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Part 1: Introduction
(Introduction)
Three implications of Economic Darwinism
-successful firms in an industry are not random but due to hardworking & planning (Apple).
-firms’ success is not absolute but relative to competitors & business environment (GM).
-to remain successful a firm must adapt to new technology (Kodak photographic imaging),
competition (Pepsi vs Coke), or regulation (United Airline).
Benchmarking is identifying the best firm in an industry or the best business unit in a
firm & imitating it, e.g. Wal-Mart & Target.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (Theory Z: situation guides, reason motivates & social belonging
adheres people):
1) Basic survival needs (physiological, e.g. food, clothing & transportation)
2) Safety needs (e.g. housing, banking, security & protection)
3) Social needs (sense of belonging & love, e.g. clubs, restaurants & churches)
4) Esteem needs (self-esteem, recognition & status, e.g. Lexus, diamonds, designer goods)
5) Self-actualization needs (self-development & realization, e.g. meditation, peace corp.)
-five elements of game theory {# of players, preferences of players, information sets of players
(SWOT/PEST analyses), strategy sets of players & equilibrium concept}; Prisoners’ Dilemma
Game, Battle-of-the-Sexes Game, subgame perfectness & first (second) mover advantage
-fairness: efficiency versus equity
-for economies of scale in local public goods (education, sports & utilities) &
social opportunities e.g. Scottsdale, Arizona
-to reduce transportation cost e.g. bauxite mine & smelting plant
-to form network organization to enjoy (avoid) (dis-) economies of scale & scope
e.g. hospitality & tourism in Las Vegas & shopping malls
Spectrum of market structure: perfect & monopolistic competition, oligopoly, monopoly & HHI
Decisions are made at the top management level –if firms are small,
-if market shares of firms are stable.
Decisions are decentralized –if firms are large,
-if market shares of firms experience rapid changes
in business environment, new product and/or market
expansion and introduction of new product varieties.
Benefits of decision decentralization
-effective use of local knowledge (McDonald’ filet-o-fish & Walmart China live fish)
-conserve top management time & reduce middle management for less info processing
-attract talents to junior management positions in business units to prune for future
senior management positions in corporate headquarters (GM’s Daewoo Motors)
-successful use of local knowledge in one business unit might be transfer to other
business units leading to new process and/or new products (Wendy’s salad)
-reduce rent-seeking costs within the firm
Costs of decision decentralization
-incentive conflicts increase as decision rights are delegated to lower level of the firm (GM)
-coordination costs and failure, e.g. airline hub-and-spoke organization
Economics 600 Handout 5 Professor Tom K. Lee
In a perfectly competitive labor market, a competitive firm will hire workers until wage
equals to their value marginal product of labor, and a monopolistic firm will hire
workers until wage equals to their marginal revenue product of labor.
Marginal product is incremental output due to the last unit of an input.
Value marginal product is competitive price of a product time marginal product.
Marginal revenue product is marginal revenue of a product time marginal product.
Economics 600 Handout 7 Professor Tom K. Lee
General human capital is training and education that are of general value to many firms.
Specific human capital is training and education that are of value to a particular firm.
In general employees pay for general human capital, & firms pay for specific human capital.
General knowledge is free to transfer, while specific knowledge is expensive to transfer,
e.g. idiosyncratic knowledge of particular circumstances, scientific knowledge and
knowledge from learning-by-doing.
Firms are constantly taking ideas & specific knowledge of their employees that are their
“wetware” (ideas) & converting them into general knowledge that is “software”
(instructions and formula) that can be employed to produce products & services.
Jobs differ according to skill and education training, quality of work environment,
geographical location, length of commute, risk of injury and death, characteristics of
coworkers, and degree of monotony associated with the tasks.
Compensation wage differential is the extra wage that is paid to attract a worker to a
less desirable job. This is how unpleasant jobs got filled. It also shows that it pays for a
firm to invest to improve non-wage attractiveness of a job.
Why different industries have different period of probation for new hires?
Why some industries offer life time employment and others don’t?
Job satisfaction at a firm is indicated by -number of new qualified applicants
-the quit rate of existing employees
Firms have to tradeoff between incremental compensation and turnover costs of workers.
Sometimes employees leaving a firm take customers and knowledge to competing firm,
e.g. high tech firms in Silicon Valley.
Matching all outside offers generates incentive for employees to take time and effort to
generate outside offers, but discretionary matching generates rent-seeking.
An internal labor market exists in a firm when outside hiring focuses primarily on
filling entry-level jobs and most other jobs in the firm are filled from within the firm.
Firms can have multiple internal labor markets, e.g. white-collar & blue-collar workers.
Firms are more likely to use internal labor markets where specific training of & trust among
employees are important, e.g. steel, petroleum, chemical industries, firemen & police force.
Benefits of an internal labor market
-increase incentive to invest in specific human capital
-better align employees’ interest with interest of owners of the firm
-over time more information of employees’ skill, capability, attitude, intelligence are
revealed to employers.
-reduce turnover costs
-establish career paths and the prospect of promotions for employees
-provide job stability to employees through long-term relationships
Costs of an internal labor market
-may not get the best person for the job
-pay, job assignment and promotions are determined by administrative decisions
- increase rent-seeking cost in influencing decisions
Efficiency wage is a wage premium above market rate for two reasons: to reduce
incentive to shirk by employees and to reduce turnover costs, e.g. Henry Ford.
Firms are typically partitioned into hierarchical levels, with a higher pay limit at each
Economics 600 Handout 8 Professor Tom K. Lee
higher level in the job hierarchy. Promotion is the only way to move up the job
hierarchy. Promotions can be viewed as contests or tournaments among employees
who exert extra efforts if they perceive close chances of promotion.
Costs of contest and tournament
-undermine workers cooperation
-less flexible compared to bonus pay, pay raise or profit sharing
-Peter Principle: employees keep getting promotion until they reach a job that they
cannot handle.
-employees value more than just promotion and higher pay, e.g. job security
-intensify rent-seeking costs
-if workers don’t perceive a chance of winning, they maximize shirking.
Job seniority and pay are usually positively correlated because of learning-by-doing.
Wage Compression is the situation when new hires are paid more than experienced
workers. One explanation is that new hires bring in new ideas that are potentially
valuable, while on-going workers on routine tasks gain minimal value from experience.
Back-loaded compensation is when compensation increases faster than productivity as
an employee ages, for example, professional services such as law & accounting firms.
Workers choose back-loaded compensation jobs as bonding and signaling.
Firms offer back-loaded compensation if productivity of workers increases rapidly over
time but with uncertainty.
Firms frequently offer attractive retirement packages to encourage older employees to
retire and often have mandatory retirement age.
A typical American worker receives 75% of total compensation in the form of pay for
work and 25 % in fringe benefits. The most important fringe benefits are medical
insurance and pension plans.
Different workers have different preferences in the tradeoff of pay versus fringe benefits.
In designing compensation package, management should consider the total tax bill for the
employee and the firm.
Fringe benefits such as sick leave and disability insurance can be costly to the firm
beyond direct cost of insurance premium, e.g. absenteeism.
Three important factors that limit the use of ownership to resolve incentive problems
-employees have limited wealth to buy a significant share of the company
-uncontrollable random events and employee risk aversion towards ownership
-team production and free rider problem
From risk sharing standpoint it is better to pay employees fixed salaries and let the total
risk of random income flows be borne by the shareholders.
From incentive standpoint it is better to tie pay to performance, e.g. stock option.
An optimal compensation contract must strike a balance between these two standpoints.
By offering a menu of incentive compensation contract for employees to choose from can
induce employees to reveal private information.
Group incentive plans are incentive pay to an employee based on group performance,
such as overall profitability of a firm as reflected by stock prices.
Benefits of group incentive plans
-group performance measure is less costly than individual performance measure
-encourage cooperation and teamwork
-motivate mutual monitoring and enforcement among employees
A problem with group incentive plans is the free rider problem.
-goal based system requires employees to set goals for the year and the supervisor
evaluates the extent to which each goal has been met at the end of the year, after which
the employees have a chance to respond.
Specific, measurable, agreed-upon, realistic, and time-bound (SMART) goals
Problems of subjective performance evaluation
-shirking among evaluators leading to ratings compression, Los Angeles County court.
-rent-seeking to influence decision
Ratchet effect refers to basing next year’s target performance on this year’s actual
performance leading to a perverse incentive for employees not to exceed this year’s
target performance to avoid raising next year’s target performance, e.g. communist China.
Methods to reduce the ratchet effect
-set next year’s target based on this year’s peer actual performance
-introduce more frequent job rotation at the cost of losing learning curve effect
-make a commitment not to change next year’s target
Opportunism is the non- or counter-productive activities to seek private gain at the expense of
the greater good leading to gaming & horizon problem.
Gaming occurs when employees are rewarded according to some measured output & yet
measured output is not perfectly correlated with firm value leading employees to engage in
dysfunctional activities to improve their performance evaluations, e.g. Lincoln Electric.
Horizon problem: short-run, objective performance measures can cause employees
(especially those about to change jobs or retire) to concentrate their efforts on
producing results to reap short term benefits at the expense of sacrificing long term
profit of the firm, e.g. Pfizer.
Federal & state legislation requires employers to document their compensation and
promotion decisions to demonstrate their actions are related to performance and are not
related to race, sex, age, physical handicap, religion and national origin.
When it comes to investment center with several profit centers competing for investment
funds, a portfolio approach might prove to be useful. One should diversify into a
portfolio of profit centers to maximize expected investment returns subject to a level of
risk tolerance. Diversification reduces the importance of variance risk and increase the
prominence of covariance risk.
There are four general pricing approaches:
1) Mark-up pricing is to have a fixed mark-up on the cost of the product to set the
price, e.g. retail stores.
2) Value-based pricing ( demand –based pricing) is setting price based on buyers’
perceptions of value independent of cost, e.g. Louis Voitton & Rolex for signaling.
3) Value pricing is offering the right combination of quality & good service at a fair price,
e.g. value meal menu.
4) Competition-based pricing is to set price following that of the industry leader, e.g.
breakfast cereal pricing according to Kellogg prices.
There are four product-quality pricing strategies:
1) Market-skimming pricing sets a high price to a low quality product to reap maximum
revenues step by step from the market segments, e.g. new high tech products.
2) Market penetration pricing sets a low price for a high quality product to attract a large
number of customers & a large market share to enjoy network effect, e.g. Microsoft.
3) Economy pricing is to set a low price for a low quality product to maximize sale volumne,
e.g. 99cents Store.
4) Premiun pricing (prestige pricing) is to set high price to a high quality product, e.g. Cunard
cruises. Godilocks pricing is to provide a “gold-plated” version of a product in order to
make the next lower priced option look more reasonably priced, e.g. comic books and sport
collectible cards.
There are five product-mix pricing strategies:
1) Product line pricing is to set price steps between various products in a product line based
on cost differences between products, customer evaluations of different features, and
competitors’ prices, e.g. Sony TVs.
2) Optional product pricing is pricing optional or accessory products along with a main
product, e.g. Toyota cars.
3) Captive-product pricing is to set a price for products that must be used with a main
product, e.g. blades for razor & video games for Sony PS3.
4) By-product pricing is to set a price for by-products in order to make the main product
price more competitive, e.g. cocoa bean shells from chocolate candy making are sold as
mulch for gardening.
5) Product bundle pricing is to set a price of a group of products and/or services that is less
than the sum of the individual product/service prices, e.g. two-movie package, value meal
in fast food restaurant & season tickets.
Market (monopoly) power is the ability of a seller (buyer) to set the market price.
Five sources of market power -essential inputs (strategic assets)
-economies of scale and scope & learning curve effect
-product differentiation: quality, warranty, brand name (marketing advantage)
-government regulation
Economics 600 Handout 12 Professor Tom K. Lee
-entry barrier (limit pricing vs predatory pricing, raising rival’s cost & excess capacity)
Third degree price discrimination is the situation where a firm can sell to different
consumers (possibly in different markets) at different prices. Profit maximization
requires marginal revenue in each market equals to marginal cost. This leads to the
inverse demand elasticity rule, for example, movie ticket prices, dry cleaners, best price
policy, coupons, and senior citizen, student and group discount.
Inverse demand elasticity rule requires a firm to sell a product to consumers with
higher own-price demand elasticity at a lower price and to consumers with lower
own-price demand elasticity at a higher price.
There are three examples where firms with market power can lead to efficient outcome by
extracting all consumer surpluses to become monopoly profits:
-first degree price discriminating monopolist: every unit at a different price
-two-part tariff monopolist: membership fee plus price per unit
-all-or-nothing contract monopolist: fixed quantity plus price per unit
Second degree price discrimination is selling different blocks of units to the same
consumer at different prices.
Fourth degree price discrimination is selling to different consumers at the same price
but the cost of providing the product to different consumers are different.
Peak-load pricing is selling to a customer at different prices at different times for the same
quality product.
There are five forms of pricing:
1) Discount pricing is a straight reduction in price on purchase in a specified period of time,
e.g. cash discount, coupon rebate, cumulative quantity discount, functional discount
(trade discount, e.g. airfare special for travel agents) & seasonal discount, e.g. cruises.
Allowance pricing is giving promotional money by manufacturers to retailers in return for
an agreement to feature the manufacturer’s products in some way. The effective price is
the price of a seller receives less discounts, promotion & other incentives.
2) Segmented pricing is selling a product or service at two or more prices, where the
difference prices are independent in costs: customer-segment pricing, e.g. textbook &
movie ticket prices, location pricing, e.g. airport fast food prices, and yield management.
Yield management (revenue management) is the process of understanding, anticipating &
reacting to customer behavior in order to maximize profits, e.g. Las Vegas hotel room
rates & airline ticket prices.
3) Psychological pricing is to set price of a product according to the beliefs of customers,
e.g. higher price means higher quality. Reference prices are prices that customers carry in
their minds & compare to when contemplate buying a product.
4) Promotional pricing is temporarily set the price of a product below the list price, and
sometimes even below cost (loss leader), or low-interest financing & extended warranties
to increase short-run sale to clear inventory for a new model or to attract customers, e.g.
GM employee discount and white sale after Christmas.
5) Geographical pricing: FOB(free on board)-origin pricing is pricing a product at the point
of sale and customers have to pay the freight from the point of sale to the destination of
the customers. Uniform-delivered pricing (freight absorption pricing) is to set the same
Economics 600 Handout 13 Professor Tom K. Lee
Some corporations have dual-class voting shares, where one class of share has primary
claim to the residual profits and few voting rights, while the other class of share has
smaller claim to the residual profits but retains more of the voting rights, e.g. Google.
Typical limited voting right stock sells at a discount of over five percent relative to its
superior voting right counterpart.
Corporate governance refers to organization structure of a firm to monitor and direct
the performance of the firm.
There are five important internal control mechanisms to limit agency problems in
publicly traded corporations: large shareholders (blockholders), shareholder voting
(proxy contest), board of directors with outsiders, management compensation where
straight salary account for only twenty percent of total compensation , and (internal &
external) auditing.
In a proxy contest, an outside group seeks to obtain representation on the firm’s board of
directors. Proxy contest are usually directed against the existing management.
There are three important external control mechanisms to limit agency problems in
publicly traded corporations: market of corporate control (takeovers of poorly managed
firms), managerial labor market (track record of managers affecting future executive
income and employment), and product market competition (Economic Darwinism).
In a tender offer, an outside group request existing shareholders of a corporation to sell
their shares to the outside group at a pre-set tender price to gain control of the
corporate management.
A bear hug is a tender offer where the outside group first seek approval from the
corporate management and board of directors.
A hostile takeover is a tender offer where the corporate management and board of
directors reject the offer but the outside group continue to proceed with the tender offer
to win corporate control.
A greenmail is a premium repurchase of stocks owned by the takeover party to prevent a
takeover usually with an agreement from the takeover party not to pursue another
takeover of the corporation in the future, e.g. Occidental Petroleum paid greenmail to
David Murdoch $60 million in 1984 and Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company paid Sir James
Goldsmith $93 million in 1986.
A white knight is a third party sought by the corporate management and board of
directors to take over the corporation that is subject to a hostile takeover, e.g. Nissin
paid $314m to buy Myoto Foods after US hedge fund Steel Partners wanted a hostile
takeover.
A poison pill is restructuring by a corporation subject to a hostile takeover to reduce
the attractiveness of the takeover.
Examples of poison pill (anti-takeover defenses):
-an immediate large cash dividend financed by debt,
-a cash refund to customers in the event of a takeover, e.g. Peoplesoft against Oracle,
-golden parachutes: to award large severance pay to existing management if a takeover
is successful and the existing management are terminated, e.g. Robert Nardelli walked
away with $210 million to resign as chairman and CEO of Home Depot in 2007,
Economics 600 Handout 16 Professor Tom K. Lee
-poison put allows bondholders to sell bonds back to the firm at a premium in the event
of a takeover of the firm, e.g. a note issued by Grumman Corporation that mature in
1999,
-poison call allows management to buy back bonds of the firm at a premium in the
event of a takeover of the firm, e.g. a $ 300 million note issued by Mesa. LP in May 1989,
-move the corporate headquarters to a state with strong anti-takeover laws, e.g.
Delaware,
-change corporate governance to require absolute majority to approve a takeover vote
In general, defensive strategies of existing management lead to lower stock returns.
Fifty percent of top management of target firms are gone within three years of takeover.
Organization capital comes from three sources:
-learning by doing: production, management, customer/government relations &
research/innovation.