" for long periods; the air
dissolves quickly into the oil, causing spongy operation. This problem can be avoided by
using a three-position, open-center valve and arranging the circuit so the tank can be
exhausted by centering the valve, yet holding the booster "on." Another alternative is to
use a bladder or piston separator in the air-oil tank.
In addition, air exists naturally in most hydraulic fluid, and vacuum in the system --
caused when boosters outspeed cylinders on reset -- can release air from the fluid. Also,
the vacuum can draw air past seals into the system. Air tends to enter the fluid when it
churns in the tank. These and other causes can rapidly aerate fluid in even a well-
designed system, so the self-bleeding boosters are particularly important for applications
that seem prone to aeration.
Cylinder speed: If rapid cylinder action is required, the hydraulic cylinder should be
sized so that the reaction force (force required to do work) is 50 to 60% of available
cylinder force at calculated pressure. Consider both high-pressure and low-pressure work
reactions.
Air valves should be located close to the booster and air-oil tanks, and be connected with
a minimum of piping. Three-way and four-way valves should be sized as though they
were to operate a rapid-cycle air cylinder directly. The valves should be selected for low-
pressure drop, fast response, and adequate internal area.
Air pressure-regulator valves, if used, should be selected for satisfactory flow capacity at
regulated pressure, as well as matching port sizes. Self-relieving regulators prevent
downstream pressure buildups. An air storage tank between the pressure regulator and
the four-way valve optimizes air-valve response.
When estimating the speed of booster-operated cylinders, start by calculating oil velocity,
Vo, in the lines leading to the cylinder:
Vo = ( 0.3202 * Q * Vp ) / Ap
where Q = cylinder displacement, Vp = cylinder piston speed, and Ap = internal area of

pipe. For efficient flow conditions, oil velocity should not exceed 15 fps.
When air-oil tanks are traversing or resetting the cylinder, oil pressure is equal to air-line
pressure -- usually around 80 psi. Pressure drop in a low-pressure circuit can materially
reduce traverse speed. Sizing the cylinder so that the reaction force is approximately 50
to 60% of the available force at 80 psi usually offsets the effect of the pressure drop. On
critical systems, special care must be taken to ensure that the system is piped with a
minimum of fittings and coupled as short as possible.
If calculated oil velocity exceeds 15 fps, system line sizes should be increased to
maintain speed. Cylinders and tanks also can be specified with larger-than-standard
ports to minimize pressure drops.

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Compressors customize your own
The main difference between pumps and compressors is that the fluid delivered by
compressors -- air -- is compressed and under pressure at the time it is delivered, even if
there is no load on the system. Most devices used to compress air are very similar in
concept and -- perhaps even in hardware -- to hydraulic pumps, and selection To log in, please enter
considerations are similar. your login information.
E-mail:
The only other substantive difference is that most hydraulic systems are powered by a
single pump that is actually a part of the system, whereas a host of pneumatic systems
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are often powered by a single compressor, which is almost a "utility" in the plant like
water or electric service. Nevertheless, many small compressors are available for
specific, discrete jobs; typically they are positive-displacement compressors. Dynamic, or Remember My
nonpositive-displacement compressors are typically larger, facility-type units. Password
Compressors are fairly simple devices, capable of long periods of maintenance-free

operation if properly integrated into pneumatic systems. Yet time and again they suffer
from early failures because obvious precautions were ignored during system design.
Four basic rules can provide substantial improvement in compressor life with only
moderate design effort:
● Pumps and compressors should be sized to provide at least the required pressure
and flow, and preferably 10 to 25% more.
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● Filters should be selected to protect the pumping unit, and sometimes to protect Please enter your email
downstream components or products as well. address to have your
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● Relief valves should be selected to keep pressure or vacuum at appropriate levels. you.
● Pumping units should be placed in a clean, cool, dry environment.
Bellows compressors consist of a welded metal bellows connected to inlet and outlet
ports with check valves. These compressors typically cover the pressure range up to 10
psig, and are used in pollution detecting and measuring devices, gas-sampling
instruments, and medical applications. Lubrication is not needed, allowing high purities to
be maintained.
Vane compressors are simple machines with few moving parts. Like their hydraulic
counterparts, vane pumps, the compressors are inexpensive, with low operating cost,
and low starting-torque requirement. They are compact and relatively vibration free, with
little pulsation in the compressor output. The sliding vanes are closely fitted in the rotor
slots and wear very little during operation. These compressors are available in power
ranges from 10 to 500 hp, at pressures to 150 psi.
Reciprocating compressors consist of a piston moving within the cylinder to trap and
compress the gas. In principle, such a unit is like an automobile engine, with the pistons
compressing the gas and valves controlling its inlet and outflows. Sizes range from less
than 1 to over 5,000 hp. Reciprocating compressors have good part load efficiencies and
are useful for wide variations in operating conditions.
Diaphragm compressors are a modification of the reciprocating compressor.

Compression is performed by the flexing of a metal or fabricated diaphragm which is
caused by the motion of a reciprocating piston in a cylinder under the diaphragm. The
space between the diaphragm and the piston is usually filled with liquid.
Lobed-rotor compressors have two rotating elements that revolve in opposite

directions in a chamber. In most compressors, the rotors do not actually touch and do not
drive each other, being driven instead by timing gears. Because the rotors do not actually
touch, air leaks between them at a small but constant rate. This leakage, called "slip," is
constant for a given compressor at a given pressure. For highest efficiency, these
compressors should be operated at maximum speed. They are available in power ranges
from 7 to 3,000 hp, delivering pressures to 250 psi. Because the internal lobes do not
contact, they need no lubrication.
Liquid piston compressors have no moving parts in wearing contact. A rotor with
multiple forward-curved blades rotates in an elliptical casing. Fluid, trapped within the
casing, is carried around the inner periphery by the blades. Space between the blades
changes volume due to the elliptical fluid path, and the inner surface of the liquid ring
trapped between the blades serves as the face of a liquid piston. These compressors
accept liquid slugs and fine particles without serious damage. Lubrication is required only
in bearings located outside the pump housing. These compressors deliver up to 150 psi
throughout the range of 10 to 500 hp.
Centrifugal compressors are best suited to moving large volumes of air at relatively low
pressures. Basically, they consist of a high-speed rotating impeller, a diffuser section
where velocity is reduced and pressure increased, and a collector section that further
reduces velocity and increases pressure. Centrifugal compressors can handle high flow
demands well, but when demand decreases much below rated flow and output pressure
rises, the compressors can surge. In surge, the pressure field at the compressor outlet
varies randomly. If allowed to continue, this condition can damage bearings, blades, and
even the housing itself. Centrifugal compressors typically use from two to six stages,
supplying from 400 to 3,000 cfm at speeds to 20,000 rpm.
Regenerative blowers (also known as peripheral blowers) use a disclike impeller with
blades mounted around its outside edge. As the impeller revolves, air is drawn into the
space between the blades. Centrifugal force moves the air in a spiral path outward to the
housing, where it slips by the initial blade and returns to the base of the succeeding
blade, where the process is repeated. In some models, a flow splitter creates two flow
paths, so that the air must make two circuits around the impeller. In other models, the
splitter is omitted, and the air makes only one circuit before exiting. Regenerative blowers

provide air flows up to 1,000 cfm and pressures to 8 psi.
Helical compressors look like two giant screws meshing together; they work much like
hydraulic screw pumps. Maximum pressure from these machines is approximately 125
psi in single-stage configurations. Helical compressors may be either oil flooded or dry.
Dry helical compressors, like lobed units, require timing gears to maintain proper
clearance between the rotating elements. These units are most efficiently operated at
high continuous speeds.
Flooded compressors do not require any timing gears, because the oil-laden screw
surfaces can drive each other. However, oil separators are needed to remove the oil from
the air as it leaves the compressor. They are available over a power range of about 7 to
300 hp.
Single-screw compressors are based on the same principle as helical compressors. As

the central screw rotates, air trapped between the screw teeth is compressed against the
star-shaped rotors. These compressors tend to have low vibration and noise levels, and
low discharge pressures. Lubrication is required.

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Vacuum pumps customize your own
In principle, industrial vacuum pumps are merely compressors run with the inlet attached
to the vacuum system and the outlet open to exhaust. In smaller sizes, compressors and
vacuum pumps are often identical machines. However, in the large sizes that might
power a plant-wide vacuum system, the machines differ in minor ways that are intended To log in, please enter
to enhance efficiency for one application or the other. Manufacturers strongly advise that your login information.
the same machine not be used for both vacuum and compression at the same time. The E-mail:
heavy loads will damage it.
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Three criteria control pump selection: degree of vacuum produced, rate of air removal,
and power requirement. However, applications such as filtration may subject the unit to
the ingestion of foreign material. Remember My
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The first pump performance criterion is the vacuum it produces. Manufacturers provide a
maximum vacuum rating expressed as absolute pressure in mm Hg, or vacuum in in. Hg.
Larger units are usually rated only for continuous duty, but smaller units may have a
higher vacuum rating for intermittent duty. In smaller units, temperature-rise
considerations limit the vacuum that can be produced.
Continuous and intermittent vacuum ratings are determined for standard atmospheric
pressure: 29.92-in. Hg. Lower ambient pressures reduce the vacuum that can be
produced. The rating is determined from:
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Va = ( Vo * Pa ) / 29.92 password emailed to
you.
where Va = adjusted vacuum rating, in. Hg; Vo = original vacuum rating at standard
conditions, in. Hg; and Pa = anticipated atmospheric pressure at the application site, in.
Hg.
Rate of air removal is the second criterion. Vacuum pumps are flow rated according to
the volume of air exhausted with no pressure differential across the pump. Manufacturers
provide curves showing free air delivery at rated speed for vacuum levels ranging from 0-
in. Hg (so-called "open capacity") to maximum vacuum rating. Some manufacturers also
provide curves of capacity at different speeds for a given vacuum.
The last pump criterion is power requirement. Compared with air compressors, vacuum
pumps require relatively little power. At low flows, vacuum (or pressure differential) is
high; at high flows, vacuum is low. Therefore, power, which is proportional to flow and
pressure differential, is generally low.
Power output of the pump can be found from pressure-flow curves provided by
manufacturers. Input power and speed requirements are also shown in the data. Overall
pump efficiency (including both volumetric and mechanical efficiency) can be evaluated
by combining this data. This is done by dividing the free-air capacity of the pump at the
required vacuum level by drive power required at that condition. The result is proportional
to the product of gage vacuum and air-flow rate and is representative of efficiency.
All three performance criteria -- vacuum, flow and power -- can be affected by pump
temperature. At higher vacuum levels, little air flows through the pump, so little heat is
transferred to the air. Much of the heat generated by friction must be dissipated by the
pump. This heat gradually raises pump temperature and can drastically reduce service
life. Temperature excursions are especially important to intermittent-duty pump, which
can overheat if on time greatly exceeds off time.
Vacuum pumps are classified as either positive or nonpositive displacement. A positive-

displacement pump creates vacuum by isolating and compressing a distinct, constant
volume of air. The compressed air is vented out one port, and a vacuum is created at the
other port where the air is drawn in. This generates relatively high vacuum, but little flow.
A nonpositive-displacement pump, on the other hand, uses rotating impeller blades to

accelerate air and create a vacuum at the inlet port. While nonpositive-displacement
pumps cannot produce high levels of vacuum, they provide high flow rates.
Principal types of positive-displacement vacuum pumps include piston, diaphragm,

rocking-piston, rotary-vane, lobed-rotor, rotary-screw, and liquid-ring designs.
Reciprocating-piston pumps generate relatively high vacuums -- from 27 to more than

29 in. Hg -- under a variety of operating conditions. Typical pumps of this type have one
or more pistons linked to a rotating crankshaft. The alternating piston action moves air
past check valves in the cylinder head to create a vacuum at the inlet port. Lubricated
piston pumps are quieter, produce less vibration, have a higher capacity, and feature a
much longer life than oilless designs, but they are also heavier and more expensive.
Diaphragm pumps offer the advantage of the fluid chamber being totally sealed from
the pumping mechanisms. An eccentric connecting rod mechanically flexes a diaphragm
inside the closed chamber to create a vacuum. This results in somewhat lower vacuum
compared to that produced by a reciprocating piston. However, the diaphragm's lower
compression ratio -- low flow, large diameter, and short stroke -- makes for quiet,
economical, and reliable operation. The design is available in both one and two-stage
versions. Single-stage pumps provide vacuum up to 25.5 in. Hg, while two-stage units
are rated to 29 in. Hg.
Rocking-piston pumps combine the compact size and quiet, oilless operation of the
diaphragm pump with the high-vacuum capabilities of the reciprocating-piston pump.
Here, a piston is rigidly mounted (no wrist pin) on top of the diaphragm unit's eccentric
connecting rod. An elastomeric cup skirts the piston and functions both as a seal --
equivalent to the rings on a piston compressor -- and as a guide member for the rod. The
cup expands as the piston travels upward, thus maintaining contact with the cylinder
walls and compensating for the rocking motion. The absence of a wrist pin is the key to
the pump's light weight and compact size.
Single-stage rocking-piston pumps produce vacuum to 27.5 in. Hg; two-stage designs
can generate 29 in. Hg or more of vacuum. Rocking-piston pumps are also relatively
quiet, operating at sound levels as low as 50 dBA. A drawback to rocking-piston pumps
is that they cannot generate a lot of airflow. Even the largest twin-cylinder models have
flow rates of less than 10 cfm.
Rotary-vane pumps use a series of sliding, flat vanes rotating in a cylindrical case to
generate vacuum. As an eccentrically mounted rotor turns, the vanes slide in and out,
trapping a quantity of air and moving it from the inlet side of the pump to the outlet.
Rotary-vane pumps usually have lower vacuum ratings than piston pumps, in the 20 to
28 in. Hg range. However, there are a few exceptions. Some two-stage, oil-lubricated
designs have vacuum capabilities up to 29.5 in. Hg. Pumps with recirculating oil systems
reach still higher vacuums, in the less than 1-torr range. The pumps offer a number of
advantages, including high flow capacities, low starting and running torque requirements,
vibration-free operation, and continuous airflow. No valves restrict flow or require
maintenance in the rotary design. The compact units are also quiet, generating as little
as 45 dBA or sound.
Depending on the application and vacuum level required, an economical alternative to

using a high-vacuum pump is two standard, staged rotary-vane pumps. Or, a high-
volume, low-duty pump rated for continuous duty of 20 in. Hg sometimes can be
operated at restricted airflow or "blanked-off" conditions for short periods of time to
provide higher vacuums. As with other types of pumps available in both lubricated and
oilless configurations, lubricated rotary-vane pumps are capable of slightly higher
vacuum compared to oilless designs.

Liquid-ring pumps feature a multiblade impeller, mounted eccentrically in a cylindrical

case that is partly filled with water. As the impeller rotates, liquid is thrown outward by
centrifugal force to form a liquid ring concentric with the periphery of the casing. Due to
the eccentric position of the impeller, the air space in the impeller cell expands during the
first 180° of rotation, creating a vacuum. During the next 180° of rotation, the air space is
reduced, discharging compressed air and water. In addition to being the compression
medium, the liquid ring absorbs the heat of compression as well as any powder or liquid
slugs entrained in the air.
Rotary-screw and lobed-rotor vacuum pumps are two other types of positive
displacement pumps. Neither lubricated design is as widely used as rotary-vane and
piston pumps, especially in smaller sizes. Due to the size of the gears and rotors, both
designs lend themselves to larger installations.
A rotary-screw pump's vacuum capabilities are similar to those of piston pumps, with the
added advantage of being nearly pulse-free. Two meshing rotors with helical contours
trap air as the screws turn in opposite directions. This action creates chambers of
decreasing volume behind and increasing volume in front of the rotor chambers.
Lobed-rotor pumps bridge the gap between positive and nonpositive-displacement units.
The pumps have a pair of mating lobed impellers that rotate in opposite directions,
trapping air and withdrawing it from the system.
High-speed, multistaged centrifugal blowers and regenerative blowers are the major
types of nonpositive-displacement pumps, generally operating at high speeds and
attaining moderate vacuum levels.
Centrifugal blowers, for example, are an excellent choice where only intermittent use is
required. To keep costs down, a short-life brush-type ac or dc motor powers these
blowers, which are widely used in vacuum cleaners.
Regenerative blowers have many advantages because individual air molecules pass
through many compression cycles with each revolution compared to the single
compression per stage for multistaged centrifugal types. At first glance, regenerative
blowers are similar to rotary-vane pumps, but have a special blade and housing
configuration.
As the impeller rotates, centrifugal force moves the air molecules from the blade root to
its tip. Leaving the blade tip, the air flows around the housing contour and back down to
the root of a succeeding blade, where the flow pattern is repeated. This action provides a
quasi-staging effect to increase pressure differential capability. The speed of the rotating
impeller determines the degree of pressure change.
The end result is not a particularly high vacuum -- approximately 100-in. H2O in single-
stage models. But flow capacity is very high, up to several hundred cfm. Multistage
versions produce higher vacuum levels, but at lower flow rates.

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Actuators convert fluid energy into useful work. customize your own
Fluid-power actuators are available in a number of forms to provide specific types of action. Cylinders to your favorite vendors'
work through linear extension; motors impart continuous rotary motion to objects; rotary actuators twist sites, news of interest,
an object through only a partial arc. and previous searches!
Generally, all types of actuators are available for pneumatic or hydraulic operation. Often, the same
cylinder can be used for either air or low-pressure oil operation. Air and hydraulic motors, though similar,
are usually not interchangeable. To log in, please enter
Cylinders E-mail:
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When fluid is pumped into a cylinder, piston and rod are forced to move in or out against
a load. Movement can be all at once, or in increments; the piston may even rotate or Remember My
carry fluid. It can be returned by gravity, springs, or reversed flow. Password
Single-acting cylinders, the simplest type, power a stroke in only one direction. When
the fluid is allowed to drain from the cylinder, some external force must push the piston
back to its starting position. This low-cost cylinder can be used for any job -- like a lift
against gravity -- that provides a returning force.
Cushioned cylinders are single-acting cylinders with a built-in shock absorber. Where
the function of the cushion is to reduce shock or hammering against the cylinder head,
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cushions are usually nonadjustable. But adjustable cushions are available for Please enter your email
applications where precise cylinder speed is important. address to have your
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Ram cylinders are usually single-acting types with a rod at or near full-piston diameter.
The large-diameter ram is favored when column loads are extremely high or when the
rod overhang in a horizontal cylinder could cause sagging. Ram cylinders are frequently
used for large press applications and for jacking.
Spring-return cylinders are similar to the low-cost single-acting types, but with a spring
added to return the piston to its starting point. This type is widely used in both pneumatic
and hydraulic service, but is not always suitable for hydraulic service; if the spring is
heavy enough for speedy piston return, it may require too much force to compress. The
cylinder must be about twice as long as the required stroke to include space for the
spring. Some cylinders are spring loaded in the opposite direction, so they extend with
spring action and retract pneumatically or hydraulically.
Double-acting cylinders contain two fluid chambers so that pressure can be used to
both extend and retract the rod. Sealing devices work in both directions. This type of
cylinder is by far the most common, and can be used in nearly all types of applications.
Effective working area of the rod side of the piston is less than that of the other side, so
double-acting cylinders retract faster than they extend, and exert less force on the
retraction stroke.
Double-end rod cylinders are double-acting types with a rod extending from each side
of the piston. A chief advantage of this type is that working areas of both piston sides are
equal. So the piston moves at the same rate and delivers equal forces in each direction.
Double-end rod cylinders are available with a hollow rod, so that fluid or another machine
element can be passed through the cylinder. In a design variation often used on planers,
the hollow piston rod is restrained and the cylinder body is forced back and forth to shift
the moving table.
Tie-rod cylinders, the oldest and most common, are typically used in industrial jobs. The
cylinder body is held together by four or more tie rods that extend the full length of the
body and pass through the end caps or mounting plate. In operation, they may perform
any of the common cylinder functions except telescoping.
One-piece cylinders are most often used on mobile equipment and farm machinery.
The body is either cast integrally, or head and body may be welded together. This is the
least expensive type of cylinder; it is compact and simple. But it cannot be repaired when
damaged or worn.
Threaded-head cylinders offer a compromise between tie-rod and one-piece units.

Threaded units are relatively compact and streamlined, yet can be disassembled for
repair by unthreading either or both ends from the cylinder body.
Telescoping cylinders provide a long stroke from a short body. Total stroke length may
be as much as four times as long as the collapsed length of the cylinder. Available in
either single or double-acting models, telescoping cylinders are widely used for vehicle
applications; a typical job is lifting the bed of a dump truck. Force output varies with rod
extension: highest at the beginning, when full piston area is used; lowest at the end of
the stroke, when only the area of the final stage can be used to transmit force.
Diaphragm cylinders are used in either hydraulic or pneumatic service for applications
that require low friction, no leakage across the piston, or extremely sensitive response to
small pressure variations. They are frequently used as pneumatic actuators in food and
drug industries because they require no lubrication and do not exhaust a contaminating
oil mist. Spring-return models should not be pressurized in the reverse direction because
reversals can pleat the diaphragm and shorten its life. Double-acting actuators with twin
diaphragms are available for applications requiring pressure reversal.
Rotating cylinders impart linear motion to a rotating device. They are often used to
actuate rotating chucks on turret lathes. Fluid is ported to the rotating cylinder through a
stationary distributor. Rotating cylinders are available both with solid and hollow pistons.

Nonrotating cylinders are used in applications that demand both accurate linear
position and precise angular orientation. Special guides can be added to standard
cylinders to prevent rod rotation, but this is often expensive and unwieldy. More often,
twin-rod or rectangular cylinders are used.

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Electrohydraulic actuators E-mail:
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The coupling of electronic and hydraulic technology is becoming increasingly common,

especially in electrohydraulic actuators. Advances in transducer logic and control Remember My
capabilities have resulted in cylinders that transmit high forces with a high degree of Password
positioning accuracy. Key to the operation of these actuators is the feedback system. A
number of different feedback systems, both mechanical and electrical, are used,
depending on the accuracy and durability required.
Linear transducer: One method for accurately sensing cylinder rod position is with a
linear displacement transducer. In one widely used system, the transducer housing is
mounted to the cylinder end cap, with the sensor rod extending into the hollowed-out
piston rod. There is no physical contact between the sensor and cylinder rods.
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To determine position, a magnet is attached to the cylinder piston. Current pulses address to have your
transmitted down the sensor interact with the magnetic field and return a sonic pulse. password emailed to
Distance can be determined by measuring the transmission/reception time interval. you.
Positioning accuracy is 0.001 to 0.003 in.
Hydraulic amplifier: Another way to accurately control position is to hydraulically amplify

the motion of a stepping motor. By combining a stepping motor, servovalve, cylinder, and
ball screw, positioning accuracy of 0.001 to 0.002 in. and repeatability of 0.0005 in. are
possible. Stepping-motor rotation moves a cam to shift the valve spool laterally. This
permits oil flow to the cylinder.
As the cylinder piston moves, the ballnut attached to the piston rotates the ball screw,
which is connected to the spool. This spool rotation maintains the relative motion of the
cam, so the speed of the cylinder is directly proportional to the rotational speed of the
stepping motor.
Several choices of ball screws and helical cams provide a selection of servovalve gains
and speed ranges to suit most applications. Finer resolution can also be provided
through microstepping, which gives standard stepping motors up to 25,000 steps per
revolution.
Rotary encoder: A somewhat similar means of control is with a rotary encoder. Here,
piston motion again causes ball screw rotation. But in this case, the ball screw is
attached to the encoder. Precise measurement of the screw rotation corresponds to a
linear piston position. The controller processes this information and signals the
servovalve to maintain or change flow accordingly.
Hall-effect sensors: Another approach for position sensing uses a precision-cut square
thread on the cylinder rod exterior. After machining, the rod is plated to fill the thread
grooves, returning the finish and dimensions to original specifications.
Two Hall-effect sensors, which detect the presence of a magnetic material, are
positioned at the rod surface one-quarter thread pitch apart. These sensors "see through"
the nonmagnetic chrome plating, but detect the square thread peaks. Output is in the
form of two square waves which are 90° out of phase. Accuracy of this system is 0.025 ±
0.005 in.
Mechanical feedback: In one mechanical feedback system, rod displacement is directly

proportional to the magnitude and polarity of an electrical input to a force motor. Here,
system supply pressure is routed to the control valve and the rod end of the piston. Flow
at the control valve passes through two equal size orifices to tank when in a neutral
condition. Between the orifices, flow is ported to the cylinder piston. Because flow
through two equal orifices gives equal pressure drop, pressure at the piston is one-half
supply pressure. The piston is sized to be twice the area of the rod-side area; thus,
forces on the piston are balanced.
The valve spool rides in a sleeve, which is held in contact with the follower by a
compression spring. Likewise, the follower is held in contact with the feedback cone on
the piston. As the piston moves back and forth, the follower moves up and down, forcing
the valve sleeve to move through a proportional distance.
An electrical input to the force motor moves the valve spool through a distance and
direction corresponding to the magnitude and polarity of the signal. When the spool is
displaced relative to the sleeve, it meters flow in or out of the cylinder, causing the piston
to move. As the piston moves, the follower rides along the feedback cone, which moves
the sleeve until control-valve flow to the piston is shut off. Thus, every value of electrical
input has a corresponding rod position.

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Electropneumatic cylinders E-mail:
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Pneumatics is generally preferred for applications such as material handling, transporting

parts, pick-and-place operations, and small-parts assembly. But, until recently, Remember My
pneumatic systems were almost entirely limited to on/off control -- for example, pressure Password
applied or not applied, or a cylinder extended or retracted. However, the need for
increased capabilities in automated systems has spurred development of programmable
pneumatic equipment, able to produce freely determined rod positions. Advances in
closed-loop control theory, development of fast-acting precision pneumatic valves, and
the availability of high-speed electronics and user-friendly interfaces now make
proportional pneumatics a reality, offering performance that matches closed-loop
electrical and hydraulic systems.
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One such system features a pneumatic cylinder with a linear position sensor built into the Please enter your email
rod, a pneumatic brake, and an electronic controller. Continuous monitoring of rod address to have your
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position and velocity, combined with positive stopping action of the brake, ensures
you.
accurate positioning. The system allows up to 32 user-defined set points for each of eight
programs. It interfaces to I/O devices such as computers or programmable controllers, or
to solid-state relays for timing and output. Typical applications include material-handling,
spot welding, and pick-and-place systems. A multiaxis positioning configuration is also
offered for control of up to eight axes.
Another type of pneumatic, closed-loop control system features a continuous-acting

valve as the control element, along with position sensor and electronic controller. The
system contains no mechanical brake. Controlling cylinder movement requires quick and
precise valve response. In a positioning application, for example, as the rod approaches
the set point, the valve shifts overcenter to build up pressure that opposes cylinder
movement. Internal algorithms control rapid shifting of the valve from one side to the
other, giving smooth deceleration to the desired position. Variables other than
proportional feedback come into play. Thus, the system requires a more powerful
microprocessor than typically found in hydraulic servosystems.
As the control element, valve precision and speed must exceed that of the control loop
as a whole. Valve speed determines how rapidly the system compensates for unwanted
deviations. A rule of thumb that governs the stability of closed-loop control requires the
valve natural frequency to be at least three times that of the controlled system, for
example, the cylinder and load. Large-diameter, short-stroke cylinders could pose control
difficulties. But for most material-handling applications, cylinder natural frequencies in the
1 to 5-Hz range are well within the capabilities of pneumatic control valves.
When free programmability and multiposition capabilities are not important, lower-cost
options are available. Most pneumatic cylinder manufacturers offer piston or rod position
sensing capability with their product, enabling the user to interface with electronic
controls. One common method is the mechanical limit switch, although this device seems
to have fallen into disfavor. The drawbacks most often cited are the susceptibility of
mechanical parts to damage or wear, and that the switch gets in the way of machine
operation. More often, proximity switches mounted to the cylinder OD are used. These
provide noncontact indication of cylinder piston position.
One type of proximity switch is an enclosed reed switch that is activated by a permanent
magnet mounted to the piston. As the piston approaches, the magnetic field closes the
switch, completing an electric circuit and producing an electric signal. Others prefer to
use Hall-effect sensors in combination with a piston-mounted magnet. The main
difference between these two devices is that a reed switch is a mechanical device, while
a Hall-effect switch is electronic, with no moving parts to wear out. Reed switches have
the advantage of operating on ac or dc current; Hall-effect switches are limited to dc only.
Also, reed switches are about half the price of their electronic counterpart, although the
price differential is decreasing. On the other hand, Hall-effect devices react much faster
than reed switches, on the order of 100,000 versus 500 Hz. It is a waste of money to
install microprocessor-based logic, and then be hampered by a slow switch. Overall, the
trend seems to be towards these solid-state devices.
Both switches have a repeatability of 0.005 in. or less. But often rod velocity, not switch
accuracy, determines the overall repeatability of rod position. Because air is a
compressible fluid, precise positioning of the cylinder rod -- especially in midstroke -- is
difficult, regardless of the switch used. In many applications, even if the switch is very
fast and accurate, getting the valves to react fast enough may be the real problem. In
such cases, mounting fast-acting valves as close to the cylinder as possible is important.
This eliminates excess compressible air in the lines between cylinder and flow control,
giving more precise control.

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Rotary actuators E-mail:
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Rotary actuators produce oscillating power by rotating an output shaft through a fixed
arc. They are compact, simple, and efficient. They produce high instantaneous torque in Remember My
either direction and require only a small space and simple mountings. Password
Rack-and-pinion actuators use fluid pressure to drive a piston connected to a gear

rack, which rotates a pinion. Standard units are available with rotation of 90, 180, or
360°. They can be obtained with two parallel piston-rack units to double output torque.
Outputs to 35 million lb-in. are available.
Vane actuators consist of a shaft mounted in a cylindrical housing, with one or more
vanes attached to the shaft. Applying fluid pressure to the vanes produces shaft rotation.
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An internal barrier between housing OD and shaft divides interior volume into two Please enter your email
chambers. For this reason, single-vane actuators are normally limited to about 280° of address to have your
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rotation, and double-vane actuators to about 100°. Torque is directly proportional to vane
you.
area and effective fluid pressure. Vane actuators have torque outputs as high as 500,000
lb-in.
Helix actuators have helical grooves in the piston rod that convert linear to rotary
motion. Helical actuators are available with standard rotations varying from 100 to 370°
with outputs to 15,000 lb-in.
A relatively new actuator gaining wide acceptance uses double helical gearing. This
design features two moving parts: the piston sleeve, which reciprocates and rotates; and
the output shaft, which only rotates. As the piston sleeve reciprocates in helical
actuators, the outer spline engages the ring gear and causes sleeve rotation. At the
same time, the inner spline engages another set of helical teeth on the output shaft. This
causes relative shaft rotation in addition to that of the piston sleeve.
Planetary actuators increase helix angle and reduce actuator length by replacing sliding
action with rolling action. Planetary rollers on the piston between the helical shaft and
housing grooves provide an arrangement similar to the gears in a planetary speed
reducer. As in double helical actuators, planetary actuators have two basic moving
elements, the piston assembly and shaft assembly.
Piston movement causes rollers to follow helical grooves in the housing, forcing piston
rotation. Simultaneously, the rollers follow helical grooves in the shaft, forcing shaft
rotation. Design is such that 90° piston movement results in 180° of shaft rotation. Large-
diameter bearings and mounting flanges on this unit can carry large moment, thrust, and
radial loads.
Linear cylinders consist of a simple cylinder with a pin-ended rod connected to a crank
arm that drives the rotating shaft. These devices are typically pressure actuated in both
directions and are equipped with adjustable stops for accurate adjustment of stroke.
Stroke is ordinarily adjustable from 85 to 100°.
Fail-safe variations on the basic cylinder are used where a power failure or fluid loss
could suspend the controlled object in a dangerous position. Fail-safe actuators are
spring-loaded to ensure the return of the shaft to a safe position -- they are available with
torque outputs to over 5,000 lb-in.
Scotch yoke actuators provide torque from a linear cylinder mechanism. They can be
either single or double acting, producing torque as high as 45 million lb-in., driving
through comparatively short arcs -- about 90° maximum. Output torque is not constant,
but increases as the piston moves away from its center position.
Sprocket actuators provide long rotations. Up to five complete turns (1,800°) and
torques to 23,500 lb-in. are available from sprocket actuators. In these devices, two
pistons, a chain, and a sprocket convert fluid pressure into torque. The large piston acts
as the driver, pulling the chain. The smaller piston seals against fluid leakage past the
return side of the endless chain.
Bladder actuators route fluid into rubber bladders that push against a cup-shaped lever
arm to provide rotary motion up to 100°. As long as bladders remain intact, there can be
no leakage across the lever arm, so the actuators provide excellent angular accuracy.
Bladders can be compounded for compatibility with almost any fluid medium, and are
insensitive to abrasive particles in the fluid.

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Fluid motors E-mail:
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Generally, hydraulic and pneumatic motors are organized along similar principles. The
internal engineering of each is quite different, but the operating philosophies are very Remember My
similar. Password
Axial-piston motors contain several pistons -- usually seven to nine -- that are extended
by high-pressure fluid. The pistons are restrained at one end by an angled plate: As they
bear against the plate, they generate a rotating force that may either twist the plate or the
barrel in which the pistons are rotated. In most designs, the shaft is driven directly from
either the barrel or the cam plate; in a few hydraulic motors, the shaft is driven through a
differential-gear arrangement that permits low speed and high torque.
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Axial-piston motors have a reputation for high volumetric efficiency, combined with Please enter your email
excellent operation at both high and low speeds. In hydraulic designs, axial-piston motors address to have your
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produce maximum torques to 17,500 lb-in. from pressures to 5,000 psi, generating
you.
maximum speeds to around 4,500 rpm.
Pneumatic axial piston motors are available only in the smaller ranges, in sizes to 3 hp.
Most axial piston air motors are grease lubricated and require provision for regular
servicing.
Radial-piston motors have pistons that radiate out from the drive shaft, and are arrayed
in a number of ways. They can produce torques over one million lb-in. at pressures
exceeding 5,000 psi. Speeds can range from 0.1 to 2,000 rpm. Radial-piston air motors
are generally limited to free speeds below 4,000 rpm, with design speeds below 2,000
rpm. They provide high starting torque, reliability, and built-in lubrication, but are not
normally governed.
Gear-on-gear motors are the most common hydraulic units. They consist of a pair of
matched spur or helical gears enclosed in a case. These units develop maximum torques
of about 6,000 lb-in., accepting inlet pressures to 3,000 psi and operating to 3,000 rpm.
B>Gear-within-gear motors, often called gerotors, are very compact for their
displacement. The inner gear seals against the outer to guard against fluid leakage.
Tooth velocities and wear are low and power density is high. Gear-within-gear motors
can accept pressures to 2,000 psi and deliver torques to 1,500 lb-in. at speed ranges to
over 5,000 rpm. Gerotor air motors function similarly to their hydraulic counterparts, but
are designed for low-speed operation, generally under 200 rpm.
Differential gear motors are a variation of the gerotor type, developed to produce high
torque at low speed. The outer gear is held fixed, and the inner gear is allowed to orbit
within it. A stub spline shaft, with eccentric action at both ends, connects the inner gear
to the output shaft. Operating at pressures to 1,500 psi, these motors deliver torques to
3,700 lb-in. at speeds to 1,000 rpm.
Roller-gerotor motors are a variation on gerotor differential-gear motors. Lobes of the

outer gear are replaced by rollers that reduce friction. Thus, the motors tend to have
higher efficiencies, lower starting torques, and longer lives. These motors accept
pressures up to 4,500 psi and produce torques to 16,400 lb-in., and speeds to 850 rpm.
Crescent gear motors have a small gear within a larger one, with a fixed crescent-
shaped element between the gears. The gear teeth seal against the crescent. These
motors produce speeds to 5,000 rpm, operating on maximum pressures of 500 psi.
Vane motors are used for both pneumatic and hydraulic operation. (In reality, the same
motor is rarely suitable for operation on both hydraulic fluid and air, but the principle of
vane operation is equally acceptable.) In both hydraulic and pneumatic versions, vane
motors consist of a slotted rotor mounted eccentrically within a circuit cam ring. Vanes in
the rotor slots are free to move in and out; they are often spring-loaded to the outward
position. As air or fluid enters the motor, it applies force against the vane, turning the
rotor and allowing the fluid to sweep from inlet to outlet ports.
Most hydraulic vane motors use a two or four-port configuration so that the fluid passes
in one side of the vane and out the other, or passes in and out through two ports on each
side of the vane. In the latter configuration, each vane provides torque to the rotor twice
each revolution. The torque of a four-port motor is twice that of a similarly sized two-port
motor, and speed is approximately half. A few vane motors for hydraulic applications use
even more ports to create a high-torque, low-speed motor.
For normal units, with only two inlet ports, maximum torque is 4,000 lb-in. at maximum
continuous pressures of about 2,500 psi. Top speed is 4,000 rpm.
Vane motors for pneumatic systems operate at free speeds to 13,000 rpm, with rated
speed approximately 50% of that level. Torques well in excess of 2,000 lb-in. are
available at rated operating pressures of 90 psi. These pneumatic vane motors must be
provided with some method for feeding lubricant into the air stream because the outer
ends of the vanes rub against the cylinder wall. They also typically require a governor to
inhibit operation at free speed. An ungoverned vane motor, allowed to reach free speed,
may damage itself or connected machinery.
Axial-vane motors use vanes that rotate instead of sweeping in and out to seal. These
motors may have very small fixed clearances and low stalled friction for excellent low-
speed capability. Unlike conventional vane motors, they cannot compensate for wear so
they require good filtration for continued trouble-free service. They deliver torques to
3,200 lb-in., at continuous pressures to 2,000 psi, with continuous speeds in the range of
5 to 1,500 rpm.
Rotary abutment motors are hydraulic units that consist of a three-lobe rotor, with each
lobe carrying a roller in a dovetail groove. The rollers provide a positive seal between the
rotor and housing. The sealing arrangement is substantially frictionless and relatively
insensitive to wear. The motor contains two rotary abutments, one of which rotates to
pass a rotor lobe while the second seals the rotor hub. Timing gears between the output
shaft and rotary abutments keep the rotor and abutments in proper phase. The motors
provide continuous running torques as high as 3,200 lb-in. at continuous pressures of
2,000 psi. Maximum speed range is 650 to 1,400 rpm.
Turbine motors used exclusively in pneumatic systems, can be either single or

multistage units. They can be driven by a wide variety of gases and vapors such as
compressed air, natural gas, nitrogen, steam, and the Freons. Because turbine motors
fully expand the compressed gas and have very low frictional losses, they are the most
efficient type of pneumatic motor for integral-horsepower applications. Because the
motors have no rubbing surfaces as in vane motors, no lubrication is required in the drive
gas. Turbine motors are available with power ratings from fractional horsepower to 85
shaft hp at drive pressures to 90 psig. They also are available with or without gear
reducers to provide a range of speeds from 0 to 25,000 rpm. Units without gear reducers
typically weigh from 3 to 20 lb.

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Hydrostatic drives E-mail:
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Hydrostatic drives are widely recognized as an excellent means of power transmission

when variable output speed is required. Typically outperforming mechanical and Remember My
electrical variable-speed drives and gear-type transmissions, they offer fast response, Password
maintain precise speed under varying loads, and allow infinitely variable speed control
from zero to maximum.
Unlike gear transmissions, hydrostatics have a continuous power curve without peaks
and valleys, and they can increase available torque without shifting gears. But despite
the superior performance of hydrostatics, a major drawback has been higher cost
compared to their mechanical counterparts.
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Manufacturers, however, continue to boost performance levels, produce smaller and Please enter your email
lighter packages, and offer advanced electronic controls. These factors now make address to have your
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hydrostatics an economical choice for many applications.
you.
A basic hydrostatic transmission is an entire hydraulic system. It contains pump, motor,

and all required controls in one simple package. Such a system provides all the noted
advantages of a conventional hydraulic system -- such as stepless adjustment of speed,
torque, and power; plus smooth and controllable acceleration; ability to be stalled without
damage; and easy controllability -- with the convenience of single-package procurement
installation.
Early hydrostatic transmissions were intended primarily for low-cost applications such as
farm equipment and garden tractors. But improved designs -- particularly in controls --
have made these transmissions suitable for a broad range of applications.
As a result, light-duty units (less than 20 hp) are being used on equipment such as lawn
tractors, golf-course maintenance equipment, and small machine tools; medium-duty
units (25 to 50 hp) on skid-steer loaders, trenchers, harvesters, and other such vehicles;
and heavy-duty transmissions (approximately 60 hp and higher) on agricultural and large
construction equipment.
Part of the reason for the increasing attractiveness of hydrostatic transmissions is

improved design of pumps and motors -- particularly higher flow and pressure ratings in a
more compact package. For example, several years ago, most pumps could be expected
to deliver about 0.125-gpm flow per pound of pump. Currently available pumps deliver
about 0.5 gpm/lb, a 400% increase. Similarly, older motors provided about 0.5 hp/lb of
motor; new motors provide about 2.5 hp/lb.
Performance: Hydrostatic transmissions are commonly available with at least three

standards of output performance:
● Variable-power, variable-torque transmissions are based on a variable-

displacement pump supplying a variable-displacement motor. They can provide a

combination of constant torque and constant power. These units are adjustable,
flexible, and expensive.
● Constant-torque, variable-power transmissions are based on a variable-
displacement pump supplying fluid to a fixed-displacement motor under constant
load. Speed is controlled by varying pump delivery. This is considered the best
general-purpose drive, with wide speed ranges, up to 42:1, and simple controls.
● Constant-power, variable-torque transmissions are based on a variable-
displacement pump with a power limiter, driving a fixed-displacement motor. The
forte of this unit is efficiency, but speed range is usually limited to 4:1.
Drive configurations: Hydrostatic transmissions usually take one of two general

configurations, split or close coupled. A split transmission consists of a power unit with
the hydraulic pump, heat exchanger, filters, valves, and controls mounted on a reservoir.
The hydraulic motor is remotely mounted and connected to the power unit through hose
or tubing. Split transmissions are typically used in heavy-duty applications because they
offer wide flexibility in configuring a system for the most efficient use of space or best
weight distribution.
Integrated, or close-coupled, transmissions have a hydraulic pump and motor that share
a common valving surface. This arrangement provides an extremely short oil-flow path,
eliminating high-pressure oil leaks either to the reservoir or to the environment. A cast
casing or housing provides a self-contained oil reservoir, structural support for the
rotating elements, and heat dissipation. They are usually bolted directly to a mechanical
differential axle to form a hydrostatic transaxle. Close-coupled transmissions are typically
found in light-duty applications, where tight space constraints require compact units,
while high-volume production mandates easy assembly.
Transmission sizing: Hydrostatic transmission size normally is based on the corner

horsepower of the work function. Corner horsepower is the product of the maximum force
and maximum speed required by the function, even though these two conditions rarely
occur simultaneously. Corner horsepower for vehicle propulsion is

Hc = ( Ft * V ) / 3,600n
where Hc = corner horsepower, kW; Ft = maximum vehicle tractive force, N; V =

maximum vehicle speed, km/h; and n = final drive efficiency, %.
Transmission corner horsepower, Ht, is the product of maximum output torque (generally
at a specified maximum pressure) and maximum output speed:
Ht = ( Tt * N ) / 9,550
:where T = theoretical torque at maximum system pressure, N-m; t = torque efficiency, %;

and N = maximum transmission speed, rpm.
Initial transmission selection is made by comparing the results of these calculations.

Selection is refined by considering the effects of duty cycle, final-drive ratio, rolling
radius, primer-mover speed, and design life.
Electronic controls: Control capabilities for hydrostatic transmissions have advanced

from simple remote electrical actuators to packages that offer complete optimization of
machine performance. For example, electronics on paving equipment not only controls
the transmission, including speed and rate of acceleration and deceleration, but also
steering, paving height, rate of material flow, road crown, slope on curves, and so on.
While not currently economical for every application, proportional controls offer a
reasonable payback in most traction drives and propel systems through fuel savings and
increased productivity. Acceptance will quicken when the added benefits in addition to
primary control are recognized. One such feature is performance monitoring, another is
system diagnostics -- relating when servicing is needed, when failure is imminent, or
where a failure has occurred. Such features are relatively easy to add into software
because many of the variables needed are already measured for control.

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Hydrokinetic E-mail:
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Hydrokinetic drives are typically rated from 1 to 5,000 hp but higher ratings are common.
Largest units are rated at 25,000 to 30,000 hp. Remember My
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Because there is no mechanical lockup between the driver and driven elements, the
drive has a constant 2 to 4% slip that, although reducing efficiency, provides good shock
protection to the driven and the driving equipment.
To remove heat generated by this slippage, all hydrokinetic drives require a heat
exchanger. However, constant-speed hydrokinetic couplings used for soft starts are
totally self-contained and do not need heat exchangers. Only variable-speed hydrokinetic
couplings are equipped with heat exchangers. These drives are controlled by adjusting
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the amount of oil in the casing. Most scoop-tube controlled hydrokinetic drives use Please enter your email
electrical, hydraulic, or pneumatic controllers, but a few drives are manually controlled. address to have your
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Because the drive operates by the impeller input circulating the oil, the hydrokinetic drive
is particularly vulnerable to inaccuracies at low speeds. Thus, minimum output speeds
are usually specified. The minimum output speed at which the drive will continuously
operate is given usually in terms of a percent of input speed. Operation below this
minimum ordinarily is not permissible except in the transient conditions of clutching and
declutching. These minimum output speeds are typically 20 to 30% of input speed for
variable torque loads and 35 to 45% for constant-torque loads.
In theory, maximum torque is transmitted at 100% slip when the turbine is stalled and the
impeller turns at motor speed. However, in a standard constant-speed hydrokinetic fluid
coupling, maximum torque is not exactly at 0% output speed. Maximum torque occurs at
about 10% slip. This can be significant and must be considered if a fluid coupling is used
as a torque limiter in a power train. Recent developments in fluid couplings allow some to
produce soft starts and low torque limits.
Torque limitation can be as low as 130% but normally is about 150%. Without the soft-
start feature, fluid couplings can only offer torque limitations of 170 to 180%, usually too
high for material-handling equipment.
Studies from power utilities suggest that for large power transmission, hydrokinetic fluid
drives require less maintenance than hydrostatic or hydroviscous types. This is because
a fluid, rather than a solid surface, transmits power from impeller to turbine.
Typical applications include conveyor drives, to provide smooth starts and minimize belt
stretch; on diesel engines, to protect gearboxes from torque fluctuations; and on
automatic transmissions.


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Valves are essential elements for controlling fluid system performance. customize your own
Virtually every fluid-power system requires some type of valve. In a hydraulic system, valves may to your favorite vendors'
control pressure, flow to an actuator, or quantity of flow permitted past a given point. Pneumatic valves sites, news of interest,
are similar in design and operation to their hydraulic counterparts, although they may differ in and previous searches!
construction.
Trends in the valve industry today include miniaturization of traditional designs and space-saving
stackable valves. Compatibility with electronic controls means enhanced valve performance. To log in, please enter
Manufacturers are also turning to plastics to cut weight while improving lubricity and corrosion your login information.
resistance. And advanced ceramics are being used for longer life and contamination resistance. E-mail:
Pressure valves
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The primary concern in fluid-power circuits is to control either pressure level or the rate of Password
flow. In theory, most flow-control valves could be used to control pressure. If orifice size,
supply flow, and fluid viscosity are fixed, pressure remains constant; if any one of the
three varies, pressure varies. Typically, however, such valves produce only the crudest
kind of pressure control. For more accurate control, several types of pressure-control
valves have been developed; they are categorized by the function to be performed.
Counterbalance valves resist movement or balance the load being held by a cylinder or
motor. These valves, by controlling pressure, provide excellent dynamic control. If they
must hold the load for long periods, experts recommend that they be supplemented with
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a pilot check valve, which has better static-holding capabilities. Please enter your email
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Diverting valves (known in the mobile industry as "sequence valves") establish flow you.
priorities within a circuit by using a pressure-actuated three-way valve with controls. The
valve assembly directs pressurized fluid to a primary port until a predetermined pressure
level is reached. At this value, flow is diverted from the primary outlet to a secondary
outlet. Flow continues at the secondary as long as the pressure in the primary outlet is
maintained. Pressures can be cascaded through several steps if needed.
Sequence valves are used to determine the sequence of machine operations by

sensing pressures other than maximum. These normally closed valves permit flow
between inlet and output ports when the pressure reaches preset levels, and can be
fitted with free-flow checks to permit flow in the opposite direction.
Many sequence valves have two or more spools or poppets that must be actuated before
flow can pass through the valve. Typically, a signal shifts the control spool, ensuring that
a certain minimum pressure has been developed in one part of the circuit before fluid can
pass through another part.
Reducing valves can limit pressure levels by restricting flow through a portion of a
hydraulic system. In a normally open two-port unit, the reducing valve receives the signal
from its low-pressure outlet. The valve is often biased by a spring or weight that may be
supplemented with a pilot mechanism.
Reducing valves are used with suitable orifices to provide uniform pressure drop in flow-
control valves. A check valve can be included for uncontrolled return flow through the
valve, or pilot pressure can be used to hold the spool in the open positive to permit free
return flow through the valve.
Unloading valves provide free passage through a low-pressure area when a signal is
applied to a pilot connection. In a typical application, unloading valves can be arranged to
accept a signal from an accumulator. At a predetermined pressure, when the
accumulator is charged to the specified level, the pump unloads to tank. The unloading
pressure of this type of valve is commonly determined by a spring-loaded spool; the
spring can be adjusted to vary unloading pressure. Alternatively, the valves can be
controlled by application of a pilot pressure to hold the valve closed at pressures higher
than that provided for by the spring.
Safety valves pop open to avoid or eliminate abnormally high pressure peaks. They are
designed strictly for fast action rather than pressure modulation, and they may well be
subject to such problems as noise and chatter. They are typically nonadjustable, or have
the pressure setting protected from tampering.
Essentially, safety valves perform the function of "fuses" in the system. In lieu of one,
devices called hydraulic fuses also can be used. These quasi-valves use a disc or similar
device that fractures at a preset pressure. They do not reset automatically and must be
manually repaired after fracturing.
Relief valves do the same job as safety valves, but they also smoothly and continuously
modulate flow to keep pressure from exceeding a preset level. A relief valve is normally
closed until the pressure level approaches a preset value. As system pressure rises,
relief flow through a properly sized valve increases until the entire pump output passes
through the valve. When system pressure drops, the valve closes smoothly and quietly.
Relief valves are available with simple direct actuation or with piloted operation. In
addition, some electrically modulated relief valves perform an almost servo function to
instantly modulate system pressure over a wide range of electrically signaled values.

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Flow valves
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Flow is controlled by either throttling or diverting it. Throttling involves reducing orifice Password
size until all of the flow cannot pass through the orifice; bypassing involves routing part of
the flow around the circuit so that the actuator receives only the portion needed to
perform its task. If the flow inlet to an actuator is controlled, the circuit is said to be a
"meter-in" system. If actuator outlet is controlled, it is called a "meter-out" circuit. When
that part of the fluid being diverted to the reservoir or another part of the circuit is
controlled, it is said to be a "bleed-off" system.
Noncompensated flow controls are simple valves that meter flow by restricting or
throttling. The amount of flow that passes through an orifice and the pressure drop
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across it are directly related. As pressure increases, valve flow increases. Please enter your email
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Common noncompensated valves are adjustable needle valves; flow through them you.
varies with fluid viscosity and pressure across the valve. Usually, a needle valve is paired
with a check valve that offers resistance to flow in one direction only. The combination
permits flow to be adjusted in one direction, with free flow upon reverse. This type of two-
valve combination is typically called an adjustable restrictor valve.
For some tasks, adjustability is either unimportant or potentially harmful. For such tasks,
a fixed resistor valve can be used. Basically, it consists of a check valve with an orifice
embodied in the valve. Some fixed restrictors make provision for disassembling the valve
and changing the orifice; others have no such provision. In either type, the orifice is not
changed during circuit operation so the valve is considered nonadjustable.
Both fixed and variable restrictor valves are simple, reliable, and inexpensive. They do
not accurately control flow if load or viscosity changes. They can be used in any circuit,
using any metering method. Experts recommend these noncompensated valves when
accuracy is not important, when heat generation through power loss can be tolerated,
and in such circuits as gravity lowering, where they can be used efficiently.
Pressure-compensated flow controls maintain nearly constant flow despite variations

in circuit pressure. Like the noncompensated units, they incorporate a metering orifice.
Flow pressure drop across this orifice is used to shift a balanced spool against a control
spring. This spool movement is used to maintain a constant pressure drop across the
orifice, which in turn, produces a constant flow. Pressure drop across the orifice is
relatively low.
Check valves use a ball or poppet to prevent flow in one or more directions. In two-port
valves, the ball or poppet is usually lightly spring loaded against one of the ports. In three-
port valves, or shuttle valves, internal ridges guide the ball between ports.
Restrictive flow regulators work like an automatic variable orifice to control flow by
throttling or restricting. Compensator spool movement blocks fluid flow through the valve.
Flow passing through the metering orifice is accompanied by a pressure drop that is
applied to each end of a balanced spool. The resulting force imbalance moves the spool
against the control spring. Spool movement progressively blocks off flow area restricting
or throttling flow through the valve.
Restrictive flow regulators are ideally suited to constant-pressure closed-center circuits

and meter-out situations. Experts say they are the only pressure-compensated flow
control that can be used in these applications. They are also recommended for gravity
lowering devices where uniform lowering speed is required regardless of the load.
Bypass flow regulators control flow by diverting excess pump output to the reservoir.
The same basic control orifice and compensator spool are used as in the restrictive flow
regulator. But, instead of restricting flow through the valve, spool movement diverts or
bypasses excess flow to the reservoir.
These regulators are used exclusively in variable-pressure open-center circuits, and only
as a meter-in device. The resulting pump or supply pressure is slightly higher than that
required to do the work, and automatically changes with load. Bypass flow regulators
cannot be used as meter-out devices in any circuit or as meter-in devices in constant-
pressure circuits. The ability of these valves to accept all flow supplied to them excludes
them from these applications.
Combination bypass and restrictive flow regulators are a combination of the first two
mentioned. They control flow by both restricting and bypassing, permitting full use of both
regulated and bypass flow. Flow through a controlled orifice produces a pressure that
shifts a compensating spool. Movement of the spool first uncovers the bypass-flow area.
If bypass-circuit pressure is greater than regulated-circuit pressure, the spool moves
farther to restrict or throttle the controlled flow. Regardless of pressures in either circuit,
the combination flow regulator maintains a constant controlled flow. Full pump flow is at
the higher of the two pressures.

Combination flow regulators are sometimes called "priority" valves. They establish priority
flow to the control circuit and bypass to the secondary circuit only when the flow
demands of the primary circuit are met. If pump supply is less than that required at the
regulated port, all flow goes to the regulated port and none is diverted. This type of
combination valve is ideally suited for meter-in speed control in open-center fixed-
displacement pump circuits.

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Proportional valves
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The performance of proportional valves falls in the wide spectrum between on/off Password
solenoid valves and electrohydraulic servovalves. The valves are termed proportional
because output flow is not exactly linear in relation to input current. Despite their
nonlinear response, the valves are an inexpensive way to control position, velocity, or
force on equipment requiring high-speed response at high flow rates.
Many proportional valves are modified versions of four-way, on/off solenoid valves in
which proportional solenoids replace conventional solenoids. In operation, solenoid force
is balanced by spring force to position the spool in proportion to the input signal.
Positioning accuracy can be improved by removing the centering springs and adding a
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Proportional valve parts are built to be interchangeable; thus, the spool in low-
performance valves can have considerable overlap in the null position. This overlap
causes flow deadband, which is not critical for flow-control systems but can cause errors
and instability in positioning systems.
However, a definite trend in the valve industry is the increasing difficulty in differentiating
between servo and proportional valves. Historically, proportional valves could not match
servovalve performance and were primarily used in open-loop applications. They were
mass produced, while servovalves required meticulous manufacturing and fit-up, making
them up to ten times more expensive. Proportional valves also had wider clearances,
making them more forgiving and more tolerant of contamination. However, such
definitions no longer hold in many cases.
For example, closed-loop proportional valves are available that function much like
servovalves. By using high-force, continuous-action solenoids, minimum-friction
mechanical moving parts, and rapid-response electronics, the valves offer servolike
performance without drawbacks like contamination sensitivity and high pressure drop. A
key feature in the valve is a spool and sleeve assembly with no overlap in midposition.
While this requires precise manufacturing, it is less costly than other servo designs.
The valves control flow or pressure, or actuator position, velocity, force, or torque, and
can synchronize the action of a number of cylinders. They are suited for applications
such as press systems and molding machines, for traditional servo markets like flight
simulators and airframe testing, and for those areas currently using proportional systems
that need to further upgrade performance with a closed-loop system.
Some manufacturers are producing proportional valves that are essentially servovalves
made to mass-production specifications, with much greater tolerance allowances and
looser fits than in their standard servo line. However, adding electronic feedback results
in performance almost as good as that of a servovalve. In many cases, this gives

performance perfectly suited to an application at a lower cost.

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Servovalves
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Electrohydraulic servovalves, capable of controlling pressure, flow, or position in Password
proportion to an electrical input, offer unsurpassed performance in a fluid-power system.
At one time, conventional servovalves used on aircraft or machine tools provided
operating characteristics exceeding those required for industrial and mobile applications.
They were also too expensive and too sensitive to environmental contamination.
However, with the development of custom designs specifically for industrial and mobile
equipment, the use of servovalves is moving into the critical circuits of these systems.
For example, most robotic applications involve relatively low hydraulic resonance, in the
range of 3 to 5 Hz. This low resonance is a result of the high load masses and large fluid
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volumes under compression in a typical robotic system. Also, the typical flow range for Please enter your email
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have frequency response capabilities of 120 to 130 Hz at 90° phase lag, far higher than
you.
is required.
The valves can be modified to trade frequency response for increased spool operating
force by enlarging the spool area exposed to pilot pressure. Increasing this area by 2 to
2.5 times, for instance, increases spool actuating force by an equivalent amount while
lowering frequency response to 20 to 80 Hz at 90° phase lag. Higher spool actuating
force enables the valve to overcome spool seizure caused by silting, thus improving
system reliability.
Servovalves were adapted to the mobile market primarily by opening critical clearances
in the pilot stage, making them more compatible with practical filtration levels. The wider
clearances, and the use of hardened materials, allows contaminants to simply wash
through the valves without clogging or causing damage.
Today, the use of servohydraulics usually is justified when one or more of the following
characteristics is required: high load stiffness (both static and dynamic), good stability,
precise positioning, good velocity and acceleration control, good damping characteristics,
and predictable dynamic response.
In a servovalve, a given electrical signal produces a definite position of the main-stage

spool, but it does not necessarily produce a fixed flow. Flow is a function of the square
root of the difference between supply pressure and load pressure. Thus, as load
pressure increases, both flow and effective pressure drop across the valve decrease.
Gain-compensated valves incorporate internal feedback to correct for load-fluctuation

effects on output and, thus, more nearly approach the ideal steady-state curve. Amount
of correction depends on the valve design. Where high accuracy is needed for either
velocity or position, experts recommend an external transducer and feedback loop.

Steady-state characteristics are used to specify valve operating properties to ensure

that the required system operating characteristics are not compromised by a limiting
action of the valve due to inadequate flow, pressure, or input current; excessive null
shifts; or other foreseeable causes. However, some of the steady-state valve parameters
must be based on dynamic analyses to ensure required system response.
Flow: A flow curve is obtained by cycling the valve over the rated input current range and
recording a continuous plot of output flow versus input current for one cycle. It is used to
measure valve flow gain, hysteresis, linearity, and symmetry.
Generally, the flow curve forms a closed loop. The locus of the midpoints of this loop is
the zero-hysteresis flow curve; portions corresponding to the two polarities may differ
(symmetry). The flow curve is generally divided into three operating ranges -- null region
with low input currents, region of normal flow control at intermediate input currents, and
the flow-saturation region near rated input current.
Flow gain is change in output flow per unit change in input current, under zero load
unless otherwise specified. Therefore, the slope of the normal flow curve in any specified
region is the flow gain. When the term flow gain is used without reference to a particular
region, normal flow gain is implied. Ideally, rated flow gain would be equal to normal flow
gain, which is the slope of a straight line drawn from the zero flow point to equalize
deviations of the flow curve from a straight line.
Pressure characteristics: Pressure gain is related to the rate of pressure increase per
unit current increase. Pressure gain characteristics are very important because in a
practical system some usually small, but finite, value of output-pressure change is
required to overcome load friction before load movement is possible. Thus, the entire
system is affected by the pressure-gain characteristics of the valve.
Null characteristics: Ideally, a valve produces zero output at zero current input. In
practice, this ideal condition is seldom attained. The null shift may be due to changes in
temperature, supply pressure, and return or load pressure. It is expressed in terms of null
bias, or the current change required to produce zero flow.
Dynamic characteristics: have an important effect on the dynamics of the system. The
transient response of the valve can be so slow that it limits the transient behavior of the
entire system. An inherent resonance can cause system instability or oscillation. Limits
for the dynamic characteristics of each component must be specified if the required
system dynamics are to be maintained. Valve dynamics can be determined either by a
transient-response or a frequency-response test, depending on the specific system
application.

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Fluid-transfer valves
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Fluid-handling devices are not basically concerned with the modulation of power, but only Password
with the movement of fluid. Choosing a fluid-handling valve used to be easy, because
each one had its own area of utility. For on-off, full, or no-flow requirements, ball and gate
valves were favored; where tight shutoff was not required, butterfly and slide valves were
used. As a result, beliefs were formed which may inhibit the selection of the best valve
for a job.
Globe valves are used for throttling purposes and where positive shutoff is required, in
sizes up to 6 in. Globe valves have a replaceable plug and seat, and a metal-to-metal
seal. Other globe valves are available with elastomeric disc seals. The easy replacement
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of the plug and seat makes repair simple and inexpensive. Please enter your email
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Pressure loss through a globe valve is somewhat high. Globe valves can be used at high you.
pressures, but the higher the pressure, the more difficult the task of sealing around the
stem and the greater the torque required to operate it. Other types of globe valves
include:
Angle valves in which the fluid makes a 90° turn as it passes through the valve.
Pressure loss through an angle valve is less than that through a conventional globe
valve.
Y-valves that have a reduced pressure drop because the flow passes straight through
the valve.
Needle valves which are functionally similar to globes, but they permit a finer adjustment
of flow. The end of the stem is pointed like a needle and fits accurately into the needle
seat. The seat is typically metal, although elastomeric seats have been used for very fine
adjustments. Needle valves are used for very small, accurately adjustable flows.
Cock, or plug, valves are the oldest type of valve and still enjoy wide use for on-off
service. Plug valves are made with both tapered and cylindrical plugs and in lubricated
and nonlubricated models. The early forms of the cock valve used metal-to-metal,
nonlubricated seals. Plug valves of this type are still used, but problems of sticking and
galling limit their usefulness. These difficulties were largely overcome by the
development of the lubricated-plug valve. In this valve, the lubricant is forced into the
valve under pressure and is extruded between the plug face and the seat in the body.
The lubricant prevents leakage between the plug and body, reduces friction and wear
between the surfaces when the plug is turned, and also lifts the plug slightly to reduce
the torque required to operate the valve.
A nonlubricated-plug valve may use a tapered plug with a mechanical lifting device that
unseats the plug before it is turned to reduce the operating torque required. Or it may
have an elastomeric sleeve or plug coating with a low coefficient of rubbing friction. Plug
valves are available in sizes as large as 34 in. and in pressure ratings as high as 10,000
psi.
Ball valves represent a modification of the plug valves with a spherical instead of a
tapered or cylindrical plug. Advances in materials, primarily polymers, plus improvements
in design, have reduced the cost and extended applicability of ball valves.
Ball valves are relatively low in cost; they open and close with one-quarter turn of the
handle; provide unimpeded flow through the full bore with minimum pressure drop; and
their handle position shows immediately whether the valve is open or closed. In addition,
they are easy to clean and repair, and the self-wiping action of the seat as the ball-plug
rotates prevents any buildup of contamination to impede full closure of the valve.
Ball valves were developed as on-off valves without much attention given to throttling
characteristics. However, design improvements have suited ball valves for some types of
flow control, such as throttling the flow of air at differential pressures as high as 1,000
psi. The bulk of the control does not occur with a minor movement of the handle. Only
3% of total flow occurs at 10\#161> of handle travel, 10% at 30°, 30% at 56°, 50% at 70°,
and 80% at 82° or 91% of full open. Thus, a ball valve has relatively good throttling
characteristics at low flow.
The ball valve is somewhat similar in its operation to the butterfly in that a one-quarter
turn opens or closes it, and the valve presents little resistance to the flow of fluid through
it. It has two advantages over the butterfly, however. It is available in higher pressure
ratings, and it provides a clear passage to the fluid. The passage through a butterfly
valve is obstructed by the cross section of the disc and, as the pressure rating increases,
so must the strength and thickness of the disc. The pressure drop through the same-
sized ball valve is, therefore, less, and the benefit increases as the pressure rating of the
valve increases.
Ball valves are available in pipe sizes to 42 in. and in pressure ratings to 7,500 psi. Many
designs of ball valves are available to satisfy different requirements, including those with
all metal seats and seals, and some that are completely lined with plastic.
Butterfly valves
were once used for low-pressure service where complete shutoff was not necessary, and
they were not used to modulate flow. Butterfly valves had the advantage of small size,
light weight, simple design, and low-pressure drop. They also required only a one-quarter
turn to change from closed to the fully open position.
Today, butterfly valves retain their traditional virtues. But capabilities have been greatly
extended by offset discs and polymeric seals. These and other design innovations have
enabled butterfly valves to be used for throttling, tight sealing, and withstanding
pressures as high as 1,200 psi while retaining many traditional advantages.
A modern butterfly valve may include a pressure-tight resilient seat and an angularly
offset disc. Other butterfly valve designs use a hard seat and an O-ring or piston ring
around the disk to seal. Butterfly valves range in size from small to enormous, and are
well suited for large flows of gases, liquids, or slurries.
Gate valves
include wedge and double-disc valves. Both are typically used in a fully open or fully
closed position because close regulation of flow is not possible.
A gate valve can be used for throttling only when the valve is in an almost shut position,
where most of the flow reduction occurs. The small, crescent-shaped aperture causes a
high flow velocity that can erode seat faces. Repeated movement of the disc near the
point of closure against upstream pressure can create drag between the seat on the
downstream side and may gall or score the seat faces. In addition, the high-velocity
flowing liquid impinging against a partially open disc or wedge produces vibration that
can damage seating surfaces and score the downstream side.
Nevertheless, a gate valve is excellent for service that requires either full or no flow. It
has essentially no flow restriction when fully open. The flow area at the point of control is
equal to the full cross-sectional area of the line. Because flow is straight through the line,
pressure drop across a gate valve is only about 1/50 that of a globe valve of comparable
size. However, globe valves are preferred if lines must be opened and closed frequently.
Slide valves
consist of one or two discs, usually without a spreading mechanism. Fluid pressure on
the disc presses its surface against the seat for closure. Some slide valves are made
with soft seats to reduce the required manufacturing tolerances for a better seal. Slide
valves can be made quite thin for jobs where space is a problem. Ordinarily, slide valves
are used to control flows of low-pressure fluids where tight shutoff is not required. They
can handle straight-through flow of gases, liquids, slurries, and fluidized solids. Ordinary
slide valves are made in sizes from 2 in. and up, and are used at pressures to 400 psi.
The development of a seal that operates in shear has permitted production of special
slide valves that operate at pressures to 10,000 psi while retaining the slide-valve
advantages of quick opening or closing, unobstructed flow, and low operating torque.
This seal principle permits use of erosion-resistant material in the port areas, so these
valves show excellent throttling characteristics without undue seal wear.
Lift valves,
commonly referred to as control valves, are generally constructed with two ports in
parallel. They are made in sizes to 16 in., to give any required relationship between
percent of opening (stem travel) and percent of full flow. Complete shutoff is almost
impossible.
Diaphragm valves consist of a body, bonnet, and a flexible diaphragm that is pushed
down by the stem to effect closure. The principal advantage of this type of valve is that
the stem seal is eliminated. Diaphragm valves are used primarily for handling viscous
fluids, slurries, or corrosive fluids. They can be used to throttle flow, but because of the
large shutoff area, low-flow throttling characteristics are not good. The effective operating
temperature range is limited by the properties of the diaphragm and run from -60 to
450°F. Pressure ratings run to 300 psi.

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Pneumatic pressure regulators

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Pressure regulators, commonly called pressure-reducing valves, maintain constant Password
output pressure in compressed-air systems regardless of variations in input pressure or
output flow. Regulators are a special class of valve containing integral loading, sensing,
actuating, and control components. Available in many configurations, they can be broadly
classified as general purpose, special purpose, or precision.
General-purpose or utility regulators have flow and regulation characteristics that meet
the requirements of most industrial compressed-air applications. Such regulators provide
long service life and relative ease of maintenance at competitive prices. Precision
regulators are for applications where regulated pressure must be controlled with close
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tolerances. Such regulators are used when the outcome of a process or the results of a Please enter your email
test depend on accurate pressure control. address to have your
password emailed to
you.
Special-purpose regulators often have a unique configuration or special materials for use
with fluids other than compressed air. Regulator construction can range from simple to
complex, depending on the intended application and the performance requirements.
However, the principle of operation and the loading, actuating, and control components
are basic to all designs. Most regulators use simple wire coil springs to control the
downstream pressure. Various size springs are used to permit regulation of the
secondary pressure within specific ranges. Ideally, the required pressure should be in the
center one-third of the rated outlet pressure range. At the lower end of the pressure
range, the spring loses some sensitivity; at the high end, the spring nears its maximum
capacity.
Regulators can use either a piston or diaphragm to sense downstream pressure.

Diaphragms are generally more sensitive to pressure changes and react more quickly.
They should be used where sensitive pressure settings are required (less than 0.04 psi).
Pistons, on the other hand, are generally more rugged and provide a larger effective
sensing area in a given size regulator. The functional difference between precision and
general-purpose regulators is the degree of control accuracy of the output pressure.
Output pressure accuracy is determined by the droop due to flow changes (regulator
characteristics).
Pressure droop is most pronounced when the valve first opens. Factors contributing to
droop are: load change with spring extension, effective area change with diaphragm
displacement, and unbalance of area forces on the valve. The amount that output
pressure changes with variations in supply pressure is called the regulation characteristic
and is influenced by the ratio of diaphragm area to valve area and the degree of valve
unbalance.
When selecting a pressure regulator, the important factors to consider are:

1. Normal line pressure.

2. Minimum and maximum regulated pressure required: Regulators can have a broad
adjustment range and may require a specific spring or accessory to match the
requirements. Also, minimum and maximum pressure should be within the middle
third of the regulator range.
3. Maximum flow required at regulated pressure.
4. Pipe size: Not all regulators are available in all pipe sizes; note where adapters are
required. Also, pipe size should be consistent with flow requirements.
5. Regulator adjustment frequency: A number of different adjusting methods are
possible. When selecting a regulator, consider the location, application, adjusting
method, and user.
6. Degree of pressure precision required.
7. Accessories or options include gages and panel mounting.
8. Environmental or fluid conditions that could be incompatible with materials used in
the regulator.
9. Special features such as high relief or remote control.
10. The consequences of a regulator malfunction or failure: A damper or relief valve
might be needed to protect personnel or equipment. Also, dead-end service or
intermittent actuation may require positive valve shutoff, bleed units, or close
control of pressure-relief points. Filters, lubricators, relief devices, and other
system options should be considered in the selection process.

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Machine Design: The Basics of Design Engineering

Fluids, Connectors, Fluid Handling Components

Filters, Heat Exchangers, and Flow Sensors

● 2.1 Hydraulic and Pneumatic Filters

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● 3.1 O-Rings(Compression Seals)

Hydraulic & Fluid Transfer Pumps and Controls

● 4.1 Hydraulic Pumps

Accumulators, Compressors, Vacuum Pumps

Power Actuators, Motors, and Shock Absorbers

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● 6.6 Hydrostatic Drives

Power Modulation and Control

● 7.1 Pressure Valves

For editorial questions or comments, e-mail MD Editor

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Fluids Please enter your email

Petroleum-based fluids (hydrocarbons) traditionally have

Fire protection, however, may dictate selection of a

Hydraulic fluid must also be evaluated for general

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compatibility with the system. Fluids are divided into five

Premium antiwear fluids are recommended for systems

Standard antiwear fluids are somewhat less stable

Vane equipment, on the other hand, can be used at

This class of fluids includes a less-stable group. The

Nonantiwear, rust and oxidation-inhibited fluids are also

These fluids can be used with specially designed severe-

The less-stable class of these fluids includes tractor and

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transmission fluids. They are suitable for use in piston

Water-based fluids include invert emulsions and water

Only specially designed severe-duty vane pumps can be

Phosphate esters can be used with piston and vane

VITON® is a registered trademark of DuPont Dow

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Performance factors Please enter your email

The trade-offs necessary to choose a fluid involve a

Viscosity measures how a fluid resists flow. It is the

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Low-viscosity fluids permit efficient low-drag operation,

Viscosity index measures how viscosity changes with

A high viscosity index is most important in applications

Some fluids have fairly high viscosity indexes to begin

Pour point is the lowest temperature at which oil flows

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Compressibility is the degree to which a fluid

Compressibility, or bulk modulus, has its greatest effect

In positive-displacement pumps, the effect of bulk

Stability is the most important property for longevity of

Mechanical stress from flow and cavitation can shear

Heat can also destroy a fluid, and the higher the

When a system operates at high temperatures, additives

Contaminant particle sizes that can be tolerated in a

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hydraulic system are the same whether a fluid is

Corrosive agents usually form because of thermal or

Lubricating ability is an important quality factor in

Volatility is rarely the cause of pump cavitation. The

The amount of gas dissolved in hydraulic fluid depends

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Volumes shown in the accompanying graph were

To prevent cavitation, some reservoirs -- particularly in