Cl. Ancient Greek

21/11/2018 The Linguistics Research Center
Classical Greek Online

Series Introduction
Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum
Greek has been important in the intellectual life of western civilization, but not to the extent of Latin except
for ecclesiastical matters. In years past, Latin was introduced in the rst year of High School, followed by
Greek in the third year. The prominence of Greek for intellectual matters is evident in designations of
subjects central to university study, such as philosophy 'love of wisdom', philology 'love of words or more
generally study', theology 'study related to God', psychology 'study related to the soul or psyche', and so on.
A di culty with Greek that may put off learners is the maintenance of an older form of the alphabet than
that used for Latin, English, and many other languages. Moreover, accentuation varies in Greek words, and in
early Greek was musical. While today accented syllables are pronounced with stress rather than tones, the
older accents are still written [with η added for illustration]: ή for the οκσεῖα 'acute' accent or high pitch, ῆ
for the περισπώµενον accent or high-low pitch, and ὴ for the βαρεῖα 'grave' or falling pitch. Furthermore,
the sentence structure and number of forms require a great deal of attention. The words of sentences are
placed for their emphasis, rather than in accordance with a pattern like that of the English Subject-Verb-
Object order; knowledge of the in ections is therefore highly important. Interpretation is also assisted by the
use of articles which, like nouns, adjectives, pronouns and verbs, are in ected. It is essential, then, to learn
the basic in ections of these parts of speech.
1. The Greek alphabet and pronunciation.

The Greek alphabet was taken over from the Semitic as used in the Phoenician area, which in turn was
based on an Egyptian alphabet. These were also used for the numerals, so that the order of the symbols
was maintained, if changed at times in sound value. This is true also of the Latin alphabet, which was based
ultimately on the Greek alphabet; the 3rd symbol, which represented [g] as in its name gamma, had the
sound of [k] in Latin, as in words like car or the proper name Cato. The symbols themselves, especially the
small cursives, may also differ in form from those of Latin and English, but on the whole the differences may
readily be recognized. The alphabet is as follows:
α β γ δ ε ζ η θ ι κ λ µ ν ξ ο π ρ σς τ υ φ χ ψ ω
Α Β Γ Δ Ε Ζ Η Θ Ι Κ Λ Μ Ν Ξ Ο Π Ρ Σ Τ Υ Φ Χ Ψ Ω
Note that there are two forms of the small letter sigma: the latter (ς) is used where the letter appears last in
the word; everywhere else, the former is used. The [h] sound before a vowel is signalled by a rough breathing
sign [with ο added for illustration]: ὁ; and when there is no initial [h] sound before vowels, the smooth
breathing sign is ὀ. The rough breathing may also be used with initial rho: ῥ.
The names of the letters are as follows, in English and then in Greek:
https://lrc.la.utexas.edu/eieol_printable/grkol 1/111
alpha, beta, gamma, delta, epsilon, zeta, eta, theta, iota, kappa, lambda, mu, nu, xi, omicron, pi, rho,
sigma, tau, upsilon, phi, chi, psi, omega
ἄλφα, βῆτα, γάµµα, δέλτα, ἔψιλόν, ζῆτα, ῆτα, θῆτα, ἰῶτα, κάππα, λάµβδα, µῦ, νῦ, ξεῖ, ὄµικρόν,
πεῖ, ῥῶ, σῖγµα, ταῦ, ὔψιλόν, φεῖ, χεῖ, ψεῖ, ὦµέγα
Latin and thereupon English has maintained this order with modi cations that are apparent from the
different sounds of the letters and the different names. The letter ζ was pronounced like the consonant in
adze. The letter ξ was pronounced like the consonant in ax. The letter ψ was pronounced like the nal
consonants in tops. The letters θ φ χ were originally pronounced like the aspirated initial consonants in
English tan, pan, can as opposed to the unaspirated consonants in stan, span, scan; but they are usually
pronounced today like the initial consonants in than, fan and the consonant in German ach.
The vowels are pronounced as follows: α like the vowel of bot, ε like that of bet, η like that of bait, ι like that
of beet, ο like that of boat, υ like that of bit, ω like that of bought. The ve vowels other than η ω may be long
or short. Unlike English, there are few silent letters. Sentences, then, are read with every letter pronounced,
as in the following sayings of Solon and of Menander:
γηράσκω δ' αἰεὶ πολλὰ διδασκόµενος

'I grow old-indeed-always-many things-learning'
'I grow old always learning many things.'
Τὴν τῶν κρατούντων µάθε φέρειν ἐξουσίαν

'the-of the-masters----learn-to bear-power'
'Learn to submit to the power of the masters.'
2. The vocabulary.
English and Greek belong to the Indo-European language family; their earlier versions separated from each
other some four thousand years ago. Words of the same origin are often disguised because of changes that
have taken place in both languages. For example, an initial [s] sound before vowels in Greek evolved into [h],
as in (cf. English six) Latin sex, Greek heks, written ἕξ (cf. hexagon). The word corresponding to seven is
written ἑπτά (cf. heptagon). Moreover the Indo-European consonants represented as bh, dh, gh evolved to
ph, th, kh -- φ, θ, χ, as in φράτηρ 'brother'. New sounds have also been introduced in Greek with their own
letter in the alphabet, such as η for the vowel corresponding to the [a] in hate, and ξ for the combination [ks]
as in six.
The greatest difference, however, may have resulted from a massive change of consonants in Germanic
(hence English) well before our era. The change was formulated by the great German scholar, Jakob Grimm,
and is known as Grimm's law, which is listed even in smaller dictionaries of English. At this time, p, t, k
evolved into sounds that today are represented by f, th, h. Among examples are: father, compare Greek
πατήρ, three, compare Greek τρεῖς, hundred, compare Greek ἑκατόν, literally 'one hundred'. And the sounds
represented by bh, dh, gh in Indo-European were changed to the sounds that today are represented by b, d, g.
These sounds were also changed in Greek, as noted above. Among examples are English brother, compare
Greek φράτηρ, door, compare Greek θύρα, goose, compare Greek χήν. At the same time, b, d, g were
changed to p, t, k. Among English examples are ten, compare Greek δέκα, kin, compare Greek γένος. (Indo-
European had almost no words with b.)
It is interesting to compare such cognate words, but the changes that both languages have undergone often
conceal the relationships, as for the numerals for four and ve. Some of the others are transparently related,
in spite of changes: one, Greek εἷς; two, Greek δύο; three, Greek τρεῖς; four, Greek τέτταρες; ve, Greek
πέντε; six, Greek ἕξ; seven, Greek ἑπτά; eight, Greek ὀκτώ; nine, Greek ἐννέα; ten, Greek δέκα. Since
dictionaries may provide the Greek cognates of English entries, control over the Greek vocabulary can be
gained by noting them. Etymological dictionaries are of greater assistance.
As noted above, by far the greatest number of similar words are found in academic and ecclesiastical
language, where English simply took over the Greek terms through long in uence on western culture from
these spheres. Words were pronounced in accordance with the English spellings, rather than with their
pronunciation in Greek. Some examples are cited here.
The academic terms are in accordance with the in uence of Aristotle, who, after years of study with Plato in
the Athenian grove known as the Academy (named after the hero Akademos), conducted his teaching in the
temple to Apollo known as the Lyceum. We have already noted terms ending in -logy, to which others might
be added like biology and neurology. The last part attained a status of its own, so that further words like
sociology, with its initial part from Latin, could be introduced. Moreover, the last part has a somewhat
different function in the word doxology, 'giving words of praise'. Other ecclesiastical terms are clergy,
clerical, Eucharist and liturgy. In the political sphere the words democrat and democracy are based on the
components for people and power, as also in aristocrat and aristocracy for the best or superior people and
power, autocracy for self or absolute power, theocracy for ecclesiastical power. Examination of the
etymology or 'true meaning' of such words will assist in gaining control of the Greek vocabulary.
3. The sentence structure of Greek.

As is clear from the earlier quotations, the sentence order of Greek may differ considerably from that of
English. In an earlier form of Greek, the verb was placed last in the sentence. But in the sayings of Menander
its position is quite different. The different positions are possible because of Greek in ections. In English we
generally have to place together phrases like 'power of the masters'. Greek, on the other hand, can move
elements around for stylistic purposes -- as here, giving emphasis to special items like 'of the masters'.
In examining a Greek text, one should rst identify the verb. Its forms are identi able through their
in ections, with the additional help that nouns are often marked by preceding articles. In the saying of
Solon, the ending -ω indicates that the subject is the rst person expressed in English with I. As often, no
further subject is included. Moreover, the ος ending on the nal word indicates that the word must be taken
as modifying I. It is useful then to memorize the basic in ections of verbs, as well as those of nouns.
As illustrated by these brief passages, the key to reading Greek is provided by knowledge of its in ections.
While these are numerous, memorization of the basic in ections of the article, of nouns and of verbs is
generally adequate.
4. The forms of Greek.

4.1 Nouns, adjectives, pronouns, the article.
Thee parts of speech are in ected for four cases, besides a case of address called the vocative. The cases
are as follows:
Nominative, the case of the subject;
Genitive, the case to indicate possession -- possessive, in grammars of English
Dative, the case of the indirect object
Accusative, the case of the direct object -- objective, in grammars of English
Case forms may also be determined by prepositions.
In English, only the nominative, genitive/possessive and accusative/objective have been maintained, and
that only in pronouns: I is nominative, my is genitive, me is accusative. Nouns simply have a nominative and
a possessive, as in dog, dog's. Adjectives are not in ected.
Greek nouns are also in ected for --
number, that is, singular and plural; Classical Greek also maintained a dual.
three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter.
a large number of declensions.
Paradigms are given in the various lessons. For illustration here, forms of the article are shown in all three
genders, as well as the feminine noun for 'country' of the α-declension and the masculine noun for 'word'
and the neuter for 'gift' of the ο-declension:
Fem. Masc. Nt. Fem. Masc Nt
Sg. Nom. ἡ ὁ τό χώρα λόγος δῶρον
Sg. Gen. τῆς τοῦ τοῦ χώρας λόγου δώρου
Sg. Dat. τῇ τῷ τῷ χώρᾳ λόγῳ δώρῳ
Sg. Acc. τήν τόν τό χώραν λόγον δῶρον
Pl. Nom. αἱ οἱ τά χῶραι λόγοι δῶρα
Pl. Gen. τῶν τῶν τῶν χωρῶν λόγων δώρων
Pl. Dat. ταῖς τοῖς τοῖς χώραις λόγοις δώροις
Pl. Acc τάς τούς τά χώρας λόγους δῶρα
4.2 Verbs.
Like nouns, verbs have many in ections (though not all of the possible combinations below are realized):
Verbs are in ected for voice: active, middle, and passive. The middle indicates action directed at
the subject; this is often expressed in the lexical meaning itself. Verbs with a basically middle
voice are known as deponents; for example, γίγνοµαι means 'become, take place, be produced,'
etc.
Verbs are in ected for mood: indicative, subjunctive, and optative.
Verbs are in ected for tense: present, past (or imperfect), and future. Of these, there are three
sets (again, not in all combinations): the basic (or simple), the aorist, and the perfect. The past
perfect is also called pluperfect.
In addition there are imperative forms, in nitives, participles, a gerund, and a supine. The imperative forms
are rare in written texts.
The present in nitive active may be illustrated by λέγειν 'to say, speak'; the aorist is λέξαι. The present
in nitive middle is λέγεσθαι; the aorist is λέξασθαι. The passive in nitive is λέγεσθαι; the aorist is
λεγθῆναι. The present participle active is λέγων, λέγουσα, λέγον. The present participle middle and
passive is λεγόµενος, λεγοµένη, λεγόµενον.
It should be obvious that the verb system of Greek is complex. The basic forms of irregular verbs are
generally listed in dictionaries.
4.3 The other parts of speech.
In addition to these parts of speech, Greek includes adverbs, conjunctions, interjections and prepositions.
Since their functions are comparable to those of their English counterparts, they will not be discussed here.
5. Examples of texts.
Proverbs or passages from literary gures are often cited, also in English works. A few will be given here to
illustrate the use of forms and patterns of syntax.
Plato: Πάντων µέτρον ἄνθρωπός ἐστιν.

'The human being is the measure of all things.'
Aristotle: ἄνθρωπος φύσει πολιτικ̀ον ζῷον.

'The human being is by nature a political animal.'
Sophocles: πολλὰ τὰ δεινὰ κοὐδὲν ἀνθρώπου δεινότερον πέλει.

'There are many wonderful things and nothing is more wonderful than the human being.'
Archimedes: δός µοι ποῦ στῶ καὶ κινῶ τὴν γῆν.

'Give me a place where I may stand and I will move the earth.'
Menander: ὁ σοφὸς ἐν αὐτῷ περιφέρει τὴν οὐσίαν.

'The wise man carries his property within him.'
Plato: ὁ δὲ ἀνεξέταστος βίος οὐ βιωτὸς ἀνθρώπῳ.

'The unexamined life is not worth living for a human being.'
Menander: Οὐδεὶς ποιῶν πονερὰ λανθάνει θέον.

'No one can hide his wickedness from god.'
Isocrates: Τοὺς µὲν θεοὺς φοβοῦ, τοὺς δὲ γονέας τίµα, τοῖς δὲ νόµοις πείθου.
'Fear the gods, honor the parents, keep the laws.'
Menander: Κάλλιστόν ἐστι κτῆµα παιδεία βροτοῖς.

'Education is the most valuable treasure for mortals.'
Plato: Ἡ ψυχὴ ἀθάνατος φαίνεται οὖσα.

'The soul is apparently immortal.'
Related Language Courses at UT
Most but not all language courses taught at The University of Texas concern modern languages; however,
numerous courses in ancient Greek, at both the undergraduate and graduate levels, are taught in the
Department of Classics (http://www.utexas.edu/cola/depts/classics/) (link opens in a new browser
window). Other online language courses for college credit are offered through the University Extension
(http://www.utexas.edu/ce/uex/online/) (new window).
Hellenic Resources Elsewhere
Our Web Links (https://liberalarts.utexas.edu/lrc/extras/links.php) page includes pointers to Hellenic

resources elsewhere (https://liberalarts.utexas.edu/lrc/extras/links.php#Hellenic).

Lesson 1
Unlike Roman tradition, Greek accounts do not depict a heroic origin in the settlement of their country. The
opening sections of Thucydides' History of the war between the Peloponnesians and the Athenians provide
the best and probably most accurate account of it. Among recent proposals about the entrance of the
Greeks into the areas they settled, that of E.J.W. Barber, Prehistoric Textiles (Princeton University Press,
1991) is most convincing. She points out that, among the terms for textiles and weaving, those applying to
simple applications like band-weaving are native Indo-European, but those for complex applications like use
of the warp-weighted loom are imported. She concludes further that the Greeks picked up the terms for
some of the complex applications as they came to the country through the Balkans from the northeast
(1991: 260-82). Thucycides' account, which includes the excerpt given here, fully supports the conclusion
that the newcomers had a simple civilization. Moreover, it also indicates that they were by no means united
like the early Romans. The lack of political unity was maintained until the time of Alexander; one of its most
di cult periods was the war from 431-404 B.C. that Thucydides describes so brilliantly.
Reading and Textual Analysis
In the opening section of Book I, Thucydides complains that he was unable to get much information about
the early period. He goes on to state that in the area called Hellas there were no xed habitations. The
settlers simply moved about, raising enough for their own needs. Moreover, they had no mercantile tra c.
He stresses the general weakness, as in Section 3 of Book I given here. He also points out that this was the
situation at the time of Homer, which was much later than the time of the Trojan war. The rest of Book I
describes the gradual increase in prosperity, rst of Athens, but also the discord among the groups.
δηλοῖ δέ µοι καὶ τόδε τῶν παλαιῶν ἀσθένειαν οὐχ ἤκιστα.
δηλοῖ -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <δηλόω> be clear, reveal -- it is clear
δέ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- but
µοι -- pronoun; dative singular masculine of <ἐγώ> I -- to me
καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- also
τόδε -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <ὅδε> this -- by this
τῶν -- article; genitive plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- of the
παλαιῶν -- adjective; genitive plural masculine of <παλαιός> old, ancient -- ancient
ἀσθένειαν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ἀσθένεια> weakness -- weakness
οὐχ -- particle; <οὐ> not -- not
ἤκιστα -- adverb; <ἥκιστα> least -- least
πρὸ γὰρ τῶν Τρωικῶν οὐδὲν φαίνεται πρότερον κοινῇ ἐργασαµένη ἡ Ἑλλάς.
πρὸ -- preposition; <πρό> before -- before

γὰρ -- conjunction; <γάρ> for -- for
Τρωικῶν -- adjective; genitive plural neuter of <Τρωικός> Trojan -- the times of Troy
οὐδὲν -- pronoun; nominative singular neuter of <οὐδείς, οὐδεµία, οὐδέν> no one, nothing -- nothing
φαίνεται -- verb; 3rd person singular present middle of <φαίνω> seem -- appears
πρότερον -- adverb; <πρότερον> earlier, before -- before
κοινῇ -- adjective; dative singular feminine of <κοινός> common -- in common
ἐργασαµένη -- verb; nominative singular feminine of aorist participle of <ἐργάζοµαι> work, make -- to
have been carried out
ἡ -- article; nominative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the
Ἑλλάς -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <Ἑλλάς> Greece -- Greece
δοκεῖ δέ µοι, οὐδὲ τοὄνοµα τοῦτο ξύµπασά πω εἶχεν, ἀλλὰ τὰ µὲν πρὸ Ἕλληνος τοῦ Δευκαλίωνος καὶ
πάνυ οὐδὲ εἶναι ἡ ἐπίκλησις αὕτη.
δοκεῖ -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <δοκέω> seem, think -- it seems
δέ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- indeed
µοι -- pronoun; dative singular masculine of <ἐγώ> I -- to me
οὐδὲ -- particle; <οὐδέ> not -- not
τοὄνοµα -- noun; article <τό> the + noun, neuter; accusative singular of <ὄνοµα> name -- this name
τοῦτο -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <οὗτος> this -- this
ξύµπασά -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <ξύµπας> all together -- in general
πω -- adverb; <πω> yet -- yet
εἶχεν -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <εἴχω> have, be -- did ... exist
ἀλλὰ -- conjunction; <ἀλλά> but -- but
τὰ -- article; accusative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- the time
µὲν -- particle; <µέν> on the one hand -- ...
Ἕλληνος -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Ἕλληνος> Hellenos -- Hellenos
τοῦ -- article; genitive singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
Δευκαλίωνος -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Δευκαλίων> Deucalion -- (son) of Deucalion
καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- ...
πάνυ -- adverb; <πάνυ> at all -- at all
εἶναι -- verb; in nitive of <εἰµί> I am -- did ... exist
ἐπίκλησις -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <ἐπίκλησις> name, title -- title
αὕτη -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular feminine of <οὗτος> this -- this
κατὰ ἔθνη δὲ ἄλλα τε καὶ τὸ Πελασγικὸν ἐπὶ πλεῖστον ἀφ' ἑαυτῶν τὴν ἐπωνυµίαν παρέχεσθαι.
κατὰ -- preposition; <κατά> completely, down, under -- from

ἔθνη -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <ἔθνος> nation, people, tribe -- tribes
δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- on the other hand
ἄλλα -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <ἄλλος> other -- other
τε -- conjunction; <τε> and -- and
καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and
τὸ -- article; accusative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- the
Πελασγικὸν -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <Πελασγικός> Pelasgian -- Pelasgian =
(Thessalian)
ἐπὶ -- preposition; <ἐπί> on, about -- by
πλεῖστον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <πλεῖστος> most -- chie y
ἀφ' -- preposition; <ἀπό> from -- from
ἑαυτῶν -- re exive pronoun; genitive plural masculine of <ἑαυτός> himself -- their own
τὴν -- article; accusative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the
ἐπωνυµίαν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ἐπωνυµία> name, designation -- name
παρέχεσθαι -- verb; passive in nitive of <παρέχω> provide -- had furnished
Ἕλληνος δὲ καὶ τῶν παίδων αὐτοῦ ἐν τῇ Φθιῶτιδι ἰσχυσάντων, καὶ ἐπαγοµένων αὐτοὺς ἐπ' ὠφελίᾳ ἐς
τὰς ἄλλας πόλεις, καθ' ἑκάστους µὲν ἤδη τῇ ὁµιλίᾳ µᾶλλον καλεῖσθαι Ἕλληνας.
Ἕλληνος -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Ἕλληνος> Hellenos -- Hellenos

δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- but
τῶν -- article; genitive plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
παίδων -- noun, masculine/feminine; genitive plural of <παῖς> child -- sons
αὐτοῦ -- pronoun; genitive singular masculine of <αὐτός> oneself, he -- his
ἐν -- preposition; <ἐν> in -- in
τῇ -- article; dative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the
Φθιῶτιδι -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <Φθιῶτις> Phthiotis -- Phthiotis
ἰσχυσάντων -- verb; genitive plural masculine of participle aorist of <ἰσχύω> be strong -- had become
strong
ἐπαγοµένων -- verb; genitive plural masculine of present participle passive of <ἐπάγω> bring in, invite
-- were brought in
αὐτοὺς -- pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <αὐτός> oneself, he -- themselves
ἐπ' -- preposition; <ἐπί> on, about -- for
ὠφελίᾳ -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <ὠφελία> aid -- assistance
ἐς -- preposition; <ἐς> towards -- to
τὰς -- article; accusative plural feminine of <ὁ> the -- the
ἄλλας -- adjective; accusative plural feminine of <ἄλλος> other -- other
πόλεις -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <πόλις> city -- cities
καθ' -- preposition; <κατά> completely, down, under -- by
ἑκάστους -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <ἕκαστος> each, every -- all
µὲν -- particle; <µέν> on the one hand -- indeed
ἤδη -- adverb; <ἤδη> already -- then
ὁµιλίᾳ -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <ὁµιλία> being together -- association
µᾶλλον -- adverb; <µᾶλλον> more and more -- more and more
καλεῖσθαι -- verb; in nitive passive of <καλέω> call, summon -- were called
Ἕλληνας -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <Ἕλλην> Greek -- Greeks
οὐ µέντοι πολλοῦ γε χρόνου ἐδύνατο καὶ ἅπασιν ἐκνικῆσαι.
οὐ -- particle; <οὐ> not -- it was not

µέντοι -- particle; <µέντοι> but, however -- however
πολλοῦ -- adjective; genitive singular masculine of <πολύς> many -- long
γε -- particle; <γε> indeed -- indeed
χρόνου -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <χρόνος> time -- time
ἐδύνατο -- deponent verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <δύναµαι> be able -- would
ἅπασιν -- adjective; dative plural masculine of <ἅπας> all -- to all (clans)
ἐκνικῆσαι -- verb; in nitive passive of <ἐκνικάω> prevail -- prevail
τεκµηριοῖ δὲ µάλιστα Ὅµερος
τεκµηριοῖ -- verb; 3rd person singular present optative of <τεκµηριόω> prove positively --
demonstrated
δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- indeed
µάλιστα -- adverb; superlative of <µάλα> very -- above all
Ὅµερος -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Ὅµερος> Homer -- Homer
πολλῷ γὰρ ὕστερον ἔτι καὶ τῶν Τρωικῶν γενόµενος οὐδαµοῦ οὕτω τοὺς ξύµπαντας ὠνόµασεν οὐδ'
ἄλλους ἢ τοὺς µετὰ Ἀχιλλέως ἐκ τῆς Φθιώτιδος.
πολλῷ -- adverb; dative singular neuter of <πολύς> many -- much

ὕστερον -- adverb; <ὕστερον> later -- later
ἔτι -- adverb; <ἔτι> still -- still
τῶν -- article; genitive plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- the
γενόµενος -- deponent verb; nominative singular neuter of present participle middle of <γίγνοµαι>
happen, become -- being
οὐδαµοῦ -- adverb; <οὐδαµοῦ> nowhere -- nowhere
οὕτω -- adverb; <οὕτως> so, thus -- at all
τοὺς -- article; accusative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- them
ξύµπαντας -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <ξύµπας> all together -- all together
ὠνόµασεν -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <ὀνοµάζω> speak of by name -- referred to
οὐδ' -- particle; <οὐδέ> not -- nor
ἄλλους -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <ἄλλος> other -- other
ἢ -- conjunction; <ἤ> or, than -- than
τοὺς -- article; accusative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the ones
µετὰ -- preposition; <µετά> after, with -- with
Ἀχιλλέως -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ἀχιλλεύς> Achilles -- Achilles
ἐκ -- preposition; <ἐκ> from, out of -- from
τῆς -- article; genitive singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- the
Φθιώτιδος -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <Φθιῶτις> Phthiotis -- Phthiotis
οἵπερ καὶ πρῶτοι Ἕλληνες ἧσαν, Δαναοὺς δὲ ἐν τοῖς ἔπεσι καὶ Ἀργείους καὶ Ἀχαιοὺς ἀνακαλεῖ.
οἵπερ -- article used as demonstrative pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <ὁ> the + particle;
<περ> indeed -- these... indeed
πρῶτοι -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <πρῶτος> rst -- the rst
Ἕλληνες -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <Ἕλλην> Greek -- Greeks
ἧσαν -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <εἰµί> I am -- were
Δαναοὺς -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <Δαναοί> Danaans -- Danaans
τοῖς -- article; dative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- the
ἔπεσι -- noun, neuter; dative plural of <ἔπος> words, saying -- poem
Ἀργείους -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <Ἀργεῖος> Argive -- (as)Argives
Ἀχαιοὺς -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <Ἀχαιός> Achaean -- Achaeans
ἀνακαλεῖ -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <ἀνακαλέω> designate -- he designates
οὐ µὴν οὐδὲ βαρβάρους εἴρηκε διὰ τὸ µηδὲ Ἕλληνάς πω, ὡς ἐµοὶ δοκεῖ.
οὐ -- particle; <οὐ> not -- not

µὴν -- particle; <µήν> verily -- even
οὐδὲ -- particle; <οὐδέ> not -- but not
βαρβάρους -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <βάρβαρος> foreigner, non-Greek -- barbarians
εἴρηκε -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect of <εἴρω> speak, say -- he did ...speak of
διὰ -- preposition; <διά> through, by -- because of
τὸ -- article; accusative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- this
µηδὲ -- particle; <µηδέ> and not -- not
Ἕλληνάς -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <Ἕλλην> Greek -- the Greeks
πω -- adverb; <πω> yet -- yet
ὡς -- conjunction; <ὡς> as, thus -- as
ἐµοὶ -- pronoun; dative singular masculine of <ἐγώ> I -- to me
δοκεῖ -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <δοκέω> seem, think -- it seems
ἀντίπαλον ἐς ἓν ὄνοµα ἀποκεκρίσθαι.
ἀντίπαλον -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <ἀντίπαλος> contrast -- (to provide) a contrast
ἐς -- preposition; <ἐς> towards -- with
ἓν -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <εἷς> one -- a common
ὄνοµα -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <ὄνοµα> name -- name
ἀποκεκρίσθαι -- verb; perfect in nitive passive of <ἀποκρίνω> separate, answer -- (they had not yet)
been separated
οἱ δ' οὖν ὡς ἕκαστοι Ἕλληνες κατὰ πόλεις τε ὅσοι ἀλλήλων ξυνίεσαν καὶ ξύµπαντες ὕστερον
κληθέντες οὐδὲν πρὸ τῶν Τρωικῶν δι' ἀσθένειαν καὶ ἀµειξίαν ἀλλήλων ἁθρόοι ἔπραξαν.
οἱ -- article; nominative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- those

δ' -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- but
οὖν -- adverb; <οὖν> indeed -- actually
ὡς -- conjunction; <ὡς> as, thus -- thus
ἕκαστοι -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <ἕκαστος> each, every -- themselves
Ἕλληνες -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <Ἕλλην> Greek -- Greeks
κατὰ -- preposition; <κατά> completely, down, under -- by
πόλεις -- noun, feminine; nominative plural of <πόλις> city -- cities
ὅσοι -- relative pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <ὅσος> as many -- as many
ἀλλήλων -- pronoun; genitive plural masculine of <ἀλλήλων> one another -- one another's (speech)
ξυνίεσαν -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <ξυνίηµι> bring together, understand -- they
understood
ξύµπαντες -- adjective; nominative plural masculine <ξύµπας> all together -- together
ὕστερον -- adverb; <ὕστερον> later -- later
κληθέντες -- verb; nominative plural masculine aorist participle passive of <καλέω> call, summon --
called together
οὐδὲν -- pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <οὐδείς, οὐδεµία, οὐδέν> no one, nothing -- nothing
δι' -- preposition; <διά> through, by -- because of
ἀσθένειαν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ἀσθένεια> weakness -- weakness
ἀµειξίαν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ἀµειξία> lack of intercourse -- lack of intercourse
ἀλλήλων -- pronoun; genitive plural masculine of <ἀλλήλων> one another -- with one another
ἁθρόοι -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <ἁθρόος> together -- together
ἔπραξαν -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <πράσσω> achieve, manage -- carried out
ἀλλὰ καὶ ταύτην τὴν στρατείαν θαλάσσῃ ἤδη πλείω χρώµενοι ξυνῆλθον.
ἀλλὰ -- conjunction; <ἀλλά> but -- but

καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- even
ταύτην -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular feminine of <οὗτος> this -- for this
στρατείαν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <στρατεία> expedition -- expedition
θαλάσσῃ -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <θάλασσα> sea -- sea
ἤδη -- adverb; <ἤδη> already -- already
πλείω -- adjective; accusative singular feminine comparative of <πολύς> many -- considerable
χρώµενοι -- deponent verb; nominative plural masculine middle participle of <χράοµαι> need, use --
(when) they made... use of
ξυνῆλθον -- deponent verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <συνέρχοµαι> unite, come together -- they
united
Lesson Text
δηλοῖ δέ µοι καὶ τόδε τῶν παλαιῶν ἀσθένειαν οὐχ ἤκιστα. πρὸ γὰρ τῶν Τρωικῶν οὐδὲν φαίνεται
πρότερον κοινῇ ἐργασαµένη ἡ Ἑλλάς. δοκεῖ δέ µοι, οὐδὲ τοὄνοµα τοῦτο ξύµπασά πω εἶχεν, ἀλλὰ
τὰ µὲν πρὸ Ἕλληνος τοῦ Δευκαλίωνος καὶ πάνυ οὐδὲ εἶναι ἡ ἐπίκλησις αὕτη. κατὰ ἔθνη δὲ ἄλλα
τε καὶ τὸ Πελασγικὸν ἐπὶ πλεῖστον ἀφ' ἑαυτῶν τὴν ἐπωνυµίαν παρέχεσθαι. Ἕλληνος δὲ καὶ τῶν
παίδων αὐτοῦ ἐν τῇ Φθιῶτιδι ἰσχυσάντων, καὶ ἐπαγοµένων αὐτοὺς ἐπ' ὠφελίᾳ ἐς τὰς ἄλλας
πόλεις, καθ' ἑκάστους µὲν ἤδη τῇ ὁµιλίᾳ µᾶλλον καλεῖσθαι Ἕλληνας. οὐ µέντοι πολλοῦ γε
χρόνου ἐδύνατο καὶ ἅπασιν ἐκνικῆσαι. τεκµηριοῖ δὲ µάλιστα Ὅµερος πολλῷ γὰρ ὕστερον ἔτι καὶ
τῶν Τρωικῶν γενόµενος οὐδαµοῦ οὕτω τοὺς ξύµπαντας ὠνόµασεν οὐδ' ἄλλους ἢ τοὺς µετὰ
Ἀχιλλέως ἐκ τῆς Φθιώτιδος. οἵπερ καὶ πρῶτοι Ἕλληνες ἧσαν, Δαναοὺς δὲ ἐν τοῖς ἔπεσι καὶ
Ἀργείους καὶ Ἀχαιοὺς ἀνακαλεῖ. οὐ µὴν οὐδὲ βαρβάρους εἴρηκε διὰ τὸ µηδὲ Ἕλληνάς πω, ὡς ἐµοὶ
δοκεῖ. ἀντίπαλον ἐς ἓν ὄνοµα ἀποκεκρίσθαι. οἱ δ' οὖν ὡς ἕκαστοι Ἕλληνες κατὰ πόλεις τε ὅσοι
ἀλλήλων ξυνίεσαν καὶ ξύµπαντες ὕστερον κληθέντες οὐδὲν πρὸ τῶν Τρωικῶν δι' ἀσθένειαν καὶ
ἀµειξίαν ἀλλήλων ἁθρόοι ἔπραξαν. ἀλλὰ καὶ ταύτην τὴν στρατείαν θαλάσσῃ ἤδη πλείω
χρώµενοι ξυνῆλθον.
Translation
The weakness of ancient times is also clear to me, not least from the following. Before the times of
Troy, Hellas appears to have carried out nothing in common. Indeed, it seems to me that it did not yet
have this name; before the time of Hellen, son of Deucalion, this title did not even exist. Rather, other
tribes had furnished them by their own designations, and chie y the Pelasgians. But when Hellen and
his sons had become strong in Phthiotis, and were brought in for assistance to the other cities, then
all were called Hellenes more and more because of this association. It was not for a long time,
however that the name would prevail for all clans. Homer especially demonstrated this. Although
being much later than the times of Troy, he nowhere at all referred to them all together, nor to others
than the followers of Achilles from Phthiotis. They indeed were the rst Hellenes, but he designates
them in the poems as Danaans and Argives and Achaeans. He did not even speak of Barbarians
because, as it seems to me, the Hellenes did not yet exist. They had not yet been separated with a
common name to provide a contrast. Those who came together as Hellenes by cities and as they
understood one another's speech and were later classed together carried out nothing together before
the times of Troy because of weakness and lack of intercourse. But even for this expedition they
united only when they already made considerable use of the sea.
Grammar
1 The alphabet and sound system.
1.1 The alphabet.
The Greek alphabet was taken over from the Phoenicians. It in turn was taken over by the Romans, but from
a version of the alphabet that differs somewhat from the standard. The names are generally well known,
such as the rst two from our word alphabet, the third from gamma rays, and so on.
The pronunciations are also straightforward. Those used in the classical period differ somewhat from the
pronunciations typically used in instruction today. When they differ, the classical period pronunciations are
indicated below using words in parentheses.
Alpha α, Α father
Beta β, Β bother
Gamma γ, Γ gather
Delta δ, Δ delta
Epsilon ε, Ε debt
Zeta ζ, Ζ zen
Eta η, Η rate (rat)
Theta θ, Θ thin (tin) i.e. with aspiration
Iota ι, Ι sin
Kappa κ, Κ cope (scope) i.e. no aspiration
Lamba λ, Λ lap
Mu µ, Μ map
Nu ν, Ν nap
Ksi ξ, Ξ tax
Omikron ο, Ο rope
Pi π, Π poke (spoke) i.e., no aspiration
Rho ρ, Ρ rope
Sigma σς, Σ soap (note: lower-case form has 2 variants)
Tau τ, Τ top (stop) i.e. no aspiration
Upsilon υ, Υ soon (German Suehne) i.e. front rounded
Phi φ, Φ four (pour) i.e. with aspiration
Chi χ, Χ core (German ich or ach) i.e. velar fricative
Psi ψ, Ψ tops
Omega ω, Ω boat (bought)
In addition, a word beginning with a vowel or diphthong may or may not have an initial [h] sound. This is
called a breathing. If the [h] sound is present, the breathing is called rough, signalled by a rough breathing
sign [with α added for illustration]: ἁ; and when there is no initial [h] sound before a vowel, the smooth
breathing sign is ἀ. The rough breathing may also be used with initial rho: ῥ.
Moreover, vowels may have an iota subscript, that is, an [i] sound after the vowel, written as a diacritic
beneath the vowel (e.g., ᾳ); while indicated in texts, this is generally left without pronunciation.
1.2 The sound system.

The system is as follows:
Labials Dentals Palato-velars
Voiceless: π τ κ
Voiced: β δ γ
Aspirated, voiceless: φ θ χ
Fricative: ς
Nasals: µ ν ν (spelled γ before γ or κ)

Vowels: ι υ
ε ο
α
ῑ ῡ
η ω
ᾱ
Diphthongs: ει αι οι υι ευ αυ ηυ ου
Classical Greek had a musical accent. There are three such accents. Vowels marked with oxia (e.g., ά) had
high pitch; those with varia (e.g., ὰ) had a low or falling pitch; those marked with perispomeni (e.g., ᾶ) had
rising and falling pitch.
The place of the accent is determined chie y by the quality of the last syllable; exceptions will be noted
later. If the last syllable is short and the accent is an oxia, it can fall on the third syllable from the end of a
word. If it is short, and the second last vowel is long, it may have perispomeni accent. If it is long, the second
last syllable can only have oxia accent. In monosyllables the nal vowel has oxia accent if it is short, a
perispomeni if long. The varia accent replaces a nal oxia accent before words beginning with a consonant.
2 Greek, a Subject-Object-Verb (SOV) language.

The basic word order of Classical Greek is verb- nal, as in the following sentence.
ἀλλὰ καὶ ταύτην τὴν στρατείαν θαλάσσῃ ἤδη πλείω χρώµενοι ξυνῆλθον.
"But they united even for this expedition when they were already making considerable use of the sea."
Thucydides, however, has a highly complex and personal style, so that he rearranges his sentences to
emphasize certain elements. For example, the rst sentence here begins with a verb, δηλοῖ, as does the
third with δοκεῖ. The reason for the speci c order in other sentences may be obvious when they are
interpreted; for example, the second clearly emphasizes the nal noun Ἑλλάς by placing it last. The texts of
later lessons will be simpler; this text was selected because of its importance for information on the state of
Greece in earlier times.
3 Modi cations of the basic sentence pattern.

As noted in section 2, modi cations of the basic sentence pattern are often carried out for stylistic
purposes. A further example is the sentence:
Τεκµηριοῖ δὲ µάλιστα Ὅµερος.

"Then Homer established this especially."
Both the position of the verb, and that of the subject, serve to indicate the place of emphasis. Similarly, the
following sentence, with the object identifying the earliest identi ed sub-group of the Greeks, has been
carefully constructed. Fortunately the ample in ections provide great assistance in the analysis and
interpretation of sentences.
4 Nominal in ection.
Nouns, adjectives and the article are in ected for three genders, three numbers, and four cases. Among the
numbers that of the dual is infrequent, and will not be presented here. The four cases are the nominative,
genitive, dative and accusative. The uses of the ablative, such as for the target in comparative
constructions, are largely assumed by the genitive. The principal uses of the cases are readily de ned. The
nominative is the case of the subject and of nouns after the copula in the predicative nominative. The
genitive is the case of possession. The dative is the case of the indirect object. The accusative is the case
of the direct object.
Because of the common use of the article, its forms might well be memorized.
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nom sg ὁ ἡ τό
Gen sg τοῦ τῆς τοῦ
Dat sg τῷ τῇ τῷ
Acc sg τόν τήν τό

Nom pl οἱ αἱ τά
Gen pl τῶν τῶν τῶν
Dat pl τοῖς ταῖς τοῖς
Acc pl τούς τάς τά
Examples of the ο-declension, masculine and neuter, and the α-declension, feminine, are given here.
Nom sg ὁ λόγος 'word' ἡ στρατιά 'army' τὸ δῶρον 'gift'
Gen sg τοῦ λόγου τῆς στρατιᾶς τοῦ δώρου
Dat sg τῷ λόγῳ τῇ στρατιᾷ τῷ δώρῳ
Acc sg τὸν λόγον τὴν στρατιάν τὸ δῶρον

Nom pl οἱ λόγοι αἰ στρατιαί τὰ δῶρα
Gen pl τῶν λόγων τῶν στρατιῶν τῶν δώρων
Dat pl τοῖς λόγοις ταῖς στρατιαῖς τοῖς δώροις
Acc pl τοὺς λόγους τὰς στρατιάς τὰ δῶρα
5 Verb in ection.
Greek verbs are in ected for three voices, active, middle and passive, for four moods, indicative, subjunctive,
optative and imperative, three systems or tenses, present, aorist and perfect, three numbers, singular, dual,
plural. The augment 'ε' (epsilon) is used with past tense forms, imperfect, aorist, and pluperfect, but only in
the indicative. The perfect stem is often reduplicated. In addition there are in nitives and participles.
In view of its regularity, the verb παιδεύω 'educate' may be used to illustrate the various forms. Here the
present and the imperfect indicative active are given. Before vowels, 'ν' (nu) is added to some forms ending
in a vowel.
Present Imperfect
1 sg παιδεύω ἐπαίδευον
2 sg παιδεύεις ἐπαίδευες
3 sg παιδεύει ἐπαίδευε(ν)

1 pl παιδεύοµεν ἐπαιδεύοµεν
2 pl παιδεύετε ἐπαιδεύετε
3 pl παιδεύουσι(ν) ἐπαίδευον

Lesson 2
The Homeric poems are among the most read, admired and discussed works of literature. They are credited
to a poet about whom nothing certain is known, but who apparently lived around 850 B.C. in one of the
Asiatic Greek cities, probably Smyrna (Izmir) or Chios. Every Greek schoolboy is said to have known them,
as have many in the western world until recent times. Their origin has been the subject of much discussion.
By investigating Yugoslav oral poets of his day Milman Parry (1902-35) established the view that they were
the results of a long tradition in which bards recited or sang shorter poems or lays that were the basis of
longer poems, such as the Homeric epics. Such epics were recited by outstanding poets like Homer, and
might later be xed by written versions. Parry's contributions are readily available in The Making of Homeric
Verse The Collected Papers of Milman Parry, ed. Adam Parry (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987).
According to ancient tradition, the Homeric poems were rst written down by Pisistratus in the sixth century
B.C. They were later studied, especially by the Alexandrian grammarians, among whom the great critic,
Aristarchus of the second century B.C., produced an edition that has been the basis of the poems ever
since.
The lines of the Iliad and the Odyssey are composed in dactylic hexameter, with a caesura typical after the
fourth member, and a a dactyl [- v v] rather than a spondee [- -] in the fth. Among characteristics of epic
verse are formulae, such as δῖος Ἀχιλλεύς of line 7 below and ἑκηβόλου Ἀπόλλωνος of line 14, in a
different case in line 21. Parry published two long "Studies in the Epic Technique of Oral Verse-Making"
(1987: 266-364). Especially the second of these with the sub-title "The Homeric Language as the Language
of an Oral Poetry" may be consulted for further details.
The theme of the Iliad is given in the preamble of seven lines. It is the anger of Achilles. This was rst
directed at Agamemnon as they were besieging the city of Troy. But after the death of his friend, Patroclus, it
was directed at his slayer, Hector, the prime warrior of the city. The poem deals with other combat during the
intervening three weeks, such as that between Paris, son of Priam, head of Troy, and Menelaus, husband of
Helen whom Paris had abducted, thereby causing the attack by the Greeks. The poem concludes with the
death of Hector at the hands of Achilles, and his burial.
Μῆνιν ἄειδε, θεά, Πηληιάδεω Ἀχιλλῆος
µῆνιν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <µῆνις> anger -- anger

ἄειδε -- verb; 2nd person singular imperative of <ἀείδω> sing, chant -- sing
θεά -- noun, feminine; vocative singular of <θεά> goddess -- oh goddess
Πηληιάδεω -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Πηληιάδης> son of Peleus -- son of Peleus
Ἀχιλλῆος -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ἀχιλλεύς> Achilles -- of Achilles
οὐλοµένην, ἥ µυρί' Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε' ἔθηκε,

# Note that final vowels may be elided to provide regular meter (herein, µυρί' and ἄλγε' have lost final α).
οὐλοµένην -- participle; accusative singular feminine of present participle middle of <ὀλόω> to destroy
-- baneful
ἥ -- relative pronoun; nominative singular feminine of <ὅς> who, which -- that
µυρί' -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <µυρίος> countless -- countless
Ἀχαιοῖς -- noun, masculine; dative plural of <Ἀχαιός> Achaean -- on the Achaeans
ἄλγε' -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <ἄλγος> woe -- woes
ἔθηκε -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <τίθηµι> put, place -- brought
πολλὰς δ' ἰφθίµους ψυχὰς Αἵδι προίαψεν
πολλὰς -- adjective; accusative plural feminine of <πολύς> many -- many

δ' -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and
ἰφθίµους -- adjective; accusative plural feminine of <ἴφθιµος> valiant -- valiant
ψυχὰς -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <ψυχή> soul -- souls
Αἵδι -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <Αἵδης> Hades -- to Hades
προίαψεν -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <προιάπτω> send forth -- sent forth
ἡρώων, αὐτοὺς δὲ ἑλώρια τεῦχε κύνεσσιν
ἡρώων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἥρως> hero -- of warriors

αὐτοὺς -- pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <αὐτός> oneself, he -- those
δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and
ἑλώρια -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <ἑλώριον> spoils, booty -- spoils
τεῦχε -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <τεύχω> make ready, make -- made
κύνεσσιν -- noun, masculine; dative plural of <κύων> dog -- for dogs
οἰωνοῖσί τε πᾶσι, Διὸς δ' ἐτελείετο βουλή,
οἰωνοῖσί -- noun, masculine; dative plural of <οἰωνός> large bird, bird of prey -- for the birds of prey
πᾶσι -- adjective; dative plural masculine of <πᾶς> all, every -- for all the
Διὸς -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ζεύς> Zeus -- of Zeus
ἐτελείετο -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect passive of <τελείω> ful ll, complete -- was ful lled
βουλή -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <βουλή> will -- the will
ἐξ οὗ δὴ τὰ πρῶτα διαστήτην ἐρίσαντε
ἐξ -- preposition; <ἐξ> from, out of -- from

οὗ -- relative pronoun; genitive singular neuter <ὅς> who, which -- that (time)
δὴ -- particle; <δή> indeed -- indeed
τὰ -- article; accusative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- the
πρῶτα -- adverb; accusative plural neuter of <πρῶτος> rst -- rst
διαστήτην -- verb; 2nd person dual aorist middle of <δι-ίστηµι> separate, strive -- they separated
ἐρίσαντε -- verb; 2nd person dual aorist participle of <ἐρίζω> quarrel -- quarreling with one another
Ἀτρείδης τε ἄναξ ἀνδρῶν καὶ δῖος Ἀχιλλεύς.
Ἀτρείδης -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Ἀτρείδης> son of Atreus -- the son of Atreus
ἄναξ -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <ἄναξ> ruler -- ruler
ἀνδρῶν -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἀνήρ> man -- of men
δῖος -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <δῖος> godlike, noble -- noble
Ἀχιλλεύς -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Ἀχιλλεύς> Achilles -- Achilles
Τίς τ' ἆρ' σφωε θεῶν ἔριδι ξυνέηκε µάχεσθαι;
τίς -- interrogative pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <τίς> who, what -- who
τ' -- conjunction; <τε> and -- ...
ἆρ' -- interrogative particle; <ἆρα> then -- ...
σφωε -- pronoun; accusative dual masculine of <σφωε> those two -- the two of them
θεῶν -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <θεός> god -- of the gods
ἔριδι -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <ἔρις> strife -- in strife
ξυνέηκε -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <συνίηµι> bring together -- brought together
µάχεσθαι -- verb; in nitive middle of <µάχοµαι> ght, quarrel -- to quarrel
Λητοῦς καὶ Διὸς υἱός; ὁ γὰρ βασιλῆι χολωθεὶς
Λητοῦς -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <Λητώ> Leto -- of Leto

υἱός -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <υἱός> son -- the son
ὁ -- article used as pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- he
βασιλῆι -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <βασιλεύς> king -- the king
χολωθεὶς -- verb; nominative singular masculine of aorist participle passive of <χολόω> anger --
angered at
νοῦσον ἀνὰ στρατὸν ὦρσε κακήν, ὀλέκοντο δὲ λαοί,
νοῦσον -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <νούσος> sickness -- a sickness

ἀνὰ -- preposition; <ἀνά> on -- on
στρατὸν -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <στρατός> army -- the army
ὦρσε -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <ὄρνυµι> stir up -- brought about
κακήν -- adjective; accusative singular feminine of <κακός> evil, poor -- evil
ὀλέκοντο -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect passive of <ὀλέκω> kill -- were perishing
λαοί -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <λαός> people -- people
οὕνεκα τὸν Χρύσην ἠτίµασεν ἀρητῆρα
οὕνεκα -- conjunction; <οὕνεκα> because -- because

τὸν -- article; accusative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
Χρύσην -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <Χρύσης> Chryses -- Chryses
ἠτίµασεν -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <ἀτιµάζω> dishonor -- he had dishonored
ἀρητῆρα -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <ἀρητήρ> priest -- priest
Ἀτρείδης· ὁ γὰρ ἤλθε θοὰς ἐπὶ νῆας Ἀχαιῶν
Ἀτρείδης -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Ἀτρείδης> son of Atreus -- the son of Atreus
ἤλθε -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <ἔρχοµαι> come, go -- came
θοὰς -- adjective; accusative plural feminine <θοός> fast -- the fast
ἐπὶ -- preposition; <ἐπί> on, about -- to
νῆας -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <ναῦς> ship -- ships
Ἀχαιῶν -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <Ἀχαιός> Achaean -- of the Achaeans
λυσόµενός τε θυγάτρα φέρων τ' ἀπερείσι' ἄποινα,
λυσόµενός -- verb; nominative singular masculine of future participle middle of <λύω> loosen, free -- to
free
θυγάτρα -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <θυγάτηρ> daughter -- his daughter
φέρων -- verb; nominative singular masculine of present participle of <φέρω> bear, bring, carry --
bearing
τ' -- conjunction; <τε> and -- and
ἀπερείσι' -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <ἀπερείσιος> countless -- countless
ἄποινα -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <ἄποινα> ransom -- ransom
στέµµατ' ἔχων ἐν χερσὶν ἑκηβόλου Ἀπόλλωνος
στέµµατ' -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <στ́εµµα> wreath, garland -- garlands

ἔχων -- verb; nominative singular masculine of present participle of <ἔχω> have -- having
χερσὶν -- noun, feminine; dative plural of <χείρ> hand -- his hands
ἑκηβόλου -- adjective; genitive singular masculine of <ἑκηβόλος> far-shooting -- of far-shooting
Ἀπόλλωνος -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ἀπόλλων> Apollo -- Apollo
χρυσέῳ ἀνὰ σκήπτρῳ, καὶ λίσσετο πάντας Ἀχαιούς
χρυσέῳ -- adjective; dative singular neuter of <χρύσεος> golden -- golden

ἀνὰ -- preposition; <ἀνά> on -- on
σκήπτρῳ -- noun, neuter; dative singular of <σκήπτρον> sceptre -- sceptre
λίσσετο -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <λίσσοµαι> pray -- prayed
πάντας -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <πᾶς> all, every -- all
Ἀχαιούς -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <Ἀχαιός> Achaean -- Achaeans
Ἀτρείδα δὲ µάλιστα δύω, κοσµήτορε λαῶν·
Ἀτρείδα -- noun, masculine; accusative dual of <Ἀτρείδης> son of Atreus -- sons of Atreus
µάλιστα -- adverb; superlative of <µάλα> very -- chie y
δύω -- number; dual of <δύο> two -- the two
κοσµήτορε -- noun, masculine; accusative dual of <κοσµήτωρ> commander -- commanders
λαῶν -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <λαός> people -- of the peoples
"Ἀτρείδαι τε καὶ ἄλλοι εὐκνήµιδες Ἀχαιοί,
Ἀτρείδαι -- noun, masculine; vocative plural of <Ἀτρείδης> son of Atreus -- Sons of Atreus
ἄλλοι -- adjective; vocative plural masculine of <ἄλλος> other -- other
εὐκνήµιδες -- adjective; vocative plural masculine of <εὐκνῆµις> well-greaved -- well-greaved
Ἀχαιοί -- noun, masculine; vocative plural of <Ἀχαιός> Achaean -- Achaeans
ὑµῖν µὲν θεοὶ δοῖεν Ὀλύµπια δώµατ' ἔχοντες
ὑµῖν -- pronoun; dative plural masculine of <σύ> you -- to you

θεοὶ -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <θεός> god -- the gods
δοῖεν -- verb; 3rd person plural optative aorist of <δίδωµι> give -- may . . .grant
Ὀλύµπια -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <Ὀλύµπιος> Olympian -- Olympian
δώµατ' -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <δῶµα> house, home -- homes
ἔχοντες -- verb; nominative plural masculine of present participle of <ἔχω> have -- who have
ἐκπέρσαι Πριάµοιο πόλιν, εὔ δ' οἴκαδ' ἱκέσθαι!
ἐκπέρσαι -- verb; aorist in nitive of <ἐκπέρθω> destroy -- that you destroy

Πριάµοιο -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Πρίαµος> Priam -- of Priam
πόλιν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <πόλις> city -- the city
εὔ -- adverb; <εὔ> well -- safely
οἴκαδ' -- adverb; <οἴκαδε> home -- home
ἱκέσθαι -- deponent verb; in nitive aorist middle of <ἱκνέοµαι> reach -- return
παῖδα δ' ἐµοὶ λύσαιτε φίλην, τὰ δ' ἄποινα δέχεσθαι,
παῖδα -- noun, masculine/feminine; accusative singular of <παῖς> child -- child

ἐµοὶ -- pronoun; dative singular masculine of <ἐγώ> I -- to me
λύσαιτε -- verb; 2nd person plural optative aorist of <λύω> loosen, free -- free
φίλην -- adjective; accusative singular feminine of <φίλος> dear, friendly -- dear
ἄποινα -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <ἄποινα> ransom -- ransom
δέχεσθαι -- verb; in nitive of <δέχοµαι> receive -- receive
ἁζόµενοι Διὸς υἱὸν ἑκηβόλον Ἀπόλλωνα."
ἁζόµενοι -- verb; nominative plural masculine of present participle middle of <ἅζοµαι> stand in awe of
-- respect with fear
υἱὸν -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <υἱός> son -- the son
ἑκηβόλον -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <ἑκηβόλος> far-shooting -- far-shooting
Ἀπόλλωνα -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <Ἀπόλλων> Apollo -- Apollo
Lesson Text
Μῆνιν ἄειδε, θεά, Πηληιάδεω Ἀχιλλῆος

οὐλοµένην, ἥ µυρί' Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε' ἔθηκε,
# Note that final vowels may be elided to provide regular meter (herein, µυρί' and ἄλγε' have lost
final α). πολλὰς δ' ἰφθίµους ψυχὰς Αἵδι προίαψεν
ἡρώων, αὐτοὺς δὲ ἑλώρια τεῦχε κύνεσσιν
οἰωνοῖσί τε πᾶσι, Διὸς δ' ἐτελείετο βουλή,
ἐξ οὗ δὴ τὰ πρῶτα διαστήτην ἐρίσαντε
Ἀτρείδης τε ἄναξ ἀνδρῶν καὶ δῖος Ἀχιλλεύς.
Τίς τ' ἆρ' σφωε θεῶν ἔριδι ξυνέηκε µάχεσθαι;
Λητοῦς καὶ Διὸς υἱός; ὁ γὰρ βασιλῆι χολωθεὶς
νοῦσον ἀνὰ στρατὸν ὦρσε κακήν, ὀλέκοντο δὲ λαοί,
οὕνεκα τὸν Χρύσην ἠτίµασεν ἀρητῆρα
Ἀτρείδης· ὁ γὰρ ἤλθε θοὰς ἐπὶ νῆας Ἀχαιῶν
λυσόµενός τε θυγάτρα φέρων τ' ἀπερείσι' ἄποινα,
στέµµατ' ἔχων ἐν χερσὶν ἑκηβόλου Ἀπόλλωνος
χρυσέῳ ἀνὰ σκήπτρῳ, καὶ λίσσετο πάντας Ἀχαιούς
Ἀτρείδα δὲ µάλιστα δύω, κοσµήτορε λαῶν·
"Ἀτρείδαι τε καὶ ἄλλοι εὐκνήµιδες Ἀχαιοί,
ὑµῖν µὲν θεοὶ δοῖεν Ὀλύµπια δώµατ' ἔχοντες
ἐκπέρσαι Πριάµοιο πόλιν, εὔ δ' οἴκαδ' ἱκέσθαι!
παῖδα δ' ἐµοὶ λύσαιτε φίλην, τὰ δ' ἄποινα δέχεσθαι,
ἁζόµενοι Διὸς υἱὸν ἑκηβόλον Ἀπόλλωνα."
Translation
Sing, oh goddess, of the wrath of Achilles, son of Peleus, the baneful wrath, which brought countless
woes on the Achaeans and sent many valiant souls of heroes to Hades; But it made them themselves
spoils for dogs and all kinds of birds, while the wish of the god was ful lled. (Sing) from the time
when, quarreling with one another, they rst separated, the son of Atreus, ruler of men, and noble
Achilles.
Who now of the gods brought those two to quarrel in strife? The son of Leto and Zeus! For he, angered
at the king, brought about an evil sickness on the army, and the people were perishing, because the
son of Atreus had dishonored Chryses, the priest. For he had come to the swift ships of the Achaeans
to free his daughter, bearing countless ransom and having in his hands on a golden scepter garlands
of far-shooting Apollo. And he requested of all the Achaeans, but chie y the two sons of Atreus,
commanders of the people: "Sons of Atreus and other well-greaved Achaeans, may the gods, who
have Olympian homes, grant to you that you destroy the city of Priam and return safely home. But free
my dear child to me, and receive the ransom, in awe of far-shooting Apollo, son of Zeus."
Grammar
6 Conjunctions and Particles.

As these texts exemplify, Greek makes great use of conjunctions and particles. These may have basic
meanings, but many of them simply suggest relationships between syntactic units, so that they vary in use
and may even not need to be translated.
The most common conjunction is καί, with a basic meaning of 'and' but also 'even' and at times 'but'.
Another common conjunction is γάρ, with a basic meaning of 'for' but also 'now', or it may be added simply
to strengthen questions.
Particles typically stand right after the rst content word in sentences. Among the particles, δέ is very
common, as in our texts; it has a basic adversative meaning and may often be translated 'but' or 'on the
other hand', but is often redundant. In a different meaning it is attached to names of places that are in the
accusative, and then means 'to'. In addition it may be added to pronouns to strengthen their meaning. The
particle τε is also very common, and has the meaning 'and'; it is often used after both nouns that are
conjoined. Moreover, in epic poetry it is added to other particles or to pronouns without adding to their
meaning. The particle µέν often stands in clauses that are followed by other clauses including δέ, where it
means something like 'one the one hand'; it may also be combined with other particles, as in µὲν ἄρα, where
it means 'and'. The particle δή indicates emphasis, as on the word preceding it. In short, particles often
supply meaning much as intonation does in English. The meaning of the content words in sentences may be
a guide to interpretation of the particles included in them.
7 Participles.
Participles are often used to function as verbs of modifying clauses. These modifying clauses may
correspond to relative clauses, as does ἔχοντες in line 18 of the Iliad text. The relationship to a principal
clause may require a further interpretation, as does that of the participle λυσόµενος in line 13 or that of
ἀζόµενος in line 21. On the other hand, they may be treated as participles in English, as for example φέρων
in line 13. They may also be adjectival; an example is οὐλοµένην in line 2. The interpretations will generally
be clear from the contexts in which they are found.
8 Nouns in consonantal declension.

Nouns in the consonantal declension often have the nal consonant elided before the nominative ending, so
that their stem form must be determined from the genitive or other oblique cases. Examples are given here
of nouns with stems ending in -δ- and -ρ-.
Masculine Feminine Feminine
Nom sg ὁ παῖς 'child' ἡ Ἕλλας 'Hellas' ἡ θυγάτηρ 'daughter'
Gen sg τοῦ παιδός τῆς Ἑλλάδος τῆς θυγατέρος
Dat sg τῷ παιδί τῇ Ἑλλάδι τῇ θυγατέρι
Acc sg τὸν παῖδα τῆν Ἑλλάδα τῆν θυγατέρα

Nom pl οἱ παῖδες αἱ θυγατέρες
Gen pl τῶν παίδων τῶν θυγατέρων
Dat pl τοῖς παῖσι ταῖς θυγατέρσι
Acc pl τοὺς παῖδας τὰς θυγατέρας
9 Personal pronouns.
The rst and second personal pronouns have enclitic forms in the oblique cases of the singular, which are
given here after the regular forms; they have no accent. The third person forms, for 'he, she, it', are supplied
by the intensive pronoun meaning 'self'; the genitive singular forms would have the meanings 'of him, of her,
of it', the dative singular forms would have the meanings 'to him, to her, to it', and so on.
1st Person 2nd Person 3rd Person
Masc. Fem. Neut.
Nom sg ἐγώ σύ αὐτός αὐτή αὐτό
Gen sg ἐµοῦ, µου σοῦ, σου αὐτοῦ αὐτῆς αὐτοῦ
Dat sg ἐµοί, µοι σοί, σοι αὐτῷ αὐτῇ αὐτῷ
Acc sg ἐµέ, µε σέ, σε αὐτόν αὐτήν αὐτό

Nom pl ἡµεῖς ὑµεῖς αὐτοῖ αὐταῖ αὐτά
Gen pl ἡµῶν ὑµῶν αὐτῶν αὐτῶν αὐτῶν
Dat pl ἡµῖν ὑµῖν αὐτοῖς αὐταῖς αὐτοῖς
Acc pl ἡµᾶς ὑµᾶς αὐτούς αὐτάς αὐτά
10 The Present System of verbs.

The present system includes ve categories of forms: the present indicative, the imperfect, the subjunctive,
the optative, and the imperative. In addition there is an in nitive and also a participle. The rst two
categories have been given in Lesson 1; the others are given here using the verb [in nitive] παιδεύειν.
Subjunctive Optative Imperative
1 sg παιδεύω παιδεύοιµι
2 sg παιδεύῃς παιδεύοις παίδευε
3 sg παιδεύῃ παιδεύοι παιδευέτω

1 pl παιδεύωµεν παιδεύοιµεν
2 pl παιδεύητε παιδεύοιτε παιδεύετε
3 pl παιδεύωσι(ν) παιδεύοιεν παιδευόντων
The participial forms, nominative and genitive singular, are as follows.
Nom sg παιδεύων παιδεύουσα παιδεῦον
Gen sg παιδεύοντος παιδευούσης παιδεύοντος

Lesson 3
Odysseus' ordeals during the ten years on his way home after the sacking of Troy are recited in some three
thousand fewer lines than the Iliad. The Odyssey is a relatively straightforward description of his adventures
during his travels by sea, and of the peoples he met before he reached his homeland in Ithaca. But the
remarkable eleventh book includes a descent into Hades, where Odysseus learns, among other references
to heroes of the past, what happened to Agamemnon and Achilles, his fellows at Troy. That is one of the
most striking sections of the epic, with a major effect on Dante's Divine Comedy. As the epic ends, Odysseus
resumes his position as the major gure in a small rural society, with his chief retainers being the keepers of
his swine and his cattle.
The outline of the Odyssey is given in the rst ten lines, and the rst word indicates its chief theme, "a man."
Ἄνδρα µοι ἔννεπε, Μοῦσα, πολύτροπον, ὅς µάλα πολλὰ
ἄνδρα -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <ἀνήρ> man -- man

µοι -- pronoun; dative singular masculine of <ἐγώ> I -- me
ἔννεπε -- verb; 2nd person singular imperative of <ἐνέπω> tell, tell of -- tell ... of
Μοῦσα -- noun, feminine; vocative singular of <Μοῦσα> Muse -- O Muse
πολύτροπον -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <πολύτροπος> much-turned, much-traveled
-- much-traveled
ὅς -- relative pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <ὅς> who, which -- who
µάλα -- adverb; <µάλα> very -- very
πολλὰ -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <πολύς> many -- in many ways
πλάγχθη, ἐπεὶ Τροίης ἱερὸν πτολίεθρον ἔπερσεν·
πλάγχθη -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist passive of <πλάζω> wander, toss -- was tossed about
ἐπεὶ -- conjunction; <ἐπεί> when, after -- after
Τροίης -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <Τροίη> Troy -- Troy
ἱερὸν -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <ἱερός> sacred -- sacred
πτολίεθρον -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <πτολίεθρον> city -- city
ἔπερσεν -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <πέρθω> destroy, sack -- he had sacked
πολλῶν δ' ἀνθρώπων ἴδεν ἄστεα καὶ νόον ἔγνω,
πολλῶν -- adjective; genitive plural masculine of <πολύς> many -- of many

ἀνθρώπων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἄνθρωπος> human being -- men
ἴδεν -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <εἴδω> see, know -- he saw
ἄστεα -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <ἄστυ> city -- the cities
νόον -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <νόος> mind -- (their) mind
ἔγνω -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <γιγνώσκω> know, learn -- learned
πολλὰ δ' ὅ γ' ἐν πόντῳ πάθεν ἄλγεα ὃν κατὰ θυµόν,
πολλὰ -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <πολύς> many -- many

ὅ -- article; nominative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- he
γ' -- particle; <γε> indeed -- ...
ἐν -- preposition; <ἐν> in -- on
πόντῳ -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <πόντος> sea -- the sea
πάθεν -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <πάσχω> suffer -- suffered
ἄλγεα -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <ἄλγος> woe -- woes
ὃν -- possessive pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <ὅς> his -- his
κατὰ -- preposition; <κατά> completely, down, under -- in
θυµόν -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <θυµός> soul, heart -- heart
ἀρνύµενος ἥν τε ψυχὴν καὶ νόστον ἑταίρων.
ἀρνύµενος -- verb; nominative singular masculine of present participle middle of <ἄρνυµαι> win --
seeking to save
ἥν -- possessive pronoun; accusative singular feminine of <ὅς> his -- his
τε -- conjunction; <τε> and -- ...
ψυχὴν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ψυχή> soul -- life
νόστον -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <νόστος> return -- the return
ἑταίρων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἕταιρος> comrade -- of his comrades
ἀλλ' οὐδ' ὣς ἑτάρους ἐρρύσατο, ἱέµενός περ·
ἀλλ' -- conjunction; <ἀλλά> but -- but

οὐδ' -- particle; <οὐδέ> not -- not even
ὣς -- adverb; <ὡς> so, thus -- thus
ἑτάρους -- noun, masculine; accusative plural <ἕταρος> comrade -- comrades
ἐρρύσατο -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist middle of <ῥύοµαι> save -- did he save
ἱέµενός -- deponent verb; nominative singular masculine of present participle of <ἵεµαι> desire --
desiring
περ -- adverb; <πέρ> although -- although
αὐτῶν γὰρ σφετέρῃσιν ἀτασθαλίῃσιν ὄλοντο,
αὐτῶν -- pronoun; genitive plural masculine of <αὐτός> oneself, he -- their

σφετέρῃσιν -- adjective; dative plural feminine of <σφέτερος> own -- own
ἀτασθαλίῃσιν -- noun, feminine; dative plural of <ἀτασθαλία> folly -- folly
ὄλοντο -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <ὄλλυµαι> perish -- they perished
νήπιοι, οἳ κατὰ βοῦς Ὑπερίονος Ἠελίοιο
νήπιοι -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <νήπιος> childish, foolish -- fools

οἳ -- relative pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <ὅς> who, which -- who
κατὰ -- adverb; <κατά> completely, down, under -- ...
βοῦς -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <βοῦς> cow, ox -- cattle
Ὑπερίονος -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ὑπερίων> Hyperion -- of Hyperion
Ἠελίοιο -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ἠέλιος> Helios -- Helios
ἤσθιον· αὐτὰρ ὁ τοῖσιν ἀφείλετο νόστιµον ἧµαρ.
ἤσθιον -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <ἐσθίω> eat -- devoured

αὐτὰρ -- conjunction; <αὐτάρ> but -- but
ὁ -- article; nominative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- he
τοῖσιν -- article used as pronoun; dative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- them
ἀφείλετο -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist middle of <ἀφαιρέω> take away -- took away from
νόστιµον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <νόστιµος> returning -- of return
ἧµαρ -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <ἧµαρ> day -- day
τῶν ἁµόθεν γε, θεά, θύγατερ Διός, εἰπὲ καὶ ἡµῖν.
τῶν -- article used as pronoun; genitive plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- of these things
ἁµόθεν -- adverb; <ἁµόθεν> from any point -- beginning at any stage
θεά -- noun, feminine; vocative singular of <θεά> goddess -- O goddess
θύγατερ -- noun, feminine; vocative singular of <θυγάτηρ> daughter -- daughter
Διός -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ζεύς> Zeus -- of Zeus
εἰπὲ -- verb; 2nd person singular imperative of <λέγω> say -- tell
ἡµῖν -- pronoun; dative plural of <ἐγώ> I -- us
Ἔνθ' ἄλλοι µὲν πάντες, ὅσοι φύγον αἰπὺν ὄλεθρον,
ἔνθ' -- adverb; <ἔνθα> then, there -- then

ἄλλοι -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <ἄλλος> other -- the others
πάντες -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <πᾶς> all, every -- all
ὅσοι -- relative pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <ὅσος> as many -- whoever
φύγον -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <φεύγω> escape, ee -- had escaped
αἰπὺν -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <αἰπύς> deep -- sheer
ὄλεθρον -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <ὄλεθρος> destruction -- destruction
οἴκοι ἔσαν, πόλεµόν τε πεφευγότες ἠδὲ θάλασσαν·
οἴκοι -- adverb; <οἴκοι> at home -- at home

ἔσαν -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <εἰµί> I am -- were
πόλεµόν -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <πόλεµος> war -- the war
πεφευγότες -- verb; nominative plural masculine of perfect participle of <φεύγω> escape, ee -- having
escaped
ἠδὲ -- conjunction; <ἠδέ> and, also -- also
θάλασσαν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <θάλασσα> sea -- the sea
τὸν δ' οἶον νόστου κεχρηµένον ἠδὲ γυναικὸς,
τὸν -- article used as pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- him
οἶον -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <οἶος> alone -- alone
νόστου -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <νόστος> return -- return
κεχρηµένον -- verb; accusative singular masculine of perfect participle middle of <χράοµαι> need, use
-- longing for
ἠδὲ -- conjunction; <ἠδέ> and, also -- also
γυναικὸς -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <γυνή> woman -- wife
νύµφη πότνι' ἔρυκε Καλυψὼ δῖα θεάων
νύµφη -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <νύµφη> nymph -- nymph

πότνι' -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <πότνια> revered, queenly -- the queenly
ἔρυκε -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <ἐρύκω> hold back -- held back
Καλυψὼ -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <Καλυψώ> Calypso -- Calypso
δῖα -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <δῖος> godlike, noble -- splendid
θεάων -- noun, feminine; genitive plural of <θεά> goddess -- among the goddesses
ἐν σπέσσι γλαφυροῖσι, λιλαιοµένη πόσιν εἶναι.
σπέσσι -- noun, neuter; dative plural of <σπέος> cave, grotto -- grotto
γλαφυροῖσι -- adjective; dative plural neuter of <γλαφυρός> hollow -- hollow
λιλαιοµένη -- verb; nominative singular feminine of present participle middle of <λιλαίοµαι> desire --
desiring
πόσιν -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <πόσις> husband -- husband
εἶναι -- verb; in nitive of <εἰµί> I am -- to be
ἀλλ' ὅτε δὴ ἔτος ἦλθε περιπλοµένων ἐνιαυτῶν,

ὅτε -- conjunction; <ὅτε> when -- when
δὴ -- particle; <δή> indeed -- ...
ἔτος -- noun, neuter; nominative singular of <ἔτος> year -- the year
ἦλθε -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <ἔρχοµαι> come, go -- came
περιπλοµένων -- verb; genitive plural masculine of present middle participle of <περιπέλοµαι> revolve
-- revolved
ἐνιαυτῶν -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἐνιαυτός> year -- years
τῷ οἱ ἐπεκλώσαντο θεοὶ οἶκόνδε νέεσθαι
τῷ -- article used as pronoun; dative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- for him
οἱ -- article; nominative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
ἐπεκλώσαντο -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist middle of <ἐπικλώθω> spin; decide -- had decided
θεοὶ -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <θεός> god -- gods
οἶκόνδε -- adverb; <οἶκόνδε> to his home -- home
νέεσθαι -- verb; in nitive middle of <νέοµαι> return -- (he should) return
εἰς Ἰθάκην, οὐδ' ἔνθα πεφυγµένος ἦεν ἀέθλων
εἰς -- preposition; <εἰς> towards -- to

Ἰθάκην -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <Ἰθάκη> Ithaca -- Ithaca
οὐδ' -- particle; <οὐδέ> not -- not even
ἔνθα -- adverb; <ἔνθα> then, there -- there
πεφυγµένος -- verb; nominative singular masculine of perfect participle middle of <φεύγω> escape,
ee -- be away from
ἦεν -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <εἶµι> go -- had he
ἀέθλων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἀέθλος> battle, woe -- woes
καὶ µετὰ οἷσι φίλοισι. θεοὶ δ' ἐλέαιρον ἅπαντες

µετὰ -- preposition; <µετά> after, with -- with
οἷσι -- possessive pronoun; dative plural masculine of <ὅς> his -- his
φίλοισι -- noun, masculine; dative plural of <φίλος> dear one, friend -- friends
ἐλέαιρον -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <ἐλεαίρω> pity -- pitied
ἅπαντες -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <ἅπας> all -- all
νόσφι Ποσειδάωνος· ὁ δ' ἀσπερχὲς µενέαινεν
νόσφι -- preposition; <νόσφι> apart, afar, except -- except

Ποσειδάωνος -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ποσειδάων> Poseidon -- Poseidon
ἀσπερχὲς -- adverb; <ἀσπερχές> unceasingly -- unceasingly
µενέαινεν -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <µεναίνω> rage -- raged
ἀντιθέῳ Ὀδυσῆι πάρος ἣν γαῖαν ἱκέσθαι.
ἀντιθέῳ -- adjective; dative singular masculine of <ἀντίθεος> godlike -- godlike

Ὀδυσῆι -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <Ὀδυσεύς> Odysseus -- Odysseus
πάρος -- conjunction; <πάρος> until -- until
ἣν -- possessive pronoun; accusative singular feminine of <ὅς> his -- his
γαῖαν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <γαῖα> land -- homeland
ἱκέσθαι -- deponent verb; in nitive aorist middle of <ἱκνέοµαι> reach -- (he) reached
Lesson Text
Ἄνδρα µοι ἔννεπε, Μοῦσα, πολύτροπον, ὅς µάλα πολλὰ

πλάγχθη, ἐπεὶ Τροίης ἱερὸν πτολίεθρον ἔπερσεν·
πολλῶν δ' ἀνθρώπων ἴδεν ἄστεα καὶ νόον ἔγνω,
πολλὰ δ' ὅ γ' ἐν πόντῳ πάθεν ἄλγεα ὃν κατὰ θυµόν,
ἀρνύµενος ἥν τε ψυχὴν καὶ νόστον ἑταίρων.
ἀλλ' οὐδ' ὣς ἑτάρους ἐρρύσατο, ἱέµενός περ·
αὐτῶν γὰρ σφετέρῃσιν ἀτασθαλίῃσιν ὄλοντο,
νήπιοι, οἳ κατὰ βοῦς Ὑπερίονος Ἠελίοιο
ἤσθιον· αὐτὰρ ὁ τοῖσιν ἀφείλετο νόστιµον ἧµαρ.
τῶν ἁµόθεν γε, θεά, θύγατερ Διός, εἰπὲ καὶ ἡµῖν.
Ἔνθ' ἄλλοι µὲν πάντες, ὅσοι φύγον αἰπὺν ὄλεθρον,
οἴκοι ἔσαν, πόλεµόν τε πεφευγότες ἠδὲ θάλασσαν·
τὸν δ' οἶον νόστου κεχρηµένον ἠδὲ γυναικὸς,
νύµφη πότνι' ἔρυκε Καλυψὼ δῖα θεάων
ἐν σπέσσι γλαφυροῖσι, λιλαιοµένη πόσιν εἶναι.
ἀλλ' ὅτε δὴ ἔτος ἦλθε περιπλοµένων ἐνιαυτῶν,
τῷ οἱ ἐπεκλώσαντο θεοὶ οἶκόνδε νέεσθαι
εἰς Ἰθάκην, οὐδ' ἔνθα πεφυγµένος ἦεν ἀέθλων
καὶ µετὰ οἷσι φίλοισι. θεοὶ δ' ἐλέαιρον ἅπαντες
νόσφι Ποσειδάωνος· ὁ δ' ἀσπερχὲς µενέαινεν
ἀντιθέῳ Ὀδυσῆι πάρος ἣν γαῖαν ἱκέσθαι.
Translation
Tell me, O Muse, of the much-traveled man, who wandered many ways after he had sacked the sacred
city of Troy. He saw the cities of many men and learned their mind. Then he suffered woes in his heart
on the sea, seeking to save his life and the return of his comrades. But not even so did he save his
comrades, although desiring it greatly. They perished through their own folly, fools, who devoured the
cattle of Hyperion Helios. But he took away from them the day of return. Of these things tell also to us,
o goddess, daughter of Zeus, beginning at any stage.
Then all the others indeed, whoever had escaped sheer destruction, were at home having escaped the
war and also the sea. But him alone, longing for his return and also his wife, the queenly nymph,
Calypso, splendid among the goddesses, held back in her hollow grotto, desiring him to be her
husband. But when the year came as the years revolved, in which the gods had decided he should
return home to Ithaca, not even then did he escape woes, even with his friends. And all the gods pitied
him except Poseidon. But he raged unceasingly against godlike Odysseus until he reached his
homeland.
Grammar
11 Nouns: ι-stems.
Nouns with stems in -ι have endings differing from those of the -ο- and -ᾱ- declensions, except in the
accusative singular and genitive plural. Their endings also vary in the epic texts, but the basic in ection is
given here with the noun πόλις 'city'.
Nom sg ἡ πόλις Nom pl αἱ πόλεις
Gen sg τῆς πόλεος Gen pl τῶν πολίων
Dat sg τῇ πόλει Dat pl ταῖς πόλισι
Acc sg τῆν πόλιν Acc pl τὰς πόλεις
12 Adjectives of the -ο- and -ᾱ- Declensions.

Many of the most common adjectives fall in these declensions, e.g. κακός 'bad', νέος 'new', φίλος 'dear'.
Their endings are those of the nouns in the declensions. It must be noted, however, that feminine singular
forms have -η rather than -α unless their stems ending in -ε, -ι, -ρ, as in δικαία 'just'. Some, especially
compound adjectives, have only two endings, e.g. βάρβαρος, -ον 'foreign', παράνοµος, -ον 'unlawful.
Nom sg κακός κακή κακόν
Gen sg κακοῦ κακῆς κακοῦ
Dat sg κακῷ κακῇ κακῷ
Acc sg κακόν κακήν κακόν

Nom pl κακοί κακαί κακά
Gen pl κακῶν κακῶν κακῶν
Dat pl κακοῖς κακᾶις κακοῖς
Acc pl κακούς κακάς κακά
13 The Intensive Pronoun αὐτός and ἄλλος 'other'.

The intensive pronoun, meaning 'self, same', is in ected like adjectives except that the neuter
nominative/accusative singular lacks nal -ν, e.g. αὐτός, αὐτή, αὐτό. The forms of ἄλλος are also in ected
in the same way. The forms of the third person re exive pronouns 'his, her, their' are based on these:
Gen sg ἑαυτοῦ 'his' ἑαυτῆς 'her' Gen pl ἑαυτῶν 'their'
Dat sg ἑαυτῷ ἑαυτῇ Dat pl ἑαυτοῖς
Acc sg ἑαυτόν ἑαυτήν Acc pl ἑαυτούς
14 The Dual.
The dual, a plural-like form signifying "two," is relatively rare, but is found in older verse, as in Homer. It has
only two endings, one for the nominative, accusative and vocative, and the other for the genitive and dative.
These are illustrated with forms from the -ᾱ-declension, the -ο-declension, and the consonantal declension.
Nom/Acc/Voc Gen/Dat
τὼ χώρα τοῖν χώραιν 'two countries'
τὼ θεώ τοῖν θεοῖν 'two gods'
τὼ ἄνδρε τοῖν ἀνδροῖν 'two men'
The forms for the rst and third person pronouns are:
Nom/Acc/Voc Gen/Dat
νώ νῷν 'we two'
σφώ σφῴν 'the two of them'
15 The Aorist System.

The aorist system is comparable to the present system, except that it lacks a form corresponding to the
present indicative. Its basic meaning was punctual, but its basic set of forms generally may be translated
with past tense forms. The subjunctive, optative and imperative are comparable to those of the present
system.
Indicative Subjunctive Optative Imperative
1 sg ἐπαίδευσα παιδεύσω παιδεύσαι
2 sg ἐπαίδευσας παιδεύσῃς παιδεύσειας παίδευσον
3 sg ἐπαίδευσε(ν) παιδεύσῃ παιδεύσειε(ν) παιδευσάτω

1 pl ἐπαιδεύσαµεν παιδεύσωµεν παιδεύσαιµεν
2 pl ἐπαιδεύσατε παιδεύσητε παιδεύσαιτε παιδεύσατε
3 pl ἐπαίδευσαν παιδεύσωσι(ν) παιδεύσειαν παιδευσάντων
In nitive παιδεῦσαι
Participle παιδεύσας παιδεύσασα παιδεύ̃ͅσαν 'one who
Gen sg παιδεύσαντος παιδεύσης παιδεύσαντος educated'

Lesson 4
Herodotus, often referred to as the father of history, provided no information about himself. He is said to
have been born about 484 B.C. in Caria, Asia Minor, and died about 430 B.C. in southern Italy. The aim of his
history is stated in the rst sentence, which is considered one of the greatest ever written; it is broken up
here for ease of treatment. In my view, this sentence provided the pattern of the rst sentence of Luke's
Gospel. In the course of setting out to provide a history of the con ict between the Greeks and the Persians
he not only describes the rise of the Persian Empire but also that of Egypt and Greece. His description is
based on wide travels that took him throughout the countries on the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea
and also into Scythia, the area north of the Black Sea. That area he visited before his travels in Egypt, where
he went as far south as Assuan. The nine books of his History include highly interesting accounts such as
that of Solon with the Lydian ruler, Croesus, which was formerly included in elementary grade school
readers. Recalling Solon's accounts of fortunate men, Croesus repeated Solon's name when he was to be
burned at the stake by his Persian conqueror, Cyrus; on his explanation for recalling Solon he was freed.
While some of these are considered mythical, his unparalleled accounts provide information about Greece,
Asia Minor, and Persia that is not recorded elsewhere.

Section 3 of Book I ascribes the initial enmity between the Greeks and the Persians to the rape of Helen by
Paris. The previous section tells of other rapes, including that of Medea by the Greeks, which by his account
led Paris to abduct Helen. In a sense then, Herodotus begins his history from the epics of Homer.
Ἡροδότου Ἁλικαρνησσέος ἱστορίης ἀπόδεξις ἥδε, # History I.1
Ἡροδότου -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ἡερόδοτος> Herodotus -- of Herodotus

Ἁλικαρνησσέος -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ἁλικαρνησεύς> Halicarnassian -- the
Halicarnassian
ἱστορίης -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <ἱστορία> inquiry, history -- of the history
ἀπόδεξις -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <ἀπόδεξις> exposition, publication -- exposition
ἥδε -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular feminine of <ὅδε> this -- this
ὡς µήτε τὰ γενόµενα ἐξ ἀνθρώπων τῷ χρόνῳ ἐξίτηλα γένηται,
ὡς -- conjunction; <ὡς> as, thus -- so that

µήτε -- adverb; <µήτε> and not, neither -- neither
τὰ -- article; nominative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- the
γενόµενα -- participle used as substantive; nominative plural neuter of present participle middle of
<γίγνοµαι> happen, become -- events
ἐξ -- preposition; <ἐξ> from, out of -- by
ἀνθρώπων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἄνθρωπος> human being -- by humans
τῷ -- article; dative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
χρόνῳ -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <χρόνος> time -- in time
ἐξίτηλα -- adjective; nominative plural neuter of <ἐξίτηλος> fading, forgotten -- forgotten
γένηται -- deponent verb; 3rd person singular aorist middle of <γίγνοµαι> happen, become -- become
µήτε ἔργα µεγάλα τε καὶ θωµαστά, τὰ µὲν Ἕλλησι τὰ δὲ βαρβάροισι ἀποδεχθέντα, ἀκλεᾶ γένηται,
µήτε -- adverb; <µήτε> and not, neither -- nor

ἔργα -- noun, neuter; nominative plural of <ἔργον> work, deed -- deeds
µεγάλα -- adjective; nominative plural neuter of <µεγάλος> great -- great
θωµαστά -- adjective; nominative plural neuter of <θωµαστός> wonderful -- wonderful
τὰ -- article; nominative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- those
µὲν -- particle; <µέν> on the one hand -- on the one hand
Ἕλλησι -- noun, masculine; dative plural of <Ἕλλην> Greek -- by Greeks
τὰ -- article; nominative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- those
βαρβάροισι -- noun, masculine; dative plural of <βάρβαρος> foreigner, non-Greek -- others than Greeks
ἀποδεχθέντα -- verb; nominative plural neuter of aorist participle passive of <ἀποδείκνυµι> propose --
performed
ἀκλεᾶ -- adjective; nominative plural neuter of <ἀκλεός> without fame -- without fame
γένηται -- deponent verb; 3rd person singular aorist middle of <γίγνοµαι> happen, become -- may be
τά τε ἄλλα καὶ δι' ἣν αἰτίην ἐπολέµησαν ἀλλήλοισι.
τά -- article; nominative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- and

ἄλλα -- adjective; nominative plural neuter of <ἄλλος> other -- other
δι' -- preposition; <διά> through, by -- because
ἣν -- possessive pronoun; accusative singular feminine of <ὅς> his -- the
αἰτίην -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <αἰτία> cause, reason -- reason
ἐπολέµησαν -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <πολεµέω> ght, be at war -- they fought
ἀλλήλοισι -- pronoun; dative plural masculine of <ἀλλήλων> one another -- with one another
Δευτέρῃ δὲ λέγουσι γενεῇ µετὰ ταῦτα Ἀλέξανδρον τὸν Πριάµου, ἀκηκοότα ταῦτα, ἐθελῆσαί οἱ ἐκ τῆς
Ἑλλάδος δι' ἁρπαγῆς γενέσθαι γυναῖκα, # History I.3
δευτέρῃ -- adjective; dative singular feminine of <δεύτερος> second -- in the second

δὲ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- then
λέγουσι -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <λέγω> say -- they say
γενεῇ -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <γενεή> family, generation, race -- generation
µετὰ -- preposition; <µετά> after, with -- after
ταῦτα -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural neuter of <οὗτος> this -- these things
Ἀλέξανδρον -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <Ἀλέξανδρος> Alexandros -- Alexandros =
Paris
τὸν -- article; accusative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- the (son)
Πριάµου -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Πρίαµος> Priam -- of Priam
ἀκηκοότα -- verb; nominative plural neuter of perfect participle of <ἀκούω> hear, listen -- having been
heard
ταῦτα -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative plural neuter of <οὗτος> this -- these things
ἐθελῆσαί -- verb; in nitive aorist of <ἐθέλω> wish, want -- wanted
οἱ -- re exive pronoun; dative singular masculine of <σφεῖς> they -- for himself
ἐκ -- preposition; <ἐκ> from, out of -- out of
Ἑλλάδος -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <Ἑλλάς> Greece -- Greece
δι' -- preposition; <διά> through, by -- through
ἁρπαγῆς -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <ἁρπαγή> abduction -- abduction
γενέσθαι -- deponent verb; in nitive aorist of <γίγνοµαι> happen, become -- become
γυναῖκα -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <γυνή> woman -- wife
ἐπιστάµενον πάντως ὅτι οὐ δώσει δίκας.
ἐπιστάµενον -- deponent verb; accusative singular masculine of present participle of <ἐπίσταµαι>

know -- knowing
πάντως -- adverb; <πάντως> altogether -- fully well
ὅτι -- conjunction; <ὅτι> because, that -- that
δώσει -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist subjunctive of <δίδωµι> give -- he would...make
δίκας -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <δίκη> custom, right -- amends
οὔτω δὴ ἁρπάσαντος αὐτοῦ Ἑλένην.
οὔτω -- adverb; <οὔτω> thus -- and so

ἁρπάσαντος -- verb; genitive singular masculine of <ἁρπάζω> carry off -- carried off
αὐτοῦ -- pronoun; genitive singular masculine of <αὐτός> oneself, he -- he
Ἑλένην -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <Ἑλένη> Helen -- Helen
τοῖσι Ἕλλησι δόξαι πρῶτὸν πέµψαντας ἀγγέλους ἀπαιτέειν τε Ἑλένην καὶ δίκας τῆς ἁρπαγῆς αἰτέειν.
τοῖσι -- article; dative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the

Ἕλλησι -- noun, masculine; dative plural of <Ἕλλην> Greek -- Greeks
δόξαι -- verb; aorist in nitive of <δοκέω> seem, think -- it was resolved
πρῶτὸν -- adverb; <πρῶτον> rst -- rst
πέµψαντας -- verb; accusative plural masculine of aorist participle of <πέµπω> send -- sent
ἀγγέλους -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <ἄγγελος> messenger -- messengers
ἀπαιτέειν -- verb; in nitive of <ἀπαιτέω> request -- to demand back
Ἑλένην -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <Ἑλένη> Helen -- Helen
δίκας -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <δίκη> custom, right -- reparations
ἁρπαγῆς -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <ἁρπαγή> abduction -- abduction
αἰτέειν -- verb; in nitive present, of <αἰτέω> request -- to request
τοὺς δέ, προισοµένων ταῦτα, προφέρειν σφι Μηδείης τὴν ἁρπαγήν.
τοὺς -- article; accusative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- these

προισοµένων -- verb; genitive plural neuter of aorist participle of <προφέρω> bring forth -- when they
proposed
ταῦτα -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural neuter of <οὗτος> this -- these things
προφέρειν -- verb; in nitive of <προφέρω> bring forth -- (the Trojans) brought up
σφι -- re exive pronoun; dative plural masculine of <σφεῖς> they -- they
Μηδείης -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <Μηδεία> Medea -- of Medea
ἁρπαγήν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ἁρπαγή> abduction -- abduction
ὡς οὐ δόντες αὐτοὶ δίκας οὐδὲ ἐκδόντες ἀπαιτεόντων βουλοίατό σφι παρ' ἄλλων δίκας γίνεσθαι.
ὡς -- conjunction; <ὡς> as, thus -- so that

δόντες -- verb; nominative plural masculine of aorist participle of <δίδωµι> give -- (they had...) given
αὐτοὶ -- pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <αὐτός> oneself, he -- themselves
δίκας -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <δίκη> custom, right -- satisfaction
οὐδὲ -- particle; <οὐδέ> not -- and...not
ἐκδόντες -- verb; nominative plural masculine of aorist participle of <ἐκδιδώµι> give up -- having given
up
ἀπαιτεόντων -- verb; genitive plural neuter of present participle of <ἀπαιτέω> request -- (what was)
requested
βουλοίατό -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist optative of <βούλοµαι> wish, request -- they wished
(that)
σφι -- re exive pronoun; dative plural masculine of <σφεῖς> they -- for themselves
παρ' -- preposition; <παρά> from, of -- by
ἄλλων -- adjective; genitive plural masculine of <ἄλλος> other -- others
δίκας -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <δίκη> custom, right -- reparations
γίνεσθαι -- deponent verb; aorist in nitive of <γίγνοµαι> happen, become -- be provided
Μέχρι µὲν ὦν τούτου ἁρπαγὰς µούνας εἶναι παρ' ἀλλήλων. # History I.4
µέχρι -- preposition; <µέχρι> until -- up to

ὦν -- verb; present participle nominative singular masculine of <εἰµί> I am -- being
τούτου -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive singular neuter of <οὗτος> this -- this point
ἁρπαγὰς -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <ἁρπαγή> abduction -- abductions
µούνας -- adjective; accusative plural feminine of <µοῦνος> alone -- only
εἶναι -- verb; in nitive of <εἰµί> I am -- (there) were
παρ' -- preposition; <παρά> from, of -- by
ἀλλήλων -- pronoun; genitive plural masculine of <ἀλλήλων> one another -- one another
τὸ δὲ ἀπὸ τούτου Ἕλληνας δὴ µεγάλως αἰτίους γενέσθαι.
τὸ -- article; accusative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- in regard to this

ἀπὸ -- preposition; <ἀπό> from -- from
τούτου -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive singular neuter of <οὗτος> this -- this point
Ἕλληνας -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <Ἕλλην> Greek -- the Greeks
µεγάλως -- adverb; <µεγάλως> greatly -- greatly
αἰτίους -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <αἴτιος> blameworthy -- blameworthy
γενέσθαι -- deponent verb; in nitive aorist of <γίγνοµαι> happen, become -- became
προτέρους γὰρ ἄρξαι στρατεύεσθαι ἐς τὴν Ἀσίην ἤ σφέας ἐς τὴν Εὐρώπην.
προτέρους -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <πρότερος> rst, before -- before

ἄρξαι -- verb; in nitive aorist of <ἄρχω> begin -- (they) began
στρατεύεσθαι -- verb; in nitive middle of <στρατεύω> take the eld, attack -- make war
ἐς -- preposition; <ἐς> towards -- against
Ἀσίην -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <Ἀσία> Asia -- Asia
ἤ -- conjunction; <ἤ> or, than -- than
σφέας -- re exive pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <σφεῖς> they -- they
Εὐρώπην -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <Εὐρώπη> Europe -- Europe
Ἕλληνας δὲ Λακεδαιµονίης εἵνεκεν γυναικὸς στόλον µέγαν συναγεῖραι καὶ ἔπειτα ἐλθόντας ἐς τὴν
Ἀσίην τὴν Πριάµου δύναµιν κατελεῖν.
Ἕλληνας -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <Ἕλλην> Greek -- the Greeks

Λακεδαιµονίης -- adjective; genitive singular feminine of <Λακεδαιµόνιος> Lacedemonian, Spartan --
Lacedemonian
εἵνεκεν -- preposition; <εἵνεκεν> because of -- because of
γυναικὸς -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <γυνή> woman -- woman
στόλον -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <στόλος> army -- army
µέγαν -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <µέγας> great -- great
συναγεῖραι -- verb; in nitive aorist of <συναγείρω> assemble -- assembled
ἔπειτα -- adverb; <ἔπειτα> thereupon -- thereupon
ἐλθόντας -- verb; accusative plural masculine of aorist participle of <ἔρχοµαι> come, go -- went
Πριάµου -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Πρίαµος> Priam -- of Priam
δύναµιν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <δύναµις> power -- power
κατελεῖν -- verb; in nitive aorist of <καθαιρέω> take down, destroy -- destroyed
ἀπὸ τούτου αἰεὶ ἡγήσασθαι τὸ Ἑλληνικὸν σφίσι εἶναι πολέµιον,

τούτου -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive singular neuter of <οὗτος> this -- this (time)
αἰεὶ -- adverb; <αἰεί> always -- always
ἡγήσασθαι -- deponent verb; in nitive aorist of <ἡγέοµαι> lead, regard, rule -- (we have) regarded
Ἑλληνικὸν -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <Ἑλληνικός> Greek -- Greeks
σφίσι -- re exive pronoun; dative plural masculine of <σφεῖς> they -- to us
πολέµιον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <πολέµιος> hostile, inimical -- hostile
τὴν γὰρ Ἀσίην καὶ τὰ ἐνοικέοντα ἔθνεα βάρβαρα οἰκηιεῦνται οἱ Πέρσαι, τὴν δὲ Εὐρώπην καὶ τὸ
Ἑλληνικὸν ἥγηνται κεχωρίσθαι.

ἐνοικέοντα -- verb; accusative plural neuter of present participle of <ἐνοικέω> dwelling in -- inhabiting
ἔθνεα -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <ἔθνος> nation, people, tribe -- nations
βάρβαρα -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <βάρβαρος> foreign, not Greek -- foreign
οἰκηιεῦνται -- verb; 3rd person singular present middle of <οἰκηιεύω> claim -- claim (for themselves)
Πέρσαι -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <Πέρσης> Persian -- Persians
Εὐρώπην -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <Εὐρώπη> Europe -- Europe
Ἑλληνικὸν -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <Ἑλληνικός> Greek -- Greeks
ἥγηνται -- deponent verb; 3rd person plural present of <ἡγέοµαι> lead, regard, rule -- they consider
κεχωρίσθαι -- verb; in nitive perfect passive of <χωρίζω> separate -- to be separate
Lesson Text
Ἡροδότου Ἁλικαρνησσέος ἱστορίης ἀπόδεξις ἥδε, # History I.1 ὡς µήτε τὰ γενόµενα ἐξ

ἀνθρώπων τῷ χρόνῳ ἐξίτηλα γένηται, µήτε ἔργα µεγάλα τε καὶ θωµαστά, τὰ µὲν Ἕλλησι τὰ δὲ
βαρβάροισι ἀποδεχθέντα, ἀκλεᾶ γένηται, τά τε ἄλλα καὶ δι' ἣν αἰτίην ἐπολέµησαν ἀλλήλοισι.
Δευτέρῃ δὲ λέγουσι γενεῇ µετὰ ταῦτα Ἀλέξανδρον τὸν Πριάµου, ἀκηκοότα ταῦτα, ἐθελῆσαί οἱ ἐκ
τῆς Ἑλλάδος δι' ἁρπαγῆς γενέσθαι γυναῖκα, # History I.3 ἐπιστάµενον πάντως ὅτι οὐ δώσει δίκας.
οὔτω δὴ ἁρπάσαντος αὐτοῦ Ἑλένην. τοῖσι Ἕλλησι δόξαι πρῶτὸν πέµψαντας ἀγγέλους ἀπαιτέειν
τε Ἑλένην καὶ δίκας τῆς ἁρπαγῆς αἰτέειν. τοὺς δέ, προισοµένων ταῦτα, προφέρειν σφι Μηδείης
τὴν ἁρπαγήν. ὡς οὐ δόντες αὐτοὶ δίκας οὐδὲ ἐκδόντες ἀπαιτεόντων βουλοίατό σφι παρ' ἄλλων
δίκας γίνεσθαι. Μέχρι µὲν ὦν τούτου ἁρπαγὰς µούνας εἶναι παρ' ἀλλήλων. # History I.4 τὸ δὲ
ἀπὸ τούτου Ἕλληνας δὴ µεγάλως αἰτίους γενέσθαι. προτέρους γὰρ ἄρξαι στρατεύεσθαι ἐς τὴν
Ἀσίην ἤ σφέας ἐς τὴν Εὐρώπην. Ἕλληνας δὲ Λακεδαιµονίης εἵνεκεν γυναικὸς στόλον µέγαν
συναγεῖραι καὶ ἔπειτα ἐλθόντας ἐς τὴν Ἀσίην τὴν Πριάµου δύναµιν κατελεῖν. ἀπὸ τούτου αἰεὶ
ἡγήσασθαι τὸ Ἑλληνικὸν σφίσι εἶναι πολέµιον, τὴν γὰρ Ἀσίην καὶ τὰ ἐνοικέοντα ἔθνεα βάρβαρα
οἰκηιεῦνται οἱ Πέρσαι, τὴν δὲ Εὐρώπην καὶ τὸ Ἑλληνικὸν ἥγηνται κεχωρίσθαι.
Translation
This is the exposition of the history of Herodotus, the Halicarnassian, (produced) so that neither the
events be forgotten by humans in time, nor the great and wonderful deeds done by Greeks and
foreigners may be without fame, and especially the reason why they fought with one another.
Then in the second generation after these things, they say that Paris, the son of Priam, having heard
these things, wanted to get for himself a wife out of Greece through rapine, believing full well that he
would not make amends. And so indeed he carried off Helen. It was resolved rst by the Greeks that
messengers that were sent should demand back Helen and request reparations. When they proposed
these things, the Trojans brought up the rape of Medea, and they reminded the Greeks that they had
not given satisfaction nor given what was requested but asked that reparations be given to them by
others. Up to this point there were only robberies from one another. But after this (the Persians say)
the Greeks became greatly blameworthy. For they began to make war against Asia before they
themselves did against Europe. --- The Greeks for the sake of a Lacedaemonian woman brought
together a great army and then coming to Asia destroyed the power of Priam. From this time on we
have always regarded the Greeks as hostile us. The Persians claim Asia and the foreign nations living
there for themselves and consider Europe and the Greeks to be separate.
Grammar
16 Nouns ending in -ηρ.
The basic relationship terms, among other nouns, end in -ηρ, and have no -ε- in the genitive and dative
singular, and the dative plural. The following are examples.
father daughter man
Nom. sg. ὁ πατήρ ἡ θυγάτηρ ὀ ἀνήρ
Gen. sg. τοῦ πατρός τῆς θυγατρός τοῦ ἀνδρός
Dat. sg. τῷ πατρί τῇ θυγατρί τῷ ανδρί
Acc. sg. τὸν πατέρα τῆν θυγατέρα τὸν ἄνδρα

Nom. pl. οἱ πατέρες αἱ θυγατέρες οἱ ἄνδρες
Gen. pl. τῶν πατέρων τῶν θυγατέρων τῶν ἀνδρῶν
Dat. pl. τοῖς πατράσι ταῖς θυγατράσι τοῖς ἀνδράσι
Acc. pl. τοὺς πατέρας τὰς θυγατέρας τοὺς ἄνδρας
17 Irregular nouns.
Some of the more frequent nouns are irregular in in ection; four of them are given here.
woman ship re Zeus
Nom. sg. ἡ γυνή ἡ ναῦς τὸ πῦρ Ζεύς
Gen. sg. τῆς γυναικός τῆς νεώς τοῦ πυρός Διός
Dat. sg. τῇ γυναικί τῇ νηί τῷ πυρί Διί
Acc. sg. τῆν γυναῖκα τῆν ναῦν τὸ πῦρ Δία

Nom. pl. αἱ γυναῖκες αἱ νῆες τὰ πυρά
Gen. pl. τῶν γυναικῶν τῶν νεῶν τῶν πυρῶν
Dat. pl. ταῖς γυναιξί(ν) ταῖς ναυσί(ν) τοῖς πυροῖς
Acc. pl. τὰς γυναῖκας τὰς ναῦς τὰ πυρά
18 Demonstrative pronouns.
There are three demonstrative pronouns. ὅδε, ἥδε, τόδε points to the present or future, and corresponds to
'this,' 'this one here.' οὕτος, αὔτη, τοῦτο points to the former, and corresponds to 'that.' ἐκεῖνος, ἐκείνη,
ἐκεῖνο points to things remote or absent, and corresponds to 'that there.' ὅδε is based on the de nite article.
The forms of ἐκεῖνος are like those of αὐτός. The forms of ὁ̃υτος are given here.
Nom. sg. οὗτος αὕτη τοῦτο
Gen. sg. τούτου ταύτης τούτου
Dat. sg. τούτῳ ταύτῃ τούτῳ
Acc. sg. τοῦτον ταύτην τοῦτο

Nom. pl. οὗτοι αὗται ταῦτα
Gen. pl. τούτων τούτων τούτων
Dat. pl. τούτοις ταύταις τούτοις
Acc. pl. τούτους ταύτας ταῦτα
19 The uses of in nitives.

In nitives are often used after verbs to complement their meaning, as in Iliad 18-19: δοῖεν ... ἐκπέερσαι
'may they grant (you) to destroy...' But in this passage of Herodotus, they also correspond to nite verbs. In
the rst sentence of section 3, the in nitive ἐθελήσαι functions in this way to provide the verb for the noun
Ἀλέξανδρον 'Alexander wished ...' This clause corresponds to a subordinate clause after the verb λέγουσι
'they say'; relatively frequent, it is known as the Accusative with In nitive Construction, often labeled AcI.
A further sentence simply has the in nitive with a dative indicating the subject, and in turn is followed by
two two AcI constructions: τοῖσι Ἕλλεησι δόξαι 'it was resolved by the Greeks = the Greeks resolved.'
Grammars simply label such constructions. Readers of the texts must accept their presence, and interpret
them appropriately.
20 The Present system of the Middle and the Passive.

The Greek verb has a full set of Middle and Passive forms corresponding to those of the Active. In the
Present System, the forms of the two Voices are the same.
When used as Middle, the forms indicate an action or situation re ecting on the subject; thus the rst
singular indicative παιδεύοµαι means 'I educate (for my sake)'. When used as Passive, the meaning
corresponds to that of passives in English, so that the Passive παιδεύοµαι means 'I am (being) educated.'
The forms must be interpreted from the context.
The forms of the Present System ( rst, second, and third person, singular and plural) are as follows:
Indicative Imperfect Subjunctive Optative Imperative
1s παιδεύοµαι ἐπαιδευόµην παιδεύωµαι παιδευοίµην
2s παιδεύῃ ἐπαιδεύου παιδεύῃ παιδεύοιο παιδεύου
3s παιδεύεται ἐπαιδεύετο παιδεύηται παιδευοίτο παιδευέσθω
1p παιδευόµεθα ἐπαιδευόµεθα παιδευώµεθα παιδευοίµεθα
2p παιδεύεσθε ἐπαιδεύεσθε παιδεύησθε παιδεύοισθε παιδεύεσθε
3p παιδεύονται ἐπαιδεύοντο παιδεύωνται παιδεύοιντο παιδευέσθων
In nitive: παιδεύεσθαι
Participle: παιδευόµενος, παιδευοµένη, παιδευόµενον

Lesson 5
In Book 4 of his History, Herodotus relates the expedition of Darius against the Scythians, who were located
in the western highlands of the Persian Empire. Darius set out to avenge their earlier invasion of Media.
While Herodotus tells of his attempt to punish the Scythians, most of the sections of the book dealing with
the Scythians describe their customs. Among these the two sections on their use of cannabis are of great
interest, both for their linguistic importance and for their information about the knowledge among the
Greeks of this drug. The name for the plant, probably of Scythian origin, is found not only in Greek and Latin,
but also in Armenian as kanap', in Albanian as kanep, and in Church Slavonic as konoplja. Found in so many
dialects, the word might be reconstructed for Indo-European but for the information given by Herodotus,
especially in view of its forms in Germanic.
The forms in the Germanic languages, such as our word hemp, Old Icelandic hampr, and German Hanf
include changes in consonants, k > h, b > p, that indicate the word was imported into Germanic before the
rst consonant shift. The time of its importation is unclear, but on the basis of the changes we may assume
that the time was somewhat before our era. There are, however, problems with the assignment, since words
may be modi ed when imported, though scarcely as completely as in the changed Germanic forms. Both for
their linguistic and their cultural information, these two sections have been included from among the many
of great interest in Herodotus's description of the customs of the Scythians.
Sections 74 and 75 of Book 4 are straightforward. Herodotus describes the appearance of the plant and its
uses for clothing. While he mentions that he traveled by ship in the Black Sea, it is unclear whether he went
north of it to the homes of the Scythians, or whether he has his information from reports by other travelers
or from Scythians themselves. Whatever the basis of his information, his description of the use of the plant
for achieving ecstasy and substituting for bathing, as well as the beauty preparations of the women, are
clear and credible.
Ἔστι δέ σφι κάνναβις φυοµένη ἐν τῇ χώρῃ πλὴν παχύτητος καὶ µεγάθεος τῷ λίνῳ ἐµφερεστάτη. #
Book 4, section 74
ἔστι -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <εἰµί> I am -- there is (they have)
δέ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and
σφι -- re exive pronoun; dative plural masculine of <σφεῖς> they -- (for them)
κάνναβις -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <κάνναβις> hemp -- hemp
φυοµένη -- verb; nominative singular feminine of present participle middle of <φύω> grow -- growing
χώρῃ -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <χώρα> land, country -- country
πλὴν -- preposition; <πλήν> except -- except for
παχύτητος -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <παχύτης> thickness -- thickness
µεγάθεος -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <µεγάθης> height -- height
τῷ -- article; dative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- the
λίνῳ -- noun, neuter; dative singular of <λίνον> linen -- linen
ἐµφερεστάτη -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of superlative of <ἐµφέρης> resembling -- very
much like
ταύτῃ δὲ πολλῷ ὑπερφέρει ἡ κάνναβις
ταύτῃ -- demonstrative pronoun; dative singular feminine of <οὗτος> this -- in this (respect)
πολλῷ -- adverb; dative singular neuter of <πολύς> many -- by far
ὑπερφέρει -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <ὑπερφέρω> surpass -- surpasses
κάνναβις -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <κάνναβις> hemp -- hemp
αὕτη καὶ αὐτοµάτη καὶ σπειροµένη φύεται, καὶ ἐξ αὐτῆς Θρήικες µὲν καὶ εἵµατα ποιεῦνται τοίσι
λινέοισι ὁµοιότατα·
αὕτη -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular feminine of <οὗτος> this -- this

καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- both
αὐτοµάτη -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <αὐτόµατος> by itself -- by itself
σπειροµένη -- verb; nominative singular feminine of present participle passive of <σπείρω> sow --
sown
φύεται -- verb; 3rd person singular present middle of <φύω> grow -- grows
ἐξ -- preposition; <ἐξ> from, out of -- out of
αὐτῆς -- pronoun; genitive singular feminine of <αὐτός> oneself, he -- it
Θρήικες -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <Θρῆ́ιξ> Thracian -- (the) Thracians
µὲν -- particle; <µέν> on the one hand -- and
εἵµατα -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <εἷµα> clothing -- clothing
ποιεῦνται -- verb; 3rd person plural present middle of <ποιέω> make, do -- make
τοίσι -- article; dative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- the
λινέοισι -- adjective; dative plural neuter of <λίνεος> of linen -- linen
ὁµοιότατα -- adjective; accusative plural neuter superlative of <ὅµοιος> like, similar -- very much like
οὐδ' ἄν ὅστις µὴ κάρτα τρίβων εἴη αὐτῆς, διαγνοίη λίνου ἢ καννάβιος ἐστί·
οὐδ' -- particle; <οὐδέ> not -- and...not

ἄν -- particle; <ἄν> if -- unless
ὅστις -- relative pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <ὅστις> whoever, whatever -- one
µὴ -- particle; <µή> not -- ...
κάρτα -- adverb; <κάρτα> very much, extremely -- very
τρίβων -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of present participle of <τρίβω> skilled, experienced
-- experienced
εἴη -- verb; 3rd person singular present optative of <εἰµί> I am -- were
αὐτῆς -- pronoun; genitive singular feminine of <αὐτός> oneself, he -- in it
διαγνοίη -- verb; 3rd person singular optative aorist of <διαγιγνώσκω> discern, distinguish -- he would
discern
λίνου -- noun, neuter; genitive singular of <λίνον> linen -- linen
ἢ -- conjunction; <ἤ> or, than -- or
καννάβιος -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <κάνναβις> hemp -- hemp
ἐστί -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <εἰµί> I am -- (whether) it is
ὅς δὲ µὴ εἶδέ κώ τὴν κανναβίδα, λίνεον δοκήσει εἶναι τὸ εἷµα.
ὅς -- relative pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <ὅς> who, which -- he who

µὴ -- particle; <µή> not -- not
εἶδέ -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <εἶδον> saw -- has seen
κώ -- adverb; <κώ> yet -- yet
κανναβίδα -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <κάνναβις> hemp -- hemp clothing
λίνεον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <λίνεος> of linen -- of linen
δοκήσει -- verb; 3rd person singular future of <δοκέω> seem, think -- will think
εἶναι -- verb; in nitive of <εἰµί> I am -- (it) is
εἷµα -- noun, neuter; nominative singular of <εἷµα> clothing -- clothing
Ταύτης ὦν οἱ Σκύθαι τῆς καννάβιος τὸ σπέρµα ἐπεὰν λάβωσι, ὑποδύνουσι ὑπὸ τοὺς πῖλους, καὶ ἔπειτα
ἐπιβάλλουσι τὸ σπέρµα ἐπὶ τοὺς διαφανέας λίθους τῷ πυρί· # Book 4, section 75
ταύτης -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive singular feminine of <οὗτος> this -- of this

ὦν -- adverb; <ὦν> indeed -- indeed
Σκύθαι -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <Σκύθης> Scythian -- Scythians
καννάβιος -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <κάνναβις> hemp -- hemp
σπέρµα -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <σπέρµα> seed -- seed
ἐπεὰν -- conjunction; <ἐπεάν> when, after -- after
λάβωσι -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist subjunctive of <λαµβάνω> receive, capture -- take
ὑποδύνουσι -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <ὑποδύω> go under -- (and) they go (under)
ὑπὸ -- preposition; <ὑπό> under, by -- under
τοὺς -- article; accusative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
πῖλους -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <πῖλος> mat -- mats
ἔπειτα -- adverb; <ἔπειτα> thereupon -- then
ἐπιβάλλουσι -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <ἐπιβάλλω> throw on -- they throw
σπέρµα -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <σπέρµα> seed -- seed
ἐπὶ -- preposition; <ἐπί> on, about -- on
διαφανέας -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <διαφανής> transparent, red-hot -- red-hot
λίθους -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <λίθος> stone -- stones
τῷ -- article; dative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- with the
πυρί -- noun, neuter; dative singular of <πῦρ> re -- re
τὸ δὲ θυµιᾶται ἐπιβαλλόµενον καὶ ἀτµίδα παρέχεται τοσαύτην ὥστε Ἑλληνικὴ οὐδεµία ἄν µιν πυρίη
ἀποκρατήσειε.
τὸ -- article; nominative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- it

θυµιᾶται -- verb; 3rd person singular present middle of <θυµιάω> burn with smoke -- burn with smoke
ἐπιβαλλόµενον -- verb; accusative singular neuter of present participle passive of <ἐπιβάλλω> throw
on -- (so) thrown
ἀτµίδα -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ἀτµίς> steam, vapor -- vapor
παρέχεται -- verb; 3rd person singular present middle of <παρέχω> provide -- it produces
τοσαύτην -- adjective; accusative singular feminine of <τοσοῦτος> such -- such
ὥστε -- adverbial conjunction; <ὥστε> like, so that -- that
Ἑλληνικὴ -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <Ἑλληνικός> Greek -- Greek
οὐδεµία -- pronoun; nominative singular feminine of <οὐδείς, οὐδεµία, οὐδέν> no one, nothing -- no
ἄν -- particle; <ἄν> if -- ...
µιν -- pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <µιν> it -- it
πυρίη -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <πυρίη> vapor bath -- vapor bath
ἀποκρατήσειε -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist optative of <ἀποκρατέω> exceed -- might exceed
οἱ δὲ Σκύθαι ἀγάµενοι τῇ πυρίῃ ὠρύονται.

Σκύθαι -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <Σκύθης> Scythian -- Scythians
ἀγάµενοι -- deponent verb; nominative plural masculine of present participle middle of <ἄγαµαι> to
wonder, admire -- delighted
τῇ -- article; dative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- by the
πυρίῃ -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <πυρίη> vapor bath -- vapor bath
ὠρύονται -- verb; 3rd person plural present middle of <ὠρύοµαι> howl -- howl
τοῦτό σφι ἀντὶ λουτροῦ ἐστι.
τοῦτό -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular neuter of <οὗτος> this -- this

σφι -- re exive pronoun; dative plural masculine of <σφεῖς> they -- for them
ἀντὶ -- preposition; <ἀντί> instead of -- instead of
λουτροῦ -- noun, neuter; genitive singular of <λουτρόν> bathing -- bathing
ἐστι -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <εἰµί> I am -- is (done)
οὐ γὰρ δὴ λούονται ὕδατι τὸ παράπαν τὸ σῶµα.

λούονται -- verb; 3rd person plural present middle of <λούοµαι> wash oneself -- they wash
ὕδατι -- noun, neuter; dative singular of <ὕδωρ> water -- in water
παράπαν -- adverb; <παράπαν> absolutely -- at all
τὸ -- article; accusative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- their
σῶµα -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <σῶµα> body -- body
αἱ δὲ γυναῖκες αὐτῶν ὕδωρ παραχέουσαι κατασώχουσι περὶ λίθον τρηχὺν τῆς κυπαρίσσου καὶ κέδρου
καὶ λιβάνου ξύλου, καὶ ἔπειτα τὸ κατασωχόµενον τοῦτο παχὺ ἐὸν καταπλάσσονται πᾶν τὸ σῶµα καὶ
τὸ πρόσωπον·
αἱ -- article; nominative plural feminine of <ὁ> the -- the

γυναῖκες -- noun, feminine; nominative plural of <γυνή> woman -- women
αὐτῶν -- pronoun; genitive plural feminine of <αὐτός> oneself, he -- their
ὕδωρ -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <ὕδωρ> water -- water
παραχέουσαι -- verb; nominative plural feminine of present participle of <παραχέω> pour in -- pouring
in
κατασώχουσι -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <κατασώχω> rub in pieces -- rub
περὶ -- preposition; <περί> around -- around
λίθον -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <λίθος> stone -- stone
τρηχὺν -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <τρηχύς> rough -- a rough
τῆς -- article; genitive singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- of the
κυπαρίσσου -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <κυπαρίσσος> cypress -- cypress
κέδρου -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <κέδρος> cedar -- cedar
λιβάνου -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <λίβανος> frankincense, frankincense tree --
frankincense tree
ξύλου -- noun, neuter; genitive singular of <ξύλον> wood -- wood
ἔπειτα -- adverb; <ἔπειτα> thereupon -- then
κατασωχόµενον -- verb; accusative singular neuter of present participle middle of <κατασώχω> rub in
pieces -- rubbed (matter)
παχὺ -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <παχύς> thick -- thick
ἐὸν -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <ἐός> his, her -- their
καταπλάσσονται -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <καταπλάσσω> plaster over -- they plaster over
πᾶν -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <πᾶς> all, every -- entire
τὸ -- article; accusative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- ...
σῶµα -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <σῶµα> body -- body
τὸ -- article; accusative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- ...
πρόσωπον -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <πρόσωπον> face -- face
καὶ ἅµα µὲν εὐωδίη σφέας ἀπὸ τούτου ἴσχει, ἅµα δὲ ἀπαιρέουσαι τῇ δευτέρῃ ἡµέρῃ τὴν καταπλαστὺν
γίνονται καθαραὶ καὶ λαµπραί.

ἅµα -- adverb; <ἅµα> at the same time -- at the same time
εὐωδίη -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <εὐωδίη> fragrant scent -- a fragrant scent
σφέας -- re exive pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <σφεῖς> they -- them
τούτου -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive singular neuter of <οὗτος> this -- this
ἴσχει -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <ἴσχω> stay -- remains
ἅµα -- adverb; <ἅµα> at the same time -- and at the same time
ἀπαιρέουσαι -- verb; nominative singular feminine of present participle of <ἀπαιρέω> take off -- (when
they) remove
τῇ -- article; dative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- their
δευτέρῃ -- adjective; dative singular feminine of <δεύτερος> second -- on the second
ἡµέρῃ -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <ἡµέρα> day -- day
καταπλαστὺν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <καταπλαστύς> plaster -- ointment
γίνονται -- deponent verb; 3rd person plural present of <γίγνοµαι> happen, become -- they become
καθαραὶ -- adjective; nominative plural feminine of <καθαρός> clean, pure -- clean
λαµπραί -- adjective; nominative plural feminine of <λαµπρός> shiny -- shining (in appearance)
Lesson Text
Ἔστι δέ σφι κάνναβις φυοµένη ἐν τῇ χώρῃ πλὴν παχύτητος καὶ µεγάθεος τῷ λίνῳ ἐµφερεστάτη.
# Book 4, section 74 ταύτῃ δὲ πολλῷ ὑπερφέρει ἡ κάνναβις αὕτη καὶ αὐτοµάτη καὶ σπειροµένη
φύεται, καὶ ἐξ αὐτῆς Θρήικες µὲν καὶ εἵµατα ποιεῦνται τοίσι λινέοισι ὁµοιότατα· οὐδ' ἄν ὅστις µὴ
κάρτα τρίβων εἴη αὐτῆς, διαγνοίη λίνου ἢ καννάβιος ἐστί· ὅς δὲ µὴ εἶδέ κώ τὴν κανναβίδα, λίνεον
δοκήσει εἶναι τὸ εἷµα. Ταύτης ὦν οἱ Σκύθαι τῆς καννάβιος τὸ σπέρµα ἐπεὰν λάβωσι, ὑποδύνουσι
ὑπὸ τοὺς πῖλους, καὶ ἔπειτα ἐπιβάλλουσι τὸ σπέρµα ἐπὶ τοὺς διαφανέας λίθους τῷ πυρί· # Book 4,
section 75 τὸ δὲ θυµιᾶται ἐπιβαλλόµενον καὶ ἀτµίδα παρέχεται τοσαύτην ὥστε Ἑλληνικὴ οὐδεµία
ἄν µιν πυρίη ἀποκρατήσειε. οἱ δὲ Σκύθαι ἀγάµενοι τῇ πυρίῃ ὠρύονται. τοῦτό σφι ἀντὶ λουτροῦ
ἐστι. οὐ γὰρ δὴ λούονται ὕδατι τὸ παράπαν τὸ σῶµα. αἱ δὲ γυναῖκες αὐτῶν ὕδωρ παραχέουσαι
κατασώχουσι περὶ λίθον τρηχὺν τῆς κυπαρίσσου καὶ κέδρου καὶ λιβάνου ξύλου, καὶ ἔπειτα τὸ
κατασωχόµενον τοῦτο παχὺ ἐὸν καταπλάσσονται πᾶν τὸ σῶµα καὶ τὸ πρόσωπον· καὶ ἅµα µὲν
εὐωδίη σφέας ἀπὸ τούτου ἴσχει, ἅµα δὲ ἀπαιρέουσαι τῇ δευτέρῃ ἡµέρῃ τὴν καταπλαστὺν
γίνονται καθαραὶ καὶ λαµπραί.
Translation
They have hemp growing in their country, very much like ax except for thickness and height. In this
respect the hemp surpasses ax by far. This grows by itself and sown, and out of it the Thracians even
make clothing very much like linen. And unless anyone were very experienced in it, he would not
discern whether it is linen or hemp. But he who has not yet seen hemp clothing will think the clothing
is linen.
Now the Scythians take the seed of the hemp and they go under their mats and then they throw the
seed on the red-hot stones in the re. So thrown it smoulders, and it produces such vapor that no
Greek vapor bath might exceed it. And delighted by the vapor bath, the Scythians howl. This is done by
them instead of bathing. But their women pound around a rough stone cypress and cedar and
frankincense wood, pouring in water, and then they plaster this thick rubbed matter over their entire
body and face. A fragrant scent remains on them from this, and at the same time when they remove
the ointment on the second day they become clean and shining in appearance.
Grammar
21 Consonant stems ending in dentals.
In these stems the consonant is dropped in the nominative singular, as well as in the accusative singular of
neuters, and in the dative plural.
'foot' 'body'
Nom. sg. ὁ πούς τὸ σῶµα
Gen. sg. τοῦ ποδός τοῦ σώµατος
Dat. sg. τῷ ποδί τῷ σώµατι
Acc. sg. τὸν ποδά τὸ σῶµα

Nom. pl. οἱ ποδές τὰ σώµατα
Gen. pl. τῶν ποδῶν τῶν σωµάτων
Dat. pl. τοῖς ποσί τοῖς σώµασι
Acc. pl. τοὺς ποδάς τὰ σώµατα
22 Comparison of adjectives.
In most adjectives comparison is expressed by -τερος in the comparative degree, by -τατος in the
superlative degree. The forms then are in ected in accordance with the ο- and α-declensions. Examples in
this text are ἐµφερεστάτη and ὁµοιότατα. Some of the common adjectives on the other hand are irregular,
for example, κακός 'bad'; κακίων, κάκιστος. Their forms will be listed in dictionaries.
23 Interrogative and inde nite pronouns.

These are declined as follows:
Interrogative Inde nite
Masc/Fem Neut | Masc/Fem Neut
'who' 'what' | 'someone' 'something'
Nom. sg. τίς τί | τις τι
Gen. sg. τίνος τίνος | τινός τινός
Dat. sg. τίνι τίνι | τινί τινί
Acc. sg. τίνα τί | τινα τι

Nom. pl. τίνες τίνα | τινες τινα
Gen. pl. τίνων τίνων | τινῶν τινῶν
Dat. pl. τίσι(ν) τίσι(ν) | τισί(ν) τισί(ν)
Acc. pl. τίνας τίνα | τινας τινα
Inde nite
Masc Fem Neut
'who(ever)' 'who(ever)' 'what(ever)'
Nom. sg. ὅστις ἥτις ὅτι
Gen. sg. ὅτου ἧστινος ὅτου
Dat. sg. ᾧτινι ᾗτινι ᾧτινι
Acc. sg. ὅντινα ἥντινα ὅτι

Nom. pl. οἵτινες αἵτινες ἅτινα
Gen. pl. ὧντινων ὧντινων ὧντινων
Dat. pl. οἷστισι αἷστισι οἷστισι
Acc. pl. οὕστινας ἅστινας ἅτινα
24 The middle and passive voices.

In the present system the forms of the middle (expressing action for one's own sake) and the passive
(expressing action directed at the subject) are the same. The forms for the indicative and the imperfect are
as follows.
Present Imperfect
1 sg παιδεύοµαι ἐπαιδευόµην
2 sg παιδεύῃ ἐπαιδεύου
3 sg παιδεύεται ἐπαιδεύετο

1 pl παιδευόµεθα ἐπαιδευόµεθα
2 pl παιδεύεσθε ἐπαιδεύεσθε
3 pl παιδεύονται ἐπαιδεύονται
25 The subjunctive, optative, and imperative middle and passive forms, the in nitive and participle.
While these forms are not frequent, they are given here so that, if found, they may be recognized. The
participial forms, on the other hand, are relatively frequent, as in this text, where a number of them occur,
such as φυοµένη, ἐπιβαλλόµενον, ἀγάµενοι.
1s παιδεύωµαι παιαδευοίµην
2s παιδεύῃ παιδεύοιο παιδεύου
3s παιδεύηται παιδεύοιτο παιδευέσθω

1p παιδευώµεθα παιδευοίµεθα
2p παιδεύησθε παιδεύοισθε παιδεύεσθε
3p παιδεύωνται παιδεύοιντο παιδευέσθων
In nitive: παιδεύεσθαι
Participle: παιδευόµενος, παιδευοµένη, παιδευόµενον

Lesson 6
Xenophon was born about 444 BC, and is said to have lived 90 years. He was a student of Socrates, and
wrote the Memorabilia of Socrates to clear him from the charge of irreligion and corruption of the young
men of Athens. Banished about the time of Socrates' death in 399, he served variously in military activities,
and in 394 BC settled near Olympus, where he remained for twenty years. He then is said to have lived in
Corinth, but there is no de nite information about that part of his life until his death. In addition to the
Anabasis, he wrote the Cyropaedia, a fanciful account of Cyrus the Elder. He is acclaimed for his simple and
straightforward style. When Greek was taught for six years in High School and College, the Anabasis was
the rst long work read by students.
Xenophon's Anabasis is the account of the Greek army's retreat along the Tigris and through the high
country of Armenia to Trapezus, and from there to Byzantium. The army had been assisting Cyrus in his
attempt to gain the Persian throne after the death of his father Darius, king of Persia from 424-405 BC. His
older brother, Artaxerxes, then assumed the throne. Cyrus, known as the Younger to distinguish him from
the Elder (d. 529 BC), had been appointed by his father, Darius, to be commander of the maritime parts of
Asia Minor. When his brother became king in 404 BC, Cyrus decided to overthrow him. He set out from
Sardis in 401 BC with an army that included 13,000 Greek mercenaries. In the plain of Cunaxa, about 60
miles from Babylon, he met the king's army. His troops were victorious, but he himself was killed. The Greek
army then set out to escape to the north, after most of their generals were treacherously murdered.
Xenophon had been with the army as an observer, but now was elected as one of the generals and became
effectively leader of the army. Approximately half of the Anabasis consists of the report of the retreat to the
sea; the rest of it deals with the continued effort to go by sea to Byzantium. This episode was selected
because of its account of the joy of the Greeks on their escape from their enemies.
ἀφικνοῦνται ἐπὶ τὸ ὄρος τῇ πέµπτῇ ἡµέρᾳ.
ἀφικνοῦνται -- deponent verb; 3rd person plural present of <ἀφικνέοµαι> come to, reach -- they reach
ὄρος -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <ὄρος> mountain -- mountain
τῇ -- article; dative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- on the
πέµπτῇ -- adjective; dative singular feminine of <πέµπτος> fth -- fth
ἡµέρᾳ -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <ἡµέρα> day -- day
ὄνοµα δὲ τῷ ὄρει ἦν Θήχης.
ὄνοµα -- noun, neuter; nominative singular of <ὄνοµα> name -- (the) name

τῷ -- article; dative singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- for the
ὄρει -- noun, neuter; dative singular of <ὄρος> mountain -- mountain
ἦν -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <εἰµί> I am -- was
Θήχης -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <Θήχης> Theches -- Theches
ἐπεὶ δὲ οἱ πρῶτοι ἐγένοντο ἐπὶ τοῦ ὄρους, κραυγὴ πολλὴ ἐγένετο.
ἐπεὶ -- conjunction; <ἐπεί> when, after -- when

πρῶτοι -- adjective used as substantive; nominative plural masculine of <πρῶτος> rst -- rst
ἐγένοντο -- deponent verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <γίγνοµαι> happen, become -- arrived
τοῦ -- article; genitive singular neuter of <ὁ> the -- the
ὄρους -- noun, neuter; genitive singular of <ὄρος> mountain -- mountain
κραυγὴ -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <κραυγή> shout -- shout
πολλὴ -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <πολύς> many -- great
ἐγένετο -- deponent verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <γίγνοµαι> happen, become -- went up
ἀκούσας δὲ ὁ Ξενοφῶν καὶ οἱ ὀπισθοφύλακες ᾠήθησαν ἔµπροσθεν ἄλλους ἐπιτίθεσθαι πολεµίους.
ἀκούσας -- verb; nominative singular masculine of aorist participle of <ἀκούω> hear, listen -- having
heard
ὁ -- article; nominative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- ...
Ξενοφῶν -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Ξενοφῶν> Xenophon -- Xenophon
ὀπισθοφύλακες -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <ὀπισθοφύλαξ> rear-guard -- rear-guard
ᾠήθησαν -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist passive of <οἴοµαι> think, imagine -- thought
ἔµπροσθεν -- adverb; <ἔµπροσθεν> before, in front -- in front
ἄλλους -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of <ἄλλος> other -- other
ἐπιτίθεσθαι -- verb; in nitive aorist middle of <ἐπιτίθηµι> attack -- were attacking
πολεµίους -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <πολέµιος> enemy -- enemies
εἵποντο γὰρ ὄπισθεν ἐκ τῆς καιοµένης χώρας, καὶ αὐτῶν οἱ ὀπισθοφύλακες ἀπέκτεινάν τέ τινας καὶ
ἐζώγρησαν ἐνέδραν ποιησάµενοι, καὶ γέρρα ἔλαβον δασειῶν βοῶν ὠµοβόεια ἀµφὶ τὰ εἴκοσιν.
εἵποντο -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <ἕποµαι> follow -- were following
ὄπισθεν -- adverb; <ὄπισθεν> behind -- behind
ἐκ -- preposition; <ἐκ> from, out of -- from
καιοµένης -- verb; genitive singular feminine of participle middle of <καίω> burn -- burning
χώρας -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <χώρα> land, country -- area
αὐτῶν -- pronoun; genitive plural masculine of <αὐτός> oneself, he -- of them
ἀπέκτεινάν -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <ἀποκτείνω> kill -- killed
τέ -- conjunction; <τε> and -- and
τινας -- inde nite pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <τις> someone, something -- some
ἐζώγρησαν -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <ζωγρέω> capture alive -- captured alive
ἐνέδραν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ἐνέδρα> ambush -- an ambush
ποιησάµενοι -- verb; nominative plural masculine of aorist middle participle of <ποιέω> make, do -- by
arranging
γέρρα -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <γέρρον> ox-hide wicker shield -- ox-hide wicker shields
ἔλαβον -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <λαµβάνω> receive, capture -- had captured
δασειῶν -- adjective; genitive plural masculine of <δασύς> hairy, shaggy -- shaggy
βοῶν -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <βοῦς> cow, ox -- of oxen
ὠµοβόεια -- adjective; accusative plural neuter of <ὠµοβόειος> of raw, untanned oxhide -- raw oxhide
ἀµφὶ -- preposition; <ἀµφί> around, between -- about
εἴκοσιν -- number; accusative plural neuter of <εἴκοσι> twenty -- twenty
ἐπειδὴ δὲ βοὴ πλείων τε ἐγίγνετο καὶ ἐγγύτερον καὶ οἱ ἀεὶ ἐπιόντες ἔθεον δρόµῳ ἐπὶ τοὺς ἀεὶ βοῶντας
καὶ πολλῷ µείζων ἐγίγνετο ἡ βοὴ ὅσῳ δὴ πλείους ἐγίγνοντο,--
ἐπειδὴ -- conjunction; <ἐπειδή> after -- after

βοὴ -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <βοή> shout -- the shout
πλείων -- adjective; nominative singular feminine comparative of <πολύς> many -- greater
ἐγίγνετο -- deponent verb; 3rd person singular imperfect middle of <γίγνοµαι> happen, become --
became
ἐγγύτερον -- adjective; nominative singular feminine comparative of <ἐγγύς> near -- nearer
οἱ -- article; nominative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- those
ἀεὶ -- adverb; <ἀεί> always -- always
ἐπιόντες -- verb; nominative plural masculine of present participle of <ἐπίειµι> come near -- coming up
ἔθεον -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <θέω> run -- ran
δρόµῳ -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <δρόµος> run -- at a run, at full speed
ἐπὶ -- preposition; <ἐπί> on, about -- towards
ἀεὶ -- adverb; <ἀεί> always -- always
βοῶντας -- verb; accusative plural masculine of present participle of <βοάω> shout -- shouting
πολλῷ -- adverb; dative singular neuter of <πολύς> many -- much
µείζων -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of comparative of <µέγας> great -- greater
ἐγίγνετο -- deponent verb; 3rd person singular imperfect middle of <γίγνοµαι> happen, become --
became
βοὴ -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <βοή> shout -- shouting
ὅσῳ -- relative pronoun; dative singular neuter of <ὅσος> as many -- as
πλείους -- adjective; accusative plural masculine of comparative of <πολύς> many -- greater
ἐγίγνοντο -- deponent verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <γίγνοµαι> happen, become -- became
ἐδόκει δὴ µεῖζόν τι εἶναι τῷ Ξενοφῶντι, καὶ ἀναβὰς ἐφ' ἵππον καὶ Λύκιον καὶ τούς ἱππέας ἀναλαβὼν
παρεβοήθει.
ἐδόκει -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <δοκέω> seem, think -- it seemed
µεῖζόν -- adjective; nominative singular neuter of comparative of <µέγας> great -- very important
τι -- inde nite pronoun; nominative singular neuter of <τις> someone, something -- something
τῷ -- article; dative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- ...
Ξενοφῶντι -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <Ξενοφῶν> Xenophon -- to Xenophon
ἀναβὰς -- verb; nominative singular masculine of aorist participle of <ἀναβαίνω> mount, go up --
mounting
ἐφ' -- preposition; <ἐπί> on, about -- on
ἵππον -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <ἵππος> horse -- his horse
Λύκιον -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <Λύκιος> Lycius -- Lycius
τούς -- article; accusative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
ἱππέας -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <ἱππεύς> horseman -- cavalry
ἀναλαβὼν -- verb; nominative singular masculine of participle of <ἀναλαµβάνω> take along -- taking
along
παρεβοήθει -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <παραβοηθέω> come up to help -- went up to
help
καὶ τάχα δὴ ἀκούουσι βοώντων τῶν στρατιωτῶν Θάλαττα θάλαττα καὶ παρεγγυώντων.

τάχα -- adverb; <τάχα> presently, soon -- soon
δὴ -- particle; <δή> indeed -- ...
ἀκούουσι -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <ἀκούω> hear, listen -- they heard
βοώντων -- verb; genitive plural masculine of participle of <βοάω> shout -- shouting
στρατιωτῶν -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <στρατιώτης> soldier -- soldiers
θάλαττα -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <θάλαττα> sea -- the sea
θάλαττα -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <θάλαττα> sea -- the sea
παρεγγυώντων -- verb; genitive plural masculine of participle of <παρεγγυάω> pass along -- passing
it along
ἔνθα δὴ ἔθεον πάντες καὶ οἱ ὀπισθοφύλακες, καὶ τὰ ὑποζύγια ἠλαύνετο καὶ οἱ ἵπποι.
ἔνθα -- adverb; <ἔνθα> then, there -- then

ἔθεον -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <θέω> run -- ran
ὑποζύγια -- noun, neuter; nominative plural of <ὑποζύγιον> pack animal -- pack animals
ἠλαύνετο -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect middle of <ἐλαύνω> set in motion -- broke into a run
ἵπποι -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <ἵππος> horse -- horses
ἐπεὶ δὲ ἀφίκοντο πάντες ἐπὶ τὸ ἄκρον, ἐνταῦθα δὴ περιέβαλλον ἀλλήλους καὶ στρατηγοὺς καὶ
λοχαγοὺς δακρύοντες.
ἐπεὶ -- conjunction; <ἐπεί> when, after -- when

ἀφίκοντο -- deponent verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <ἀφικνέοµαι> come to, reach -- came to
ἄκρον -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <ἄκρον> mountain-top, peak -- peak
ἐνταῦθα -- adverb; <ἐνταῦθα> then, there -- there
περιέβαλλον -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <περιβάλλω> throw around -- they embraced
ἀλλήλους -- pronoun; accusative plural masculine of <ἀλλήλων> one another -- one another
στρατηγοὺς -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <στρατηγός> general -- generals
λοχαγοὺς -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <λοχαγός> captain -- captains
δακρύοντες -- verb; nominative plural masculine of present participle of <δακρύω> weep -- weeping
καὶ ἐξαπίνης ὅτου δὴ παρεγγυήσαντος οἱ στρατιώται φέρουσι λίθους καὶ ποιοῦσι κολωνὸν µέγαν.

ἐξαπίνης -- adverb; <ἐξαπίνης> on a sudden -- all of a sudden
ὅτου -- pronoun; genitive singular masculine of <ὅτος> someone -- someone
παρεγγυήσαντος -- verb; genitive singular masculine of aorist participle of <παρεγγυάω> pass along
-- when ... suggested it
στρατιώται -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <στρατιώτης> soldier -- soldiers
φέρουσι -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <φέρω> bear, bring, carry -- bring
λίθους -- noun, masculine; accusative plural of <λίθος> stone -- stones
ποιοῦσι -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <ποιέω> make, do -- make
κολωνὸν -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <κολωνός> heap -- heap
µέγαν -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <µέγας> great -- large
Lesson Text
ἀφικνοῦνται ἐπὶ τὸ ὄρος τῇ πέµπτῇ ἡµέρᾳ. ὄνοµα δὲ τῷ ὄρει ἦν Θήχης. ἐπεὶ δὲ οἱ πρῶτοι
ἐγένοντο ἐπὶ τοῦ ὄρους, κραυγὴ πολλὴ ἐγένετο. ἀκούσας δὲ ὁ Ξενοφῶν καὶ οἱ ὀπισθοφύλακες
ᾠήθησαν ἔµπροσθεν ἄλλους ἐπιτίθεσθαι πολεµίους. εἵποντο γὰρ ὄπισθεν ἐκ τῆς καιοµένης
χώρας, καὶ αὐτῶν οἱ ὀπισθοφύλακες ἀπέκτεινάν τέ τινας καὶ ἐζώγρησαν ἐνέδραν ποιησάµενοι,
καὶ γέρρα ἔλαβον δασειῶν βοῶν ὠµοβόεια ἀµφὶ τὰ εἴκοσιν. ἐπειδὴ δὲ βοὴ πλείων τε ἐγίγνετο καὶ
ἐγγύτερον καὶ οἱ ἀεὶ ἐπιόντες ἔθεον δρόµῳ ἐπὶ τοὺς ἀεὶ βοῶντας καὶ πολλῷ µείζων ἐγίγνετο ἡ
βοὴ ὅσῳ δὴ πλείους ἐγίγνοντο,-- ἐδόκει δὴ µεῖζόν τι εἶναι τῷ Ξενοφῶντι, καὶ ἀναβὰς ἐφ' ἵππον
καὶ Λύκιον καὶ τούς ἱππέας ἀναλαβὼν παρεβοήθει. καὶ τάχα δὴ ἀκούουσι βοώντων τῶν
στρατιωτῶν Θάλαττα θάλαττα καὶ παρεγγυώντων. ἔνθα δὴ ἔθεον πάντες καὶ οἱ ὀπισθοφύλακες,
καὶ τὰ ὑποζύγια ἠλαύνετο καὶ οἱ ἵπποι. ἐπεὶ δὲ ἀφίκοντο πάντες ἐπὶ τὸ ἄκρον, ἐνταῦθα δὴ
περιέβαλλον ἀλλήλους καὶ στρατηγοὺς καὶ λοχαγοὺς δακρύοντες. καὶ ἐξαπίνης ὅτου δὴ
παρεγγυήσαντος οἱ στρατιώται φέρουσι λίθους καὶ ποιοῦσι κολωνὸν µέγαν.
Translation
On the fth day they reached the mountain; and the name of the mountain was Theches. When the
rst group arrived on the mountain, a great shout went up. Now when Xenophon and the rear-guard
heard it, they thought that other enemies were attacking from the burning area; the rear-guard had
killed some of them and captured others alive by setting an ambush, and had also captured about
twenty shaggy, raw wicker ox-hide shields. But as the shout became louder and nearer, and those
coming up began to run at full speed toward those ahead that were shouting, and as the shout
became much greater as they became greater, it seemed to Xenophon that there was something very
important. So he mounted his horse, taking also Lycius and the cavalry, and went ahead to help. Soon
they heard the soldiers shouting: "The Sea! The Sea!" and passing it along. Then all the rear-guard ran
and the pack animals broke into a run and also the horses. And when they came to the peak, then they
embraced one another, both the generals and the captains, weeping. And all of a sudden, when
someone suggested it, the soldiers bring stones and make a great heap.
Grammar
26 Survey of noun declensions.
The ο- and α- declensions have been given in section 4, and subsequent sections of the grammar, 11 and
16, have provided examples of consonantal declension and that of some irregular nouns. Here additional
sub-classes of the consonantal declension are listed.
Grammars provide the sub-classes according to the consonants of the stem. There may be modi cations
from sub-group to sub-group, but if the in ection of the word for salt is memorized, such forms may be
identi ed. Examples are given here also for stems ending in velars, dentals, and other elements; as the
selection indicates, nouns in the consonantal declension vary in gender: ἡ αἴξ 'goat', τὸ σῶµα 'body', ὁ ἁλ́ς
'salt', ὁ Ἕλλην 'Greek', ὁ σῦς 'pig'.
velars dentals
Nom. sg. ἡ αἴξ τό σῶµα
Gen. sg. τῆς αἰγός τοῦ σώµατος
Dat. sg. τῇ αἰγί τῷ σώµατι
Acc. sg. τῆν αἶγα τό σῶµα

Nom. pl. αἱ αἷγες τά σώµατα
Gen. pl. τῶν αἰγῶν τῶν σωµάτων
Dat. pl. τοῖς αἰξί τοῖς σώµασι
Acc. pl. τάς αἷγας τά σώµατα
-λ, -ρ -ν -υ
Nom. sg. ὁ ἅλς ὁ Ἕλλην ὁ σῦς
Gen. sg. τοῦ ἁλός τοῦ Ἕλληνος τοῦ συός
Dat. sg. τῷ ἁλί τῷ Ἕλληνι τῷ συί
Acc. sg. τόν ἅλα τόν Ἕλληνα τόν σῦν

Nom. pl. οἱ ἅλες οἱ Ἕλληνες οἱ σύες
Gen. pl. τῶν ἁλῶν τῶν Ἑλλήνων τῶν συῶν
Dat. pl. τοῖς ἁλσί τοῖς Ἕλλησι τοῖς συσί
Acc. pl. τούς ἅλας τούς Ἕλληνας τούς σῦς
27 Su xes applied to stems to indicate location.

The following su xes are used to produce adverbs on noun stems with speci c meanings:
-θεν 'whence', as in οἴκοθεν 'from home', χαµᾶθεν 'from the ground'

-ι, -θι 'where', as in οἴκοι 'at home', χαµαί 'on the ground'; but -σι(ν) if the noun in question is a plural, as in
Ἀθήνησι 'at Athens'
-δε, -σε, ζε 'whither', as in Ἀθήναζε 'to Athens', χαµᾶζε 'to the ground'
28 Use of the augment.
The augment is used on past tenses in the indicative, that is, the imperfect, aorist, and pluperfect. Verbs
beginning with a consonant pre x ἐ-, as in the imperfect ἐπαίδευον 'I educated', the aorist ἐπαίδευσα 'I have
educated', the pluperfect ἐπεπαιδεύκειν 'I had educated'. Verbs beginning with a vowel or diphthong
combine the augment with that vowel or diphthong, usually resulting in its lengthening, as in the imperfect
ἦγον 'I led' from ἄγω, ηὔξανον 'I increased' from αὐξάνω.
Compound verbs place the augment on the verb, after the initial pre x, for example ἐν-έβαλλον from
ἐµβάλλω 'throw into', ἐπ-έβαλλον from ἐπι-βάλλω 'throw on'. In the early texts, the augment may be
omitted, as in the aorist form ποίησαν 'they made' from ποιέω.
29 Deponents.
As in Latin, a number of verbs have their forms in the middle while corresponding to active verbs in English.
Many of them indicate state, and do not take objects. They can be recognized from dictionary entries.
Examples are:
γίγνοµαι 'become'
δέχοµαι 'receive'
ἐργάζοµαι 'work'
ἀπο-κρίνοµαι 'reply'
λογίζοµαι 'reason'
µιµέοµαι 'imitate'
These have a active meaning in the aorist middle form, but passive meaning in the passive form of the
aorist.
Others have the passive form of the aorist. Many of them denote motion, feeling or mental action. Examples
are:
ἔραµαι 'love'
ἥδοµαι 'rejoice'
έν-θυµέοµαι 'consider'
δια-νοέοµαι 'intend'
30 The middle forms of the aorist.
In the aorist the passive has different forms from those of the middle. Here the middle forms will be given.
1 sg ἐπαιδευσάµην παιδεύσωµαι παιδευσαίµην
2 sg ἐπαιδεύσω παιδεύσῃ παιδεύσαιο παίδευσαι
3 sg ἐπαιδεύσατο παιδεύσηται παιδεύσαιτο παιδευσάσθω

1 pl ἐπαιδευσάµεθα παιδευσώµεθα παιδευσαίµεθα
2 pl ἐπαιδεύσασθε παιδεύσησθε παιδεύσαισθε παιδεύσασθε
3 pl ἐπαιδεύσαντο παιδεύσωνται παιδεύσαιντο παιδευσάσθων

Lesson 7
Hesiod, the author of Works and Days, lived in the second section of the eighth century B.C. Reports of his
life are sketchy, but he clearly was a poet in the Homeric tradition. In addition to fragments that have been
preserved, his other major poem is the Theogony of 1020 lines. It sketches the 'births of the gods', beginning
with those of the nine Muses from the union of Zeus and Mnemosyne or Memory, and ending with the union
of Kalypso and Odysseus that resulted in two children. His language and subject matter is clearly less
elegant than that of Homer, but it has maintained its interest for providing information on everyday life and
for information on the views of the Greek peoples of his time.
Hesiod's Works and Days is a poem in the eastern tradition of wisdom literature. Addressed to his brother,
Perses, who is pictured as a ne'er-do-well, it consists of four parts in its 828 lines, each of approximately 200
lines. The rst part tells Perses that work is essential. It contains the lines excerpted here, which are of
especial interest in sketching the ages of man that correspond in part to the periods determined by
archeologists of our day, with the bronze age leading to the iron age, and so on. The second part provides
instructions on how to achieve prosperity through righteous actions and proper dealings with others. The
third part outlines the work that is necessary for success in farming, such as the type of work that is
essential in the four seasons. The last part indicates the proper time for activities, such as sailing to market
one's produce, marriage, and also for everyday activities, such as urinating and copulating. And last of all it
is essential to be aware of the good and bad days of the month for all of one's activities.
There is considerable agreement on the text of Works and Days; the lines here correspond to those of
Hesiod: Works and Days, ed. M. L. West (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978), which differ in a few respects from
the text of the Loeb Classical Library prepared by Hugh G. Evelyn-White with credit to W. H. D. Rouse (1914,
frequently reprinted). The differences are noted in the commentary.
χρύσεον µὲν πρώτιστα γένος µερόπων ἀνθρώπων

# (line 109)
χρύσεον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <χρύσεος> golden -- golden

πρώτιστα -- adverb; <πρώτιστα> rst of all -- rst of all
γένος -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <γένος> race -- race
µερόπων -- adjective; genitive plural masculine of <µέροψ> endowed with speech -- of speaking
ἀνθρώπων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἄνθρωπος> human being -- humans
ἀθάνατοι ποίησαν Ὀλύµπια δώµατ' ἔχοντες.
ἀθάνατοι -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <ἀθάνατος> immortal -- (the) immortals

ποίησαν -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <ποιέω> make, do -- made
ἔχοντες -- verb; nominative plural masculine of present participle of <ἔχω> have -- having
οἳ µὲν ἐπὶ Κρόνου ἦσαν, ὅτ' οὐρανῷ ἐµβασίλευεν.
οἳ -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <ὅς> this, that, he, she, it -- who
µὲν -- particle; <µέν> on the one hand -- ...
ἐπὶ -- preposition; <ἐπί> on, about -- at the time
Κρόνου -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Κρόνος> Cronos -- of Cronos
ἦσαν -- verb; 3rd person singular plural imperfect of <εἰµί> I am -- existed
ὅτ' -- conjunction; <ὅτε> when -- when
οὐρανῷ -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <οὐρανός> heaven -- in heaven
ἐµβασίλευεν -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <ἐµβασιλεύω> be king in -- was king (in)
ὥστε θεοὶ δ' ἔζωον ἀκηδέα θυµὸν ἔχοντες
ὥστε -- adverbial conjunction; <ὥστε> like, so that -- like

ἔζωον -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <ζώω> live -- they lived
ἀκηδέα -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <ἀκήδης> without sorrow -- without sorrow
θυµὸν -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <θυµός> soul, heart -- heart
νόσφιν ἄτερ τε πόνων καὶ οἰζύος·
νόσφιν -- adverb; <νόσφι> apart, afar, except -- apart

ἄτερ -- preposition; <ἄτερ> without -- without
πόνων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <πόνος> grief -- grief
οἰζύος -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <οἰζύς> misery, suffering -- suffering
αὐτὰρ ἐπεὶ δὴ τοῦτο γένος κατὰ γαῖα κάλυψεν

# (line 121; for κάλυψεν West omits the augment, as was done in ἐµ-βασίλευεν above, and maintains the
full form of γαῖα; others elide the final vowel of γαῖα and include the augment, e.g. γαῖ' ἐκάλυψε, where
the -ν is also omi ed. The line is repeated before the paragraphs on the third and fourth races.)
αὐτὰρ -- conjunction; <αὐτάρ> but -- but

ἐπεὶ -- conjunction; <ἐπεί> when, after -- after
κατὰ -- adverb; <κατά> completely, down, under -- under
γαῖα -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <γαῖα> land -- the earth
κάλυψεν -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <καλύπτω> cover -- covered
δεύτερον αὖτε γένος πολὺ χειρότερον µετόπισθεν

# (line 127)
δεύτερον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <δεύτερος> second -- second

αὖτε -- adverb; <αὖτε> then, again -- then
πολὺ -- adverb; <πολύς> many -- much
χειρότερον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter comparative of <κακός> evil, poor -- inferior
µετόπισθεν -- adverb; <µετόπισθε> afterwards -- somewhat later
ἀργύρεον ποίησαν Ὀλύµπια δώµατ' ἔχοντες,

# (For δώµατ' West elides the -α before a form whose root begins with a vowel.)
ἀργύρεον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <ἀργύρεος> silver -- of silver

ποίησαν -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <ποιέω> make, do -- made
χρυσέῳ οὔτε φυὴν ἐναλίγκιον οὔτε νόηµα.
χρυσέῳ -- adjective; dative singular neuter of <χρύσεος> golden -- the golden

οὔτε -- adverb; <οὔτε> neither, nor -- neither
φυὴν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <φύη> stature -- in stature
ἐναλίγκιον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <ἐναλίγκιος> resembling, like -- like
οὔτε -- adverb; <οὔτε> neither, nor -- nor
νόηµα -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <νόηµα> thought, understanding -- in understanding
Ζεὺς δὲ πατὴρ τρίτον ἄλλο γένος µερόπων ἀνθρώπων

# (line 143)
Ζεὺς -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Ζεύς> Zeus -- Zeus

πατὴρ -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <πατήρ> father -- father
τρίτον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <τρίτος> third -- third
ἄλλο -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <ἄλλος> other -- other
µερόπων -- adjective; genitive plural masculine of <µέροψ> endowed with speech -- endowed with
speech
ἀνθρώπων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἄνθρωπος> human being -- of humans
χάλκειον ποίησ' οὐκ ἀργυρέῳ οὐδὲν ὁµοῖον,
χάλκειον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <χάλκειος> of bronze -- bronze

ποίησ' -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <ποιέω> make, do -- made
οὐκ -- particle; <οὐκ> not -- not
ἀργυρέῳ -- adjective; dative singular neuter of <ἀργύρεος> silver -- to the silver (race)
οὐδὲν -- adverb; <οὐδέν> in no way -- in no way
ὁµοῖον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <ὅµοιος> like, similar -- like
ἐκ µελιᾶν, δεινόν τε καὶ ὄβριµον· οἷσιν Ἄρηος
ἐκ -- preposition; <ἐκ> from, out of -- out of

µελιᾶν -- noun, feminine; genitive plural of <µελία> the ash tree -- ash wood
δεινόν -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <δεινός> terrible -- terrible
ὄβριµον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <ὄβριµος> strong -- strong
οἷσιν -- demonstrative pronoun; dative plural masculine of <ὅς> this, that, he, she, it -- to them
Ἄρηος -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ἄρης> Ares -- of Ares
ἔργ' ἔµελε στονόεντα καὶ ὕβριες· οὐδέ τι σῖτον
ἔργ' -- noun, neuter; nominative plural of <ἔργον> work, deed -- works

ἔµελε -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <µέλω> to care, to be an object of care -- were loved
στονόεντα -- adjective; nominative singular neuter of <στονόεις> sad, wretched -- wretched
ὕβριες -- noun, neuter; nominative plural of <ὕβρις> violence -- violent acts
οὐδέ -- particle; <οὐδέ> not -- not
τι -- inde nite pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <τις> someone, something -- any
σῖτον -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <σῖτος> corn, bread -- bread
ἤσθιον, ἀλλ' ἀδάµαντος ἔχον κρατερόφρονα θυµόν
ἤσθιον -- verb; 3rd person plural aorist of <ἐσθίω> eat -- they did ...eat
ἀδάµαντος -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <ἀδάµας> steel -- of steel
ἔχον -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <ἔχω> have -- they had
κρατερόφρονα -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <κρατερόφρων> stout-hearted,
dauntless -- a dauntless
θυµόν -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <θυµός> soul, heart -- heart
αὔτις ἔτ' ἄλλο τέταρτον ἐπὶ χθονὶ πουλυβοτείρῃ

# (line 158)
αὔτις -- adverb; <αὔτις> again -- again

ἔτ' -- adverb; <ἔτι> still -- yet
ἄλλο -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <ἄλλος> other -- another
τέταρτον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <τέταρτος> fourth -- a fourth
χθονὶ -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <χθών> earth -- the earth
πουλυβοτείρῃ -- adjective; dative singular feminine of <πουλυβότειρα> all nourishing, fruitful -- fruitful
Ζεὺς Κρονίδης ποίησε, δικαιότερον καὶ ἄρειον,
Ζεὺς -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Ζεύς> Zeus -- Zeus

Κρονίδης -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <Κρονίδης> son of Kronos -- the son of Kronos
ποίησε -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <ποιέω> make, do -- made
δικαιότερον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of comparative of <δίκαιος> just, righteous -- more
righteous
ἄρειον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of comparative of <ἄγαθος> good -- better
ἀνδρῶν ἡρώων θεῖον γένος, οἵ καλέονται
ἀνδρῶν -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἀνήρ> man -- of men

ἡρώων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἥρως> hero -- (of) heroes
θεῖον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <θεῖος> divine, godlike -- godlike
οἵ -- relative pronoun; nominative plural masculine of <ὅς> who, which -- who
καλέονται -- verb; 3rd person plural present passive of <καλέω> call, summon -- are called
ἡµίθεοι, προτέρη γενεὴ κατ' ἀπείρονα γαῖαν.
ἡµίθεοι -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <ἡµίθεος> demi-god -- demi-gods

προτέρη -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <πρότερος> rst, before -- prior (to ours)
γενεὴ -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <γενεή> family, generation, race -- a race
κατ' -- preposition; <κατά> completely, down, under -- on
ἀπείρονα -- adjective; accusative singular feminine of <ἀπείρων> boundless -- the boundless
γαῖαν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <γαῖα> land -- earth
νῦν γὰρ δὴ γένος ἐστὶ σιδήρεον· οὐδέ ποτ' ἧµαρ

# (line 176)
νῦν -- adverb; <νῦν> now -- now

γὰρ -- conjunction; <γάρ> for -- and
γένος -- noun, neuter; nominative singular of <γένος> race -- the race
ἐστὶ -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <εἰµί> I am -- is
σιδήρεον -- adjective; nominative singular neuter of <σιδήρεος> of iron -- of iron
οὐδέ -- particle; <οὐδέ> not -- and ... not
ποτ' -- adverb; <ποτέ> at some time, ever -- ever
ἧµαρ -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <ἧµαρ> day -- by day
παύονται καµάτου καὶ οἰζύος, οὐδέ τι νύκτωρ
παύονται -- verb; 3rd person plural present middle of <παύω> stop, cease -- they do ...stop
καµάτου -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <κάµατος> toil, labor -- laboring
οἰζύος -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <οἰζύς> misery, suffering -- suffering
οὐδέ -- particle; <οὐδέ> not -- and . . . not
τι -- adverb; <τι> in any way -- at all
νύκτωρ -- adverb; <νύκτωρ> by night -- by night
φθειρόµενοι χαλεπὰς δὲ θεοὶ δώσουσι µερίµνας
φθειρόµενοι -- verb; nominative plural masculine of participle middle of <φθείρω> perish -- perishing
χαλεπὰς -- adjective; accusative plural feminine of <χαλεπός> di cult -- di cult
θεοὶ -- noun, masculine; nominative plural of <θεός> god -- the gods
δώσουσι -- verb; 3rd person plural future of <δίδωµι> give -- will give
µερίµνας -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <µέριµνα> care, anxious thought -- anxieties
ἀλλ' ἔµπης καὶ τοῖσι µεµείχεται ἐσθλὰ κακοῖσιν

ἔµπης -- adverb; <ἔµπης> nevertheless -- nevertheless
τοῖσι -- article; dative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- for them
µεµείχεται -- verb; 3rd person singular perfect passive of <µίγνυµι> mix -- will be mixed
ἐσθλὰ -- adjective used as substantive; nominative plural neuter of <ἐσθλόν> good -- good things
κακοῖσιν -- adjective; dative plural neuter of <κακός> evil, poor -- with evils
Lesson Text
χρύσεον µὲν πρώτιστα γένος µερόπων ἀνθρώπων
# (line 109) ἀθάνατοι ποίησαν Ὀλύµπια δώµατ' ἔχοντες.
οἳ µὲν ἐπὶ Κρόνου ἦσαν, ὅτ' οὐρανῷ ἐµβασίλευεν.
ὥστε θεοὶ δ' ἔζωον ἀκηδέα θυµὸν ἔχοντες
νόσφιν ἄτερ τε πόνων καὶ οἰζύος·
αὐτὰρ ἐπεὶ δὴ τοῦτο γένος κατὰ γαῖα κάλυψεν
# (line 121; for κάλυψεν West omits the augment, as was done in ἐµ-βασίλευεν above, and maintains
the full form of γαῖα; others elide the final vowel of γαῖα and include the augment, e.g. γαῖ' ἐκάλυψε,
where the -ν is also omi ed. The line is repeated before the paragraphs on the third and fourth races.)
δεύτερον αὖτε γένος πολὺ χειρότερον µετόπισθεν
# (line 127) ἀργύρεον ποίησαν Ὀλύµπια δώµατ' ἔχοντες,
# (For δώµατ' West elides the -α before a form whose root begins with a vowel.) χρυσέῳ οὔτε φυὴν
ἐναλίγκιον οὔτε νόηµα.
Ζεὺς δὲ πατὴρ τρίτον ἄλλο γένος µερόπων ἀνθρώπων
# (line 143) χάλκειον ποίησ' οὐκ ἀργυρέῳ οὐδὲν ὁµοῖον,
ἐκ µελιᾶν, δεινόν τε καὶ ὄβριµον· οἷσιν Ἄρηος
ἔργ' ἔµελε στονόεντα καὶ ὕβριες· οὐδέ τι σῖτον
ἤσθιον, ἀλλ' ἀδάµαντος ἔχον κρατερόφρονα θυµόν
αὔτις ἔτ' ἄλλο τέταρτον ἐπὶ χθονὶ πουλυβοτείρῃ
# (line 158) Ζεὺς Κρονίδης ποίησε, δικαιότερον καὶ ἄρειον,
ἀνδρῶν ἡρώων θεῖον γένος, οἵ καλέονται
ἡµίθεοι, προτέρη γενεὴ κατ' ἀπείρονα γαῖαν.
νῦν γὰρ δὴ γένος ἐστὶ σιδήρεον· οὐδέ ποτ' ἧµαρ
# (line 176) παύονται καµάτου καὶ οἰζύος, οὐδέ τι νύκτωρ
φθειρόµενοι χαλεπὰς δὲ θεοὶ δώσουσι µερίµνας
ἀλλ' ἔµπης καὶ τοῖσι µεµείχεται ἐσθλὰ κακοῖσιν
Translation
First of all the immortal gods, who live on Olympus, made a golden race of mortal men who lived in the
time of Cronos when he was king in heaven. And they lived like gods having a life without sorrow,
remote and without grief and suffering. ... But somewhat later after the earth covered this generation,
those having Olympian homes made a second generation, silver, inferior, like the golden neither in
stature nor in understanding. ... Father Zeus made a third, different race of humans endowed with
speech, bronze out of the ash tree, in no way like the silver race, terrible and strong. The wretched
works and violent acts of Ares were loved by them, and did not eat any bread, but they in exibly
maintained a dauntless spirit. ... Yet again Zeus, the son of Cronos, made another, the fourth, on the
fruitful earth, that was more righteons and better, a godlike race of men, heroes, who are called
demigods, the race prior to ours, on the boundless earth. ... And now indeed the race is of iron, and
they do not stop laboring and suffering by day, and not at all from perishing by night. Indeed the gods
give them di cult anxieties. But nevertheless, also for them, good will be mixed with evils.
Grammar
31 In ection of adjectives and participles.
Section 12 provided the in ection of the most common adjectives, Here that of adjectives with consonantal
stems is given for the adjective ἄκων 'unwilling'; it applies also to present participles.
Nom. sg. ἄκων ἄκουσα ἄκον
Gen. sg. ἄκοντος ἀκούσης ἀκοντος
Dat. sg. ἄκοντι ἀκούσῃ ἄκοντι
Acc. sg. ἄκοντα ἄκουσαν ἄκον

Nom. pl. ἄκοντες ἄκουσαι ἄκοντα
Gen. pl. ἀκόντων ἀκουσῶν ἀκόντων
Dat. pl. ἄκουσι(ν) ἀκούσαις ἄκουσι(ν)
Acc. pl. ἄκοντας ἀκούσας ἄκοντα
The frequent adjective, πᾶς 'all, whole' is also in ected in this way; the nominative and genitive singular are
given as an illustration.
Nom. sg. πᾶς πᾶσα πᾶν
Gen. sg. παντός πάσης παντός
The nominative forms of other consonantal adjectives are given in dictionaries; the other cases may be
identi ed with the help of the forms given above.
32 Two frequently occurring adjectives.

The forms of two frequently ocurring adjectives are given here in view of their common occurrence, µέγας
'great' and πολύς 'much'.
Nom. sg. µέγας µεγάλη µέγα
Gen. sg. µεγάλου µεγάλης µεγάλου
Dat. sg. µεγάλῳ µεγάλῃ µεγάλῳ
Acc. sg. µέγαν µεγάλην µέγα

Nom. pl. µεγάλοι µεγάλαι µεγάλα
Gen. pl. µεγάλων µεγάλων µεγάλων
Dat. pl. µεγάλοις µεγάλαις µεγάλοις
Acc. pl. µεγάλους µεγάλας µεγάλα
Nom. sg. πολύς πολλή πόλυ
Gen. sg. πολλοῦ πολλῆς πολλοῦ
Dat. sg. πολλῷ πολλῇ πολλῴ
Acc. sg. πολύν πολλήν πολύ

Nom. pl. πολλοί πολλαί πολλά
Gen. pl. πολλῶν πολλῶν πολλῶν
Dat. pl. πολλοῖς πολλαῖς πολλοῖς
Acc. pl. πολλούς πολλάς πολλά
33 Less frequent patterns of adjectival comparison.

The most frequent type of comparison with the su xes -τερος, -τατος was given in section 22. Some
common adjectives have different su xes, as noted there for κακός, with its comparative in κακίων
'worse'and superlative κάκιστος. Similarly, καλός 'beautiful' has the forms καλλίων and κάλλιστος, ἐχθρός
'hostile' has the forms έχθίων, ἔχθιστος.
Other adjectives have different roots in the comparative and superlative forms. Some have several types of
comparison, with differing connotations for the various types.
άγαθ́ος 'good' ἀµείνων ἄριστος 'clever, brave'
βελτίων βέλτιστος 'virtuous'
κρείττων κράτιστος 'strong, superior'
κακός 'bad' χείρων χείριστος 'less good'
ἥττων ἥκιστος 'weaker'
µέγας 'great' µείζων µέγιστος
µικρός 'small' µικρότερος µικρότατος
ἐλάττων ἐλαχ́ιστος (also applies to ὀλίγος)
ὀλίγος 'little' µείων ---
πολύς 'much' πλείων πλεῖστος
34 Aorist of the passive.

As noted in section 30, the aorist in the passive differs from that in the middle.
1 sg ἐπαιδεύθην παιδευθῶ παιδευθείην
2 sg ἐπαιδεύθης παιδευθῇς παιδευθείης παιδεύθητι
3 sg ἐπαιδεύθη παιδευθῇ παιδευθείη παιδευθήτω

1 pl ἐπαιδεύθηµεν παιδευθῶµενͅ παιδευθείηµεν
2 pl ἐπαιδεύθητε παιδευθῆτε παιδευθείητε παιδεύθητε
3 pl ἐπαιδεύθησαν παιδευθῶσι παιδευθείησαν παιδευθέντων
35 In nitives and participles of the aorist middle and passive.
Middle Passive
In nitive παιδεύσασθαι παιδευθήσεσθαι

'to educate' 'to be educated'
Participle παιδευσάµενος, -η, -ον παιδευθείς, -θεῖσα, -θέν

'one who educated' 'be educated'

Lesson 8
Plato is probably the most in uential Greek philosopher, as well as one of the greatest in the western world.
Born in 429 or 428 B.C., he died in 347 B.C. At the age of twenty he became a follower of Socrates, and
remained with him until his death in 399 B.C. After that time he traveled in Egypt, Sicily and lower Italy. He
then founded a philosophical school in the Academus grove, from which it is known as the Academy. He
produced many dialogues, of which The Laws and the Republic are the most extensive. Socrates conducts
the dialogues in which the ideas are discussed. Western philosophers and editors have achieved distinction
through their attention to his works, among them Jowett for his translation of the Republic.

The Republic is Plato's major work. In it he discusses, through the mouth of Socrates, the bases of an ideal
state. The major ideas deal with human improvement and with the love of truth, as well as the supremacy of
mind. The state or city is essential because, without it, individuals cannot be provided with the necessities
of life, such as food, shelter, and clothing. Moreover, education is highly important for achieving an ideal
state. The four cardinal virtues must be observed, and the three classes must have the desired virtues. The
rulers must be wise; the soldiers must be brave and aware of what is to be feared; all others as well must
apply moderation and temperance. The health of the state is based on justice, which requires that each
class carry out its proper functions. These ideas are presented in the rst ve books. In the sixth book the
prerequisites of higher education are discussed; in the seventh, specialization in the mathematical sciences
and dialectic. The eighth book deals with the four types of states that differ from the ideal:
1. Timocracy, where honor is the basic principle;
2. Oligarchy, where emphasis is on wealth;
3. Democracy, where emphasis is on liberty, often on doing what one likes;
4. Tyranny, where there is slavery to appetite.
The ninth book deals with the difference between the just and the unjust life. The tenth book is a kind of
conclusion that emphasizes the importance of righteousness and sobriety.
Choice among the many excellent sections of the Republic is di cult; this passage from Book VI, section
XIII, provides insight into the ideal man; it has affected authors from Boethius through Dante to Matthew
Arnold.
Οὐδὲ γάρ που, ὦ Ἀδείµαντε, σχολὴ τῷ γε ὡς ἀληθῶς πρὸς τοῖς οἶσι τὴν διάνοιαν ἔχοντι κάτω βλέπειν
εἰς ἀνθρώπων πραγµατείας.

γάρ -- conjunction; <γάρ> for -- for
που -- adverb; <που> anywhere, perhaps -- anywhere
ὦ -- exclamation; <ῶ> Oh -- Oh
Ἀδείµαντε -- noun, masculine; vocative singular of <Αδείµαντος> Adeimontus -- Adeimontus
σχολὴ -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <σχολή> leisure -- there is ... leisure
τῷ -- article; dative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- for the one
γε -- particle; <γε> indeed -- at all
ὡς -- adverb; <ὡς> so, thus -- thus
ἀληθῶς -- adverb; <ἀληθῶς> really, truly -- truly
πρὸς -- preposition; <πρός> to -- on
οἶσι -- participle used as substantive; dative plural neuter of present participle of <εἰµί> I am -- (beings)
eternal verities
τὴν -- article; accusative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- (the) his
διάνοιαν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular <διάνοια> thought, mind -- mind
ἔχοντι -- verb; dative singular masculine present participle of <ἔχω> have -- (who) has
κάτω -- adverb; <κάτω> downward -- downward
βλέπειν -- verb; in nitive of <βλέπω> see -- to look
εἰς -- preposition; <εἰς> towards -- at
ἀνθρώπων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἄνθρωπος> human being -- of human beings
πραγµατείας -- noun, feminine; accusative plural of <πραγµατεία> hard work, affairs -- the affairs
καὶ µαχόµενον αὐτοῖς φθόνου τε καὶ δυσµενείας ἐµπίπλασθαι,

µαχόµενον -- deponent verb; accusative singular masculine of present participle of <µάχοµαι> ght,
quarrel -- quarreling
αὐτοῖς -- pronoun; dative plural masculine of <αὐτός> oneself, he -- with them
φθόνου -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <φθόνος> envy, ill-will -- with ill-will
δυσµενείας -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <δυσµένεια> enmity, hate -- hate
ἐµπίπλασθαι -- verb; in nitive passive of <ἐµπίπληµι> ll -- to be lled
ἀλλ' εἰς τεταγµένα ἅττα καὶ κατὰ ταῦτὰ ἀεὶ ἔχοντα ὁρῶντας καὶ θεωµένους οὔτ' ἀδικοῦντα οὔτ'
ἀδικούµενα ὑπ' ἀλλήλων, κόσµῳ δὲ πάντα καὶ κατὰ λόγον ἔχοντα, ταῦτα µιµεῖσθαί τε καὶ ὅ τι
µάλιστα ἀφοµοιοῦσθαι.

εἰς -- preposition; <εἰς> towards -- towards
τεταγµένα -- verb; accusative plural neuter of passive participle of <τάσσω> arrange, put in order --
has been arranged, i.e. is eternal
ἅττα -- pronoun; accusative plural neuter of <ὅστις> whoever, whatever -- what
κατὰ -- preposition; <κατά> completely, down, under -- in accordance with
ταῦτὰ -- article; accusative plural neuter of <ὁ> the + pronoun; <αὐτός> oneself, he -- the things
ἀεὶ -- adverb; <ἀεί> always -- constant
ἔχοντα -- verb; accusative plural neuter of participle of <ἔχω> have -- (being) that are
ὁρῶντας -- verb; accusative plural masculine of participle of <ὁράω> see -- he keeps his eyes xed
θεωµένους -- deponent verb; accusative plural masculine of middle participle of <θεάοµαι> see -- sees
οὔτ' -- adverb; <οὔτε> neither, nor -- neither
ἀδικοῦντα -- verb; accusative plural neuter of participle of <ἀδικέω> wrong -- wrong
οὔτ' -- adverb; <οὔτε> neither, nor -- nor
ἀδικούµενα -- verb; accusative plural neuter of passive participle of <ἀδικέω> wrong -- wronged
ὑπ' -- preposition; <ὑπό> under, by -- by
ἀλλήλων -- pronoun; genitive plural neuter of <ἀλλήλων> one another -- by one another
κόσµῳ -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <κόσµος> beauty, order, world -- order
πάντα -- adjective used as substantive; accusative plural neuter of <πᾶς> all, every -- everything
κατὰ -- preposition; <κατά> completely, down, under -- in accordance with
λόγον -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <λόγος> word, reason -- reason
ἔχοντα -- verb; accusative plural neuter of participle of <ἔχω> have -- that is
ταῦτα -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative plural neuter of <οὗτος> this -- things
µιµεῖσθαί -- deponent verb; in nitive middle of <µιµέοµαι> imitate -- he will imitate
ὅ -- relative pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <ὅς> who, which -- what
τι -- inde nite pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <τις> someone, something -- that
µάλιστα -- adverb; superlative of <µάλα> very -- as much as possible
ἀφοµοιοῦσθαι -- verb; passive in nitive of <ἀφοµοιο̃ω> to make like -- become like
ἤ οἴει τινὰ µηχανὴν εἶναι, ὅτῳ τις ὁµιλεῖ ἀγάµενος, µὴ µιµεῖσθαι ἐκεῖνο;
ἤ -- conjunction; <ἤ> or, than -- or

οἴει -- deponent verb; 2nd person singular present middle of <οἶµαι> think -- do you think
τινὰ -- inde nite pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <τις> someone, something -- it
µηχανὴν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <µηχανή> instrument -- possible
ὅτῳ -- relative pronoun; dative singular neuter of <ὅστις> whoever, whatever -- with something
τις -- inde nite pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <τις> someone, something -- (if) someone
ὁµιλεῖ -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <ὁµιλέω> consort with, busy oneself with -- busies
himself
ἀγάµενος -- deponent verb; nominative singular masculine of middle participle of <ἄγαµαι> to
wonder, admire -- admiringly
µιµεῖσθαι -- deponent verb; in nitive middle of <µιµέοµαι> imitate -- (would) ...imitate
ἐκεῖνο -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <ἐκεῖνος> that -- that
Ἀδύνατον, ἔφη.
ἀδύνατον -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <ἀδύνατος> impossible -- (it is) impossible
ἔφη -- verb; 2nd person singular imperfect of <φηµί> say -- he said
Θείῳ δὴ καὶ κοσµίῳ ὅ γε φιλόσοφος ὁµιλῶν κόσµιός τε καὶ θεῖος εἰς δυνατὸν ἀνθρώπῳ γίγνεται.
θείῳ -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <θεῖος> deity, divinity -- the divine
κοσµίῳ -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <κόσµιος> decorum, order -- order
ὅ -- article; nominative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
γε -- particle; <γε> indeed -- ...
φιλόσοφος -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <φιλόσοφος> wise man -- wise man
ὁµιλῶν -- verb; nominative singular masculine of present participle of <ὁµιλέω> consort with, busy
oneself with -- who busies himself with
κόσµιός -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <κόσµιος> orderly -- orderly
θεῖος -- adjective; nominative singular masculine of <θεῖος> divine, godlike -- divine
εἰς -- preposition; <εἰς> towards -- to
δυνατὸν -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <δυνατός> possible -- the extent possible
ἀνθρώπῳ -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <ἄνθρωπος> human being -- for a human
γίγνεται -- deponent verb; 3rd person singular present of <γίγνοµαι> happen, become -- will become
διαβολὴ δ' ἐν πᾶσι πολλή.
διαβολὴ -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <διαβολή> false accusation, calumny -- calumny
πᾶσι -- adjective; dative plural neuter of <πᾶς> all, every -- everything
πολλή -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <πολύς> many -- (is) plentiful
Παντάπασι µὲν οὖν.
παντάπασι -- adverb; <παντάπασι> absolutely -- absolutely

οὖν -- adverb; <οὖν> indeed -- to be sure
Ἄν οὖν τις, εἶπον, αὐτῳ ἀνάγκη γένεται ἅ ἐκεῖ ὁρᾷ µελετῆσαι εἰς ἀνθρώπων ἤθη καὶ ἰδίᾳ καὶ δηµοσίᾳ
τίθεναι, καὶ µὴ µόνον ἑαυτὸν πλάττειν,
ἄν -- particle; <ἄν> if -- supposing

οὖν -- adverb; <οὖν> indeed -- then
τις -- inde nite pronoun; nominative singular feminine of <τις> someone, something -- someone
εἶπον -- verb; 1st person singular aorist of <λέγω> say -- I said
αὐτῳ -- pronoun; dative singular masculine of <αὐτός> oneself, he -- for him
ἀνάγκη -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <ἀνάγκη> force, compulsion -- force
γένεται -- deponent verb; 3rd person singular present subjunctive of <γίγνοµαι> happen, become -- is
applied
ἅ -- relative pronoun; accusative plural neuter of <ὅς> who, which -- which
ἐκεῖ -- adverb; <ἐκεῖ> there -- there
ὁρᾷ -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <ὁράω> see -- he sees
µελετῆσαι -- verb; aorist in nitive of <µελετάω> care for, practice -- to practice
εἰς -- preposition; <εἰς> towards -- ...
ἀνθρώπων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἄνθρωπος> human being -- of humans
ἤθη -- noun, neuter; accusative plural of <ἦθος> custom, character -- the manners
ἰδίᾳ -- adverb; <ἰδίᾳ> privately -- privately
δηµοσίᾳ -- adverb; <δηµοσίᾳ> in public -- in public
τίθεναι -- verb; in nitive of <τίθηµι> put, place -- arranging
µόνον -- adverb; <µόνον> alone -- alone
ἑαυτὸν -- re exive pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <ἑαυτός> himself -- himself
πλάττειν -- verb; in nitive of <πλάττω> mould, shape -- moulding
ἆρα κακὸν δηµιουργὸν αὐτὸν οἴει γενήσεσθαι σωφροσύνης τε καὶ δικαιοσύνης καὶ ξυµπάσης τῆς
δηµοτικῆς ἀρετῆς;
ἆρα -- interrogative particle; <ἆρα> then -- then

κακὸν -- adjective; accusative singular masculine of <κακός> evil, poor -- a poor
δηµιουργὸν -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <δηµιουργός> craftsman -- craftsman
αὐτὸν -- pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <αὐτός> oneself, he -- he
οἴει -- deponent verb; 2nd person singular present middle of <οἶµαι> think -- do you consider
γενήσεσθαι -- deponent verb; in nitive future middle of <γίγνοµαι> happen, become -- will become
σωφροσύνης -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <σωφροσύνη> moderation, discretion -- of
discretion
δικαιοσύνης -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <δικαιοσύνη> justice, righteousness -- of justice
ξυµπάσης -- adjective; genitive singular feminine of <ξύµπας> all together -- of all kinds
δηµοτικῆς -- adjective; genitive singular feminine of <δηµοτικός> of the people, in common use --
common
ἀρετῆς -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <ἀρετῆ> virtue -- virtue
Ἥκιστά γε, ἧ δ' ὅς.
ἥκιστά -- adverb; <ἥκιστα> least -- not at all

ἧ -- adverb; <ἧ> verily -- in truth
δ' -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- ...
ὅς -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <ὅς> this, that, he, she, it -- he (said)
Lesson Text
Οὐδὲ γάρ που, ὦ Ἀδείµαντε, σχολὴ τῷ γε ὡς ἀληθῶς πρὸς τοῖς οἶσι τὴν διάνοιαν ἔχοντι κάτω
βλέπειν εἰς ἀνθρώπων πραγµατείας. καὶ µαχόµενον αὐτοῖς φθόνου τε καὶ δυσµενείας
ἐµπίπλασθαι, ἀλλ' εἰς τεταγµένα ἅττα καὶ κατὰ ταῦτὰ ἀεὶ ἔχοντα ὁρῶντας καὶ θεωµένους οὔτ'
ἀδικοῦντα οὔτ' ἀδικούµενα ὑπ' ἀλλήλων, κόσµῳ δὲ πάντα καὶ κατὰ λόγον ἔχοντα, ταῦτα
µιµεῖσθαί τε καὶ ὅ τι µάλιστα ἀφοµοιοῦσθαι. ἤ οἴει τινὰ µηχανὴν εἶναι, ὅτῳ τις ὁµιλεῖ ἀγάµενος,
µὴ µιµεῖσθαι ἐκεῖνο; Ἀδύνατον, ἔφη. Θείῳ δὴ καὶ κοσµίῳ ὅ γε φιλόσοφος ὁµιλῶν κόσµιός τε καὶ
θεῖος εἰς δυνατὸν ἀνθρώπῳ γίγνεται. διαβολὴ δ' ἐν πᾶσι πολλή. Παντάπασι µὲν οὖν. Ἄν οὖν τις,
εἶπον, αὐτῳ ἀνάγκη γένεται ἅ ἐκεῖ ὁρᾷ µελετῆσαι εἰς ἀνθρώπων ἤθη καὶ ἰδίᾳ καὶ δηµοσίᾳ
τίθεναι, καὶ µὴ µόνον ἑαυτὸν πλάττειν, ἆρα κακὸν δηµιουργὸν αὐτὸν οἴει γενήσεσθαι
σωφροσύνης τε καὶ δικαιοσύνης καὶ ξυµπάσης τῆς δηµοτικῆς ἀρετῆς; Ἥκιστά γε, ἧ δ' ὅς.
Translation
"For there is no leisure at all anywhere, Oh Adeimontus, for the one who truly has his mind on the
eternal verities to look downward at the affairs of human beings, and quarreling with them to be lled
with ill-will and hate. But he keeps his eyes xed on what is eternal and on the things that are constant,
and sees neither what is wrong nor wronged by one another; and he will imitate everything that is in
accordance with reason, and become like that as much as possible. Or do you think it to be possible if
someone busies himself with something admiringly not to imitate that?" He said it is impossible.
"Then the wise man who busies himself with the divine and with order will become orderly and divine
to the extent possible for a human. But calumny is plentiful in everything." "Absolutely, to be sure."
"Suppose then, I said, some force is applied to him to practice arranging both privately and in public
the manners of humans which he sees there, and not moulding himself alone. Then do you consider
that he will become a poor craftsman with regard to discretion and justice and all kinds of common
virtues?" "Not at all, in truth," he said.
Grammar
36 Tense formation.
To identify verbal forms, it is useful to note the principal parts. Illustrations are provided here, rst with the
so-called pure verbs, that is, those for which the stems are not modi ed by the endings. Examples are:
παιδεύω 'educate', τιµάω 'honor', ποιέω 'make'.
Present παιδεύω τιµάω ποιέω
Future παιδεύσω τιµήσω ποιήσω
Aorist active ἐπαίδευσα ἐτίµησα ἐποιήσα
Perfect active πεπαίδευκα τετίµηκα πεποίηκα
Perfect middle πεπαίδευµαι τετίµηµαι πεποίηµαι
Aorist passive ἐπαιδεύθην ἐτιµήθην ἐποιήθην
37 Tense formation of obstruent stems.

In stems ending in obstruent consonants, that is, those ending in stops or fricatives, the consonant of the
stem is modi ed before the tense markers. Examples are given here for πείθω 'persade', πράττω 'do', ἄγω
'lead', and γράφω 'write'.
Present πείθω πράττω ἄγω γράφω
Future πείσω πράξω ἄξω γράψα
Aorist active ἔπεισα ἔπραξα ἤγαγον ἔγραψα
Perfect active πέπεικα πέπραχα ἦχα γέγραφα
Perfect middle πέπεισµαι πέπραγµαι ἤγµαι γέγραµµαι
Aorist passive ἐπείσθην ἐπράχθην ἤχθην ἐγράφθην
38 Tense formation of resonant stems.

Stems ending in resonants may fail to have the future/aorist marker. Examples are φαίνω 'appear',
ἀγγέλλω 'announce', and σπείρω 'sow'.
Present φαίνω ἀγγέλλω σπείρω
Future φανῶ ἀγγελῶ σπερῶ
Aorist active ἔφηνα ἤγγειλα ἔσπειρα
Perfect active πέφαγκα ἤγγελκα ἔσπαρκα
Perfect middle πέφασµαι ἤγγελµαι ἔσπαρµαι
Aorist passive ἐφάνθην ἠγγέλθην ἔσπάρθην
39 The tense formations of some frequent but irregular verbs.

Some verb forms are quite irregular. Some forms of ἔχω 'have' are based on its ancient root *σεχ-. The
forms of φέρω 'bear' are based on several roots. The forms of λέγω, φηµί, ἀγορεύω 'say, speak' are also
based on various roots.
Present ἔχω φέρω λέγω (etc.)
Future ἕξω οἴσω έρῶ
Aorist active ἔσχον ἤνεγκον εἶπον
Perfect active ἔσχηκα ἐνήνοχα εἴρηκα
Perfect middle ἔσχηµαι ἐνήνεγµαι εἴρηµαι
Aorist passive ἔσχοµην ἠνέχθην ἐρρήθην
40 The Middle and Passive Perfect.

The forms are the same in the two voices. The subjunctive and optative have forms of the verb 'to be' after
the participle (not repeated in the optative, below). They are as follows:
Indicative Preterite Subjunctive Opt.
1s πεπαίδευµαι ἐπεπαιδεύµην πεπαιδευµένος ω ᾿̃ εἴην
2s πεπαίδευσαι έπεπαίδευσο --- ἦς εἴης
3s πεπαίδευται ἐπεπαίδευτο --- ἦ εἴη

1p πεπαιδεύµεθα ἐπεπαιδεύµεθα πεπαιδευµένοι ὦµεν εἴηµεν
2p πεπαίδευσθε ἐπεπαιδεύσθε --- ἦτε εἴτηε
3p πεπαίδευνται ἐπεπαίδευντο --- ὦσι εἴησιν

Lesson 9
Aristotle was born in Macedonia in 384 BC. In 367 BC he went to Athens to study with Plato. Plato had a
high regard for him, calling him the "intellect of his school." He stayed in Athens until the death of Plato in
347 BC, and after several residences elsewhere he was invited in 342 BC by Philip of Macedonia to instruct
his son, Alexander, who was then 13. In 335 BC Aristotle returned to Athens where the state gave him the
Lyceum. In the walks surrounding it he gave lectures on philosophy to many scholars while walking up and
down, for which the school was named Peripatetic. He remained head of the school until 323 BC, when he
left Athens for Euboea, where he died in 322 BC. His treatises and lectures on philosophy have always been
highly regarded.
The Poetics is the last work of Aristotle. It is not as widely cited as his Metaphysics, nor his Nicomachean
Ethics, but was selected here to illustrate his interest also in the arts. He is considered to be the rst literary
critic. For him, the arts represent essential truths apprehended by the mind. He proceeds to analyze works
of literature, as for their style and for the construction of their plot. Style of poetry is to be judged by the
employment of meter and selection of vocabulary. For a plot, unity is essential, and among other things the
type of hero. In his rst sentence Aristotle states the aim for the treatise as depicting the essence of poetry,
its various types, and the requirements for successful plots. Among the types are epic poetry, tragedy and
comedy, and dithyrambic poetry as well as most ute- and harp-playing. For all of these he demands
mimesis, or imitation of life. And he accounts for interest in them because humans have an instinct for
representation and because they enjoy representations. The Poetics is relatively short, but also very
compact, as the selection here illustrates. The selection below is from book IV: 22-26.
Ἀρχὴ µὲν οὖν καὶ οἶον ψυχὴ ὁ µῦθος τῆς τραγῳδίας, δεύτερον δὲ τὰ ἤθη.
ἀρχὴ -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <ἀρχή> beginning, rst principle -- rst principle
οὖν -- adverb; <οὖν> indeed -- truly
οἶον -- adverb; <οἶον> so to say -- so to say
ψυχὴ -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <ψυχή> soul -- the soul
ὁ -- article; nominative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
µῦθος -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <µῦθος> speech, plot -- plot
τῆς -- article; genitive singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- of ...
τραγῳδίας -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <τραγῳδία> tragedy -- tragedy
δεύτερον -- adverb; <δεύτερον> second -- the second
τὰ -- article; nominative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- ta
ἤθη -- noun, neuter; nominative plural of <ἦθος> custom, character -- character
παραπλήσιον γάρ ἐστιν καὶ ἐπὶ τῆς γραφικῆς.
παραπλήσιον -- adjective; nominative singular neuter of <παραπλήσιος> such-like -- the same

γάρ -- conjunction; <γάρ> for -- indeed
ἐστιν -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <εἰµί> I am -- it is
ἐπὶ -- preposition; <ἐπί> on, about -- in
τῆς -- article; genitive singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- ...
γραφικῆς -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <γραφικῆ> painting -- painting
εἰ γάρ τις ἐναλείψειε τοῖς καλλίστοις φαρµάκοις χύδην, οὐκ ἂν ὁµοίως εὐφράνειεν καὶ λευκογραφήσας
εἰκόνα.
εἰ -- conjunction; <εἰ> if -- if
γάρ -- conjunction; <γάρ> for -- for
τις -- inde nite pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <τις> someone, something -- someone
ἐναλείψειε -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist optative of <ἐναλείψω> paint, smear -- painted
τοῖς -- article; dative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- with the
καλλίστοις -- adjective; dative plural neuter of superlative of <καλός> good, beautiful -- best
φαρµάκοις -- noun, neuter; dative plural of <φάρµακον> paint, color -- colors
χύδην -- adverb; <χύδην> at random, promiscuously -- at random
ἂν -- particle; <ἄν> if -- ...
ὁµοίως -- adverb; <ὁµοίως> similarly -- as much
εὐφράνειεν -- verb; 3rd person singular optative aorist of <εὐφραίνω> delight, please -- it would
...delight
καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- as
λευκογραφήσας -- verb; nominative singular masculine of aorist participle of <λευκο-γραφέω> paint
in white on a black background -- painting . . . in white on a black background
εἰκόνα -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <εἰκών> image, portrait -- an image
ἔστιν τε µίµησις πράξεως καὶ διὰ ταύτην µάλιστα τῶν πραττόντων.
ἔστιν -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <εἰµί> I am -- it is

µίµησις -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <µίµησις> representation -- a representation
πράξεως -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <πράξις> action in actual life -- of action in actual life
διὰ -- preposition; <διά> through, by -- because of
ταύτην -- demonstrative pronoun; accusative singular feminine of <οὗτος> this -- that
µάλιστα -- adverb; superlative of <µάλα> very -- most of all
πραττόντων -- verb; genitive plural masculine of present participle of <πράττω> achieve, manage -- of
those in action
Τρίτον δὲ ἡ διάνοια.
τρίτον -- adjective; nominative singular neuter of <τρίτος> third -- the third (element)
διάνοια -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <διάνοια> thought, mind -- thought
τοῦτο δέ ἐστιν τὸ λέγειν δύνασθαι τὰ ἐνόντα καὶ τὰ ἁρµόττοντα.
τοῦτο -- demonstrative pronoun; nominative singular neuter of <οὗτος> this -- this

δέ -- particle; <δέ> and, on the other hand -- and
ἐστιν -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <εἰµί> I am -- is
λέγειν -- verb; in nitive of <λέγω> say -- to say
δύνασθαι -- deponent verb; in nitive of <δύναµαι> be able -- the ability
τὰ -- article; accusative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- (the) what is
ἐνόντα -- verb; accusative plural neuter of participle of <ἔνειµι> to be in, to be possible -- possible
τὰ -- article; accusative plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- (the) what is
ἁρµόττοντα -- verb; accusative plural neuter of present participle of <ἁρµόττω> t together -- tting
ὅπερ ἐπὶ τῶν λόγων τῆς πολιτικῆς καὶ τῆς ῥητορικῆς ἔργον ἐστίν.
ὅπερ -- relative pronoun; nominative singular neuter of <ὅσπερ> it -- it

ἐπὶ -- preposition; <ἐπί> on, about -- in
λόγων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <λόγος> word, reason -- the words
πολιτικῆς -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <πολιτική> politics -- politics
ῥητορικῆς -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <ῥητορική> rhetoric -- rhetorician
ἔργον -- noun, neuter; nominative singular of <ἔργον> work, deed -- (in the) activities
ἐστίν -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <εἰµί> I am -- is (provided)
οἱ µὲν γὰρ ἀρχαῖοι πολιτικῶς ἐποίουν λέγοντας, οἱ δὲ νῦν ῥητορικῶς.

γὰρ -- conjunction; <γάρ> for -- indeed
ἀρχαῖοι -- adjective; nominative plural masculine of <ἀρχαιος> old -- old (writers)
πολιτικῶς -- adverb; <πολιτικῶς> like statesmen -- like statesmen
ἐποίουν -- verb; 3rd person plural imperfect of <ποιέω> make, do -- made
λέγοντας -- verb; accusative plural masculine of present participle of <λέγω> say -- (those speaking)
the characters speak
νῦν -- adverb; <νῦν> now -- current (writers)
ῥητορικῶς -- adverb; <ῥητορικῶς> like rhetoricians -- like rhetoricians
Ἔστιν δὲ ἦθος µὲν τὸ τοιοῦτον ὃ δηλοῖ τὴν προαίρεσιν, ὁποῖά τις ἐν οἷς οὐκ ἔστι δῆλον ἤ προαιρεῖται ἤ
φεύγει.
ἔστιν -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <εἰµί> I am -- is

ἦθος -- noun, neuter; nominative singular of <ἦθος> custom, character -- character
µὲν -- particle; <µέν> on the one hand -- and
τοιοῦτον -- adjective; nominative singular neuter of <τοιοῦτος> such -- that
ὃ -- relative pronoun; nominative singular neuter of <ὅς> who, which -- which
δηλοῖ -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <δηλόω> be clear, reveal -- reveals
προαίρεσιν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <προαίρεσις> choice -- choice
ὁποῖά -- interrogative pronoun; accusative plural neuter of <ὁπος> what sort of -- what sort of thing
τις -- inde nite pronoun; nominative singular masculine of <τις> someone, something -- one
ἐν -- preposition; <ἐν> in -- among
οἷς -- demonstrative pronoun; dative plural neuter of <ὅς> this, that, he, she, it -- those where
ἔστι -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <εἰµί> I am -- it is
δῆλον -- adjective; nominative singular neuter of <δῆλος> clear, obvious -- clear
προαιρεῖται -- verb; 3rd person singular present middle of <προαιρέω> choose -- chooses
φεύγει -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <φεύγω> escape, ee -- avoids
διόπερ οὐκ ἔχουσιν ἦθος τῶν λόγων ἐν οἵς µηδ' ὅλως ἔστιν ὅ τι προαιρεῖται ἢ φεύγει ὁ λέγων.
διόπερ -- adverb; <διόπερ> therefore, so -- so

ἔχουσιν -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <ἔχω> have -- (those) ... have
ἦθος -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <ἦθος> custom, character -- character
τῶν -- article; genitive plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- (in) the
λόγων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <λόγος> word, reason -- words
οἵς -- relative pronoun; dative plural masculine of <ὅς> who, which -- which
µηδ' -- particle; <µηδέ> and not -- not
ὅλως -- adverb; <ὅλως> wholly -- wholly
ἔστιν -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <εἰµί> I am -- it is ... (clear)
ὅ -- relative pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <ὅς> who, which -- what
τι -- inde nite pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <τις> someone, something -- ...
προαιρεῖται -- verb; 3rd person singular present middle of <προαιρέω> choose -- chooses
ἢ -- conjunction; <ἤ> or, than -- or
φεύγει -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <φεύγω> escape, ee -- avoids
ὁ -- article; nominative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
λέγων -- participle used as substantive; nominative singular masculine of present participle of <λέγω>
say -- (speaking one) speaker
Τέταρτον δὲ τῶν ἐν λόγῳ ἡ λέξις.
τέταρτον -- adverb; of <τέταρτος> fourth -- fourth

τῶν -- article used as pronoun; genitive plural neuter of <ὁ> the -- of the (elements)
λόγῳ -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <λόγος> word, reason -- the literary items
λέξις -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <λέξις> style -- style
λέγω δὲ, ὥσπερ πρότερον εἴρεται, λέξιν τὴν διὰ τῆς ὀνοµασίαν ἑρµηνείαν.
λέγω -- verb; 1st person singular present of <λέγω> say -- I mean (that)
ὥσπερ -- conjunction; <ὥσπερ> as -- as
πρότερον -- adverb; <πρότερον> earlier, before -- earlier
εἴρεται -- verb; 3rd person singular present passive of <εἴρω> speak, say -- has been said
λέξιν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <λέξις> style -- style
τὴν -- article; accusative singular feminine of <ὁ> the -- (is) the
διὰ -- preposition; <διά> through, by -- by means of
ὀνοµασίαν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ὀνοµασία> language -- language
ἑρµηνείαν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ἑρµηνεία> interpretation -- interpretation
ὅ καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν ἐµµέτρων καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν λόγων ἔχει τὴν αὐτὴν δύναµιν.
ὅ -- relative pronoun; nominative singular neuter of <ὅς> who, which -- this

ἐπὶ -- preposition; <ἐπί> on, about -- for
ἐµµέτρων -- adjective; genitive plural masculine of <ἔµµετρος> metrical -- poetry
ἐπὶ -- preposition; <ἐπί> on, about -- for
λόγων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <λόγος> word, reason -- (words) prose
ἔχει -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <ἔχω> have -- has
αὐτὴν -- pronoun; accusative singular feminine of <αὐτός> oneself, he -- same
δύναµιν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <δύναµις> power -- force
Lesson Text
Ἀρχὴ µὲν οὖν καὶ οἶον ψυχὴ ὁ µῦθος τῆς τραγῳδίας, δεύτερον δὲ τὰ ἤθη. παραπλήσιον γάρ ἐστιν
καὶ ἐπὶ τῆς γραφικῆς. εἰ γάρ τις ἐναλείψειε τοῖς καλλίστοις φαρµάκοις χύδην, οὐκ ἂν ὁµοίως
εὐφράνειεν καὶ λευκογραφήσας εἰκόνα. ἔστιν τε µίµησις πράξεως καὶ διὰ ταύτην µάλιστα τῶν
πραττόντων. Τρίτον δὲ ἡ διάνοια. τοῦτο δέ ἐστιν τὸ λέγειν δύνασθαι τὰ ἐνόντα καὶ τὰ
ἁρµόττοντα. ὅπερ ἐπὶ τῶν λόγων τῆς πολιτικῆς καὶ τῆς ῥητορικῆς ἔργον ἐστίν. οἱ µὲν γὰρ ἀρχαῖοι
πολιτικῶς ἐποίουν λέγοντας, οἱ δὲ νῦν ῥητορικῶς. Ἔστιν δὲ ἦθος µὲν τὸ τοιοῦτον ὃ δηλοῖ τὴν
προαίρεσιν, ὁποῖά τις ἐν οἷς οὐκ ἔστι δῆλον ἤ προαιρεῖται ἤ φεύγει. διόπερ οὐκ ἔχουσιν ἦθος τῶν
λόγων ἐν οἵς µηδ' ὅλως ἔστιν ὅ τι προαιρεῖται ἢ φεύγει ὁ λέγων. Τέταρτον δὲ τῶν ἐν λόγῳ ἡ λέξις.
λέγω δὲ, ὥσπερ πρότερον εἴρεται, λέξιν τὴν διὰ τῆς ὀνοµασίαν ἑρµηνείαν. ὅ καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν
ἐµµέτρων καὶ ἐπὶ τῶν λόγων ἔχει τὴν αὐτὴν δύναµιν.
Translation
The plot is truly the rst principle and so to say the soul of tragedy; and the second is character. It is
the same also in painting. For if someone painted with the best colors at random, it would not delight
as much as painting an image in white on a black background. For it is a representation of action in
actual life, and because of that most of all of those in action.
The third element is thought. This is the ability to say what is possible and what is tting. It is provided
in the words and the activities of the statesman and of the rhetorician. For the old writers made the
characters speak like statesmen and the new writers like rhetoricians.
Now character is that which reveals choice, i.e. what sort of thing one chooses or avoids among those
where it is not clear. So those have no character in the words, in which it is not wholly clear what the
speaker chooses or avoids.
The fourth of the elements in the literary items is style. And I mean, as has been said earlier, that style
is the means of interpretation through meaning. And this has the same force for poetry and prose.
Grammar
41 Verbs in -µι; the present and imperfect active system.
A small number of frequent verbs have different endings and formations from those of the general verbs.
Among these are τίθηµι 'put', ἵηµι 'send', ἵστηµι, and δίδωµι 'give'. The present forms of τίθηµι are given
here to illustrate their forms. The forms of the others are comparable, though δίδωµι has ο-vowels
corresponding to the ε-vowels of the three other verbs.
Present Imperfect
1 sg τίθηµι ἐτίθην
2 sg τίθης ἐτίθεις
3 sg τίθησι(ν) ἐτίθει

1 pl τίθεµεν ἐτίθεµεν
2 pl τίθετε ἐτίθετε
3 pl τιθέασι(ν) ἐτίθεσαν
1 sg τιθῶ τιθείην
2 sg τιθῇς τιθείης τίθει
3 sg τιθῇ τιθείη τιθέτω

1 pl τιθῶµεν τιθεῖµεν
2 pl τιθῆτε τιθεῖτε τίθετε
3 pl τιθῶσι(ν) τιθεῖεν τιθέντων
42 Forms of the aorist active.
1 sg ἔθηκα θῶ θείην
2 sg ἔθηκας θῇς θείης θές
3 sg ἔθηκε(ν) θῇ θείη θέτω

1 pl ἔθεµεν θῶµεν θεῖµεν
2 pl ἔθετε θῆτε θεῖητε θέτε
3 pl ἔθεσαν θῶσι(ν) θεῖεν θέντων
43 Forms of the Present and Imperfect system of εἰµί 'am'.
Present Imperfect
1 sg εἰµί ἦν
2 sg εἶ ἦσθα
3 sg ἐστί(ν) ἦν

1 pl ἐσµέν ἦµεν
2 pl ἐστέ ἦτε
3 pl εἰσί(ν) ἦσαν
1 sg ὦ εἴην
2 sg ᾖς εἴης ἴσθι
3 sg ᾖ εἴη ἔστω

1 pl ὦµεν εἴηµεν
2 pl ἤτε εἴητε ἔστε
3 pl ὦσι(ν) εἴησαν ἔστων
44 Forms of οἶδα 'I know'.

οἶδα is a perfect with present meaning. It is based on a root meaning 'see', so that the perfect has developed
in meaning from 'I have seen' to 'I know'. The forms representing present and past time are given here.
Present Past
1 sg οἶδα 'I know' ᾔδη 'I knew'
2 sg οἶσθα 'thou knowest' ᾔδησθα 'thou knewest'
3 sg οἶδε(ν) 'he/she knows' ᾔδει 'he/she knew'

1 pl ἴσµεν 'we know' ᾔδµεν 'we knew'
2 pl ἴστε 'you know' ᾔδετε 'you knew'
3 pl ἴσασι(ν) 'they know' ᾔδεσαν 'they knew'
45 Particles.
As you have noted in the texts, particles are numerous in Greek texts. Moreover, they are often left
untranslated. They may modify meaning much as intonation does in English; if then translated with their
meaning given in dictionaries, such as 'indeed, to be sure' and so on, the English sentence is turgid. In
combinations, such as καὶ δέ, καὶ merely adds emphasis. Particles then must be treated in relation to one
another and to the entire sentence.
There are two negative particles, also called adverbs, οὺ (οὔτε, οὐκ, etc.), and µή, which is required in
sentences expressing a desire and is used in conditions.
There are several interrogative particles, of which ἧ and ἆρα are the most frequent. Other particles are listed
here in alphabetical order.
ἀλλά 'on the other hand, but, on the contrary'

ἅµα 'at the same time, at once'
ἄρα 'therefore, then' (note the different accentuation from the interrogative particle)
γάρ 'for'
γέ 'indeed, certainly'
δέ 'but, however' (often used as a connective, and need not be translated)
δή 'already, now' (or used to add emphasis)
ἦ 'truly, really'
ἤ 'or' (often doubled with the meanings 'either ...or')
καί 'and' or, as used for emphasis, 'even'
µέν 'indeed' (may be used with δέ to indicate a correlation, and not translated)
οὐδέ 'and not'
οὖν 'indeed, certainly; therefore'
οὔτε ... οὔτε, µήτε ... µήτε 'neither ... nor'
πέρ 'even, indeed'
τέ 'and'; τέ ... τέ 'both ... and'; τέ ... καί 'not only ... but also'

Lesson 10
Little is known of Pausanias. He was apparently born in Lydia. On the basis of references in his work, as to
contemporary Roman emperors, it is concluded that he lived from approximately 120-180 AD. He traveled
widely throughout the eastern Mediterranean area, including Italy. While aware of his limitations as a writer
and interests, we are grateful to him for his information on the highlights of Greek civilization before many
of them were damaged or destroyed.
Pausanias's Description of Greece reports his travels in Attica, the Peloponnese and central Greece. As in
the selection below, he provides a straightforward account of sites, especially the most famous for their art
or architecture, ampli ed by accounts of people. He is not highly regarded for his style, nor for the insight
that distinguishes the histories of Herodotus and Thucycides. But his descriptions inform us of the state of
the magni cent products of the important period of Greek civilization, such as that of the Parthenon before
it was blown up by an explosion of munitions in the 17th century. The description is very detailed, extending
through ten books. In addition to its content, the selection here, Attica xxii: 4-5, may illustrate that the
language conforms to the standards of the classical period.
καί ἐς δέ τὴν ἀκρόπολίν ἐστιν ἔσοδος µία.
καί -- conjunction; <καί> and -- and

ἀκρόπολίν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ἀκρόπολις> Acropolis -- Acropolis
ἐστιν -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <εἰµί> I am -- there is
ἔσοδος -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <ἔσοδος> entrance -- entrance
µία -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <εἷς> one -- (only) one
ἑτέραν δὲ οὐ παρέχεται, πᾶσα ἀπότοµος οὖσα καὶ τεῖχος ἔχουσα ἐχυρόν.
ἑτέραν -- adjective; accusative singular feminine of <ἕτερος> other -- another

παρέχεται -- verb; 3rd person singular present middle of <παρέχω> provide -- it does... provide
πᾶσα -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <πᾶς> all, every -- everywhere
ἀπότοµος -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <ἀπότοµος> precipitous -- precipitous
οὖσα -- verb; nominative singular feminine of present participle of <εἰµί> I am -- being
τεῖχος -- noun, neuter; accusative singular of <τεῖχος> wall -- wall
ἔχουσα -- verb; nominative singular feminine of present participle of <ἔχω> have -- having
ἐχυρόν -- adjective; accusative singular neuter of <ἐχυρός> strong, secure -- strong
τὰ δὲ προπύλαια λίθου λευκοῦ τὴν ὀροφὴν ἔχει καὶ κόσµῳ καὶ µεγέθει τῶν λίθων µέχρι γε καὶ ἐµοῦ
προεῖχε.

προπύλαια -- noun, neuter; nominative plural of <προπύλαια> gateway -- gateway
λίθου -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <λίθος> stone -- marble
λευκοῦ -- adjective; genitive singular masculine of <λευκός> white -- of white
ὀροφὴν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ὀροφή> roof -- a roof
ἔχει -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <ἔχω> have -- has
κόσµῳ -- noun, masculine; dative singular of <κόσµος> beauty, order, world -- in beauty
µεγέθει -- noun, neuter; dative singular of <µέγεθος> size -- size
λίθων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <λίθος> stone -- stones
µέχρι -- preposition; <µέχρι> until -- until
γε -- particle; <γε> indeed -- ...
καὶ -- conjunction; <καί> and -- ...
ἐµοῦ -- pronoun; genitive singular masculine of <ἐγώ> I -- my time
προεῖχε -- verb; singular present of <προείχω> to be superior, excel -- is unexcelled
τὰς µὲν οὖν εἰκόνας τῶν ἱππέων οὐκ ἔχω σαφῶς εἰπεῖν, εἴτε οἱ παῖδές εἰσιν οἱ Ξενοφῶντος εἴτε ἄλλως
ἐς εὐπρέπειαν πεποιηµέναι.
τὰς -- article; accusative plural feminine of <ὁ> the -- (regarding) the

οὖν -- adverb; <οὖν> indeed -- indeed
εἰκόνας -- noun, feminine; accusative plural <εἰκών> image, portrait -- statues
τῶν -- article; genitive plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- of the
ἱππέων -- noun, masculine; genitive plural of <ἱππεύς> horseman -- horsemen
ἔχω -- verb; 1st person singular present of <ἔχω> have -- I can
σαφῶς -- adverb; <σαφῶς> truly -- truly
εἰπεῖν -- verb; aorist in nitive of <λέγω> say -- say
εἴτε -- conjunction; <εἴτε> whether...or -- whether
παῖδές -- noun, masculine/feminine; nominative plural of <παῖς> child -- sons
εἰσιν -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <εἰµί> I am -- they are
Ξενοφῶντος -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Ξενοφῶν> Xenophon -- of Xenophon
εἴτε -- conjunction; <εἴτε> whether...or -- or
ἄλλως -- adverb; <ἄλλως> otherwise, especially -- otherwise
ἐς -- preposition; <ἐς> towards -- for
εὐπρέπειαν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <εὐπρέπεια> appearance, beauty -- beauty
πεποιηµέναι -- verb; participle perfect middle of <ποιέω> make, do -- produced
τῶν δὲ προπυλαίων ἐν δεξίᾳ Νίκης ἐστὶν Ἀπτέρου ναός.

προπυλαίων -- noun, neuter; genitive plural of <προπύλαια> gateway -- gateway
ἐν -- preposition; <ἐν> in -- on
δεξίᾳ -- noun, feminine; dative singular of <δεξιά> the right hand -- the right
Νίκης -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <Νίκη> Victory -- Victory
ἐστὶν -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <εἰµί> I am -- is
Ἀπτέρου -- adjective; genitive singular feminine of <Ἄπτερος> Wingless -- of Wingless
ναός -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <ναός> temple -- the temple
ἐντεῦθεν ἡ θάλασσά ἐστι σύνοπτος, καὶ ταύτῃ ῥίψας Αἰγεὺς ἑαυτὸν ὡς λέγουσιν ἐτελεύτησεν.
ἐντεῦθεν -- adverb; <ἐντεῦθεν> from there -- from there

θάλασσά -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <θάλασσα> sea -- sea
ἐστι -- verb; 3rd person singular present of <εἰµί> I am -- is
σύνοπτος -- adjective; nominative singular feminine of <σύνοπτος> visible -- visible
ταύτῃ -- demonstrative pronoun; dative singular feminine of <οὗτος> this -- there
ῥίψας -- verb; nominative singular masculine of aorist participle of <ῥίπτω> throw down -- threw . . .
down
Αἰγεὺς -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Αἰγεύς> Aegeus -- Aegeus
ἑαυτὸν -- re exive pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <ἑαυτός> himself -- himself
ὡς -- conjunction; <ὡς> as, thus -- as
λέγουσιν -- verb; 3rd person plural present of <λέγω> say -- they say
ἐτελεύτησεν -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <τελευτέω> nish, die -- died
ἀνήγετο µὲν γὰρ ἡ ναῦς µέλασιν ἱστίοις ἡ τοὺς παῖδας φέρουσα ἐς Κρήτην.
ἀνήγετο -- verb; 3rd person singular present middle of <ἀνάγοµαι> put out to sea -- put out to sea
ναῦς -- noun, feminine; nominative singular of <ναῦς> ship -- ship
µέλασιν -- adjective; dative plural neuter of <µέλαν> black -- with black
ἱστίοις -- noun, neuter; dative plural of <ἱστίον> sail -- sails
παῖδας -- noun, masculine/feminine; accusative plural of <παῖς> child -- children
φέρουσα -- verb; nominative singular feminine of participle of <φέρω> bear, bring, carry -- carrying
Κρήτην -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <Κρήτη> Crete -- Crete
Θησεὺς δὲ -- ἔπλει γὰρ τόλµης τι ἔχων ἐς τὸν Μίνω καλούµενον ταῦρον
Θησεὺς -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Θησεύς> Theseus -- Theseus

ἔπλει -- verb; 3rd person singular imperfect of <πλέω> sail -- was sailing
γὰρ -- conjunction; <γάρ> for -- indeed
τόλµης -- noun, feminine; genitive singular of <τόλµα> courage, venture -- of a venture
τι -- inde nite pronoun; accusative singular neuter of <τις> someone, something -- something
ἔχων -- verb; nominative singular masculine of present participle of <ἔχω> have -- having
τὸν -- article; accusative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
Μίνω -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <Μίνος> Minos -- of Minos
καλούµενον -- verb; accusative singular masculine of present participle passive of <καλέω> call,
summon -- so called
ταῦρον -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <ταῦρος> bull -- bull
πρὸς τὸν πατέρα προεῖπε χρήσεσθαι τοῖς ἱστίοις λευκοῖς, ἤν ὀπίσω πλέῃ τοῦ ταύρου κρατήσας.
πρὸς -- preposition; <πρός> to -- to

τὸν -- article; accusative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- his
πατέρα -- noun, masculine; accusative singular of <πατήρ> father -- father
προεῖπε -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <προ-λέγω> say beforehand -- had said . . . beforehand
χρήσεσθαι -- deponent verb; in nitive middle of <χράοµαι> need, use -- (he would) use
λευκοῖς -- adjective; dative plural neuter of <λευκός> white -- with white
ἤν -- conjunction; <ἤν> if -- if
ὀπίσω -- adverb; <ὀπίσω> back -- back
πλέῃ -- verb; 3rd person singular present optative of <πλέω> sail -- he would sail
τοῦ -- article; genitive singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- the
ταύρου -- noun, masculine; genitive singular of <ταῦρος> bull -- bull
κρατήσας -- verb; nominative singular masculine of aorist participle of <κρατέω> hold fast, take to
heart; rule, conquer -- having conquered
τούτων λήθην ἔσχεν Ἀριάδνην ἀφῃρηµένος.
τούτων -- demonstrative pronoun; genitive plural neuter of <οὗτος> this -- these (things)
λήθην -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <λήθη> forgetting -- (him) to forget
ἔσχεν -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <ἔχω> have -- caused
Ἀριάδνην -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <Ἀριάδνη> Ariadne -- Ariadne
ἀφῃρηµένος -- verb; nominative singular masculine of passive participle of <ἀφαιρέω> take away --
having lost
ἐνταῦθα Αἰγεὺς ὡς εἶδεν ἱστίοις µέλασι τὴν ναῦν κοµιζοµένην, οἷα τὸν παῖδα τεθνάναι δοκῶν, ἀφεὶς
αὐτὸν διαφθείρεται.
ἐνταῦθα -- adverb; <ἐνταῦθα> then, there -- then

Αἰγεὺς -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Αἰγεύς> Aegeus -- Aegeus
ὡς -- conjunction; <ὡς> as, thus -- when
εἶδεν -- verb; 3rd person singular aorist of <εἶδον> saw -- saw
µέλασι -- adjective; dative plural neuter of <µέλαν> black -- with black
ναῦν -- noun, feminine; accusative singular of <ναῦς> ship -- ship
κοµιζοµένην -- verb; accusative singular feminine of passive participle of <κοµίζω> provide for --
traveling
οἷα -- relative pronoun; accusative neuter plural of <οἷος> like, such that -- that
τὸν -- article; accusative singular masculine of <ὁ> the -- his
παῖδα -- noun, masculine/feminine; accusative singular of <παῖς> child -- son
τεθνάναι -- verb; in nitive perfect of <θνήσκω> die -- had died
δοκῶν -- verb; present participle nominative singular masculine of <δοκέω> seem, think -- thinking
ἀφεὶς -- verb; nominative singular masculine of aorist participle of <ἀφίηµι> send forth, throw down,
permit, forgive -- throwing ...down
αὐτὸν -- pronoun; accusative singular masculine of <αὐτός> oneself, he -- himself
διαφθείρεται -- verb; 3rd person singular present middle of <διαφθείρω> destroy, kill -- killed himself
Lesson Text
καί ἐς δέ τὴν ἀκρόπολίν ἐστιν ἔσοδος µία. ἑτέραν δὲ οὐ παρέχεται, πᾶσα ἀπότοµος οὖσα καὶ
τεῖχος ἔχουσα ἐχυρόν. τὰ δὲ προπύλαια λίθου λευκοῦ τὴν ὀροφὴν ἔχει καὶ κόσµῳ καὶ µεγέθει
τῶν λίθων µέχρι γε καὶ ἐµοῦ προεῖχε. τὰς µὲν οὖν εἰκόνας τῶν ἱππέων οὐκ ἔχω σαφῶς εἰπεῖν,
εἴτε οἱ παῖδές εἰσιν οἱ Ξενοφῶντος εἴτε ἄλλως ἐς εὐπρέπειαν πεποιηµέναι. τῶν δὲ προπυλαίων ἐν
δεξίᾳ Νίκης ἐστὶν Ἀπτέρου ναός. ἐντεῦθεν ἡ θάλασσά ἐστι σύνοπτος, καὶ ταύτῃ ῥίψας Αἰγεὺς
ἑαυτὸν ὡς λέγουσιν ἐτελεύτησεν. ἀνήγετο µὲν γὰρ ἡ ναῦς µέλασιν ἱστίοις ἡ τοὺς παῖδας
φέρουσα ἐς Κρήτην. Θησεὺς δὲ -- ἔπλει γὰρ τόλµης τι ἔχων ἐς τὸν Μίνω καλούµενον ταῦρον πρὸς
τὸν πατέρα προεῖπε χρήσεσθαι τοῖς ἱστίοις λευκοῖς, ἤν ὀπίσω πλέῃ τοῦ ταύρου κρατήσας. τούτων
λήθην ἔσχεν Ἀριάδνην ἀφῃρηµένος. ἐνταῦθα Αἰγεὺς ὡς εἶδεν ἱστίοις µέλασι τὴν ναῦν
κοµιζοµένην, οἷα τὸν παῖδα τεθνάναι δοκῶν, ἀφεὶς αὐτὸν διαφθείρεται.
Translation
There is only one entry to the Acropolis. It does not provide another, being precipitous everywhere and
having a strong wall. And the gateway has a roof of white marble, and is unexcelled for the beauty and
size of its stones to my day. Regarding the statues of the horsemen, I cannot truly say whether they
are the sons of Xenophon or whether they were produced especially for beauty. And on the right of the
gateway is the temple of Wingless Victory. From here the sea is visible, and here, as they say, Aegeus
throwing himself down died. For the ship carrying the children to Crete put out to sea with black sails.
But Theseus, was sailing on something of a venture against the bull of Minos, so called. He had said
to his father beforehand that he would sail back with white sails, having conquered the bull. But having
lost Ariadne caused him to forget these things. Then Aegeus, when from this point he saw the ship
traveling with black sails, thinking that his son had died, throwing himself down killed himself.
Grammar
46 Texts.
Editors have worked with Greek texts since the Alexandrian period, when the texts of Homer were
essentially xed. Western scholars have continued the tradition as in the Teubner publications, those
published by the Clarendon Press, and so on. If one examines an edited text with extensive introduction and
commentary, such as Hesiod: Works and Days, M. L. West, ed. xiii, 399 pp. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978),
the information provided is enormous. The author states that he "perused" over six hundred texts when
producing his book. As noted in the comments to the selection included here, the differences between his
text and others, however, are slight.
Unless a text with extensive commentary is desired, readers of the Greek texts will do well to use the
editions of the Loeb Classical Library, which have the added advantage of including translations. They are
readily available from the Harvard University Press (Cambridge, MA 02138). The texts have been widely read
in schools and universities, such as those of Xenophon, Plato and Homer have been published with
introductions and commentaries, often also with glossaries. Or commentaries may be published separately,
such as A Commentary on Herodotus by W. W. How and J. Wells, 2 vols., 456 and 445 pp. (Oxford:
Clarendon, 1912, often reprinted). References may be found in catalogues of libraries and publishers, and
increasingly on web sites.
47 Grammars.
Similarly, grammars of Greek are based on long attention. The fullest grammar is that of Eduard Schwyzer,
Griechische Grammatik, I-III. Munich: Beck, 1939-53. For ready reference, most readers will nd useful a
shorter grammar, such as that of Herbert Weir Smyth, Greek Grammar (1920), revised by Gordon M.
Messing, Harvard University Press (1956).
For a historical treatment, see the Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin by Carl Darling Buck (Chicago:
University Press, 1933). A successor is the New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin, by Andrew L.
Sihler (Oxford: University Press, 1995); it is written like a novel -- no references, no bibliography.
48 Dictionaries.
Dictionaries of various extent are readily available. An Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon, founded upon the
seventh edition of Liddell and Scott's Greek-English Lexicon (Oxford: Clarendon: 1989) provides good
coverage for texts of every type.
49 Specialized handbooks.
Catalogues in libraries and lists of publishers are excellent sources for handbooks dealing with all aspects
of Greek culture and history. A highly interesting work for information on oral epic and especially Homer is
The Making of Homeric Verse, the Collected Papers of Milman Parry, Adam Parry, ed. (New York/Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1987). While no Mycenaean texts have been included here, chie y because of their
brevity, readers may wish to consult Documents in Mycenaean Greek, by Michael Ventris and John Chadwick
(Cambridge: University Press, 1956). The sub-title reads: Three hundred selected tablets from Knossos,
Pylos and Mycenae with commentary and vocabulary. A History of Greece to 322 B.C. by N.G.L. Hammond
(Oxford: Clarendon, 1986, 3rd ed.) provides broad coverage, dealing also with dialects, literature, art and
thought. A Smaller Classical Dictionary, ed. E. H. Blakeney (New York: Dutton, 1928) provides compact
entries on persons, places and things in the Roman and Greek world. One should not overlook the essays in
encyclopedias, such as those in the celebrated 13th edition of the Encyclopedia Brittanica. These deal with
various aspects of culture and history.
50 The Legacy of the Greek World.

The legacy of the Greek world on western civilization is evident in all aspects of political and cultural life.
Democratic government had its start there. The works of Thucydides, Demosthenes, Plato and Aristotle
among others provided many of the principles as well as intellectual support for civil arrangements.
In literature the Homeric poems have been a constant inspiration, as translations, commentaries and
references indicate. The great tragedians, Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, as well as the author of
comedies, Aristophanes, are similarly admired, as well as lyric poets like Pindar. The in uence of Greek art
and architecture, whether produced by unknown artists or sculptors like Phidias, is visible on government
buildings throughout the western world.
While Greek religion maintains interest for mythology and literature, the wide adoption of Christianity is
evident in the maintenance of the New Testament and the majority of early commentary, as of St. Augustine,
through the Greek language. The three creeds, the Apostle's, the Nicaean, the Athanasian, were all
formulated in Greek. And while Roman culture has been in uential in these elds as well, it owes much to
the heritage of the earlier Greek culture, as in matters like the alphabet. The Greeks may have adopted it and
other items from other cultures, but they reshaped them and passed them on in improved form to lands
much larger than their small area. As a result especially of Alexander's conquests, Greek civilization and
culture in uenced the entire Mediterranean and surrounding areas, with lasting effects on far larger areas.

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21/11/2018 The Linguistics Research Center

Classical Greek Online

1. The Greek alphabet and pronunciation.

γηράσκω δ' αἰεὶ πολλὰ διδασκόµενος

Τὴν τῶν κρατούντων µάθε φέρειν ἐξουσίαν

3. The sentence structure of Greek.

4. The forms of Greek.

Nominative, the case of the subject;

Genitive, the case to indicate possession -- possessive, in grammars of English

Dative, the case of the indirect object

Accusative, the case of the direct object -- objective, in grammars of English

Case forms may also be determined by prepositions.

Greek nouns are also in ected for --

three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter.

a large number of declensions.

Fem. Masc. Nt. Fem. Masc Nt

Sg. Nom. ἡ ὁ τό χώρα λόγος δῶρον

Sg. Gen. τῆς τοῦ τοῦ χώρας λόγου δώρου

Sg. Dat. τῇ τῷ τῷ χώρᾳ λόγῳ δώρῳ

Sg. Acc. τήν τόν τό χώραν λόγον δῶρον

Pl. Nom. αἱ οἱ τά χῶραι λόγοι δῶρα

Pl. Gen. τῶν τῶν τῶν χωρῶν λόγων δώρων

Pl. Dat. ταῖς τοῖς τοῖς χώραις λόγοις δώροις

Pl. Acc τάς τούς τά χώρας λόγους δῶρα

Verbs are in ected for mood: indicative, subjunctive, and optative.

4.3 The other parts of speech.

Plato: Πάντων µέτρον ἄνθρωπός ἐστιν.

Aristotle: ἄνθρωπος φύσει πολιτικ̀ον ζῷον.

Sophocles: πολλὰ τὰ δεινὰ κοὐδὲν ἀνθρώπου δεινότερον πέλει.

Archimedes: δός µοι ποῦ στῶ καὶ κινῶ τὴν γῆν.

Menander: ὁ σοφὸς ἐν αὐτῷ περιφέρει τὴν οὐσίαν.

Plato: ὁ δὲ ἀνεξέταστος βίος οὐ βιωτὸς ἀνθρώπῳ.

Menander: Οὐδεὶς ποιῶν πονερὰ λανθάνει θέον.

Menander: Κάλλιστόν ἐστι κτῆµα παιδεία βροτοῖς.

Plato: Ἡ ψυχὴ ἀθάνατος φαίνεται οὖσα.

Related Language Courses at UT

Hellenic Resources Elsewhere

Our Web Links (https://liberalarts.utexas.edu/lrc/extras/links.php) page includes pointers to Hellenic

Classical Greek Online

Reading and Textual Analysis

δηλοῖ δέ µοι καὶ τόδε τῶν παλαιῶν ἀσθένειαν οὐχ ἤκιστα.

πρὸ -- preposition; <πρό> before -- before

κατὰ -- preposition; <κατά> completely, down, under -- from

Ἕλληνος -- noun, masculine; nominative singular of <Ἕλληνος> Hellenos -- Hellenos

οὐ µέντοι πολλοῦ γε χρόνου ἐδύνατο καὶ ἅπασιν ἐκνικῆσαι.

οὐ -- particle; <οὐ> not -- it was not

τεκµηριοῖ δὲ µάλιστα Ὅµερος

πολλῷ -- adverb; dative singular neuter of <πολύς> many -- much

οὐ -- particle; <οὐ> not -- not

ἀντίπαλον ἐς ἓν ὄνοµα ἀποκεκρίσθαι.

οἱ -- article; nominative plural masculine of <ὁ> the -- those

ἀλλὰ -- conjunction; <ἀλλά> but -- but

Eta η, Η rate (rat)

Theta θ, Θ thin (tin) i.e. with aspiration

Kappa κ, Κ cope (scope) i.e. no aspiration

Pi π, Π poke (spoke) i.e., no aspiration

Sigma σς, Σ soap (note: lower-case form has 2 variants)

Tau τ, Τ top (stop) i.e. no aspiration

Upsilon υ, Υ soon (German Suehne) i.e. front rounded

Phi φ, Φ four (pour) i.e. with aspiration

Chi χ, Χ core (German ich or ach) i.e. velar fricative

Omega ω, Ω boat (bought)

1.2 The sound system.

Labials Dentals Palato-velars