Catalaogo 1 Mangueras Hidraulicas

RESTRICTED - COMMERCIAL
AEAT-3260 HOIS(98)P4 Issue 2.1
NDT of Flexible Risers
A Safety Review for HOIS

B M Hawker
January 1999 Issue 2.1
AEAT-3260 HOIS(98)P4 Issue 2.1
NDT of Flexible Risers
A Safety Review for HOIS1

B M Hawker
1.
The Harwell Offshore Inspection R&D Service (HOIS) is a Joint Industry Research Initiatrive
founded in 1982. The current HOIS members are Amerada Hess, BG Technology, BP, DNV,
Norsk Hydro, Petrobras, Phillips Norway, Phillips UK. Pipeline Integrity International (PII), RTD,
Saga, Saudi Aramco, Shell, Statoil, Texaco Britain & HSE.
January 1999 Issue 2.1
RESTRICTED - COMMERCIAL HOIS(98)P4 AEAT-3260 Issue 2.1
Title NDT of Flexible Risers
Customer HOIS
Customer reference HOIS(98)SR1
Confidentiality, Restricted - Commercial

copyright and
reproduction This document has been prepared by AEA Technology plc in
connection with a contract to supply goods and/or services and is
submitted only on the basis of strict confidentiality. The contents
must not be disclosed to third parties other than in accordance with
the terms of the contract.
File reference N:\#HOIS\FLEXRIS\FLEX7.DOC 6 9-Feb-99 15989
Report number AEAT-3260
Report status Issue 2.1 (Issue 1 supplied previously for review)
AEA Technology plc

National NDT Centre
E1, Culham Laboratory
Abingdon, Oxfordshire
OX14 3DB
Telephone +44 (0)1235 463978
Facsimile +44 (0)1235 463799
AEA Technology is the trading name of AEA Technology plc

AEA Technology is certificated to BS EN ISO9001:(1994)
Name Signature Date
Author B M Hawker 24 Feb 1999
Reviewed by M Wall 25 Feb 1999
Approved by C Scruby 25 Feb 1999
RESTRICTED - COMMERCIAL AEA Technology ii

National NDT Centre
Summary
Statistics indicate a failure probability of about 0.003 per flexible riser per year. Of these, only
about 1 in 6 are attributable to trauma, such as dropped objects and locked turrets. The other
failures are attributable to fabrication defects, exceeding design specifications and what might
reasonably be described as "wearing out". Most are gradual failures involving corrosion, erosion
or degradation. Most, therefore, could be avoided if adequate methods are available to detect the
damage early. However, a high proportion of failures occur at the terminations and it is less clear
what fraction of these are gradual.
This report reviews non-destructive testing methods which could offer any useful capability to
detect such damage, and also permanently installed monitors (PIMS) which can be installed on
risers or their terminations.
Much of the relevant research and development in this area has been undertaken under Joint
Industry Projects or as commercial developments by individual companies. Much of the arising
information is therefore confidential to its owners. This report can only include the information
which has been released, plus informed speculation on the outcomes of the work and the arising
capability.
The report examines 18 methods in some detail, and dismisses several additional NDT methods
which clearly have no significant immediate relevance to flexible risers. Their capabilities are
reviewed individually and then compared in summary tables.
It is concluded that mechanical callipering methods are already available, or could be, for
detecting distortions of either the ID or the OD and that visual examination of the outside and
CCTV of the inside provide useful indications of the pipe integrity. However, severe
degradation can occur undetected within the annulus, due to permeation of gases and moisture
through the polymer layers. Monitoring the gas from within the annulus gives an indication that
the corrosive environment is present but does not indicate how much corrosion has occurred.
Radiography from the outside can reveal the condition but is slow and expensive, because of the
difficulties arising from health and safety aspects of using ionising radiation.
Both eddy current and ultrasonic methods have been developed and tested and shown to
provide a useful additional inspection capability, deployed from the inside and/or the outside.
The techniques may yet have more to offer with further development, notably for detecting
cracks in the Zeta wires or the outer armour. However, no methods have been identified which
can find some known types of defects, especially in bonded pipe and in the intermediate layers
within the annulus of unbonded pipe.
X-ray tomography potentially can provide very comprehensive information about the interior of
a complex structure, such as a flexible pipe, but the thickness of the subject is limited. Also the
method is relatively slow because of the large number of exposures needed at different angles and
the large exposure times needed to obtain good photon statistics. However, the technology is
advancing and it is recommended that further work might be done to establish the current
capability and limitations for examining pipes and terminations.
RESTRICTED - COMMERCIAL AEA Technology iii

C:\HOIS reports\hois(98)p4.doc 2 31-Oct-00 16044 National NDT Centre
The report also recommends that better facilities are set up for exchange of information on
failures and observed performance of flexible pipes in service and that further information arising
from the Joint Industry Programmes be released regarding the achieved state of the art of the
technology developed.
RESTRICTED - COMMERCIAL AEA Technology iv

Contents
1 Introduction 1
1.1 THE TASK AND OBJECTIVES OF THE REVIEW 1
1.2 SOURCES OF INFORMATION 3
1.2.1 The AEA Technology Qualtis NDT Database 3
1.2.2 The ETDE Reference Database 3
1.2.3 The Internet 4
1.2.4 Other sources 4
1.3 THE KEY WORKS 4
1.3.1 Smith and Wedgwood 1989 4
1.3.2 Baltzersen 1993 5
1.3.3 HSE's Report OTO 98 018: 1998 6
1.4 SUMMARY OF THE AVAILABLE INFORMATION 6
2 Flexible Riser Designs 7

2.1 UNBONDED PIPE 7
2.1.1 Structure 7
2.1.2 Failure modes 8
2.2 UNBONDED PIPE TERMINATIONS 9
2.2.1 Structure 9
2.3 BONDED PIPE 10
2.3.1 Structure 10
2.4 BONDED PIPE TERMINATIONS 12
2.4.1 Structure 12
2.5 EVIDENCE OF FLEXIBLE RISER FAILURES IN SERVICE 13
2.6 FLEXIBLE RISER STANDARDS 15
3 Safety Considerations 16
4 Pipe Inspection Techniques 17

4.1 VISUAL INSPECTION 17
4.1.1 Video inspection from the bore 17
4.1.2 Visual inspection from the outside 17
4.2 MECHANICAL CALLIPERING 17
4.2.1 Internal Calliper 17
4.2.2 External Calliper 18
RESTRICTED - COMMERCIAL AEA Technology v

4.3 EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION 18

4.3.1 Eddy current inspection from the bore 19
4.3.2 Eddy current inspection from the outside 20
4.3.3 Eddy-current calliper monitoring 21
4.4 ULTRASONIC INSPECTION 21
4.4.1 Ultrasonic back-scatter from the inside 22
4.4.2 Ultrasonic callipering 25
4.4.3 Ultrasonic thickness gauging of steel liner 26
4.4.4 Ultrasonic inspection of the outer armour and annulus 27
4.5 RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION 28
4.5.1 Radiography from the outside 30
4.5.1.1 Radiography across the pipe diameter 30
4.5.1.2 Tangential radiography 31
4.5.2 Through-wall radiography 32
4.5.2.1 Source on the inside 32
4.5.2.2 Detector on the inside 33
4.5.3 X-ray tomography 33
4.6 ACOUSTIC EMISSION 36
4.7 OTHER NDT METHODS 37
4.7.1 Acoustic Cameras 37
4.7.2 Thermography 37
4.7.2.1 Active thermography 37
4.7.2.2 Passive thermography 38
4.7.3 Other NDT Methods discounted 38
5 Termination Inspection Methods 39

5.1 VISUAL INSPECTION 39
5.1.1 Video inspection from the bore 39
5.1.2 Visual inspection from the outside 39
5.2 MECHANICAL CALLIPERING 39
5.2.1 Internal Calliper 39
5.2.2 External Calliper 39
5.3 EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION 39
5.3.1 Eddy current inspection from the bore 39
5.3.2 Eddy current inspection from the outside 39
5.4 ULTRASONIC INSPECTION 40
5.4.1 Ultrasonic inspection from the inside 40
5.4.2 Ultrasonic inspection from the outside 40
5.5 RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION 40
5.5.1 Radiography from the outside 40
5.5.1.1 Radiography across the pipe diameter 40
5.5.1.2 Tangential radiography 40
5.5.2 Through-wall radiography 40
5.5.3 X-ray tomography 40
5.7 OTHER NDT METHODS 41
5.7.1 Acoustic Cameras 41
RESTRICTED - COMMERCIAL AEA Technology vi

5.7.2 Thermography 41
6 Monitoring Methods 42
6.1 DIELECTRIC MONITORING OF POLYMERS 42
6.2 SAMPLING GAS FROM THE ANNULUS 42
6.3 REMOVABLE PIPE SPOOL PIECES 42
6.5 FIBRE OPTIC SENSORS 43
7 Summary Tables 45
8 Conclusions & Recommendations 48

8.1 CONCLUSIONS 48
8.2 RECOMMENDATIONS 49
9 References 51
RESTRICTED - COMMERCIAL AEA Technology vii

RESTRICTED - COMMERCIAL AEA Technology viii

1 Introduction
This project is one of a series of Safety Related Reviews, undertaken within the HOIS Programme
at AEA Technology's Culham Laboratory, to review inspection methods relevant to the safety of
flexible risers. It reviews information about the possible and most likely failure modes of continuous
flexible pipe, including unbonded and bonded types. In addition, it reviews the various designs of
end terminations, some of which are now recognised as perhaps the weakest parts of the structure
and difficult to inspect. It then goes on to review the relevant inspection methods, including
established methods, other methods which have been suggested for development and some
alternative methods not previously considered, at least in the context of flexible risers.
In addition, the report reviews a number of methods used for monitoring the condition of flexible
risers, including permanently installed monitors for the gas content in the annular regions within the
riser wall, the use of instrumented coupons to monitor the degradation of the polymer material
subjected to the product (ie the riser's contents) and the incorporation of removal inline sections of
pipe by inclusion of bypasses.
1.1 THE TASK AND OBJECTIVES OF THE REVIEW

The main part of the programme has been to review existing methods for riser inspection,
inspection development work and also recent development in other NDT which offers potential for
inspection of flexible risers.
Standard inspection methods which are applicable to flexible risers, perhaps with some specialised
customisation for the application, include the following :-
• Visual inspection from the outside (diver or CCTV),

• CCTV inspection from the inside;
• X- or Gamma radiography - double sided, with access only on the outside,
• Gamma-radiography - using a source on the inside.
• Mechanical callipers on the inside
• Mechanical callipers on the outside
The most important development work is in the following :-
• Eddy current inspection from the bore to detect thinning, breaks and dislocations of the
interlocked carcass and cracks and breaks in the Zeta wire,
• Eddy current inspection of the outer armour from the outside,
• Ultrasonic back-scatter to image the surface integrity of the inside of the pipe,
• Ultrasonic and other methods for callipering of the bore,
• Wall thickness gauging of the carcass and the liners of bonded pipe,
• Radiographic measurement of slip between layers with the aid of markers.
• Tomography of elastomer layers using removable spool pieces
RESTRICTED - COMMERCIAL AEA Technology 1


Other NDT techniques which are reviewed for their suitability for flexible riser inspections include
:-
• Ultrasonic inspection of the outer armour from the outside,

• Ultrasonic callipering from the outside,
• X-ray tomography
• X-ray back-scatter ‘tomography’ (a misnomer!)
• Thermographic inspection from the outside
In addition, there are a number of continuous monitoring systems which warrant acknowledgement
herein :
• monitoring the dielectric constant and resistivity of in-line polymer coupons,

• removable pipe spools for periodic non-destructive or destructive examination,
• annulus gas sampling.
This report does not attempt to address methods for surveying the position or motion of the riser,
either from the inside or from the outside, although methods for both are available.
1.2 SOURCES OF INFORMATION

1.2.1 The AEA Technology Qualtis NDT Database
A search of the NDT Database for any publications relating to Inspection of Risers found a total of
31 publications, but most of these contained no reference to flexible risers. Two of the papers are
specific to flexible risers and several contain information which is applicable to them. One of the
specific papers describes work on defect tolerance and NDT carried out as part of a Joint Industry
Programme to qualify composite tubes for use as TLP production/injection risers. The other
described internal NDT of flexible risers.
Other papers which contain applicable information include work on X-ray Compton back-scatter
inspection, a patent technique to detect defects in non-conducting coatings on risers and papers on
sub-sea radiography of risers.
1.2.2 The ETDE Reference Database

A search of the ETDE Energy Database for any publications on flexible risers found 190
publications. These were classified according to the principle subject matter as follows :-
• Materials (notably those relating to light-weight flexible risers): 7

• Design/development/patents: 27
• Dynamics/modelling/experiments: 47
• General Performance & reliability: 10
• Inspection from the inside: 2
• Inspection from the outside: 0
• Other testing: 2
• Installation: 10
• Experiences: 32

• Irrelevant: 53
1.2.3 The Internet

Finding useful information for the review from the Internet was hindered by the vast number of
articles related to flexible risers which contained little or no useful information relating to inspection
methods. Other articles were found which supported the information from elsewhere, but one or
two contained new information.
1.2.4 Other sources

A number of additional articles have been found indirectly, from previous work within AEA
Technology, conference proceedings and through other connections.
Most of the published information found relating to the development of inspection capability is for
inspection from the inside, although various reviews have mentioned methods which might be
suitable from the outside.
1.3 THE KEY WORKS

The most important works which have been found are those by Smith and Wedgwood, 1989
(Ref.1), by Baltzersen, 1994 (Ref.2), and the Joint Industry Programmes. Much of the Joint
Industry Programme work is conveniently summarised in the HSE Offshore Industry Report OTO
98 018 "Monitoring Methods for Unbonded Flexible Pipe" (Ref.3).
1.3.1 Smith and Wedgwood 1989

Smith and Wedgwood (Ref.1) carried out a survey of possible failure modes, including interviews
of the pipe manufacturers, and a very comprehensive paper study of 25 possible NDT techniques
suitable for unbonded and/or bonded pipe. They analysed all of the essential parameters of the
measurement techniques in order to determine likely inspection rates and also considered any
relevant safety considerations (eg those relating to handling of radiation sources). Each technique
was rated according to likely development cost and also according to its potential to detect various
types of defect. Three techniques were listed in a hierarchy of ascending cost and complexity :-
Level Technique
1 Internal callipering using existing tools
2 External callipering and visual inspection using tools

to be developed
3 External x-ray inspection using a tool to be

developed (X-radiography and/or tomography)
They speculated that a strategy for inspection might be to apply Levels 1 and 2 periodically and
additionally if monitoring shows non-standard conditions to have occurred. Level 3 would be used
if unexplained anomalies are found during levels 1 and 2 or periodically if the highest integrity

levels are to be assured. Neutron scatter, ultrasonics and optical methods were also highly rated but
eddy current testing was not then rated highly.
Clearly technology has progressed considerably since the Smith and Wedgwood report but,
nevertheless, it contains useful information on pipe designs, failure mechanisms, operating practices
at the time and technical ideas for inspection methods.
1.3.2 Baltzersen 1993

Baltzersen (Ref.2) reports that he was unable to find a single publication on the NDT of flexible
risers up to the time of his review in 1993. Nevertheless, he provides an excellent review of the
thinking at that time on the likely failure modes and the most promising inspection methods at the
time. In addition, he has made a useful contribution to advancing and proving the technology for
ultrasonic inspection from the bore.
Baltzersen summarises the findings of Advanced Mechanics & Engineering Ltd in a review of failure
incidents in the North Sea, 1990. The eleven incidents were categorised as follows :-
• Six of the leaks were due to material problems. Four of these were due to embrittlement of the
liner due to operation of the pipeline outside temperature/chemical specification.
• Five incidents were due to external damage. Two of these were due to trawl gear and one was
due to damage caused by an anchor. The remaining two incidents were caused by damage due
to improper handling during installation.
He also reproduced a table by Ashcombe and Kenison, 1990, containing prioritised lists of
components in unbonded and bonded flexible risers, ordered according to their significance
concerning the structural integrity of the pipe :-
Priority Unbonded pipe Bonded pipe

1 Inner plastic sheath Corrugated liner
2 Armour wires Reinforcing matrix
3 Interlocking wire Carbon steel spiral
4 Interlocked carcass Adhesion layers
5 Pressure backup Elastomer liner
6 External sheath Anti-extrusion layer
7 External cover
However, he also qualifies these lists, pointing out that excessive corrosion of the carcass can lead to
failure of the plastic sheath, that a single break of the Zeta wire can lead to pipe leakage but that
several armour wires can break before a risk of failure.
Baltzersen, with Waag, also presents work to prove various techniques based on scanning the pipe
liner using ultrasonic probes. The methods include normal incidence scanning, to verify the liner
integrity and to measure the liner wall thickness, and angled beam back-scatter imaging, also to
detect surface damage. Operation as an ultrasonic calliper is also demonstrated.

1.3.3 HSE's Report OTO 98 018: 1998

This report (Ref.3), "Monitoring Methods for Unbonded Pipe", is one of a series of "OTO" reports
published by the UK Health and Safety Executive on works funded by them, and summarises two
Joint Industry Programmes :-
a) "Guidelines & Strategies for Condition Assessment of Flexible Pipes"

Managed by: Robit AS
Participants: Amerada Hess, BP Exploration, Exxon, Norsk Hydro, Saga, Statoil
Other Contributors: Seaflex, Wellstream
b) "Integrity & Condition Management of Unbonded Flexible Pipe"

Managed by: MCS International
Participants: Amerada Hess, BHP Petroleum, Chevron UK, Enterprise Oil, UK
Health & Safety Executive, Mobil North Sea, Petrobras, Shell UK
Exploration & Production, Texaco UK
Other Contributors: Coflexip Stena Offshore
The report provides a methodical and fairly comprehensive review of technology which is relevant
to the inspection and monitoring of unbonded flexible pipe. This includes the full range of methods
for inspection from both inside and outside, and also methods for load, configuration and
environmental monitoring and the use of coupons and in-line removable pipe spool pieces for
periodic examination. For some methods, data are presented which illustrate clearly the capability of
the method but, in other places, it is not clear whether the methods described are already used,
available commercially or only offered as a possible solution to a problem.
1.4 SUMMARY OF THE AVAILABLE INFORMATION

Information has been obtained from various sources, ranging from detailed technical reports and
published papers to advertising material, publicity fliers and suppliers’ pages on the web. Even so,
the completeness of the report has been hindered by commercial secrecy, and performance claims
appear sometimes to be exaggerated. This report is intended to present realistic unbiased
performance estimates.

2 Flexible Riser Designs
2.1 UNBONDED PIPE

2.1.1 Structure
Although there are various different types and sizes of unbonded pipe, all conform to the same
general structure. This is illustrated in Figures 1a and b (Refs. 4 and 5). There is invariably an outer
waterproofing layer, or sheath, made from a very dense rubber or polymer up to 10mm thick.
Within this there are two or more counterwound helical layers of carbon steel strands of rectangular
section, which provide the outer armouring and take the tensile load. Another polymer layer
separates this from one or more layers of shorter-pitch carbon steel helical windings, often called
“Zeta wires”, which take the hoop stress. This is separated from the inner carcass of helically wound
interlocking stainless steel which forms the pipe bore and provides collapse resistance.
a) The simplest Coflexip pipe structure
b) A more complex design for higher pressures
Figure 1 Examples of Unbonded flexible pipe
In addition, there are normally lubricant and/or antiwear layers in positions which vary from one
design to another. These are made from either a polymer or a fibrous tape impregnated with a
lubricant.

All of the region of the structure from the inside of the outer waterproof polymer sheath to the
outside of the inner polymer fluid barrier is called the “annulus”.
2.1.2 Failure modes

The most likely failure modes have been determined from published articles, manufacturers
information and questionnaires returned by HOIS members. They are :-
a) Corrosion to failure of the armour layers,

b) Corrosion to failure of the Zeta wires,.
c) Rupture caused by over-pressure of the pipe bore,
d) Rupture caused by exceeding the design tensile loading,
e) Rupture caused by exceeding the bend tolerance.
f) Rupture caused by exceeding the torsion limit.
Corrosion of the armour layers and of the Zeta wires can occur following rupture of the outer layer,
(typically by mis-handling during installation or fouling by ship anchors, fishing gear, etc.) or
following perforation of the inner polymer layer by damaged parts of the stainless steel lining. It can
also occur as a consequence of corrosive gases and moisture permeating through the fluid barrier
from the product in the pipe.
In addition, pipe which is subject to excessive motion may degrade by fretting of the internal steel
components. However, according to Smith and Wedgwood, Coflexip claimed to allow for up to
25% cross section loss of the armour bands but they question whether this includes maintaining the
integrity of the Zeta wire interlock.
Kalman et al (Ref. 5) present a useful discussion of damage mechanisms arising from permeation of
H2S, CO2 through the fluid barrier into the annulus and of water penetration of either the fluid
barrier or the outer waterproof layer. In the presence of water, the carbon steel members in the
annulus can be degraded by hydrogen induced cracking and/or sulphide stress cracking.
Figure 2. Gas permeation and corrosion mechanisms
This he illustrates clearly in the figure which is reproduced as Figure 2. Also the contacting faces of
the stainless carcass at the contacting points can be subject to corrosion/erosion as movement

abrades the protective oxide layer, enabling attack by corrosive agents, such as sulphides and
chlorides, in the product flowing through the pipe.
Al-Maslamani (Ref.6) gives a very detailed report of the failure of a 4” unbonded pipe used for gas
lift on a sour gas field offshore Qatar which failed in several places after 3 years in service, despite
little deterioration of either the carcass or the outer sheath. The Zeta wires were extensively
corroded and the armour layers were also corroded, cracked and broken. Metallurgical examination
revealed the presence of hydrogen damage caused by the presence of H2S and CO2. The fluid
barrier was severely embrittled and damaged, probably by the corrosion and swelling of the Zeta
wires.
The carcass is normally made from 304L or 316L stainless, but other steels with a higher corrosion
resistance are specified for products containing a high water cut, chloride, CO2 or H2S
concentrations.
Kalman et al (Ref. 5) also give more information on the materials used for the different pipe
components, but that information need not be reproduced here.
2.2 UNBONDED PIPE TERMINATIONS

2.2.1 Structure
At each pipe termination a substantial and complex structure is required to provide adequate
support for the axial and hoop stresses and to ensure reliable seal against ingress of sea water from the
outside or fluids from the inside.
There are several designs of termination. A typical one is shown in Figure 3 (Ref. 7).
Figure 3. Typical design of an unbonded pipe termination

2.2.2 Failure modes

The most common failure mode at unbonded pipe terminations is pull-out of the armour wires as a
consequence of mis-handling, over-bending, over-tension or over torsion.
2.3 BONDED PIPE

2.3.1 Structure
Bonded pipe also comprises a number of different layers of fabric, helically wound strands of steel,
cord or polymer to withstand tensile and hoop stresses and either a corrugated steel liner or polymer
layer to provide the fluid barrier. In contrast to unbonded pipe, the various layers are intended not
to move in relation to each other. Different designs of pipe are illustrated in Figures 4a and b (Refs
1,2)
a) Dunlop Armalink

b) Pag-o-Flex
Figure 4. Examples of bonded pipes suitable for risers

Figure 5 Internal structure of Pag-o-Flex pipe
The use of bonded pipe for flexible risers has been discontinued, but it is still manufactured for
loading hoses, etc.
Clearly, the considerations for inspection of the inner stainless steel layer will differ, depending
whether it is an interlocking helically wound carcass (See Figure 4a), as in an unbonded pipe design,
or a corrugated liner (Figures 4b and 5) which then also provides the pressure barrier.
2.3.2 Failure modes

The main failure modes of bonded pipe include :-
a) Degradation of the rubber matrix by sea water following damage to the outer surface,
b) Disbond of the structure due to mechanical damage.
c) Degradation of the rubber matrix following perforation of the liner (Pag-o-Flex),
d) Rupture by over-pressure of the pipe bore,
e) Rupture by exceeding the design tensile loading,
f) Rupture following deformation caused by exceeding the bend tolerance.
2.4 BONDED PIPE TERMINATIONS

2.4.1 Structure
As with unbonded pipe, the pipe terminations need to provide restraint for tensile and hoop stresses
and also provide continuity of the pressure containment across the junction. The terminations are
again probably the most vulnerable to failure because they cannot provide adequate restraint
without introducing a discontinuity in the pipe stiffness. An example of a termination design is
shown in Figure 6 (Ref.1).

Figure 6. Design of a Dunlop bonded pipe termination
2.4.2 Failure modes

The normal failure mode is pull-out.
2.5 EVIDENCE OF FLEXIBLE RISER FAILURES IN SERVICE

Evidence of failures of flexible risers in service was gathered from publications (Refs. 1,2) and from
the questionnaires return by HOIS Members. The causes of failures were as shown in Table 1 :-
Cause Number of cases

Exceeded specifications for operating 10
temperature/corrosion resistance
Termination pull-outs 6
Mechanical damage from fishing gear or 5
anchors
Manufacturing defects 4
Exceeded tension limit 2
Result of damage during installation 2
Exceeded bend limit 1
Table 1
Summary of failures of Flexible Lines
It is possible that there is some double accounting within these statistics, but these figures convey a
reasonable picture of the proportions of the different failure modes.

Katteland (Ref. 8) reports on a risk analysis related to flexible risers, based on failure data obtained
from the NPD (Norway), HSE, suppliers, manufacturers, operators, the World Offshore Accident
Databank(WOAD) and an AME PARLOC study. He quotes a total frequency of leaks of flexible
risers of just under 0.003 per riser year, of which about 0.0005 result from various operational errors
or malfunctions which damage the riser. These include the following :-
a) The turret is locked
b) Station keeping failure
c) Dropped objects
This implies that about 5 in every 6 failures are not trauma related and, therefore, could be detected
before failure, given adequate inspection methods.
The statistics arising from analysis of data from the PARLOC 96 database (9) are probably more
reliable. This contains records from operation of 197 flexible lines in the North Sea UK,
Norwegian, Danish, German and Dutch sectors up to the end of 1995. It represents a total of 782
line-years and 2297 Km-years of line operation (mean length 2.94 Km, mean operating time 4
years). The details of recorded failures are summarised in Table 2 below. 8 of the 25 recorded
failures were due to materials problems, five of these resulted from embrittlement of the liner due to
inappropriate operating conditions for the liner material. All of the other 17 were due to external
damage. 3 were from trawl gear, 1 from and anchor, 1 from a dropped object. Of the others, 3 were
caused by damage incurred during installation or aggravation of earlier damage during maintenance,
1 was caused by a line buckling and 3 were incidents associated with fitting problems. Five failed
due to unknown causes.
Location on pipeline Cause of incident Pipeline diameter (inches)

mid line Other-design unknown
mid line Other-design unknown
mid line Other-unknown unknown
mid line Other-unknown unknown
mid line Material-liner failure 4
mid line Maintenance 3
mid line Material-liner failure 4
mid line Impact-trawl 6
subsea well Impact-trawl 6
subsea well Material-liner failure 4.5
subsea well Material 4
subsea well Anchor-other 6
subsea well Impact-dropped object 6
subsea well Impact-trawl 6
subsea well Material-liner failure 4
subsea well Structural 6
subsea well Other-wellhead connector 4
subsea well Construction-buckling 6
subsea well Construction 6
riser Other-unknown 12
riser subsea Material 8.625
riser umbilical Other-unknown unknown
riser umbilical Other-unknown unknown
safety zone Material 4
safety zone near Material-fabrication fault 8
Table 2
Details of operating flexible pipelines affected by incidents
which resulted in loss of containment

The overall reliability derived from this database is 0.03 failures per line-year of operation, 0.01
failures per Km-year, ten times that quoted by Katteland, but he does acknowledge that his statistics
for flexible risers are based on a quite small sample. Note also that approximately 2/3 of the failures
resulted from abnormal incidents causing damage, and that the majority of the other failures were
due to materials problems which have since been largely overcome by improving specifications.
2.6 FLEXIBLE RISER STANDARDS

Flexible risers are controlled by the following standards of the American Petroleum Industry :-
API 17J Specification for Unbonded Flexible Pipe

API RP17B Practice for Flexible Pipe Applications
API 17K Specification for Bonded Flexible Pipe
In addition there is a Joint Industry Programme on Elastomers for HT Flexible Pipe.

3 Safety Considerations
The primary safety-related consideration regarding the use of flexible risers in operation is that of a
major leak of hydrocarbons resulting either from pipe rupture or from the turret well of a FPSO.
However, degradation of the pipe integrity following perforation of either the inner pressure barrier
or the outer sheath can be rapid. For that reason non-destructive methods are of interest for
detection of any defects which threaten the integrity of either the inner pressure barrier or the outer
sheath, in addition to methods for detecting damage to those components which provide the
restraint for tensile and hoop stresses.
An additional safety consideration is that of the safety of the inspection procedures themselves.
These considerations include the general level of risk of diver operations and, for inspections from
the inside, any risks associated with penetrating the pressure barrier, whether that be topside or
subsea.
Of the inspection methods described herein, none have inherent safety implications apart from
radiography, for which the hazards are well known. Eddy current testing tools and ultrasonics as
employed for inspection are harmless to personnel in normal operation.

4 Pipe Inspection Techniques
4.1 VISUAL INSPECTION

4.1.1 Video inspection from the bore
Remote video can be used to inspect the bore, but only if the pipe can be filled with a clear fluid:
water or a gas. It therefore requires that the riser be taken out of service and that all product be
displaced by air or clear water before lowering a colour CCTV or endoscope from the top with an
umbilical. A system featuring both a look ahead camera and a rotating radial camera has been trialled
successfully in a water injection riser (Ref. 10). The look-ahead camera provides the best means of
detecting deformation of the bore, while the radial camera provides the best detection of any
corrosion or other forms of damage to the carcass.
It is probably necessary to clean the bore first in order to achieve a useful standard of inspection.
Stereo video would clearly be possible to deploy within a flexible riser, but this probably provides
no useful advantage over the look ahead camera or other calliper methods.
Practical considerations may render video/optical inspection suitable only for application to the
upper section of the riser. For example, if the product is displaced by gas, then it would be difficult
to achieve safe internal/external pressure differences at both the top and bottom of a deep inspection
range within a riser.
4.1.2 Visual inspection from the outside

The most commonly used methods of inspecting flexible risers currently are visual inspection by
divers and subsea video systems operated from ROVs. It provides effective detection of mechanical
damage on the exterior of the pipe, which is the root cause of the majority of pipe failures in
service. In addition to the detection of damage, and leaks, this method also detects any external
threats to the pipe integrity, such as damaged clamps or bend stiffeners, pipe disarrangements and
problems with subsea buoys, none of which could be detected from the inside.
4.2 MECHANICAL CALLIPERING

4.2.1 Internal Calliper
Downhole mechanical callipers, such as the Kinley Calliper (Ref.9) and Schlumberger tools, are in
service for rigid pipes, although some problems have been reported of corrosion sensitisation by the
calliper sensors against the pipe bore. Callipers with 64 arms (eg manufactured by Sondex) are now
in regular use. Their main purpose is for the measurement of corrosion and erosion, but they also
detect ovality and dents.
The wall thickness of the carcass of a flexible riser is comparable to the tolerance of the pipe bore, so
callipering of the bore may not be a very useful indicator of bore corrosion. However, it can be an
effective method of detecting ovality and deformation of the carcass. Mechanical internal callipers
have been deployed in a Coflexip flexible pipe flow line (Ref.5).

4.2.2 External Calliper

An external mechanical device to measure the diameter and circularity of the outside of a pipe is a
very practicable concept and can readily be extended also to measure the local bend radius over a
fixed base line. It can be based on wheels attached to linear displacement gauges or encoders on
sprung arms, and the data can be relayed via an umbilical or stored onboard until recovery.
Alternatively, the sprung arms could simply activate microswitches if the dimensions are out of
specification. The device could fall under gravity until recovered by a tie-line or ROV, or until a
recovery mechanism is activated by hyperbaric pressure.
Such a device is worthwhile if detection of anomalies in the outer dimensions is likely to enable
detection of a defective pipe before failure in service, and could be a cheap and effective tool
deployed regularly on every riser.
4.3 EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION

Eddy current testing is suitable for inspection of thin metal components and for the surface of thick
metal. The depth of penetration, the "skin depth" depends on the material's permeability and
electrical conductivity, and the frequency used. The relationship can be reduced to a simple
expression :-
ρ
Skin depth δ = 50 mm
µ f
r
where ρ is the electrical resistivity in µOhm.cm.

µ is the relative permeability of the steel
r
f is the frequency in Hertz
It is difficult to penetrate beyond a few millimetres of ferritic steel, but much greater penetration of
stainless steel is achievable.
It is now quite common for eddy current systems to employ either multiple frequency or
broadband pulsing methods in order to measure the eddy current response as a function of
frequency. This can often be more informative than is achieved using a single frequency.
The eddy current method is well suited to application using multiple probes. These may be
multiplexed to minimise the instrumentation requirements, or they may be operated in parallel for
high speed inspections.
Eddy current methods can also be used to measure electromagnetic properties of non-metallic
materials between a sensor and a metal surface, and/or the range from a metal surface. However, the
capability in this respect is limited and so it has little if anything to offer for inspecting the matrix
and polymer strands of bonded risers but could be used to measure the thickness of a polymer layer.
Eddy current inspection methods were first identified as promising for flexible riser inspection in a
study by SINTEF (Refs. 1, 10), with suggestions for application from either the inside or the
outside.

4.3.1 Eddy current inspection from the bore

Development and trials are reported for unbonded pipe from the inside (Ref.3,4, 11) and are also
applicable to bonded pipe.
The pipe bore is accessible by down-hole pigging on the end of a communications cable, and eddy
current inspection methods are well suited to this. They can be designed to be relatively insensitive
to the presence of water and product. An inspection system can provide full inspection coverage of
the inside surface, either by spiral scanning or using an array of probes which is distributed around
the pipe bore and pulled through the pipe.
By suitable choice of the probe size and of the operating frequencies, it is possible to inspect both
the stainless steel lining and the innermost carbon steel layer (Ref. 3). Defects in either layer could
be detectable, and discrimination could be achieved, in principle, by the use of multiple frequencies
to provide different depths of penetration. However, it is not clear that inspection of both layers can
be optimised by the use of the same sensor coil.
Top. image of the Zeta wire before filtering

Centre: the same image after filtering. The arrow indicates a severed wire
Bottom image of the carcass, from a different probe
Figure 7. Eddy current data from the bore of a 10″″ unbonded pipe

Illustrations of eddy current testing data are published (Ref. 4) showing the spiral pattern of the
stainless steel lining. The method should be able to detect a wide range of defects in the stainless
steel carcass, including corrosion pits, mechanical damage and some cracks, notably those transverse
to the windings. Cracks aligned parallel to the lining are more difficult to detect. The method
should also be able to detect some defects in the Zeta wire. Otteren and Midtgaard (Ref. 4) report
on trials of one eddy current system containing different eddy current sensors for the carcass and the
Zeta wires. In their illustrations of eddy current data they show good resolution in the images from
the carcass and one example of a Zeta wire, severed by a cut at 45°, which was detectable and
became conspicuous after data processing to eliminate the texture arising from the helical structure
of the Zeta wire layer (See Figure 7 ). However, they also reported that the device was unable to
detect 1mm wide through-wall slots aligned with the wires, of lengths 35mm and 50mm. Such
defects may be detectable with an alternative eddy current sensor design. Detectability of defects in
general in the Zeta wires is uncertain and detection performance might vary depending on their
position and also on their location in relation to the structure of the carcass.
Eddy current inspection of a helical carcass in a bonded pipe would be unaffected by the presence of
any non-conducting material bonded to its outside, so the method should be equally effective for
unbonded and bonded pipe in this respect. Eddy current inspection of a corrugated liner would also
be effective, particularly for damage at the peaks in the corrugations (ie the constrictions) where
damage is probably most likely from erosion, fouling by tooling in the bore or bending. The
variation in sensitivity with defect position and orientation relative to the corrugations will depend
on the sensor design, and different designs would be required for optimal detection of corrosion and
of circumferential splits in the corrugation troughs. However, the instrumentation for eddy current
testing is well suited to multiplexed operation, and so a variety of different probes could be
deployed on a single tool and operated in parallel.
Four oil companies in 1996 submitted an application in 1996 to the EU for a Thermie grant
contribution towards “Horizon 2000” (Ref. 11), a 27month joint programme to develop an eddy
current pigging tool for flexible risers and flow lines, scheduled to complete at the end of 1998, but
the application was unsuccessful.
4.3.2 Eddy current inspection from the outside

Eddy current inspection is less well suited to inspection from the outside. The outer polymer layer
thickness is comparable to the width of the outer steel armour strands, and the strands are
sufficiently loosely spaced that electrical continuity between adjacent strands is unlikely. For these
reasons an eddy current inspection from the outside is sensitive to snapped outer strands, to gross
corrosion damage and to irregularities in the spacing of the strands (Ref. 11), but its capability to
detect less severe damage is limited. Published illustrations of scan data arising from trials on test
samples (Ref.3) also show the spacing pattern of the second armour layer (See Figure 8 below) but
is unlikely to be sensitive to damage to them, and there is no evidence published to indicate that
defect detection in the second layer has been demonstrated. It is also evident by comparison of the
results illustrated that different probes were used for the two cases.

Figure 8. Eddy current data from the outside of an unbonded pipe showing a severed
outer armour strand and the spacing of the strands below.
No reference to eddy current testing of bonded pipe from the outside has been found in the
literature. Assuming the absence of any other metal components in the structure, eddy current
testing from the outside could detect major damage to the stainless steel liner, such as large scale
thinning or collapse, but probably not small splits, small pits or perforations.
An eddy current scan on the outside of a bonded pipe would also probably be effective for detecting
damage to the rubber matrix which allows salt water ingress.
There are ongoing JIPs to further develop this technology for the inspection of the armour layer and
the elastomer layer.
4.3.3 Eddy-current calliper monitoring

The impedance of an eddy current probe is highly sensitive to its distance from a metal surface. This
makes it well suited to implementation as a ring of non-contacting probes for callipering metal
pipes from the inside and might also be applicable for measuring the thickness of the outer polymer
layer of an unbonded pipe from the outside.
4.4 ULTRASONIC INSPECTION

Ultrasonic probes provide a means of measuring the range though a fluid or solid to some
discontinuity. They are used, typically, to detect defects in solids or to monitor the range through a
fluid to a liquid or solid surface, thereby providing a means of callipering.
Ultrasound waves can be induced into most materials, but attenuation is high in polymers and only
a small fraction of the wave energy transmits across a boundary between one material and another

unless the 'acoustic impedance' is similar for the two materials. The acoustic impedance is given by
the product of the density and the velocity of sound in the material. The velocity of sound in a
material is related to its elasticity and density by :
V∝ E
ρ
where: V is the compression wave velocity

E is the elastic bulk modulus
ρ is the material density
In addition, ultrasound will only propagate from one material to another if they are bonded
together, if they are pressed together very hard or if there is a liquid between them.
A consideration regarding the use of ultrasonic inspection is intrinsic safety. Virtually all ultrasonic
systems excite the transmitting probe with a very short duration (ie typically less than 1
microsecond) electrical pulse whose voltage is normally of the order 200-400 Volts, although a
useful capability can be achieved using only tens of volts. The instrumentation, therefore, must
maintain a supply voltage of this order. In addition, piezo-electric transducers can generate very
high voltages (ie ~ Kilovolts) by the microphonic effect if they are subjected to sharp impacts.
4.4.1 Ultrasonic back-scatter from the inside

Balzersen (Ref.2) reports development for an ultrasonic scanning pig to image the topography of
the pipe's inner surface by scanning an ultrasonic probe immersed in the fluid within the pipe. From
a consideration of the principles of ultrasound, if the beam is perpendicular to the surface being
inspected, the resolution of the resulting image depends on the beam width, which is governed by
the probe diameter, the probe’s characteristic frequency and the distance from the probe.
Alternatively, if an arrangement is used to maintain a fairly constant distance of the probe from the
pipe inner surface, a focused probe can be used to achieve better resolution at the surface.
If the probe's beam is tilted relative to the radial direction, as in Figure 9, then the imaging can be
made more or less sensitive to features at specific orientations. For example, tilting in the axial
direction will increase the strength of signals related to the short-pitch helical winding of the lining.
Tilting in the circumferential direction within the plane of a pipe section will decrease sensitivity to
the spiral features and increase sensitivity to other features such as mechanical damage. The angle of
tilt will also influence the sensitivity to differing pipe surface roughness.

A smooth surface A slightly rough surface A rough surface scatters

reflects the beam as widens the reflected the ultrasound in all
light in a mirror beam directions
Figure 9. Schematic of ultrasonic back-scatter technique using a tilted probe
Also, depending on the angle by which the probe is tilted, the resolution in the direction of the
beam becomes less dependent on the beam width and more dependent on the pulse length.
Assuming the use of well damped 10MHz, 5mm diameter probes, tilted by 45° degrees in a water-
filled pipe, the resolution could be 2-3mm across the beam and perhaps better than 2mm along the
beam direction.
Examples of ultrasonic C-Scan imagery from the bore of unbonded pipe with no probe tilt and 30°
tilt are presented by Baltzersen (Ref.2) and reproduced here in Figure 10. They show the presence
of mechanical damage and erosion and also two spots of wax on the surface.

Figure 10. Examples of ultrasonic C-Scan images from inside flexible risers
There is invariably a trade-off between the image resolution and the time needed to perform the
inspection. Ultrasound pulses persist for some time after they are transmitted, and may bounce
around inside the product or even inside the inspection device. This restricts the rate at which the
probe can be excited to about 5KHz for this sort of application. Using a good resolution, the
inspection rate would be only about 10cm2/second. Coarser resolution may be chosen, by using
larger probes of lower frequency, in order to increase the inspection rate. Unlike eddy currents, the
system cannot easily be made faster simply by using an array containing lots of probes, because
pulses from one probe can interfere with another probe. However, a small number of probes can be
used if they are well separated and if care is taken to synchronise them.
This method is equally effective for imaging the integrity of the bore of unbonded and bonded
pipes.
If there are solid deposits built up on the inside of the pipe, the ultrasonic images will show
evidence of the build-up. It is not clear how well the pipe lining will be imaged beyond the
deposits, nor whether the deposit or the lining would dominate the image.

4.4.2 Ultrasonic callipering

Ultrasonic callipering from the inside is reported (Refs.2, 5) and is quite practical also from the
outside.
Ultrasonic callipering from the inside is done (Refs. 2, 12) by rotating an ultrasonic probe in
approximately the centre of a flooded pipe and measuring the range to the pipe bore. Depending
how accurately the velocity of sound in the fluid is known, a measurement accuracy of better than
1mm can be achieved for the inside diameter. Computer software is used to compensate for the axis
of rotation being off-centre, but the signal quality becomes inadequate if the distance from the
centre becomes too great. The measurement accuracy can be optimised by accommodating
rotating probes in a cylindrical reservoir containing a known liquid. It is possible, for example, to
make up certain liquid mixtures (such a glycerol and water) so that the temperature coefficient of
velocity is approximately zero over a useful operating range. Alternatively the temperature can be
measured and compensation made for any variation. The wall of the reservoir needs to be of a
material whose acoustic impedance is not too different from those of the liquid in the reservoir and
of the liquid in the riser, so that the transmission coefficient is sufficiently high. A schematic diagram
is presented in Figure 11.
Ultrasonic callipering from the outside could be performed if external marine growth is first
removed. A suitable measurement device would comprise several (eg 12) ultrasonic probes
distributed on a ring to be fitted around the pipe, with some suitable mechanical arrangement to
centralise the ring approximately around the pipe. The surrounding sea water is well suited as the
medium within which to propagate the ultrasound. An accuracy of better than 0.5mm is achievable
for the outer diameter and for measurements of distortion.
Probes in rotating
block
Cylinder of controlled fluid to

contain the probe head
Figure 11. Schematic of an internal ultrasonic calliper tool based on two rotating
probes in opposition
External callipering would be an effective method of detecting bulging of a pipe following localised
failure of the pressure-bearing layers, although the time to pipe failure after detectability of damage
using these methods may not be long. The possible advantage of an ultrasonic device is that it could

be an entirely non-contacting device using water jets to keep the measuring ring out of contact
with the pipe, thereby avoiding scuffing the outer surface.
An external ultrasonic calliper could be deployed using the same principles as those suggested for a
mechanical calliper in Section 4.2.2.
4.4.3 Ultrasonic thickness gauging of steel liner

Ultrasonic thickness gauges normally employ a small probe in contact with the material which is
being measured. Logic in the instrument detects and measures the time interval between two or
more successive reflections within the steel to derive a reliable gauge of the material's thickness.
Mapping the thickness of the stainless steel liner using this method is not practical because the
lifetime of a contact probe used to scan the surface would be very short and there would be a
significant risk of causing damage to the liner.
However, it has been demonstrated (Refs.2,12) that the thickness of the liner can be measured
using an ultrasonic probe mounted radially within the pipe, as for callipering the bore. To achieve
this the device must be capable of resolving and identifying two echoes: one from the inside surface
of the pipe and another from the outer surface of the lining layer. This is reported by Baltzersen in
addition to imaging the topography of the inside. He presents data from a laboratory trial in which
the second signal required for thickness gauging is evident reliably but very weak, across the
flattened section of the interlocking liner. This is shown in Figure 12.
Back-wall
echo
Figure 12. Ultrasonic calliper data showing the wall thickness measurement
Baltzersen used a focused and acoustically well damped 10MHz immersion probe and 200MHz
waveform digitiser, thereby achieving good resolution both laterally and in depth. The relevant
echo from the outside of the carcass is very weak at arrival time about 2.7µs and is most
conspicuous at positions around 20mm, just to the right of the signal from the flat surface of the
carcass at 2µs. It would not be possible to gauge the thickness elsewhere from the data presented.

4.4.4 Ultrasonic inspection of the outer armour and annulus

The outermost layer of both unbonded and bonded pipes is normally a homogeneous polymer layer
several millimetres thick. Ultrasonic waves with a wavelength less than about 1mm (compression
or shear wave modes) are attenuated strongly and so compression waves with frequencies below
about 3MHz are needed to achieve penetration through to the inside of the polymer layer. This
could form the basis of a method for measuring the thickness of the layer, but it would probably be
less effective than an electromagnetic method. It could also be used to test for internal defects in the
polymer layer but this is not an acknowledged integrity problem on risers.
Penetration through the polymer layer into the outer steel armour strands depends on several factors
:
a) the loading pressure between the steel and polymer layer
b) the acoustic impedances of the steel and the polymer
c) the presence of any fluid or other materials between the steel and polymer layers
To achieve transmission into the steel (and back) requires either a high loading pressure or the
presence of a mechanical bond between them or a fluid between them.
Some research into the use of this method has been done in the National NDT Centre at Culham
using zero degree probes as a means of detecting the presence of water in the annulus, but without
success. It was found that, with the unbonded pipe sample supplied by Norsk Hydro, the outer
sheath was acoustically well coupled to the outer armour layer whether the annulus was wet or dry,
so that a reflection of fairly uniform amplitude was obtained over both the wet and dry pipe
sections.
Further work in the National NDT Centre demonstrated that, with the knowledge of the pitch and
left-or-right handed sense of the outer steel armour helix, it was possible to verify transmission of
ultrasound into the steel by verifying propagation along individual steel strands. Two ultrasound
probes were located a known distance apart, displaced along the spiral direction, and tilted to
achieve a compression wave beam along the steel from one probe to the other. The configuration is
shown in Figure 13.

T r a n s m i t t e r R e c e i v e r
A r m o u r
S h e a t h
Figure 13. Pitch-catch configuration used for ultrasonic trials at Culham
Provided the probe separation is great enough, this received signal arises before any signal due to
any other route, because the velocity of ultrasound in steel (about 5.9mm/microsecond) is much
greater than that in the polymer (about 2.5-3mm/microsecond) or in the water (about
1.5mm/microsecond). This was verified by moving the probes further apart. However, we were
again unable to verify any difference in signal between the cases of the wet and dry steel armour
layers, even though the wet section was achieved by immersion of an open-ended pipe section. It
was concluded that there was a bond between the polymer and steel such that acoustic coupling
between them was not improved by the addition of water.
It was not possible to test this as a method of detecting corroded armour, nor broken strands, within
the scope of the study. The method is considered to be feasible but would probably be more
complex and more expensive than an equivalent eddy current device which is already proven (See
Section 4.2.2).
4.5 RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION

Radiography invariably requires access to both sides of a structure so that a radiation source can be
located on one side, a detector on the other. In the case of a pipe the options are either to put both
source and detector outside the pipe or to put one on the inside and the other on the outside. Two
methods with both on the outside are considered: radiography across the diameter and tangential
radiography, in which the centre of the beam is directed tangentially through approximately the
mid-wall position or whichever layer is of most interest. These three methods are illustrated in
Figure 14 and are reviewed in turn.

Film or
imaging
screen
X-ray
source
Pipe
a) Radiography across the diameter
Pipe
Film or
imaging
screen
X-ray
source
b) Tangential radiography
Film or
X-ray imaging
screen
source
Pipe
c) Through-wall radiography
Figure 14 Three radiography configurations
X-radiography is sensitive to variations in the amount of material between the source and detector.
Beam attenuation increases with the mass of material in the path and also with increasing atomic
number. Water, petroleum compounds, polymers, carbon fibre and to a lesser extent also glass fibre,
are relatively easy to penetrate because they are relatively light and contain only elements with
lower atomic numbers. In contrast, steel is quite dense and has higher atomic number. Elements

with atomic number above about 60 attenuate X-ray beams much more because the absorption is
much increased by the atomic k-edge resonance. For this reason elements such as tungsten are
commonly used as markers in radiography because quite small tungsten pointers or wires are
conspicuous in radiographs of less dense structures.
The use of radiography invariably incurs high expense because of the health and safety implications
of the use of ionising radiation in proximity to personnel.
The X-ray source may be a conventional X-ray tube or a radioactive gamma source. In the case of
an X-ray tube the photon energy spectrum is governed by the voltage applied to the tube, such
that the maximum photon energy in the spectrum in MeV is equal to the applied voltage in
Megavolts. In the case of a gamma source the photons initially all have the same energy, which is a
characteristic of the isotope used, but some photons lose some of their energy by scatter within the
source or its container. Also some radioisotopes after a time become contaminated significantly by
radioactive decay products which are also radioactive but have a different photon energy.
As a general rule, radiography can detect the equivalent of 1-2% of variation in the amount of a
material if the correct photon energy and exposure for the structure are used. However, this is an
accepted figure for visual perception of a local contrast in a relatively featureless scene.
Computerised interpretation of real-time digital radiographs can achieve greater sensitivity to small
contrast variations, but only on a uniform background. This can be improved by the application of
digital edge enhancement, but this requires that the features of interest have distinct edges and also
that these edges do not coincide with edges of other features in the scene. Radiographs of flexible
risers are not well suited to automated interpretation because the texture in the images includes
edge features with very many different orientations and the tolerance on those orientations is quite
relaxed.
4.5.1 Radiography from the outside

4.5.1.1 Radiography across the pipe diameter
Radiography to detect broken strands, pitting, etc. from the outside requires a photon energy and
exposure which is adequate to penetrate two pipe walls and the pipe's contents using a source and
detection screen (film or RTR screen) diametrically opposed, as in Figure 14a.
In the case of unbonded pipes the steel components dominate the situation, even though the pipe
may be filled with fluids, because the linear absorption of low density materials composed chiefly of
low atomic weight elements is much less than that in steel. The structure of the polymer layers will
give too little contrast variation to be detectable and any structure in the fluids passing through the
pipe will be averaged out during the long radiograph exposure times required. An additional
problem is that there is a large variation in the path length through steel across a diameter, which
causes a large variation in the film development (ie a large contrast across the film) as shown in
Figure 15 (neglecting the texture arising from inter-strand gaps, etc), and is likely to exceed the
dynamic range of the film. Even using a configuration as in Figure 14a, limiting the image width to
the centre secution of the pipe the variation is almost a factor 10.

6
Film density D
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
Offset from centre (mm)
NB. Film transmission is given by 10-D
Figure 15. Variation in film density of a radiograph of a 10" unbonded pipe
Since the diameter of a 10" unbonded pipe filled with product is estimated to be equivalent to
about 75mm of steel, the 2% estimate suggests a lower limit of detectability of about 1.5mm lost
steel in the centre section of the radiograph, diminishing towards the sides, where the path in metal
and the complexity of the scene both increase. However, the radiograph will be of a very complex
scene, including criss-cross textures arising from the spaces between the strands of all of the helical
layers, each penetrated twice. Detection of a 2% loss of material penetrated in a scene as complex as
this is very optimistic and detection of severed strands in any one of the helical windings is
considered more realistic.
Note that the resolution of features close to the source is poor relative to that close to the film,
because of the size of the X-ray tube target. Smith and Wedgwood (Ref.1) found that 6 shots were
needed in order to cover the full 360° section with an optimum geometrical configuration.
4.5.1.2 Tangential radiography

Tangential radiography is used to measure variations in wall thickness and other structural
anomalies, as shown in Figure 14b. In effect, the method is the same as for measurements across the
diameter, except that the region on the right of the diagram in Figure 15 is relevant rather than the
region on the left. The radiographs show very high contrast, even using high energy photon
sources. It is normally necessary to use a scanning microdensitometer to measure the film density
and then to use a computer to analyse the trace, either by comparing it with a good standard trace
or by matching traces with a mathematical model. This method could be effective for checking the
thicknesses of the various layers of the structure but is not appropriate for the detection of corrosion
or otherwise defective windings.

4.5.2 Through-wall radiography

Better resolution and a less complex scene are achievable if the X-ray source can be moved to the
centre of the pipe while the film or imaging device is located on the outside (or vice versa). Clearly
there are practical difficulties associated with simultaneous operations both down-hole and sub-sea.
Additional considerations are that a conventional X-ray source could not, realistically, be deployed
within the pipe, other than close to the access point, and so the options normally are either to use a
radioactive isotope source on the inside or to deploy an electronic X-ray sensor on the inside.
4.5.2.1 Source on the inside

It is convenient to locate a panoramic source centrally in the pipe, as shown in Figure 14c, and to
take advantage of radial paths to gain some geometric magnification. A conventional X-ray source
could be deployed to a depth of several tens of metres from the topside access point and would be
the best option for inspecting at and close to the upper terminations. A variable voltage set enables
good control of the applied voltage, which is necessary to optimise the image contrast.
Beyond this range the only option is to use a radioactive source, giving only a limited choice of
photon energy, which is what governs the image contrast. Photons in the energy range 150-
250KeV provide the best contrast for this application. Iridium 192 is probably the most suitable
source. It emits gamma photons with energies of 310, 470 and 600KeV in proportions which
depend on the size of the source because of self-absorption. For a large source, which would be
necessary in order to achieve realistic exposure times, the self absorption would be high for the
lower energy photons, but really all of these energies are higher than the optimum for this
application. Performance can be estimated from basic principles using published data for
materials(Ref.13).The linear absorption coefficient for steel at 310KeV is about 0.28 cm-1. A
severed armour strand 3.5mm thick will result in an increase in film exposure of about 10%. This is
small in comparison with the factor of x100 required for the dynamic range of the film in order to
accommodate the variation in exposure across the bore diameter. Nevertheless, reliable
detectability is achievable even for pits of about 1mm depth. It would also be effective for detecting
dislocation of strands and unzipping of Zeta wires. Detection of cracks or welding defects in the
strands is much less likely and would depend critically on where they lie in relation to the other
features in the radiograph. A hole right through a 10mm polymer layer would give about 1/10 the
contrast of a severed armour strand, so detection of damage to any of the polymer layers is
unrealistic.
Exposure times using Iridium 192 sources will inevitably be high. Even with the largest suitable
practical sources, the exposure time for a single image needs to be many minutes. This means that
the method is practical only for surveying a limited section of pipe after an incident to verify the
integrity of the pipe.
Using a conventional X-ray source operating at about 220-250KV, film contrasts are increased
significantly, enabling more reliable detection of corrosion pits. Also exposure times can be reduced
to a few seconds.
To examine the much more substantial structure of a pipe termination, it is necessary to produce
photons with a mean energy nearer to about 250KeV, for which a 430KV X-ray set is needed, or a
Cobalt 60 source. Both have been demonstrated to be effective(Ref.1) but again the exposure times

are high using the isotope source. It was reported that the images showed “detailed images of
assembly faults and flaws” and also that the images “benefited from image processing”, which is
likely to have been a combination of edge and contrast enhancements.
A practical application of radiography is for the detection of slippage of layers in relation to the
termination. This requires that high contrast markers, are incorporated in the structure during
manufacture. Tungsten pointers or wires are ideal but any material with atomic weight greater than
about 40 would probably suffice. They may be incorporated either singly at positions known in
relation to clear features of the end fittings, or as aligned pairs. They can easily be embedded in the
polymer layers without compromising their integrity. Marking the armour strands to detect pullout
is more difficult to achieve without compromising their integrity unless the termination is designed
to accommodate thickened strands which could be marked by inclusion of a tungsten marker. The
radiographic contrast of Tungsten is about 4 times that of steel, so that a 1mm wire should be
visible clearly on a radiograph.
4.5.2.2 Detector on the inside

In order to radiograph a thick section the X-ray source must produce a high photon flux, so that
exposure times are realistic. The life of the target in the X-ray tube is limited by the damage done
to it by the impacting electrons, so the target area is always a compromise based on consideration of
the tube life and the required resolution of the radiographs. Almost invariably for thick section
radiographs the detector is placed close to the subject and the resolution of the features closest to
the detector is much better than that of those closest to the source. It would, therefore, be
advantageous to locate the detector against the pipe inside wall if radiography is to be used to see
small defects in the carcass. However, the practicalities of deploying film inside the pipe rule this
out and so the only way to use this geometry is to use a fluorescent screen and video system or a
semiconductor sensing array. Arrays specifically for X-rays are now available off the shelf, making
this a viable option for detecting cracks in the carcass or the Zeta wires.
4.5.3 X-ray tomography

X-ray tomography requires access around the full circumference of the pipe so that the
diametrically opposed X-ray source and detection system can be rotated through more than 180°
around it. In addition, the source needs to be some distance from the pipe surface, as shown in
Figure 16, so that the full width of the pipe can be accommodated within each image. This method
has been demonstrated effectively to inspect wooden power supply poles in the field using a rugged
portable system. It is also used to examine concrete-filled steel drums for radioactive waste but, to
achieve this, a linear accelerator was used to generate the required high energy gamma rays.
Film or
imaging
screen
X-ray
source
Pipe

Figure 16. The configuration required for X-ray tomography
The capability to provide very detailed information of the internal structures is well proven for
computed tomography (CT) in the medical industry. An illustration which is perhaps more
relevant to flexible risers is shown in Figure 17. These images (Ref.14) are from a length of cable
containing multiple screened conductors and an outer screening. Figure 17a is a single CT cross-
section or ‘slice’ through the cable about 10mm in diameter.. Figure 17b is a 3-D isometric view
derived from a number of ‘cone-beam’ tomographic scans of the cable reconstructed to create a full
3-D radiographic absorption map. In practice it is more useful to view the absorption map as an
animated sequence of slices, as in (a), running along the cable. For comparison, a single radiographic
image of the same cable is shown in Figure 17c.
No evidence has been found that either tomography or linear accelerators have been applied subsea.
The example of tomography of concrete waste drums may suggest that tomography of flexible
risers is realistic. But, if we compare the radiographic situations, in fact concrete has a density of only
about half that of steel and its primary constituents are of a much lower atomic weight than that of
iron. Looking at Figure 15, the attenuation variation in the image varies over a dynamic range of
about 10-8 at the tangent inside the Zeta wires to 1 outside the pipe, all of which must be
accommodated by the measurement system. In practice the limit is about 10-6:1, and this requires
long image integration times. Another factor is the contribution made to the recorded signal from
scatter in the pipe. With such large attenuation it is inevitable that the detection of lower energy
scattered photons will be significant and this would adversely affect the tomographic reconstruction
algorithm.
From this evidence, X-ray tomography can probably be discounted as a practical tool for inspecting
risers of anything like 10" bore, although it would be feasible to apply it to much smaller pipes
(estimate 6" maximum). It would also be very much more applicable to pipes removed from plant,
where it could be applied to the pipe while it is empty and in air. The use of full 3-D cone-beam
imaging could be particularly useful for checking the integrity of pipe terminations before returning
them to service.
The key difference in applicability of double-wall radiography and tomography is that it is essential
to accommodate the amplitude of the unobstructed beam within the capacity of the measurement
system for tomography, whereas, for conventional radiography, this can be allowed to saturate the
film.
X-ray and gamma ray tomography technology is developing continuously for industrial
applications, notably in the areas of better detectors, faster computers, more effective reconstruction
software and better display methods. Further work to determine the current capability by
experimental trial is a recommendation of this report.

a) Single CT slice
b) Isometric projection from the 3-D CT image
c) Equivalent conventional radiograph of the same cable
Figure 18. Tomographic imagery of a multi-screened cable

4.6 ACOUSTIC EMISSION

Acoustic emission (AE) was evaluated as one of several methods during the SINTEF study during
1989-1991 (Refs. 1, 10). It relies on the passive generation of acoustic noise, by crack extension,
crushing or disbonding of corrosion products, fretting and rubbing between surfaces, etc. , which is
detected by, typically, four ultrasonic probes affixed to the structure. By comparison of the arrival
times of signals at the different probes and verifying from their signatures that they relate to the
same event, it is possible to locate the source of the noise by triangulation. Furthermore, by analysis
of the signatures, it is possible to discriminate between different types of event. For example,
extension of a crack tip in steel by fatigue can be distinguished from noise generated by corrosion
products which have accumulated within the crack.
In the case of flexible risers acoustic noise will almost inevitably be generated by movement of one
armour layer over another, movement of contacting surfaces of the Zeta layer and of the carcass.
Noise, possibly with different signatures, may also be generated by interactions between steel and
plastic, by abrasion of glass reinforced tape layers and perhaps also of movement of any grease or
water in the annulus. It is most likely when the riser bends, but this might be either natural bending
due to movement of the sea water or it might be deliberately induced. Noise is also generated if a
fluid is leaking through a perforation and there will be a natural background noise created by
everything going on inside and around the pipe. Much of this will be at frequencies which are of no
interest for AE, but some will impair performance.
The noise will propagate readily within steel layers in which it is generated, but will be attenuated
and degraded upon transfer from one layer to another, especially in any fibrous or polymer layers. In
particular, the highest frequencies, which aid signal correlation and source recognition, are
attenuated preferentially.
Traditional applications of AE are continuous monitoring applications, such as monitoring for leaks,
deterioration of GRP structures, cracks in steel structures, often relying on the permanent
deployment of relatively few probes to monitor a large structure. However, in the case of flexible
risers, the range of noise transmission is likely to be relatively short because of the abundance of
attenuative material and because the background noise level is likely to be high. It is likely,
therefore, that AE would be better suited to periodic deployment at strategic points on he pipe to
gain an indication of changes in noise emissions from the annulus. This could indicate the loss of
lubrication between armour layers and possibly also the presence of corrosion.
It would be advantageous for the measurements to be made coupling the probes direct to the
armour layer by penetrating the outer sheath, but the risks almost undoubtedly outweigh the
benefits of this.
Application of AE from the inside is not considered practical. Apart from noise emissions from the
carcass, the quality of the signals recorded at the outside is likely to be superior to that of the signals
from the same event recorded from the carcass and the means of deployment would be more
difficult.

4.7 OTHER NDT METHODS

4.7.1 Acoustic Cameras
A novel hybrid of ultrasonic range measurement and sonar is the underwater acoustic camera (Ref.
15). This is a device comprising a large 2-D array (4096 elements) of sonar hydrophones which
combine to produce a 2-D range image of solid objects immersed in water. This is advertised as a
tool for use subsea for ROV navigation, pipeline inspection , detection of leaking gas, bottom
surveys, etc., even in turbid water. It is also well suited, without development, to surveying the
path of a riser. It may also offer a useful capability, perhaps with some adaptation, for inspecting
risers from the outside to detect gross damage. As advertised, the hydrophone row spacing is 5cm.
A device based on this principle but using low frequency ultrasonic probes (say 50KHz) on a 2cm
mesh might form the basis of a measurement tool useful for flexible risers and a variety of other
subsea structures, (although it might not be popular with the local fish!).
4.7.2 Thermography
Thermography can be either active or passive.
In active thermography, the surface of a component a structure is heated and then the temperature
of either the same surface or the opposite side is monitored using a thermal imaging camera. If the
same side is imaged, then the rate of cooling depends on the thermal conductivity of the material
and on the presence of any thermal barrier beneath the surface. If the opposite surface is viewed,
then the rate at which it heats up and its peak temperature depend on the thermal conductivity and
thickness, and on the presence of any thermal barrier mid-wall.
For passive thermography an imaging camera is used to monitor the temperature of a surface as
before, but the method relies on either a specific event or scheduled temperature transient or on
steady state temperature variations which indicate a problem.
4.7.2.1 Active thermography

Active thermography is probably not useful for flexible pipe inspection, although it was considered
possible that it might enable detection of the presence of water in the annulus of unbonded pipe if
the water improved the thermal coupling of the outer sheath to the armour layer.
This method was tested on a section of pipe supplied by Norsk Hydro, but without success. An
induction heating device was scanned over the outside of the pipe at various different speeds to heat
the armour layer. The pipe was sealed at one end and the annulus was part filled with water (ie
flooded). The surface behind it was then scanned using a thermal imaging camera to monitor the
temperature changes at the surface, with the expectation that the time taken for the heat to reach
the surface, and the maximum temperature achieved, would differ, depending whether there was
water in the annulus or not. There was no measurable increase in temperature after the heater had
been applied but, if more heating power was applied, the surface was heated directly by the heat
from the induction coil and then cooled. There was no observable difference between section
which was flooded and that which was not
Hopes that this method might be more effective, if the induction coil could be better insulated for
example, faded following the failure of the ultrasonic trials done on the same pipe section. Those

trials showed conclusively that there is a very good mechanical coupling between the sheath and
the armour layer, even without the presence of water.
4.7.2.2 Passive thermography

There is often a very significant difference between the temperature of the product within a pipe
and that of the sea water outside it, so that there is a temperature gradient through the pipe wall.
Heat from the product will be conducted through the pipe wall and is normally dissipated in the
surrounding water but, although the heat transfer rate might depend on the condition of the pipe,
the outside temperature will be maintained at almost the water temperature. If, however, an
additional layer of material is put outside the pipe, with similar insulating properties to that of the
pipe wall, then the temperature at the pipe surface will instead be approximately the average of the
temperatures of the water and the product. Furthermore, the pipe section and the applied insulation
section are analogous to an electrical divider circuit. Any local variation in the thermal impedance of
the pipe wall would be evident as a variation in the surface temperature of the pipe.
The applicability of this method is not clear. The thermal impedance of an unbonded pipe wall
would be higher in places where the helical windings are disarranged mid-wall, due to air gaps. It
might also be reduced where the annulus is flooded. However, the latter would probably be
difficult to detect as there would probably not be any local variations in measurements. Absolute
calibration could be considered if the product temperature is known.
4.7.3 Other NDT Methods discounted

Several other NDT methods were considered by Smith & Wedgwood (Ref. 1) and given low
ratings for applicability to flexible risers. After reconsidering them they are also discounted in this
review. These methods include the following :-
• Optical measurements, such as holography

• Active vibration methods
• Magnetic methods
• Microwaves
• Compton scatter
• Neutron methods
• Positron annihilation
• Positron emission tomography
• Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

5 Termination Inspection Methods
No specific inspection techniques have been identified for the terminations which have not been
reviewed in the section above. This section, therefore, draws attention to those techniques
mentioned in Section 4 which are applicable to the terminations.
5.1 VISUAL INSPECTION

5.1.1 Video inspection from the bore
From an operational point of view, video inspection of terminations from the bore is just as practical
as inspection of continuous pipe. It enables inspection of the carcass/liner within the termination
area and will show any defective termination of the liner. In addition, it will enable visual
examination of the carcass-to-flange weld for erosion and examination of the sealing ring.
5.1.2 Visual inspection from the outside

This is the most commonly used method of inspecting the terminations, although its effectiveness is
limited as little of the structure is visible. Any damage found by this method is likely to be serious,
already close to failure.
5.2 MECHANICAL CALLIPERING

5.2.1 Internal Calliper
As for continuous pipe.
5.2.2 External Calliper

Not applicable. Damage to the terminations is unlikely to affect the external dimensions of the
assembly.
5.3 EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION

5.3.1 Eddy current inspection from the bore
This will provide continuous inspection cover of the carcass/liner and Zeta wires into the
termination and can verify the point of termination of the carcass. In addition, eddy current testing
could be applied for the detection of cracks in the termination body, though it would probably
require different sensors from those used to inspect the pipe.
5.3.2 Eddy current inspection from the outside

Conventional eddy current inspection could be applied to the termination jacket to inspect for
surface-breaking cracks, but could not be used to examine the internals.

5.4 ULTRASONIC INSPECTION

5.4.1 Ultrasonic inspection from the inside
Ultrasonic back-scatter imaging and callipering will provide continuous inspection of the
carcass/liner from the pipe into the termination and will provide better information on the carcass
termination than can an eddy current probe. In addition, specialised ultrasonic probes can be
deployed, if required, to examine the abutment weld and the termination body for defects,
although this would have significant limitations.
5.4.2 Ultrasonic inspection from the outside

Conventional ultrasonics can be applied to the termination jacket if required to detect cracks or
evidence of internal corrosion. Inspection of the abutment weld might be possible, but access is
difficult.
5.5 RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION

Radiographic methods, including tomography, are the only methods available for examining the
internal structure of a termination. However, these structures are very large for radiography and so
high voltages and heavy equipment are needed and so the methods are only really appropriate for
examination after an incident or for examining pipes removed from the plant.
5.5.1 Radiography from the outside

5.5.1.1 Radiography across the pipe diameter
Radiography across a diameter of a large termination can be achieved (Ref.1) using a Linac or a
Cobalt source, and has been demonstrated to yield detail of the internal structure and some artificial
defects. The safety hazards of using this sort of equipment are formidable, especially in a marine
environment.
5.5.1.2 Tangential radiography

Tangential radiography is probably not feasible for large terminations, since the metal paths are too
long, even using the most powerful systems.
5.5.2 Through-wall radiography

Through-wall radiography is very much more likely to be effective than double-wall radiography,
since the metal paths are halved. At the topside terminations it should also be feasible to deploy a
source inside the structure. This is probably the only feasible method of early detection of pull-out.
As mentioned in Section 4, one technique is to implant tungsten markers in the structure during
fabrication to provide convenient indication of any movement in service. Care should be taken to
design a marker shape and position which can easily be detected and recognised against the texture
from the other elements of the structure.
5.5.3 X-ray tomography

As was discussed in Section 4, a very large dynamic range is essential for the application of CT to
thick sections, and access is required all round the assembly. To apply it to a large termination will
take many hours in order to record a sufficient number of X-ray photons to achieve an adequate

signal-to-noise level in the data. However, it could be applied during manufacture, for quality
control purposes, or as an investigative tool. It can also be applied to terminations of small pipes.
As mentioned in Section 4, this method is recommended for further evaluation.

AE may be more appropriate for terminations than for continuous pipe. However, although AE
could be employed periodically to check for changes in condition, the method is perhaps more
appropriately considered as a method of continuous monitoring of the topside terminations. It is,
therefore, reviewed instead in Section 6.
5.7 OTHER NDT METHODS

5.7.1 Acoustic Cameras
This is probably applicable only for inspecting for leaks in turbid waters with the aid of a ROV.
5.7.2 Thermography
Not applicable.

6 Monitoring Methods
6.1 DIELECTRIC MONITORING OF POLYMERS

A technique was developed under the Joint Industry Programme (Refs.3,16) for monitoring the
dielectric constant of polymers. It has been developed by Robit a.s. to be used primarily on
coupons of the polymer fluid barrier which are instrumented and retained in the product flow
within receptacles in the pipe, or for monitoring the outer waterproofing sheath for deterioration.
The device comprises electrodes in the shape of a comb of plates which are embedded in the
polymer. The instrumentation then monitors the complex impedance of the comb in order to
derive changes in electric resistance and dielectric constant.
There is inevitably a risk that the exposure of the coupon does not faithfully match that of the fluid
barrier. No doubt this has been investigated in the JIP and ways identified for match them as well as
possible.
6.2 SAMPLING GAS FROM THE ANNULUS

Figure 4 (From Ref.5) shows schematically the problems of gas permeation through the fluid barrier
and water permeation through either the fluid barrier or the outer sheath. These can cause corrosion
within the annulus and also, if not bled out of the annulus, could also cause mechanical damage by
exceeding limits on pressure drops. Unbonded risers, therefore, have bleed systems at the
terminations which are sampled periodically for water, salt, hydrocarbons, H2S and CO2, etc. This is
an indicator of perforation of either the fluid barrier or the outer sheath and also of increased
permeability of the fluid barrier.
Implementation of this type of monitoring is now a requirement by the regulators in the North Sea.
However, some HOIS members are aware of instances of riser failures where no warning of
impending failure was given by the system but have seen no instances in which it has been
effective. For this reason this report recommends a review of regulator policy on this method.
6.3 REMOVABLE PIPE SPOOL PIECES

This method requires that the riser design includes a removable spool piece which is normally
included within the route for the product but which can be bypasses periodically to enable its
removal. The spool piece may be sub-sea or above water.
The design of the spool piece is important. Those components of the pipe which are of interest
must be represented in the spool piece by coupons which are subjected to conditions which are
representative of the worst conditions in the riser. This includes the temperature, temperature
gradients and exposure to the same mechanical and chemical effects of the product in the pipe. In
addition, the periodic examinations cannot consume all of the material in destructive test if the
spool piece is to provide long-term condition monitoring.


The most appropriate application of AE to flexible risers is to monitor the integrity of the
terminations, for two reasons. Firstly, the jacket, which is very firmly clamped up to the body in
order to provide the pipe restraint, is likely to be acoustically well coupled to the pipe members and
is well suited for deployment of the sensors. Secondly, the failure mechanisms at the termination are
likely generators of acoustic noise.
Separate sets of sensors need to be deployed on the jacket and the body of the termination, because
these are probably not well coupled acoustically but both provide useful ‘ears’ for picking up
acoustic noise from different parts of the structure. In the case of the body, the scope for
deployment is limited but, on the jacket, probes should be distributed both circumferentially and
along the length. Ideally, provision should be made in the termination design for the probes to be
deployed permanently while the pipe is in service.
AE at the termination can be expected to provide early evidence of pull-out or of slippage of one
layer relative to another.
This method might be further enhanced by incorporating features in the design to increase the noise
generated by pull-outs or sliding movements. This might include the use of brittle materials, such
as glass fibre or brittle resins, at appropriate positions in the assembly.
6.5 FIBRE OPTIC SENSORS

Optical fibres may be used in several ways for monitoring the integrity of structural components.
In the simplest implementation, optical fibres are bonded to critical regions of the structure and
light transmission through the fibre is monitored. Any crack in the structure is expected also to
break the fibre, resulting in loss of transmission.
The more useful implementations involve some form of optical time domain reflectometry
(OTDR). This interrogates the fibre from one end with the aid of laser technology. For example, it
enables determination of the position along the fibre at which the fibre is broken.
Probably the most valuable OTDR technique for monitoring flexible risers makes use of Bragg
gratings to monitor strain. A Bragg grating is a region introduced inline into the fibre which
interferes with the light transmission along the fibre, causing back-scattered light over narrow
spectral bands where resonances occur. One method of doing this is to expose germanium-doped
fibre to two interfering UV beams creating a hologram. The spectrum of the back-scatter can be
measured using a Fabry-Perot or Mach-Zehnder interferometer. This method can achieve a
sensitivity of about 1 microstrain.
Many gratings along a single fibre can be monitored by either time separation of back-scattered
pulses, or by using gratings with different pitch at each station, or using a combination of both. In
addition, several fibres may by used, each with a separate measuring system.
This is a relatively new technology but its application to flexible risers is under consideration.


7 Summary Tables
The following pages provide summary tables of the NDT and continuous monitoring methods
which have been reviewed. Separate tables are provided for unbonded and bonded pipe.



8 Conclusions & Recommendations

8.1 CONCLUSIONS
1. About 70-80% of flexible riser failures result from gradual deterioration or manufacturing defects
rather than trauma, and so, given adequate inspection tools, they could be detected before
failure.
2. A high proportion of failures are at the top terminations and touch-down points. It is not clear
what fraction of these failures are related to incidents, such as operational errors, nor over what
period the failures occurred.
3. Visual inspection and mechanical callipers are methods now available for use routinely for
inspecting both fixed and flexible risers. They provide a useful capability, but neither provides
early indication of a problem, other than detection of impact damage.
4. Many risers are so large that radiography is slow and difficult, requiring bulky equipment which
is not well suited to an offshore environment, even above sea level, because of the high voltages
needed and the difficulties arising from health and safety aspects of using high energy X-
radiation. Radiography could detect broken or disarranged strands but inspecting the full length
of a riser is not realistic. It could have a part to play in the inspecting pipes after an incident to
verify their integrity.
5. X-ray tomography (CT) gives very much better detection capability than conventional X-
radiography, but it is limited to smaller pipes and the inspection times are very long.
6. Inspection and Monitoring of Flexible Risers has been the subject of several Joint Industry
Programmes (JIPs) over recent years and has advanced the technology very significantly. Some
information arising from these programmes has been released and is taken into account in this
study. However, it has not been possible to obtain a full assessment of the state of the art of the
arising technology. This is the case particularly of the eddy current inspection down-hole tools.
7. The published results from development work, on eddy current inspection from the bore, under
Joint Industry Programmes show that it has a very useful capability for inspecting both the pipe
carcasses and the Zeta wires. How ready this technology is for use in service is not clear, but
there are no obvious serious obstacles to its development as an effective service tool for
deployment at considerable depths via lines.
8. Eddy current inspection has also been demonstrated for inspecting the outer armour strands of
unbonded pipes, to detect broken strands and large corrosion, and can also show the spacing of
the counterwound layer below. Detectability of cracks is not clear from the published evidence.
This method is the subject of ongoing development under a Robit Joint Industry Programme.
9. Ultrasonic scanning is a proven technology for inspecting risers from the inside. The resolution
can be high, but a trade-off between resolution and scanning speed is appropriate. It can be used

to measure the bore and the wall thickness of the carcass or liner and also to detect pitting,
corrosion and mechanical damage.
10. Monitoring methods which have been reviewed include three PIMs: the Robit dielectric
monitor for polymer coupons, the annulus gas sampling facility and acoustic emission, which
might be worthwhile for termination monitoring. In addition, we mention the role of removable
spool pieces for the exposure and periodic examination of coupons, etc.
11. No methods, other than radiography, offer any useful capability to inspect the mid-wall steel
components. These provide a significant proportion of the service strength of a pipe but are
probably better protected against damage than other parts of the assembly.
12. Other than severed strands, none of the published evidence implies detection of cracks in either
the Zeta wires or the armour strands has been demonstrated. Either eddy currents or ultrasonics
might offer this capability.
13. No methods were identified to determine the integrity of the rubber matrix or the fabric layers
of a bonded pipe directly, nor disbonding, although the use of spool pieces might give an
indication of their condition.
14. Flexible Riser technology is progressing with the introduction of the API standards API 17J&K
and API RP 17B and with the current JIP on Elastomers for Flexible Pipe.
8.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
The author offers the following initial recommendations :-
1. Increased exchange of information on the failures of flexible pipe in service, and of any other
observations of deterioration, would clarify the requirements for inspection and for any
alterations to operating limits for different pipe types. At present pipe failures are reported to the
UK or Norwegian regulators and to the manufacturers or suppliers.
2. At present much of the information regarding the state-of-the-art is subject to commercial

confidentiality is and retained by the sponsors of the work. It is recommended that more
information about capability is released as soon as possible in order to stimulate further progress
in those areas in which it is needed.
3. X-ray and gamma-ray tomography provides the best means for examining the internals of
complex structures. The technology has progressed rapidly over recent years for industrial
applications, but it is difficult to assess the current capability. It is recommended, therefore, that
new trials be conducted to assess the current capability and speed for small and medium size
pipes and terminations.
4. Depending on the information arising from the JIPs, there may be a case for carrying out further
work to enhance the performance of eddy current and/or ultrasonic methods for detection of
cracks in the Zeta wires and/or the outer armour strands. It may be feasibly for common

sponsors of JIPs related to flexible risers to identify opportunities. This could be performed
through HOIS if acceptable confidentiality agreements can be put in place.
5. There is little evidence that sampling the gas in the annulus is useful. It is recommended,
therefore, that the regulators should review their requirements for such monitoring.

9 References
1. R L Smith and F A Wedgwood, "Inspection of Flexible Risers and Flowlines. The Results of an
Assessment Study", AERE-G4950, Report under contract to BP International plc, April 1989
2. ∅ Baltzersen "Investigations and Development of Techniques for Internal Inspection of Flexible
Pipes", Dissertation submitted to Norwegian Institute of Technology, 1994.
3. Offshore Technology Report OTO 98 018, "Monitoring Methods for Unbonded Flexible
Pipe", UK Health and Safety Executive, May 1998
4. A Otteren and ∅ Midtgaard "Internal Inspection of Flexible Riser on the Troll B Platform",
Insight, Vol 38, No.6, June 1996
5. Kalman et al, "Dynamic Risers for Severe Service Applications", Proc. Conf. Advances in Riser
Technologies, Aberdeen, June 1996
6. Moh’d Al-Maslamadi, “Trials of flexible pipe in sour gas service reveal degradation”, Oil & Gas
Journal, Vol.94, No.45, November 1996.
7. M Kalman and J Belcher, "Flexible risers with composite armour for deep water oil and gas
production"
8. L H Kattelan, "Risk Analysis for the Enhancement of Riser Safety", Proc. Conf. Advances in
Riser Technologies, Aberdeen, June 1996
9. A E Pierce, W P Rickey and H E Dieckman, “A TFL Calliper for use in subsea flowlines and
wells”, SPE 9413, 55th Ann. Fall Conf., Dallas, Texas, 1980.
10. "Handbook on design and operation of flexible pipes", SINTEF Report No. STF0 A92006,
1992, Ed. S Berge and A Olufsen.
11. B G Redden, "Riser Inspection Techniques and the Horizon 2000 Project, ", Proc. Conf.
Advances in Riser Technologies, Aberdeen, June 1996
12. K Newton, R Martin and F Ravenscroft, “An ultrasonic inspection tool for production
tubulars”, Insight, Vol.36, No.6, June 1994.
13. Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Volume 3. Radiography & Radiation Testing”, Second
Edition, American Society for Nondestructive Testing, 1985.
14. S F Burch, AEA Technology, Culham, Private communication
15. "Omnitech AS-3D Acoustic Cameras and Imaging", http://www.offshore-
technology.com/contractors/rovs/omnitech/index.html
16. "Service Life Monitoring of Polymers used in flexible Risers", Robit a.s.


Catalaogo 1 Mangueras Hidraulicas

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Catalaogo 1 Mangueras Hidraulicas

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

RESTRICTED - COMMERCIAL

AEAT-3260 HOIS(98)P4 Issue 2.1

NDT of Flexible Risers

A Safety Review for HOIS

January 1999 Issue 2.1

NDT of Flexible Risers

A Safety Review for HOIS1

January 1999 Issue 2.1

Title NDT of Flexible Risers

Customer reference HOIS(98)SR1

Confidentiality, Restricted - Commercial

File reference N:\#HOIS\FLEXRIS\FLEX7.DOC 6 9-Feb-99 15989

Report number AEAT-3260

Report status Issue 2.1 (Issue 1 supplied previously for review)

AEA Technology plc

AEA Technology is the trading name of AEA Technology plc

Name Signature Date

Author B M Hawker 24 Feb 1999

Reviewed by M Wall 25 Feb 1999

Approved by C Scruby 25 Feb 1999

RESTRICTED - COMMERCIAL AEA Technology ii

RESTRICTED - COMMERCIAL AEA Technology iii

RESTRICTED - COMMERCIAL AEA Technology iv

2 Flexible Riser Designs 7

4 Pipe Inspection Techniques 17

RESTRICTED - COMMERCIAL AEA Technology v

4.3 EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION 18

5 Termination Inspection Methods 39

RESTRICTED - COMMERCIAL AEA Technology vi

8 Conclusions & Recommendations 48

RESTRICTED - COMMERCIAL AEA Technology vii

RESTRICTED - COMMERCIAL AEA Technology viii

1.1 THE TASK AND OBJECTIVES OF THE REVIEW

• Visual inspection from the outside (diver or CCTV),

The most important development work is in the following :-

RESTRICTED - COMMERCIAL AEA Technology 1

RESTRICTED - COMMERCIAL AEA Technology 2

• Ultrasonic inspection of the outer armour from the outside,

• monitoring the dielectric constant and resistivity of in-line polymer coupons,

1.2 SOURCES OF INFORMATION

1.2.2 The ETDE Reference Database

• Materials (notably those relating to light-weight flexible risers): 7

RESTRICTED - COMMERCIAL AEA Technology 3

1.2.3 The Internet

1.2.4 Other sources

1.3 THE KEY WORKS

1.3.1 Smith and Wedgwood 1989

1 Internal callipering using existing tools

2 External callipering and visual inspection using tools

3 External x-ray inspection using a tool to be

RESTRICTED - COMMERCIAL AEA Technology 4

1.3.2 Baltzersen 1993

Priority Unbonded pipe Bonded pipe

RESTRICTED - COMMERCIAL AEA Technology 5

1.3.3 HSE's Report OTO 98 018: 1998

a) "Guidelines & Strategies for Condition Assessment of Flexible Pipes"

b) "Integrity & Condition Management of Unbonded Flexible Pipe"

1.4 SUMMARY OF THE AVAILABLE INFORMATION

RESTRICTED - COMMERCIAL AEA Technology 6

2 Flexible Riser Designs

2.1 UNBONDED PIPE

a) The simplest Coflexip pipe structure

b) A more complex design for higher pressures