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System performance improvement of second order active low pass filter

using PID controller.

Method · April 2016

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.1215.9603

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Final Project Report
2ND ORDER LOW-PASS-FILTER

Team: Ninja Turtles

NAME ID SERIAL NUMBER
NIGAR HOSSAIN 1230521643 32
LAMIYA CHOWDHURY 1220590043 25
MAISHA FARZANA 1230333043 31

1
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We the “Ninja Turtles” team are very grateful to our honorable course instructor,
Dr. Lamia Iftekhar. She successfully prepared us to become capable enough to
carry out this project and have been supportive throughout. It’s an honor to
have done this course under her guidance which helped to bring out the best
efforts we have put forward in order to accomplish our goal.

2
 ABSTRACT

Low pass filter is a filter that allows only low frequency signals to pass through
and stops the high frequency signals. This filter is used in many signal sending
receiving systems to allow desired frequencies to pass. These filters are of two
types, active filter and passive filter where the active filter consists of active
elements like an OP-AMP for feedback. In these two filters time taken for the
output to reach a steady state is more in case of passive low pass filters when
compared to active low pass filters although the overall time for both the
systems is a matter of milliseconds. This report focuses on obtaining a faster
steady state response of an active filter using a PID controller. The mathematical
models, transfer functions of the systems and steady state responses are all
described and explained as required to achieve our designated task.

3
 Table of contents
i. Objective………………………………………………………………….….5
ii. Introduction…………………………………………………………….……5
iii. Filters…………………………………………………………………….……..7
a. Active and Passive filters
b. Low pass filters
iv. Applications………………………………………………………………....10
v. Mathematical Models and Transfer Functions…………………….….11
vi. Analysis…………………………………………………………………….….12
a. Pole-Zero plots
b. Steady state response Graphs
vii. PID Controller………………………………………………………….……14
viii. Discussion……………………………………………………………………18
ix. Conclusion……………………………………………………………..……18
x. References………………………………………………….……………….19
xi. Appendix A - Derivations of Mathematical models and Transfer
Functions…………………………………………………………….………20
xii. Appendix B – MATLAB codes………………………………………........28

4
 i. OBJECTIVE
The purpose of this project is to design an active low pass filter with better performance and at a
relatively low cost with the use of PID controllers. Filters are analyzed first using their respective
pole-zero plots and step response graphs and applying further control engineering techniques to
come up with a filter of improved performance.

ii. INTRODUCTION
Electronic filters similar to mechanical filters serve their purpose of removing crud from desired
signals. As in a mechanical filter, for example an oil filter in a car could bebuilt from a
membrane which allows fuel to pass through blocking contaminants. Likely this can be achieved
by using electrical filters in case of removing noise or unwanted signals but obviously the way of
approach differs. The advantage of using electrical filters is its different responses to different
frequencies giving us the choice to modify it according to our need and hence used in almost
every appliances we see. Filters work in a way to emphasize signals at certain frequencies and
reject signals in other frequencies which is done by attenuation of the undesired part. Such a
filter has a gain dependent on a signal’s frequency over other parameters such as amplitude and
phase. Considering a situation where the message signal is modulated on a carrier of frequency
F1 and passed through a transmission line. Upon arrival of this modulated signal at the receiver
end another signal is found incorporated to it of frequency F2 which is usually noise. Passing this
incoming signal possessing very low gain at F2 over F1 will result in removal of that frequency’s
signal and message signal will remain. As long as noise is sufficiently attenuated when compared
to the message signal, the performance of this filter is satisfactory.

Filters are classified according to the range of frequency signals they allow to pass through while
blocking the rest. The most common ones are:

1. Low pass filter – This filter allows only low frequency signals from 0Hz up to its cut-off
frequency, Fc above which all are blocked.
2. High pass filter – The filter only allows high frequency signals to pass from the cut-off
frequency, Fc and anything lesser are discarded.
3. Band pass filter – This filter allows signals falling under a certain range of frequencies to
pass through blocking all other frequencies on either side of the frequency band.
4. Band-reject filter – A filter which rejects signals of frequencies of a specific range and
allows passing the rest.

5
Fig.1.Ideal filter response curves [1]

Fig. 2. The effects of a few common filter types on a swept-frequency input signal [2]

In the example above, an input signal of constant amplitude and increasing frequency’s signal is
passed through a filter. As the signal moves out of the pass band, the filter starts to attenuate the
signal.
Take note that a signal’s transition from a pass band to stop band or vice versa is a gradual
process where amplitude decreases smoothly. Although this transition can be made
instantaneously sharp or close enough by increasing orders of a filter as higher order results in
the filter reaching its steady state faster or in other words quickly remove the stop band
frequencies.

6
 iii. FILTERS

a. Active and Passive filters

Filters are divided into two distinct types: active filters and passive filters. Active filters contain
components like an operational amplifier or a transistor which provide gain (beside the input
signal) thereby increasing the output signal’s strength unlike passive filters which contain no
such elements in its circuit, just the passive elements such as resistors, capacitors and/or
inductors.Due to this factor, the signals passing through a passive filter, suffers from attenuation
and hence the gain is always less than unity. Active filters draw their power from an external
power source and use it to amplify or boost up their signal providing a voltage gain of unity.
Passive filters may consist of inductors which allow its use in high frequency signals hence
providing frequency selectivity unlike active filters which never have inductors in its circuit.
Typically the frequency range of an active filter is dependent on the bandwidth of the amplifier.
Still, active filters give better performance and easier to design, very good accuracy with a steep
roll-off and low noise with an appropriate circuit design.
Due to high input impedance of active pass filter prevents excessive loading on the filters while
its low output impedance avoids affecting the filter’s cut-off frequency point due to changes in
the impedance of load. Hence properties of active pass filters are relatively more stable than
passive low pass filters under the effect of changing load impedances.

b. Low pass filters

Our primary focus of this project proposal is on comparison between the responses of both active
and passive second order low pass filters’ responses.
A simple passive RC low pass filter can be made by connecting a resistor and a capacitor in
series and the output Voutis measured across the capacitor only (across the resistor for high pass
filter). This filter is of first order which generally means it has only a single pole as there is only
a single reactive component, i.e. the capacitor.

7
Fig. 3. RC Low Pass Filter Circuit (Passive filter) [3]
As we may know that the reactance of a capacitor is inversely proportional to frequency of an
input signal while the value of a resistor remains constant. So at lower frequencies the reactance
(Xc) will be very large compared to the resistance of the resistor, R. So the voltage potential, Vout
will be far greater than the voltage drop across the capacitor Vr. At higher frequencies, the
reverse is true where Vout is significantly lower than Vr.

Fig. 4. An active first order low pass filter [4]

Its principle operation and frequency response is exactly the same as discussed previously for
passive filters, the only way it differs is in the use of an op-amp for amplification and gain
control. The simplest way to build an active low pass filter is to connect inverting or non-
inverting amplifier as shown in Fig. 4.
The simple first-order active low pass filter consists of RC filter stage providing low frequency
path to the input of a non-inverting operational amplifier. The amplifier is configured as a
voltage-buffer providing a DC gain of one or unity unlike the passive filter which has a DC gain
less than that of unity.

8
Figure 5: Active Low Pass filter with Amplification [5]
The frequency response of circuit in Figure 5 is exactly the same as that of passive filter with just
the difference in increased pass gain, Af of the amplifier. For a non-inverting amplifier circuit,
the value of the voltage gain is given as a function of the feedback resistor R2 divided by the
corresponding input resistor R1 :
𝑅2
𝐷𝐶𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 = [1 + ]
𝑅1
where,
R1 = resistor connected to ground
R2 = resistor in feedback
There the gain of first order low pass filter is
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐴𝐹
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛, (𝐴𝑣 ) = =
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑓
√1 + ( 𝑓 ) 2
𝑐

where,
Af = the pass band gain of the filter
f = input signal’s frequency in Hertz, (Hz)
fc = the cut-off frequency in hertz, (Hz)

9
Fig. 6. Passive second-order low pass filter [6]

Fig. 7. Active second-order low pass filter [7]

iv. APPLICATIONS
In Bangladesh, low pass filters are mainly used in radio centers and airport signal receiving
center. Radars are to receive the radio waves and filter the frequencies as signal is sent from
the sender or other source. Especially the active low pass filter is used to avoid the extra
unnecessary frequencies and noises. But in different devices such as speakers, micro phones,
base sound boxes and acoustics in recording room low pass filters are also highly used in
Bangladesh. So controlled active low pass filter having shorter settling time will be very
effective in these perspectives of developing radio centers and airport signal receiving centers
of Bangladesh.

10
 v. MATHEMATICAL MODELS & TRANSFER FUNCTIONS

Mathematical Model of Passive Filter: (Refer Appendix A for all derivations)

𝑉𝑥 −𝑉𝑖𝑛 Vx −Vo
+ + sC1 Vx = 0
𝑅1 R2

where,
Vx = voltage across node
Vin = applied voltage
Vo = output voltage
R1 = resistance
R2 = resistance
C1 = capacitance
The mathematical model is derived from Fig. 6.using Ohm’s law, KCL and KVL.
We then convert this model to an interpretation on which control engineering techniques can be
applied which is the transfer function. Then further we can analyze the transfer function to
evaluate the system’s performance.
Transfer function of passive filter:
1
R1 R2 C1 C2
H(s) = 1 1 1 1
s 2 + s (R +R +R )+R
1 C1 2 C1 2 C2 1 R2 C1 C2

Mathematical model of active filter:

𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉1 V1 V1 − Vo
= +
𝑅1 R 2 + Z2 Z1
where, s=jω and Zn= 1/jωCn
Transfer function of active filter:

11
 1
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐶1 𝐶2
H(s) = 1 1 1
𝑠² + 𝑠 (𝑅 +𝑅 )+𝑅
2 𝐶1 1 𝐶1 1 𝑅2 𝐶1 𝐶2

vi. ANALYSIS:

The transfer functions of passive and active low pass filters are used in MATLAB to get the
pole-zero maps and step response curves to analyze the system of the low pass filter by poles’
position on real axis which determines whether the system is stable or not and the step response
shows how steady the response of the system when step input response is applied. Also from the
step response curve we can predict what should be done in order to stabilize the system or
improve its performance.

a. Pole-zero map
Pole-Zero Map for passive low pass filter
1
Imaginary Axis (seconds-1)

0.5

-0.5

-1
-3000 -2500 -2000Real Axis-1500
(seconds-1) -1000 -500 0

Fig. 8. Passive Low Pass Filter Pole-Zero Map

In Fig. 8, both the poles are on the left hand side of the imaginary axis i.e. at around -2600 and -
400 on the real axis. The poles’ positions confirm that the passive low pass filter is stable as
there is not a single pole on the right hand side of the imaginary axis.

12
 Pole-Zero Map for active low pass filter
1

Imaginary Axis (seconds-1)

0.5

-0.5

-1
-1200 -1000 -800Real Axis-600
(seconds-1) -400 -200 0

Fig.9. Active Low Pass Filter Pole-Zero Map

In Fig. 9, both the poles are on the left hand side of the imaginary axis i.e. double poles on -1000
on the real axis. The poles’ positions confirm that the active low pass filter is also stable as there
is not a single pole on the right hand side of the imaginary axis.

b. Step Response

Step Response for passive low pass filter

1

0.8
Amplitude

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015
Time (seconds) 0.02 0.025

Fig. 10. Passive Low Pass Filter step response curve.

The following we can evaluate from Fig.10.

Settling time: 0.015 seconds

Rise time: 0.01 seconds
Overshoot: None
Steady-state error: None

13
 Step Response for active low pass filter
1

0.8
Amplitude

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.002 0.004 Time (seconds)
0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012

Fig. 11. Active Low Pass Filter step response curve.

The following we can evaluate from Fig.11.

Settling time: 0.008 seconds

Rise time: 0.006 seconds
Overshoot: None
Steady-state error: None

From Fig. 8 to Fig. 11. we can conclude that both active and passive low pass filters are stable.
From the step response curves the speed of the both low pass filters to reach the settling time is
measured and those are 0.015 seconds for passive and 0.008 seconds for active low pass filter
which confirms that the active low pass filter is faster than the passive low pass filter. But we can
make active low pass filter system muchfaster than the one shown in Fig. 11.Both the systems
are critically damped and they do not have any overshoot and steady state error. Also from the
circuit diagram for active and passive low pass filter it is proved that the passive low pass filter is
an open loop system (no feedback) and active low pass filter is a closed loop system (with
feedback mechanism).

vii. PID CONTROLLER

A PID (proportional-integral-derivative) controller is a controller used to control loop feedback
systems only. A PID controller repeatedly calculates the difference between a desired set point
and a measured process variable and that difference is specifically knows as the error e(t). A PID
controller has three parameters proportional, integral and derivative and their respective
coefficients are denoted by Kp, Ki and Kd.

In order to be able to explain its functionality better, we can consider a unity feedback system

14
Fig. 12. Unity feedback system [12]

The total output to the above system including the controller and the plant in time-domain as
follows:

𝑑𝑒
𝑢(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑝 𝑒(𝑡) + 𝐾𝑖 ∫ 𝑒(𝑡)𝑑𝑡 + 𝐾𝑝
𝑑𝑡
The variables on the Fig.12. is as follows where e is the difference between the output y and the
input r regarded as the error of the measured output value. The controller calculates both the
derivative and the integral of this error signal when initially error signal is forwarded to the
controller. The output of the controller u is equivalent to the proportional gain Kp times the error
plus integral gain Ki times the integral of the error which is then further added to the derivative
gain Kd times the derivative of the error signal.

The control signal u is then fed to the plant to yield an output y which is fed back to the system to
be compared with the desired value and to find the new error signal. The controller takes in the
new error signal and the cycle repeats.

The transfer function of a PID controller is evaluated using Laplace transform on Eq. in order to
obtain a form on which controlling engineering techniques can be applied.

𝐾𝑖 𝐾𝑑 𝑠 2 + 𝐾𝑝 𝑠 + 𝐾𝑖
𝐾𝑝 + + 𝐾𝑑 𝑠 =
𝑠 𝑠

The Distinguishing Properties of P, I, and D Controllers

The effects of each controller parameters, Kp, Kd and Ki is summarized below in the table

15
 CL RESPONSE RISE TIME OVERSHOOT SETTLING TIME S-S ERROR

Kp Decrease Increase Small Change Decrease

Ki Decrease Increase Increase Eliminate

Kd Small Change Decrease Decrease No Change

Care should be taken that each parameters affect one another when two or more are used together
so this table is just used for reference.

P Controlled Step Response: Active low pass filter

0.8

0.6
Amplitude

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01
Time (seconds)
Fig. 12. P controlled step response curve for Active low pass filter.

The above step response curve is after applying only proportional gain controlof valueKp=3. The
graph is far away from the desired amplitude which is 1 and have huge steady state error. The
system is then said to be overdamped. So, only P controller is not able to make this system faster
without error and less overshoot.

16
 PD Controlled Step Response - Active low pass filter
1

0.8
Amplitude

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01
Time (seconds)
Fig.13. PD controlled step response curve for Active low pass filter after applying Kp=3 &
Kd=10.

After applying both proportional and derivative gain control with Kp =3 and Kd = 10, this above
step response curve is stable again and with reduced settling time, no overshoot and no steady
state error.So, PD controller is able to control this system perfectly by making it faster than
before from initial 0.008 seconds settling time to 0.001 seconds reaching our desired value of
amplitude = 1.

PID Controlled Step Response - Active low pass filter

1

0.8
Amplitude

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01
Time (seconds)
17
Fig. 13. PID controlled step response curve for Active low pass filter after applying Kp = 3, Ki
= 2 & Kd = 10.

Here in this step response curve PID controller is used where Kp = 3,Ki = 2 and Kd = 2. The step
response is stable and the settling time is also 0.001 seconds.

Observing Fig. 12. And Fig 13, there is no observable change in the steady state responses. So
we can then come to this conclusion that addition of the integral gain makes no difference since
responses of both PID and PD controlled graphs are identical. In order to reduce the complexity
of the system thereby the cost of the system we opt for

viii. DISCUSSION
Among the two types of filters- the passive and the active- only active filter can be controlled
due to the presence of feedback .We need a closed loop feedback system in order to control or
manipulate the system by using a PID controller. Active low pass filter is faster than passive low
pass filter and can be made faster than it already is.

The system is already stable here. No overshoot and no steady state errors were seen in the
initial step response curves. But while controlling and doing trial and error we got some drastic
responses due to the effect of control parameters used.

First applying Kp we noticed the system is overdamped with huge steady state error.. Secondly,
applying both Kp and Kd we saw much improvement in the step response of the system. The
system had the settling time of 0.001s with no overshoot. With the aim to improve the system
further we applied all the three control parameters,and obtained the same response as compared
to the second case. So we choose PD controller over PID controller to control the low pass active
filter as manufacturing PD would involve lesser complexity (eg. less voltage required) and hence
would be more economical than PID..

ix. CONCLUSION
Summing all up, we can conclude that active low pass filter is faster than passive low pass filter
of which its performance can be further improved by using a PID controller achieving a settling
time from 0.008 seconds to 0.001 seconds with no steady state error and overshoot. Only PD
controller is used over PID with very small co-efficient values of Kp and Kd.

18
 x. REFERENCES

[1] Ideal Filter Response curves [Digital image]. (n.d.). Retrieved April 10, 2016, from
http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/filter/filter_5.html

[2] [The effects of a few common filter types on a swept-frequency input signal]. (n.d.).
Retrieved April 10, 2016, from http://www.sensorsmag.com/sensors/electric-magnetic/an-
introduction-analog-filters-1023

[3] RC Low Pass Filter Circuit [Digital image]. (n.d.). Retrieved April 10, 2016, from
http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/filter/filter2.html

[4] Active first order low pass filter [Digital image]. (n.d.). Retrieved April 10, 2016, from
http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/filter/filter_5.html

[5] Active Low Pass filter with Amplification [Digital image]. (n.d.). Retrieved April 10, 2016,
from http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/filter/filter_5.html

[6] Passive second-order low pass filter [Digital image]. (n.d.). Retrieved April 10, 2016, from
http://electronics.stackexchange.com/questions/152159/deriving-2nd-order-passive-low-pass-
filter-cutoff-frequency

[7] Active second-order low pass filter [Digital image]. (n.d.). Retrieved April 10, 2016, from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_filter

[8] N. (n.d.). Difference Between Active and Passive Filters. Retrieved March 4, 2016, from
http://pediaa.com/difference-between-active-and-passive-filters-2/

[9] Low Pass Filter - Passive RC Filter Tutorial. (n.d.). Retrieved March 04, 2016, from
http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/filter/filter_2.html

[10] Active Low Pass Filter - Op-amp Low Pass Filter. (n.d.). Retrieved March 04, 2016, from
http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/filter/filter_5.html

[11] Control Tutorials for MATLAB and Simulink. (n.d.). Retrieved April 10, 2016, from
http://ctms.engin.umich.edu/CTMS/index.php?example=Introduction

[12] Unity feedback system [Digital image]. (n.d.). Retrieved April 10, 2016, from
http://ctms.engin.umich.edu/CTMS/index.php?example=Introduction§ion=ControlPID

19
xi. APPENDIX A : Derivations of Mathematical models and Transfer
functions

20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
 xii. APPENDIX B : MATLAB codes
Contents
 Transfer function (Passive low pass filter)

 Poles

 Pole-zero plot

 step-response

 Transfer function (Active low pass filter)

 Poles

 Pole-Zero plot

 step-response

 P Controller (Active low pass filter)

 PD Controller (Active low pass filter)

 PID Controller (Active low pass filter)

% Group Name- NINJA TURTLES

% 11th April 2016

Transfer function (Passive low pass filter)

num = [1000000];

den = [1 3000 1000000];

sys1 = tf(num,den)

sys1 =

1e06

-------------------

s^2 + 3000 s + 1e06

28
Continuous-time transfer function.

Poles
pole(sys1)

ans =

1.0e+03 *

-2.6180

-0.3820

Pole-zero plot
pzmap(sys1)

29
step-response
step(sys1)

30
Transfer function (Active low pass filter)
num = [1000000];

den = [1 2000 1000000];

sys2 = tf(num,den)

sys2 =

1e06

-------------------

s^2 + 2000 s + 1e06

Continuous-time transfer function.

Poles
pole(sys2)

ans =

1.0e+03 *

-1.0000

-1.0000

31
Pole-Zero plot
pzmap(sys2)

step-response
step(sys2)

32
P Controller (Active low pass filter)
Kp = 3;

Kd = 0;

Ki= 0;

C = pid(Kp,0,0);

num = [1000000];

den = [1 2000 1000000];

sys_21 = tf(num,den)

T = feedback(C*sys_21,1);

t = 0:0.001:0.01;

33
step(T,t)

gridon

sys_21 =

1e06

-------------------

s^2 + 2000 s + 1e06

Continuous-time transfer function.

PD Controller (Active low pass filter)

Kp = 3;

Kd = 10;

34
Ki= 0;

C = pid(Kp,0,Kd);

num = [1000000];

den = [1 2000 1000000];

sys_22 = tf(num,den)

T = feedback(C*sys_22,1);

t = 0:0.001:0.01;

step(T,t)

gridon

sys_22 =

1e06

-------------------

s^2 + 2000 s + 1e06

Continuous-time transfer function.

35
PID Controller (Active low pass filter)
Kp = 3;

Kd = 10;

Ki= 2;

C = pid(Kp,Ki,Kd);

num = [1000000];

den = [1 2000 1000000];

sys_23 = tf(num,den)

T = feedback(C*sys_23,1);

t = 0:0.001:0.01;

36
 step(T,t)

gridon

sys_23 =

1e06

-------------------

s^2 + 2000 s + 1e06

Continuous-time transfer function.

Published with MATLAB® R2014a

37

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