REAM Guidelines On Geometric Design of Roads

F'OITEWORD
Road Engineering Association of Malaysia (REAM), througlr the cooperation and support of
various road authorities and engineering institutions in Malaysia, publishes a series of official
documents on STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS, GUIDELINES, MANUALS and
TECHNICAL NOTES which are related to road engineering. The aim of such publications is
to achieve quality and consistency in road and highway construction.
The cooperating bodies are:-
Public Works Department, Malaysia

Malaysian Highway Authority
Institution of Engineers, Malaysia
Institution of Highways & Transportation (Malaysian Branch)
The production of such documents are carried out through several stages. The documents are
initially compiled/drafted by the relevant Technical Committee and subsequently scrutinised
by the relevant Standing Committee of REAM. They are finally endorsed by road authorities
and practitioners of road engineering at a conference/workshop before publication. REAM
welcomes feedback and suggestions which can update and improve these documents.
This GUIDE ON GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF ROADS is the revision of the existing

Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 8/86 "A Guide on Geometric Design of Roads" published by Jabatan
Kerja Raya.
The revision was undertaken by the Standing Committee on Technology and Road
Management of the Road Engineering Association of Malaysia (REAM) with the mandate
given by the Director-General of Public Works Department, Malaysia.
The draft of this Arahan Teknik was presented and discussed at the Forum on Technology
and Road Management in November 1997 and the 4th Maiaysian Road Conference in
November 2000.
It is hoped that this Guide will address the shortcomings of Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 8/86 and
will be accepted by the highway engineering fraternity in the country.
ROAD ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF MALAYSIA

46-4, Jalan Bola Tarnpar 13114, Section 13,40100 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia.
Tel:603-55136521 Fax:603-55136523 e-mail:ream@po.jaring.my
ROAD ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF MALAYSIA
A GUIDE ON GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF ROADS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INDEX PAGE NO.
I. INTRODUCTION I
2. ROAD CLASSIFICATIONS AND DESIGN STANDARDS z
2.1 ROAD CLASSIFICATION / HIERARCHY 2
2.2 DESIGN STANDARDS FOR ROADS 5
2.3 ACCESS CONTROL 6
)4 SELECTION OF DESIGN STANDARDS 8
DESIGN CONTROL AND CRITERIA 11
J.l TOPOGRAPHY AND LAND USE ll

J.Z TRAFFIC 12
3.3 DESIGN VEHICLES CHARACTERISTICS l.+
J-+ SPEED 18
3.5 CAPACITY 20
A
ELEMENTS OF DESIGN 25
4.1 SIGHT DISTANCE 25

A' a1
HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT J+
+.J VERTICAL ALIGNMENT 44
4.4 COMBINATION OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL 52
ALIGNMENT
5. CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS 61
5.1 PAVEMENT 6l
5.2 LANE WIDTH & MARGINAL STRIPS 62
5.3 SHOULDERS 62
5.4 KERBS 66
5.5 SIDEWALKS 69
5.6 TRAFFIC BARRIERS 6q
5.7 MEDIANS 69
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont'd)
INDEX PAGE NO.
5.8 SERVICE ROADS 10
5.9 U-TURN 73
5. l0 BRIDGE AND STRUCTURE CROSS SECTION 16
5.t I BUS LAYBYES to
6. OTHER ELEMENTS AFFECTING GEOMETRIC DESIGN 80
6.I ROAD SAFETY 80
6.2 DRAINAGE 80
6.3 LIGHTING 8I
6.4 UTILITIES 81
6.5 SIGNING AND MARKINGS 8I

6.6 TRAFFIC SIGNALS 8I
6.1 EROSION CONTROL, LANDSCAPE DEVELOPMENT 82
AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

TABLES PAGE NO.
TABLE 2-I CHARACTERISTICS OF ROAD CATEGORIES A

T
TABLE2-2A SELECTION OF ACCESS CONTROL (RURAL) 8
TABLE2-28 SELECTION OF ACCESS CONTROL (URBAN) 8
TABLE 2-3 SELECTION OF DESIGN STANDARD 9

TABLE 3.1 DIMENSION OF DESIGN VEHICLES 14
TABLE 3-2A DESIGN SPEED FOR RURAL ROADS 19
TABLE 3-2B DESIGN SPEED FOR URBAN ROADS 1q
TABLE 3-3 CONVERSION FACTORS TO P.C.U. 2l

TABLE 3-4 LEVELS OF SERVICE 22
TABLE 3-5A DESIGN LEVEL OF SERVICE AND VOLUME/ aA
CAPACITY RATIO (RURAL)

TABLE 3-58 DESIGN LEVEL OF SERVICE AND VOLUME/ 24
CAPACITY RATIO (URBAN)
TABLE 4-1 MINIMUM STOPPING DISTANCE zo
TABLE4-2 EFFECTS OF GRADES IN STOPPING SIGHT 2'7
DISTANCE _ WET CONDITIONS

TABLE 4-3 DECISION SIGHT DISTANCE 28
TABLE 4-4 MINIMUM PASSING SIGHT DISTANCES 30

(2LANE-2WAY)
TABLE 4-5 MINIMUM RADIUS 3s
TABLE 4-6 RELATIONSHIP OF DESIGN SPEED TO MAXIMUM 5l
RELATIVE PROFILE GRADIENTS
TABLE4.]A DESIGN SUPERELEVATION TABLE (RURAL) 38
TABLE 4-78 DESIGN SUPERELEVATION TABLE (URBAN) 39
TABLE 4-8 PAVEMENT WIDENING ON OPEN ROAD CURVES 43
TABLE 4-9A MAXIMUM GRADES FOR RI. R2. Ul & U2 45
STANDARD ROADS
TABLE 4-98 MAXIMUM GRADES FOR R3 AND R4 STANDARD 45
ROADS
TABLE 4-9C MAXIMUM GRADES FOR U3 AND U4 STANDARD 45
ROADS
TABLE 4-9D MAXIMUM GRADES FOR R5 STANDARD ROADS A<
TABLE 4-9E MAXIMUM GRADES FOR U5 STANDARD ROADS

TABLE 4-9F MAXIMUM GRADES FOR U6 AND R6 STANDARD 46
ROADS
ul
TABLES PAGE NO.
TABLE 4-1OA CREST VERTICAL CURVE (K VALUES) 50

TABLE 4-IOB SAG VERTICAL CURVE (K VALUES) 51
TABLE 5-1 TYPICAL PAVEMENT SURFACE TYPE 6l

TABLE 5-2 LANE & MARGINAL STRIP WIDTHS 6l
TABLE 5-3A USABLE SHOULDER WiDTH (RURAL) 64
TABLE 5-3B PAVED SHOULDER WIDTH (URBAN) 65
TABLE 5-4 PAVED SHOULDER WIDTH (RURAL) 65
TABLE 5-5A MEDIAN WIDTH (RURAL) 70

TABLE 5-58 MEDIAN WrDTH (URBAN) 70
TABLE 5-6 DESIRABLE DISTANCE BETWEEN U-TURNS 74
FIGUR.ES PAGES NO
FIGURE 2-I FLOW CHART FOR SELECION OFDESIGN STANDARDS IO

FIGURE 3-1 P DESIGNVEHICLE 15
FIGURE 3-2 SU DESIGN VEHICLE 16
FIGURE 3-3 WB-15 DESIGN VEHICLE I1
FIGURE 3-4 RELATIONSHIP OF LEVEL OF SERVICE TO OPERATING 23

SPEED AND VOLUME / CAPACITY RATIO
FIGUR.E 4-1 MEASURING SIGHT DISTANCE ON PLAN 32
FIGURE 4-2 MEASURING SIGHT DISTANCE ON PROFILE JJ
FIGURE 4-3 COMPARISON OF SIDE FRICTION FACTORS ASSUMED 35
FOR DESIGN OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF ROADS
FIGURE 4-4 DIAGRAMMATIC PROFILES SHOWING METHODS OF 4]
ATTAINiNG SUPERELEVATION
FIGURE 4-5 CRITICAL LENGTHS OF GRADE FOR DESIGN FOR 4't
TYPICAL HEAVY TRUCK OF 180kg/kw.

<A
FIGURE 4-6 A&B
FIGURE 4-6 C&D 55
FIGURE 4-6 E&F 56
FIGURE 4-6 G,H&I 57
FIGURE 4-6 J,K&L 58
FIGURE 4.6 M 59
FIGURE 4-6 N 60
FIGURE 5-1 TYPICAL CROSS SECTION OF SHOULDER AND VERGE 63
FIGURE 5-2A ROAD KERB DETAILS 67
FIGURE 5-28 ROAD KERB DETAILS 68
FIGURE 5-3 TWO-WAY SERVICE ROAD 72

'75
FIGURE 5-4 MINIMUM DESIGN FOR DIRECTU-TURNS
FIGURE 5-5 TYPICAL BRIDGE CROSS SECTIONS 77
CLEARANCES AT UNDERPASS 18
FIGURE 5-6
'79
FIGURE 5-7 LAYOUT OF BUS LAYBYES
.*1i 'i{F,:i'. Ei:. "'r:' iisif-.:" ;l ::5;;r.?;

A Guide on Geometric Design of Roads
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
This Guide is limited to the geometric features of road design as distinguished from structural
design. It is intended as a manual on the geometric design of road, inclusive both
in rural as well as in urban conditions. The geometric design of road is only applicable to
Rural or Urban areas as specifically indicated in this Guide.
This Guide is to be applied to all new construction and improvements of roads for vehicular
traffic. Comments from users will be most welcomed as this Guide will continue to be updated
from time to time.
This Guide is to be used in conjunction with other Arahan Tekniks that have been or
will be produced by Jabatan Keria Raya or other Agencies.
A Guide on Geometrtc Design of Roads
CHAPTER 2 - ROAD CLASSIFICATIONS AND DESIGN STANDARDS
2.r ROAp CLASSTFTCATTON / HrERARelgy
2.1.1 The Importance of Road Classification
The importance of defining a hierarchy of roads is that it can help clarify policies
concerning the highway aspects of individual planning decisions on properties
served by
the road concerned. Further'more specific planning criteria could be
developed and
applied according to a road's designation in the hierarchy: for example design
speed,
width of carriageway, control over pedestrian, intersections, frontage access etc.
In this
way the planning objectives would be clear for each level of road in the hierarchy and
policies on development control and traffic management would reinforce one another.
2.1.2 Functions of Road
Each road has its function according to its role either in the National Network,
Regional
Network, State Network or City/Town Network. The most basic function of a road
is
transportation. This can be further divided into two sub-functions; namely
mobility and
accessibility. However, these two sub-functions are in trade off. To enhance
one, the
other must be limited. In rural areas, roads are divided into five categories,
narnely,
EXPRESSWAY, HIGHWAY, PRIMARY ROAD, SECONDARY ROAD ANd
MINOR ROAD. In urban areas, roads are divided into four categories, namely
EXPRESSWAY, ARTERIAL, COLLECTOR and LOCAL STREET. They are in
ascending order of accessibility and thus in descending order of mobility.
2.1.3 Road Category and Their Application
Categories of Road
2 GROUPS
URBAN (4 Categories) RURAL (5 Categories)
1. Expressway l. Expressway 4. Secondary Road

2. Arterial 2. Highway 5. Minor Road
3. Collector 3. Primary Road
4. Local Street
A Guid.e on Geometric Design af Roads
Categories of roads in Malaysia are defined by their general functions as follows:
(a) Expresswav
An Expressway is a divided highway for through traffic with full control of
access and always with grade separations at all intersections'
In rural areas, they apply to the interstate highways for through traffic and form
the basic framework of National road transportation for fast travelling. They
serve long trips and provide'higher speed of travelling and comfort. To maintaiu
this, they are fully access controlled and are designed to the highest standards.In
urban areas, they form the basic framework of road transportation system in
urbanised area for through traffic. They also serve relatively long trips and
smooth traffic flow and with full access control and complements the Rural
Expressway.
(b) Highway
They constitute the interstate national network for intermediate traffic volumes
and complements the expressway network. They usually link up directly or
indirectly the Federal Capital, State capitals, large urban centres and points of
entry/exit to the country. They serve long to intermediate trip lengths. Speed of
travel is not as important as in an Expressway but relatively high to medium
speed is necessary. Smooth traffic is provided wrth partial access control.
(c) Primary Roads

They constitute the major roads forming the basic network of the road
transportation system within a state. They serve intermediate trip lengths and
medium travelling speeds. Smooth traffic is provided with partial access
control.They usually link the State Capitals and district Capitals or other Major
Towns.
(d) Secondary Roads

They constitute the major roads forming the basic network of the road
transportation system within a District or Regional Development Areas. They
serve intermediate trip lengths with partial access control. They usually link up
the major towns within the District or Regional Development Area.
(e) Minor Roads

They apply to all roads other than those described above in the rural areas. They
form the basic road network within a Land Scherne or other sparsely populated
rural area. They also include roads with special functions such as holiday resort
roads, security roads or access roads to microwave stations. They serve
mainly local traffic with short trip lengths with no access control.
(0 Arterials
An arterial is a continuous road within partial access control for through traffic
within urban areas. Basically it conveys traffic from residential areas to the
vicinity of the central business district or from one part of a city to another which
does not intend to penetrate the city centre. Anerials do not penetrate identifiable
neighbourhoods. Smooth traffic flow is essential since it carries larse traffic
volumes.
(e) Collectors
A collector road is a road with partial access control designed to serve as a
collector or distributor of traffic between the arterial and the local road systems.
Collectors are the major roads which penetrate and serve identifiable
neighbourhoods, commercial areas and industrial areas.
(h) Local Streets

The local street system is the basic road network within a neighbourhood and
serves primarily to offer direct access to abutting land. They are links to the
collector road and thus serve short trip lengths. Through traffic should be
discouraged.
The characteristics for road categories are summarised as in Table 2-r.
TABLE 2.1 : CHARACTERISTICS OF ROAD CATEGORIES
ROAD Trip Length Design Volume Speed NETWORK

AREA CATEGORIES
Long Med Short Hieh Med Low High Med Low
Expressway I I National network
RURAL Highway I -I t I I National network
Primary Road - I I I I E State network

Secondary Road I I !E * E - District network
Minor Road I IT Supporting network
Expressway National network
I E ! r -
URBAN Arterial - T I
Major links to
Urban centres
Collector E I E E Major streets within
- I
urban centres
Local Street Minor streets/town

E E E network.
2.2 DESIGN STANDARDS FOR ROADS
2.2.1 The Importance of Standardisation
Technically, the geometric design of all roads need to be standardised for the following
reasons:-
(a) to provide uniformity in the design of roads according to their performance
requirements.
(b) to provide consistent, safe and reliable road facilities for movement of traffic.
(c) to provide a guide for less subjective decision on road design.
2.2.2 Rural and Urban Areas
Urban areas are defined as roads within a

gazetted Municipality limits or
township having a population of at least 10,000 where buildings and houses are gathered
and business activity is prevalent. Any roads outside the Municipality limits is
considered rural, including roads connecting Municipalities that are more than
5 kilometres apart.
There is no fundamental difference in the principles of design for rural and urban roads.
Roads in urban areas, however, are characterised by busy pedestrian activities and
frequent stopping of vehicles owing to short intersection spacings and congested built-up
areas. Lower design speeds are usually adopted for urban roads and different cross
sectional elements are applied to take into account the nature of traffic and adjoining land
use. It is for these reasons that variations in certain aspects of geometric design are
incorporated for these two broad groups of roads.
2.2.3 Application of Design Standards for Roads
The design standard is classified into six (6) groups (R6, R5, R4, R3, R2 & R1) for rural
(R) areas and into six (6) groups (U6, U5, U4,U3,U2 & Ul) for urban (U) areas. Each
of these standards are listed below with descending order of hierarchy.
(a) Standard R6/U6: Provides the highest geometric design standards for
rural or urban areas.They usually serve long trips
with high travelling speed (90 kph or higher)of
travelling,comfort and safety. It is always designed
with dividedcarriageways and with fuli access control.
The Rural and Urban Expressway falls under this
standard.
A Guide on Geomelric Design of Roads
(b) Standard R5/U5: Provides high geometric standards and usually serve long
to intermediate trip lengths with high ro medium
travelling speeds (80 kph or higher). It is usually with
partial access control. The Highway, Primary Road and
Arterial fall under this standard. It is sometimes designed
as divided carriageways with partial access control.
(c) Standard R4N4: Provides medium geometric standards and serve

intermediate trip lengths with medium travelling speeds
(70 kph or higher). It is also usually with partial access
control. The Primary Road, Secondary Road, Minor
Arterial and Major Collector fall under this standard.
(d) Standard R3/U3: Provides low geometric standard and serves mainly local
traffic. There is partial or no access control. The
Secondary Road, Collector or Major Local Streets are
within this standard. The travelling speed is usuallv
60 kph.
(e) Standard R2N2: Provides low geometric standards for two way flow.
It is applied only to local traffic with low volumes of
commercial traffic. The Minor Roads and Local Streets
fall under this standard. The travelling speed is usually
50 kph.
(0 Standard R1/U1: Provides the lowest geometric standards and is applied to

road where the volumes of commercial vehicles are very
low in comparison to passenger traffic. The travelling
speed is 40 kph or less. In cases where commercial traffic
is not envisaged such as private access road in low cost
housing area, the geometry standards could be lowered
especially the lane width and gradient.
2.3 ACCESS CONTROL
2.3.1 Degree of Control
Access control is the condition where the right of owners or occupants of abutting land
or other persons to access, in connection with a road is fully or partially controlled by the
public authority.
Control of access is usually classified into three types for its degree of control, namely
full control, partial control and non-control of access.
Full Control of Access means that preference is given to through traffic by providing
access connecting with selected public roads only and by prohibiting crossings at grade
or direct private driveway connections. The access connections with public roads varies
from 2 km in the highly developed central business area to 8 km or more in the sparsely
developed urban fringes.
Partial Control of Access means that preference is given to through traffic to a degree
that in addition to access connection with selected public roads, there may be some
crossings trafficked roads. At-grade intersections should be limited and only allowed at
selected locations. The spacin g of at-grade intersections preferably signalised may vary
from 0.4 km to 1.0 km.
To compensate for the limited access to fully or partially access controlled roads,
frontage or service roads are sometimes provided along side of the main roads.
In Non-Control Access, there is basically no limitation of access.
2.3.2 Selection of Access Control
The selection of the degree of control required is imporlant so as to preserve the as-built
capacity of the road as well as improve safety to all road users. Two aspects pertaining
to the degree of control is to be noted.
(a) during the time of design in the consideration of accesses to existing

develooments.
(b) after the completion of the road in the controi of accesses to future
develonments.
The selection of degree of access control depends on traffic volumes, function of the road
and the road network around the areas. Tables 2-2A and2-2F_ are general guides for the
selection of desree of access control.
TABLE 2-ZA: SELECTION OF ACCESS CONTROL (RURAL)
Standard
Xt'tn _____
R6 R5 R4 R3 R2 R1
Road categorr---'--
Expressway F
Highway P
Primary Road P P
Secondary Road P P
Minor Road N N
TABLE 2-28: SELECTION OF ACCESS CONTROL (URBAN)
-----=pesign Standard
\\\ __r\\_
U6 U5 U4 U3 U2 U1
Road Category \-r'-\
Expressway F
Arterial P P
Collector P P P
Local Street N N N N
Note : F = Full Control of Access,

P = Partial Control of Access,
N - No Control of Access
2.4 SELECTION OF DESIGN STANDARDS
2.4.1 Selection of Design Standard
The selection of the required design standard should begin with the assessment of the
function of the proposed road and the area it traverses. If there is an overlapping of
functions, the ultimate function of the road shall be used for the selection criteria. The
projected average daily traffic (ADT) at the end of the design life (15 years after
completion of the road) should then be calculated and from Table2-3, the required
design standard can be obtained. From the capacity analysis the required nurnber of
lanes can then be calculated.
The selection of design standards used for various categories of roads is as

shown in Table 2-3 while the process of selecting design standard are as shown in
Figure 2-I.
TABLE 2.3: SELECTION OF DESIGN STANDARD
\ Projected All 10,000 3,000 1,000

Area ADT Traffic >10,000 to to to < 150
\
Road \ Volume 3,000 1,000 150
Category \
Expressway R6
Highway R5
RURAL p< R4
Primary Road
Secondary Road R4 R3
Minor Road D' RI
Expressway U6
URBAN Arterials U5 U4
Collector U5 U4 U3
Local Street U4 U3 U2 U1
FIGURE 2-1 : FLOW CHART FOR SELECTION OF DESIGN STANDARDS
Project Identification
Designate Road Group

According to Nature of
Area Road Traverses
Select Road Select Road

Category based on Category based on
function e.g. Primary Road function e.g. Arterial
Estimate ADT at
end of desisn life
Table 2.3
Determine design
standard e.g. R6,U3 etc.
Route Location
Survey and Design
r0
CHAPTER 3 - DESIGN CONTROL AND CRITERIA
This chapter discusses those characteristics that govern the various elements in the design of
highway. These include the topography and land use through which the route is to be located,
the traffic that will use the route, design vehicles characteristics, design speed of the route and
the capacity to be provided along the route.
3.1 TOPOGRAPHY AND LAND USE
The location of a road and its design are considerably influenced by the topography,
physical features, and land use of the area traversed. Geometric design elements
such as alignment, gradients, sight distance and cross-section are directly affected
by the topography, and must be selected so that the road designed will reasonably fit
into those natural and man-made features and economise on construction and
maintenance.
The topography through which the road passes can generally be divided into three
groups, namely, FLAT, ROLLING and MOUNTAINOUS; where
FLAT terrain means: The topographical condition where highway sight

distances, as governed by both horizontal and
vertical restrictions, are generally long or could be
made to be so without construction difficulty or
expertise. The natural ground cross slopes (i.e.,
perpendicular to natural ground contours) in a flat
terrain are generally below 37o.
ROLLING terrain means: The topographical condition where the natural

slopes consistently rise above and fall below the
road or street grade and where occasional steep
slopes offer some restrictions to normal horizontal
and vertical roadway alignment. The natural
ground cross slopes in a rolling terrain are
generally between 37o-25%o.
MOUNTAINOUS terTaln means: The topogaphical condition where longitudinal and

transverse changes in the elevation of the ground
with respect to the road or street are abrupt and
where benching and side hill excavation are
frequently required to obtain acceptable horizontal
and vertical alignment. The natural ground cross-
slopes in a mountainous terrain are generally
above 25Vo.
11
ll
The topography of a route may affect the operation characteristic of the roadway and this
may affect the type of road to be built. For example, steep gradient will reduce the
capacity of a2-Iane road (single carriageway) and lower the operation speed of this link.
However, if a dual carriageway or a wider road is used, the effects will be much less and
hence the operation speed and characteristics of the road will be enhanced. Consequently,
the nature of the terrain sometimes determines the type of road to be built.
Topographical conditions may also affect the cross-sectional alrangement of divided

roads. In some cases a facility of a single road formation may be appropriate; in others
it may be more fitting to locate the road within two separate road formation due to
economic or environmental considerations.
In urban areas, land development for residential, commercial and industrial purposes will
restrict choice of road location, lower running speed, generate more turning movements,
and require more frequent intersections than in open rural areas. Geologic and climatic
conditions must also be considered for the location and geometric design of a road.
3.2 TRAFFIC
The design of a road should be based on traffic data, which serve to establish the "loads"
for geometric design. Traffic data for existing roads or section of road are available from
the annual "Road Traffic Volume, Malaysia" published by Highway Planning Unit
(HPU) of the Ministry of Works, Malaysia.
3.2.1 Average Daily Traffic (ADT)
ADT represents the total traffic for the year divided by 365, or the average traffic volume
per day. ADT is imporlant for purposes such as determining annual usage as justification
for proposed expenditures, or for design of structural elements of a road. The projected
ADT is also used to designate the standard of road as shown in Table 2.3 - Selection of
Design Standards. However, the direct use of ADT in geometric design is not appropriate
because it does not indicate the significant fluctuation in the traffic volume occurring
during various months of the year, days of the week or hours of the day. A more
appropriate measurement is the hourly volume which is used to determine the capacity
requirement of the road.
3.2.2 Design Hourly Volume (DHV)
The traffic pattern on any road shows considerable fluctuation in traffic volumes during
the different hours of the day and in hourly volumes throughout the year. It is difficult
to determine which of these hourly traffic volumes should be used for design. It would
be wasteful to base the design on the maximum peak hour traffic of the year, yet the use
of the average hourly traffic would result in an inadequate design.
TZ
To determine the hourly traffic best fitted for design, a curve showing the variation in
hourly traffic volume during the year is used. The hourly traffic used in design is the
30th. highest hourly volume of the year, abbreviated as 30 HV. The design hourly
volume, abbreviated as DHV is the 30HV of the future year chosen for the design.
The above criteria is applicable to most rural and urban roads. However, for roads on
which there is unusual or highly seasonal fluctuation in traffic flow such as holiday resort
roads, the 30HV may not be appropriate. It may be desirable, to choose an hourly volume
for design (about 50 percent of the hourly volumes) expected to occur during a very few
maximum hours (15 to 20) of the design year whether or not it is equal to 30HV.
3.2.3 Design Hourly Volume Ratio (K)
K is the traffic ratio of DHV to the designed ADT. K's value ranges froml%o to 20Vo. The
actual value should be obtained from traffic data or census. As a guide, K=12.0Vo for
urban roads and K=15%o for rural roads may be used. Where the design of the road
facility is sensitive to the value of K, the K value should be established from traffic
survey/study.
The directional distribution of traffic (D) during the design hour should be determined
by field measurements on the facilities. Generally D value of 60Vo can be used in urban
areas and 65Va in rural areas. Traffic distribution by directions is generally consistent
from year to year and from day to day except on some roads serving holiday resort area.
3.2.4 Traffic Composition
This refers to the percentage of various classes of vehicles in the DHV. Vehicle of
different sizes and weights have different operating characteristics which must be
considered in geometric design. Commercial vehicles generally are heavier, slower and
occupy more roadway space, thus imposing greater traffic effect on the road than
passenger vehicles"
Vehicles of various sizes and weights are classified into the following six (6) groups
under the annual National Traffic Census conducted by HPU:
a. motor cycles
b. cars and taxis
c. light vans and utility vehicles
d. medium lorries (2 axle)
e. heavy lorries (3 or more axles)
f. buses
On existing road network, the traffic composition at peak hour can be established from
"Road Traffic Volume Malaysia" published by the Highway Planning Unit, Ministry of
Works.
3.2.5 Projection of Traffic
New roads or improvements of existing roads should be based on future traffic expected
to use the facilities. Desirably, a road should be

designed to accommodate the traffic that
might occur within the Iife of the facility under reasonable
maintenance. l'he projection
of traffic for use in the design should be based on period
a of l5 years after completion
of the road
3.3
The geometric design of roads is affected by the physical

characteristics of vehicles and
the proportions of various sizes vehicles using
the roads. A design vehicle is a selected
motor vehicle, the weight, dimensions and operating
characteristics of which are used to
establish highway design controls to accommodate
vehicles of a designated type. For
purposes of geometric design, the design vehicle
should be one with dimensions and
minimum turning radius larger than thoie of almost all vehicles
in its class. Since roads
are designed for future traffic, the sizes of vehicles
used in the design should be
determined by analysing the trends in vehicle dimensions
and characteristics.
3.3.1 Design Vehicles
The design vehicles to be used for geometric

design follows that used by AASHTo as
in chapter II of AASHTo "Design vehicle" - -A policy of
Geometric Design of
Highways and streets (1994). Figure 3-1,3-2,and
3-3 show the dimensions and turning
characteristics for the p, SU and wB-r5 design
vehicres.
3.3.2 Summary of Dimension of Design Vehicles
Table 3-1 below summarises the design vehicle dimensions

and characteristics.
TABLE 3-I-DIMENSION OF DESIGN VBHICLES
Design Vehicles Dimension in Metres

Turning Radius
Equivalent Overhang
(Metres)
Type Wheel Overall Overall
Type in
base Length Height
AASHTO Front Rear widrh Inner
Outer
Passenger Car P 3.4 0.90 I.5 5.8 2.1 1.3 4.2 | --)
Rigid Truck SU 6. l0 1.2 1.8 9.1 2.60 4.10 8.5 12.8

Semi-Trailer wB-15 9. 10 0.9 0.60 16.1 2.60 4"10 5.8 13.7
Note: Marimum alIowable overall f"n

(i) Rigid vehicle - 12.2 m &0 ft\
(ii) Articutated vehicte _ 16.0 m (52.5 ft)
(iii) Semi-Trailer - I 2.5 m &tft\
(iv) Traiter - 9.0 m (29.5 fi)
(v) Truck Trailer - 18.0 m (59 fr)
B. Maximum allowable overail width under currenf Maraysian
Legisration is 2.5 m.
14
FIGURE 3.1 : P DESIGN VEHICLE
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FIGURE 3.3 : WB-ls DESIGN VEHICLE
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3.4 SPEED
Speed is a primary factor in all modes of trahsportation, and is an important factor in the
geometric design of roads. The speed of vehicles on a road depends, in addition to
capabilities of the drivers and their vehicles, upon general conditions such as the physical
characteristics of the highway, the weather, the presence of other vehicles and the legal
speed limirations.
The speed is selected to meet the needs of the road to fulfil its function. Thus roads which
are planned to provide long distance travel will be designed with a higher speed while
those which provides shorter distance travel can be given a lower design speed.
3.4.1 Design Speed
Table 3-2A and 3-28 indicate the selection of design speeds rvith respect to rural and
urban standards.
Design speed is defined as: "a speed selected to establish specific minimum geometric
design elements for a particular section of highway". These design elements include
vertical and horizontal alignment, and sight distance. Other features such as widths of
pavement and shoulders, horizontal clearances, etc., are generally indirectly related to
design speed.
The choice of design speed is influenced primarily by factors such as the terrain,
economic, environmental factors, type and anticipated volume of traffic, functional
classification of the highway, and whether the area is rural or urban. A highway in level
or rolling terrain justifies a higher design speed than one in mountainous terrain.
Where a difficult location is obvious to approaching drivers, they are more apt to accept
a lower design speed than where there is no apparent reason for it. Where it is necessary
to reduce design speed, many drivers may not perceive the lower speed condition ahead,
and it is important that they be warned in advance. The changing conditions should be
indicated by such traffic devices as speed zone signs and appropriate warning signs
depicting the conditions ahead.
A highway carrying a large volume of traffic may justify a higher design speed than a
less important faciliti' in a similar topography, pafticularly where the savings in vehicle
operation and other cos.ts are sufficient to offset the increased cost of right of way and
construction. On the contrary, a lower design speed should not be assumed for a
secondary road where the topography is such that drivers are likely to travel at high
speeds.
Taking into account the above considerations, as high a design speed as feasible should
be used. It is preferable that the design speed for any section of highway be a constant
value. However, during the detailed design phase of a project, special situations may
18
TABLE 3-2A: DESIGN SPEED FOR RURAL ROADS
Design Speed (kph)

Design
Catesorv of Road Terrain
Standard
Flat Rolling Mountainous
R6 Expressway 110 r00 80
'7n
Highway 100 90
R5
Primary Roads r00 90 70
Primary Roads 90 80 60
R4
Secondary Roads 90 80 60
R3 Secondary Roads 80 60 50
R2 60 50 40
Minor Roads
RI 50 50 30
TABLE 3-2B-- : DESIGN SPEED FOR URBAN ROADS
Design Speed (kph)

Design Category of Road
Area Type
Standard
I il m
U6 Expressway 100 90 80
Arterials 90 70 60
U5
Collectors 80 10 60
Arterials 80 60 50
U4 Collectors 10 60 50
Local Streets 70 60 50
Collectors 60 50 40
U3 40
Local Streets 60 50
U2 50 4A 30
Local Streets 30
UI 40 30
Note : Type I - relatively free in road location with very little problems as regards land
acquisition, affected buildings or other socially sensitive areas.
Type II - Intermediate between I and IIL
Type III - Very restrictive in road location with probiems as regards land acquisition,
affected buildinss and other sensitive areas.
19
arise in which engineering, economic, environmental, or other considerations make it

impractical to provide the minimum elements established by the design speed. The most
likely examples are partial or brief horizontal sight distance restrictions, such as those
imposed by bridge rails, bridge columns, r'etaining walls, sound walls, cut slopes, and
median barriers.
The cost to correct such restrictions may not be justified. Technically, this will result in
a reduction in the effective design speed at the location in question. Such technical
reductions in design speed shall be discussed with and upprou"d by Road Authorities.
3.4.2 Operating Speed
Operating speed is the highest overall speed at which a driver can travel on a given road
under favourable weather conditions and prevailing traffic conditions without at any time
exceeding the design speed on a section by section basis.
3,4.3 Design Sections
In the design of relatively long road, it is desirable, although not always feasible to allow
for a constant design speed. Changes in terrain and other physical controls may dictate
a change in the design speed on certain sections. If a different design speed is introduced,
the change should not be abrupt but should be effected over a ruffi.i"nt distance to
permit drivers to change speed gradually before reaching the section of highway with
lower design speed. There should be a transition section of at least I km per every t0 kph
drop in design speed to permit drivers to change speed gradually before reaching the
section of the road with a different design speed. The transition sections are sections with
intermediate design speeds. Where the magnitude of the change in the design speed are
large, more than one transition section will be required.
The intermediate design speed shall follow the sequence as established in Table 3-2A
and 3-28, i.e. If the design speed of section A is I l0 kph and that of section B is 90kph,
then the design speed of the transition section between them shall be 100knh.
3.5 CAPACITY
The term highway capacity pertains to the ability of a roadway to accommodate rraffic.
It is defined as the maximum number of vehicles that can pass over a given section of a
lane or a roadway during a given time period under prevailing roadway and traffic
conditions. Capacity considered here is applicable only to uninterrupted flow or open
roadway conditions. Capacity for intemrpted flow as at intersections will be dealt with
separately.
Capacity is often stated in terms of passenger car units (p.c.u). Table 3-3 gives the
conversion factors to be used in converting the various classes of vehicles to passenger
car units.
20
A Gui.de on Geometric Design of Roads
TABLE 3.3.CONVERSION FACTORS TO P.C.U.
Equivalcnt Value in P.C.U
Type of Vehicles Rural Standard Urban Standard Roundabout Design Traffic Signal
Design
Passenger Car 1.00 r.00 1.00 1.00
Motor cycles r.00 0.7.5 0.75 0.33
Light Vans 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00
Medium Lorries 2.50 2.50 2.80 1.75
Heavy Lorries 3.00 3.00 2.80 2.25
Buses 3.00 3.00 2.80 2.25
Source : 1. Road Research Laboratory "Research on Road Traffic", HMSO, London, 1965, pp201
2. Highway Planning Unit, Ministry of Works, Malaysia
3.5.1 Capacity under ideal condition
Under ideal condition, the possible capacity for uninterrupted flow are as follows:
a. For 2-lane two way (total) = 2,800 pcu/hr

b. For multi lane (per lane) = 2,000 pcu/hr
Ideal conditions consist of the following for two -lane roads:
a. Design speed greater than or equal to 100 kph

b. Lane widths greater than or equal to 3.65m (i2')
c. Clear shoulders wider than or equal to 1.83m (6')
d. No "No passing zones" on the highway
e. All passenger cars in the traffic streams
f. A 50/50 directional split of traffic
g. No impedient to through traffic due to traffic control or turning vehicles
h. Level terrain
Where one or more of these conditions are not met, the actual capacity will be reduced.
The effects of each are discussed in the Highway Capacity Manual which gives
adjustment factors for the determination of the design capacity.
3.5.2 Design Volume
Design volume is the volume of traffic estimated to use the road during the design year,
which is taken as l5 years after the completion of the road. The derivation of the design
hour volume (DHV) is as discussed in Section 3.2.2.
2l
A Cui.de on Geometric Design of Roads
Design of new highways or improvements of existing highways usually should not be

based on current traffic volume alone. Considerations should be given to the future traffic
expected to use the facilities. A highway should be designed to accommodate the traffic
that might occur within the life of the facility under reasonable maintenance.
It is difficult to define the life of a highway because major segments may have different
lengths of physical life. Furthermore, the design of highway based on life expectancy is
greatly influenced by economics.
3.5.3 Service Volume
The service volume is the maximum volume of traffic that a designed road would be able
to serve without the degree of congestion falling below a preselected level as defined by
the level of service which is the operating conditions (freedom to manoeuvre) at the time
the traffic is at the design hour volume. Table 3-4 gives an indication of the levels of
service used while Figure 3-4 gives a schematic concept of the relationship of level of
service to operating speed and volume/capacity ratio.
TABLE 3-4 : LEVELS OF SERVICE
Level of Remarks
Service
A Freeflow with low volumes, densities and high speeds. Drivers can
maintain their desired speeds with little or no delay.
B Stable flow. Operating speeds beginning to be restricted somewhat

by traffic conditions. Some slight delay.
C Stable flow. Speeds and manoeuvrability are more closely

controlled by higher volumes. Acceptable delay.
D Approaching unstable flow. Tolerable operating speeds which are

considerably affected by operating conditions. Tolerable delay.
E Unstable Flow. Yet lower operating speeds and perhaps stoppages

of momentary duration. Volumes are at or near capacity congestion
and intolerable delay.
F Forced Flow. Speeds and volume can drop to zero. Stoppages can
occur for long periods. Queues of vehicles backing up from a
restriction downstream.
22
FIGURE 3.4 : RELATIONSHIP OF LEI'EL OF SERVICE TO
OPERATING SPEED AIYD VOLUME i
CAPACITY RATIO.
!t)
!.)
ao.
oll
'.4
o
L
0,
o
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Volume / Copocity Rotio
z5
3.5.4 Design Level of Service and Volume/Capacity Ratio
The selection of the design level of serviqe is as given in Table 3-5A and 3-58. This
level of service concept can be simplified into volume to capacity ration (V/C) for the
purpose of design to determine the service volume as indicated in Section 3.5.3. Table
3-5A and Table 3-58 also gives the ranges of V/C ratio consistent with the levels of
service for the purpose of design.
TABLE 3-5A : DESIGN LEVEL OF SERVICE AND VOLUME/

CAPACITY RATIO (RURAL)
Road Category Desisn Level of Service Volume /Capacity

Ratio
Expressway C 0.70-0.80
Highway C 0.70-0.80
Primary Road D 0.80-0.90
Secondary Road D 0.80-0.90
Minor Road E 0.90- 1.00
TABLE 3-58 : DESIGN LEVEL OF SERVICE AND VOLUME/

CAFACITY RATIO (URBAN)
Road Category Desien Level of Service Volume /Capacity

Ratio
Expressway D 0.80-0.90
Arterial D 0.80-0.90
Collector D 0.80-0.90
Local Street E 0.90-1.00
.A
CHAPTER 4 - ELEMENTS OF DESIGN
4.1 SIGHT DISTANCE
4.1.1 General
Sight distance is the length of road ahead visible to drivers. Ability of a driver
to see ahead is of the utmost importance to the safe and efficient operation of a
road. The designer must provide sight distance of sufficient length in which drivers
can control the speed of the vehicles so as to avoid striking an unexpected obstacle
on the travelled way. Also, at frequent intervals and for a substantial portion
of the length, Z-lane undivided roads should have sufficient sight distance to enable
drivers to overtake vehicles without hazard. Decision sight distance, is the distance
required for a driver to detect an unexpected hazard and to select an appropriate
speed or path thus by completing a manoeuvre which avoid this hazard. Sight
distance thus includes stopping sight distance, passing sight distance and decision
sight distance.
4.1.2 Stopping Sight Distance
The stopping sight distance is the length required to enable a vehicle travelling at or near
the design speed to stop before reaching an object in its path. Minimum stopping sight
distance is the sum of two distance.
(i) the distance traversed by a vehicle from the instant the driver sights an object for
which a stop is necessary, to the instant the brakes are applied; and
(ii) the distance required to stop the vehicle after the brake application begins.
(a) Perception and Brake Reaction Time
For safety, a reaction time that is sufficient for most operators, rather than
for the average operator, is used in the determination of minimum sight
distance. A perception time value of 1.5 seconds and a brake reaction
time of a full second are assumed. This make the total perception and
brake reaction time to be 2.5 seconds.
(b) Braking Distance
The approxirnate braking distance of a vehicle on a level roadway is

determined by the use of standard formula:
V2
d=
254f
25
where d = brake distance, (m)

V= initial speed, (kph)
f = coefficieirt of friction between tires and roadway
In this formula the f factor varies considerably due to many physical

elements such as condition of tires, condition of pavement surface, the
presence of moisture etc. The value of f for design are inclusive of all
these factors.
(c) Design Values
The sum of the distance traversed during perception and brake reaction
time and the distance required to stop the vehicle is the minimum
stopping sight distance. The values to be used for minimum stopping
sight distances are as shown in Table 4-1.
TABLE 4.1 : MINIMUM STOPPING DISTANCE
Design Speed (kph) Min Stopping Sight Dist. (m)
110 2s0
r00 205
90 r70
80 t40
t0 110
60 85
50 65
40 A<
AJ
30 30
(d) Effect of Grades on Stopping Sight Distance
When a road is on a grade the standard formula for braking distance is
V2
D_
zsatl,e)
in which g is the percentage of grade divided by 100.
The effect of grade on stopping sight distance is as shown in Table 4-2.
1A
TABLE 4.2 : EFFECTS OF GRADES IN STOPPING SIGHT

DISTANCE _ WET CONDITIONS
Stopping Sight Assumed Stopping Sight

Design Distance (m) for Speed for Distance (m) for
Speed (kph) Downgrades Condition Upgrades
37a 6Vo 97o (koh) 3Vo 6Vo 9Vo
30 30 3l )L 30 29 29 )9,
40 46 48 50 40 +J 42 41
50 66 69 '73 47 56 54 5Z
60 89 94 101 55 71 69 61
70 118 126 136 63 90 86 83
80 149 161 t76 70 t07 102 98
1aA 1ta
90 181 t95 714 71 lLa 119 I lJ
100 221 241 261 85 148 140 t34
110 267 293 327 91 r68 159 l5i
(e) Every effort should be made to provide stopping distances greater than
the minimum design values shown in Table 4-1 especially at locations
where there are restrictions to sight in the horizontal plane.
(f) Decision Sight Distance
Stopping sight distances are usually sufficient to allow reasonably

competent and alert drivers to come to a hurried stop under ordinary
circumstances. However, these distances are often inadequate when
drivers must make complex or instantaneous decisions, when information
is difficult to perceive, or when unexpected or unusual manoeuvres are
required. Limiting sight distances to those provided for stopping may
also prelude drivers from performing evasive manoeuvres, which are
often less hazardous and otherwise preferable to stopping. Even with an
appropriate complement of standard traffic control devices, stopping sight
distances may not provide sufficient visibility distances for drivers to
corroborate advance warning and to perform the necessary manoeuvres.
It is evident that there are many locations where it would be prudent to
provide longer sight distances. In these circumstances, decision sight
distance provides the greater length that drivers need.
Decision sight distance is the distance required for a driver to detect an

uriexpected or otherwise difficult-perceive information source or hazard
in a roadway environment that may be visually cluttered, recognise the
hazard or its potential threat, select an appropriate speed and path, and
initiate and complete the required safety manoeuvre safely and efficiently.
Because decision sight distance gives drivers additional margin for error
and affords thern sufficient length to manoeuvre their vehicles at the same
or reduced speed rather than to just stop. its values are substantially
grcater than stupping sight distance.
21
Drivers need decision sight distance whenever there is a likelihood for

error in either information reception, decision-making, or control actions.
The following are examples of critical locations where these kinds of
errors are likely to occur, and where it is desirable to provide decision
sight distance: interchange and intersection locations where unusual or
unexpected manoeuvres are required; and changes in cross section such
as toll plaza and lane drops.
The decision sight distances in Table 4-3 provide values to be used by

designers for appropriate sight distances at critical locations and serve as
criteria in evaluating the suitability of the sight lengths at these locations.
Because of the additional safety and manoeuvrability these lengths yield,
it is recommended that decision sight distances be provided at critical
Iocations or that these points be relocated to locations where decision
sight distances are available. If it is not possible to provide these
distances because of horizontal or veftical curvature or if relocation is not
possible, special attention should be given to the use of suitable traffic
control devices for providing advance warning of the conditions that are
likely to be encountered.
TABLE 4-3 : DECISION SIGHT DISTANCE
Decision Sight Distance for Avoidance

Design
Manoeuvre (meters)
Speed (kph)
B C D
50 15 160 145 200

60 95 20s 115 235
70 125 250 200 215
80 155 300 230 315
90 i85 360 215 360
r00 225 415 3r5 405
ll0 26s ,,t<<
335 42s
Decision sight distance values that will be applicable to most situations

have been developed from empirical data. The decision sight distances
vary depending on whether the location is on a rural or urban road, and
on the type of manoeuvre required to avoid hazards and negotiate the
location properly. Table 4-3 shows decision sight distance values for
various situations rounded for design. As can be seen in Table 4-3,
generally shorter distances are required for rural roads and when a stop
is the manoeuvre involved.
28
A Gui.de on Geometric Design of Roads
The following avoidance manoeuvres are covered in Table 4-3:

. Avoidance Manoeuvre A : Stop on rural road.
. Avoidance Manoeuvre B : Stop on urban road.
. Avoidance Manoeuvre C : Speed/path/direction change on rural
road.
. Avoidance Manoeuvre D : Speed/path/direction change on urban
road.
In computing and measuring decision sight distances, the 1070mm eye

height and 150mm object height criteria used for stopping sight distance
have been adopted. Although drivers may have to be able to see the
entire roadway situation, including the road surface, the rationale for the
150mm object height is as applicable for decision as it is for stopping
sight distance.
4.1.3 Passing Sight Distance
Most roads in rural areas are two-lane two way on which vehicles frequently overtake
slower moving vehicles, the passing of which must be accomplished on a lane regularly
used by the opposing traffic. Passing sight distance for use in design should be
determined on the basis of the length needed to safely complete a normal passing
manoeuvre.
The minimum passing sight distance for two-lane highways is determined as the sum of
four distances:-
(i) distance traversed during the perception and reaction time and during the initial
acceleration to the point of encroachment on the passing lane.
(ii) distance travelled while the passing vehicle occupies the passing lane. ,
(iii) distance between the passing vehicle at the end of its manoeuvre and the opposite
vehicles.
(iv) distance traversed by an opposing vehicle for two-thirds of the time the passing
vehicle occupies the passing lane.
(a) Design Values
The total passing sight distance is determined by the sum of the above four
element" Table 4-4 gives the minimum values to be used for each design speed.
In designing a road, these distances should be exceeded as much as practicable

and such sections provided as often many as can be done with reasonable costs
so as to present as many passing opportunities as possible exceeded.
29
TABLE 4-4 : MINIMUM PASSING SIGHT DISTANCES

(2-LANE - 2 WAY)
Design Speed (kph) Minimum Passing Sight Dist. (m)
110 730
100 610
90 610
80 550
70 490
60 410
50 350
40 290
30 230
(b) Effect of Grade on Passing Sight Distance
Specific adjustment for design use is not available. The effect of grade is not
considered in design as the effect is compensated in upgrade or downgrade.
However, it should be realised that greater distances are needed for passing on
grade as compared to level conditions. The designer should recognise the
desirability of increasing the minimum as shown in Table 4.4.
(c) Frequency and length of Passing Sections
Sight distance adequate for passing should be provided frequently on 2-lane

roads. Designs with only minimum sight distance will not assure that safe
passing can always be made. Even on low volume roads a driver desiring to pass
may, upon reaching the section, find vehicles in the opposing lane and thus be
unable to utilise the section or at least not be able to begin to pass at once.
The percentage of length of road or section of road with sight distance Ereater
than the passing minimum should be computed. The adequacy of sight distance
is determined by analysis of capacity related to this percentage, and this would
indicate or not alignment and profile adjustments are necessary to accommodate
the design hour volumes. Generally this percentage should be about 60Vo for flat
terrain, 40Vo for rolling terrain and 20Vo for mountainous terrain. The avaiiable
passing sight distances should not be concentrated in one section but be evenly
distributed throughout the entire road. It is inrportant to note that in order to cater
for high volume of traffic at high level of service, it requires that frequent and
nearly continuous passing sight distances be provided.
I
I
I
30
T
A Guide on Geometic Design of Roads
It is not necessary to consider passing sight distance on roads that have

two or more traffic lanes in each direction of travel. Passing manoeuvres
on multilane roads are expected to occur within the limits of each
carriageway allocated for that direction of travel. Thus passing manoeuvres
that require crossing the centerline of four-lane undividual road are reckless
and should be prohibited.
4.1.4 Criteria for Measuring Sight Distance
(a) Height of Driver's Eye
The eyes of the average driver in a passenger vehicle are considered to be

l070mm above the road surface.
(b) Height of Object
A height of object of 150mm is assumed for measuring stopping sight distance

and the height of object for passing sight distance is 1300mm both measured from
the road surface.
Sight distance should be considered in the preliminary stages of design when both
the horizontal and vertical alignment are still subject to adjustment. The sight
distance should be determined graphically on the alignment plans and recorded
at frequent intervals, for both direction of travel. This will enable the designer
to appraise the overall layout and effect a more balanced design by minor
adjustments in the plan or profile.
Horizontal sight distance should be measured in the inside of a curve at the center
of the inside lane. Vertical sight distance should be measured along the
longitudinal profile of the central line, using the height of driver's eye (1070mm)
and the object height (150mm). Figure 4-l and 4-2 provrde examples of
measuring sight distance in both plan and profile respectively. For two lane two-
way roads passing sight distance in addition to stopping sight distance and
decision sight distance should be measured and recorded. Sight distances, in this
case, are to be checked from the centerline of the road.
JI
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33
4.2 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
4.2.1 General
In the design of horizontal curves, it is necessary to establish the proper relation between the
design speed and curvature and also their joint relations with superelevation and side
friction. From research and experience, limiting values have been established for the
superelevation (e), and the coefficient of friction (fl.
4.2.2 Superelevation Rates
The maximum rates of superelevation usable are controlled by several factors such as
climatic conditions, terrain conditions and frequency of very slow moving vehicles that
would be subjected to uncertain operation. While it is acknowledged that a range of values
should be used, for practical purposes in establishing the design criteria for horizontal
alignment, a maximum superelevation rate of 0.10 is used for roads in rural areas and 0.06
for roads in urban areas.
4.2.3 Minimum Radius
The minimum radius is a limiting value of curvature for a given speed and is determined
from the maximum rate of superelevation and the maximum allowable side friction factor.
The minimum safe radius (Rmin) can be calculated from the standard curve formula.
v2
Rmin =
127 (e+f)
WhereRmin = minimum radius of circular curve (m)
V= Design Speed (kph)
e = maximum superelevation rate
f = maximum allowable side friction factor
34
Design of Roads
4 Guile on Geometric
Figure 4-3 illustrates the range of side friction factors (0 that has been derived using
imperial methods for the various types of roads.
FIGURE 4-3 : COMPARISON OF SIDE FRICTION

ion between t FACTORS ASSUMED FOR DESIGN OF
,ation and si DIFFERENT TYPES OF ROADS
blished for r,
0.5
Maximum side friclion

lactor tor new tyres on /
wet concrete pavement
./ f ]-
1l
A 0.4
concrete p
lyres on s el
lvement
actors SUCh r ; Assum ed for design
of turning roadways
I
I
g vehicles th H
I
'ange of valu, E u'r r..

for horizont 5 Assumed for design of
1/ tow speed urban roads
areas and 0.( E f
! O) f
q)
(a f
--t ruraland high speed
0.1 urban highways
is determine
kiction facto
U
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 I l0
formula.
Speed (kph)
Table 4-5 lists the minimum radius to be used for the designated speed and maximum
superelevation rates.
TABLE 4.5: MINIMUM RADIUS
Minimum Radius (m)

Design Speed (kph)
e = 0.06 e = 0.10
110 s60 s00

100 465 315
90 335 305
80 284 230
70 195 n5
60 150 125
50 100 85
4A 60 50
30 35 30
35
While the values in Table 4-5 lists the minimum radius that can be used, it should be noted,
that the above minimum radii will not provide the required stopping sight distance and
passing site distance within typical cross-sections. Hence, all elforti should be made to
design the horizontal curves with radii larger than the minimum values shown for greater
comfort and safety.
4.2.4 Transition (Spirat) Curves
Vehicles follow a transition path as it enters or leave a circular horizontal curye. To design
a road with builrin safety, the alignment should be such that a driver travelling at the design
speed will not only find it possible to confine his vehicle to the occupied lane but
will be
encouraged to do so. Spiral transition curves are used for this purpose. Generally, the
Eulers spiral, also known as the clothoid is used. The degree of curve varies from zero at
the tangent end of the spiral to the degree of the circular arc at the circular curve end.
a) Length of Spiral
The length of spirals to be used are normally calculated from the Spiral formula or
from the empirical superelevation runoff lengths. The following formula is used by
some for calculating the minimum length of a spiral:
,
L= 0.0702v'
RC
.,'
where L = minimum length of spiral;
V- speed (kph);
R= curvo radius; and
C= rate of increase of centripetal accelerating (m/sec3)
The factor C is an imperial value and a range of lto 3 have been used for highways.
Highways design does not normally require the level of precision achieved using this
formula. A more practical control for determining the length of a spiral is that *fri.tt
equal the length required for superelevation runoff.
Superelevation runoff is the general term denoting the length of highway needed
to accomplish the change in cross slope from a section with adverse crown
removed to a fully superelevated sectjon or vice versa. Current practice indicates
that the appearance aspect of superelevation runoff largely governs the length.
The length of superelevation runoff should not exceed a longitudinal slope
as indicated in Table 4-6.
36
TABLE 4.6: RELATIONSHIP OF DESIGN SPEED TO MAXIMUM

RELATIVE PROFILE GRADIENTS
Maximum Relative Gradients (and Equivalent

Design Speed Maximum Relative Slopes)
v (kph) for Profiles between the Edge of Two-Lane
Travelled Way and the Centerline (Vo)
30 0.75 (l:133)
40 0.70 (l:143)
50 0.65 (l:150)
60 0.60 (1:167)
70 0.55 (l:182)
80 0.50 (1:200)
90 0.48 (l:210)
100 0.45 (I:222)
110 0.42 (l:238)
Table 4-74 and 4-78 gives for the various design speeds and degree of curvature,
the minimum lengths of spiral, the superelevation rates and the limiting curvature
for which superelevation is not required.
For pavements with more than 2 lanes and standard lane width of 3.5m, the
superelevation runoff lengths should be as follows.
(i) 3 lane pavements - 1.2 times the length for 2-lane roads.
(ii) 4?aneundivided pavements - 1.5 times the length for 2 lane roads.
(iii) 6 lane undivided pavements * 2.0 times the length for 2 lane roads.
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4.2.5 Methods of Attaining Superelevation

(a) revolving the
Three specific methods of profile design in attaining superelevation are
pavement about the centreline profile (b) revolving the pavement about the inside
edge
profile, and (c) revolving the pavement about the outside edge profile. Figure 4-4 illustrates
these three methods diagrammatically. The rate of cross slope is proportional
to the distance
from start of superelevation runoff.
(a) Figure 4-4A illustrates the method where the pavement section is revolved about the
centreline profile. This general method is the most widely used in design since the
required .hung" in elevation of edge of pavement is rnade with less distortion then
by the other methods. The centreline profile is the base line and one-half of the
required elevation change is made at each edge'
the
(b) Figure 4-48 illustrates the method where the pavement section is revolved about
to the
inside edge profile. The inside edge profile is determined as the line parallel
is made
calculateJ centreline profile, One half of the required change in cross slope
the
by raising the centre line profile with respect to the inside pavement edge and
other half by raising the respect to the centreline profile.
(c) Figure 4-4C illustrates the method where the pavement section is revolved about
outside edge profile involves similar geometrics as (b), except that the change is
affected below the upper control profile.
Except when site condition specifically requires, method (a) shall be adopted for undivided
roads.
4.2.6 Superelevation Runoff with Medians
In the design of divided roads, the inclusion of a median in the cross section alters somewhat
the superelevation runoff treatment, The three general cases for superelevation runoff
design are as follows:
(a) The whole of the travelled way, including the median, is superelevated as a plane
section. This case is limited to namow medians and moderate superelevation rates
to avoid substantial differences in elevation of the extreme pavement edges because
of the median tilt. Diagrammatic profile controls is sirnilar to Figure 4'4a^ except
' that the two rnedian edges will appear as profiles only slightly removed from
centreline.
(b) The medial is lield in a horizontal plane and the two pavements separately are
rotated around the median edges. This case has most application with medians of
intermediate width. Runoff design uses the median edge profile as the control' One
pavement is rotated about its lower edge and the other about its higher edge. The
diagrammatic profile control is similar to Figure 4-48 and 4'4C with the centreline
grade control the same for the two pavements.
40
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(c) The two pavements are separately treated for run-off with a resultant variable
difference in elevation at the median edges. The differences in elevation of the
extreme pavement edges are minimised by a compensating slope across tlie median'
A fairly wide section is necessary to develop right shoulder areas and desired gentle
slope between. Thus this case is more applicable to wide median of 9m or more'
The pavement rotation can be made by any methods in Figure 4-4.
4.2.7 Pavement Widening on Curves
Pavements on curves are widened to make operating conditions on curve comparable to

those on tangents. Pavement widening on curves is the difference in pavement width
required on a curve and that use in a tangent. Table 4-8 gives the widths of pavement
widening that are required on open road curves.
Widening should be attained gradually on the approaches to the curve to ensure a reasonable
or
smooth alignment on the edge of pavement and to fit the paths of vehicles entering
leaving the curve. Preferably, widening should be attained over the superelevation runoff
length with most of all of the widening attained at the start of circular curve poin
4,2.8 Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves
Another element of horizontal alignment is the sight distance across the inside of curves.
Where there are sight obstructions (such as walls, cut slopes, buildings and guardrails), a
design to provide adequate sight distance may require adjustment if the obstruction cannot
be removed. Using the design speed and a selected sight distance as a control, the designer
should check the actual condition and make the necessary adjustment in the manner most
fitting to provide adequate sight distance.
4,2.9 General Controls for Horizontal Alignment
In addition to the specific design elements for horizontal alignment, a number of general
controls ur".".ognised and should be used. These controls are not subject to empirical or
formula derivation but are important for the attainment of safe and smooth-flowing roads.
These are:-
(a) The horizontal alignment should be consistent with the topography and width
preserving developed properties and community values. Winding alignment
Lo*posed of short curves should be avoided. On the other hand very long straights
should also be avoided. The maximum length of straight section of the highway
should be limited, where possible, to 2 minutes travelling time.
ft) The use of the minimum radius for the particular design speed should be avoided
wherever possible. Generally flat curves should be used, retaining the maximum
curvature for the most critical conditions.
(c) Consistent alignment should always be sought. Sharp curves should not be
introduced at thd end of long tangents. Where sharp curves must be introduced, it
should be approached, where possible, by successively sharper curves from the
generally flat curvature.
42
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(d) For small deflection angles, curves shcluld be su{'f iciently long to avoid the
appearance o1'a kink. Curves should be at least l-50m long for a central angle of
5o anci the length should be increased 30m foreach ludecrease in the centreline
angle. The n-rinin-rurn length clf horizontal curve on main roads, should be about
3 times the <iesign speed, L.,,ri,, = 3y (iri n-retef). on high speed controlled access
f acilities the desirable minirrum length of horizontal cun,e should be double
the
minimum length i.e. [-.,j", = 6V.
(e) Any abrupt reversal in alignment should be avoided. The distance between
reverse curves shoulcl be the sum o1-the superelevation runofl'lengths and the
tangent runout lengths.
(f) The 'broken back' an'angentent of curves should be avoided. Use of spiral
transitions or a compound curve alignment is prelerable for such conditions if it
is unavoidable.
(g) other than tangent or flat curvature should be avoided <-in high, long embankment
fills. In the absence of'cut slopes, shrubs, and tree above the roadway, it is
difficult fbr drivers to perceive the extent of curvature and adjust their operation
to the conditions.
(h) Caution should be exercised in the use of compound circular curves. While the
use of compound curves affords flexibility in fitting the highway to the terrain
and other ground controls, the simplicity with which such curves can be used
clften ternpts the <iesigner to use them without restraint. Preferably their use
should be avoided where curves are sharp. Cornpound curves with large
differences in curvature introduce the same problems that arise at a tangent
approach to a circular curve. Where topography or right-of-way restriction make
their use necessary, the radius of the flatter circular arc, R1, should not be more
than 50 percent greater than the radius of the sharper circuiar arc, R2, i.e., R1
should not exceed i,5 Rz. A several-step compound curve on this basis is
suitable as a fornt of transiticln to sharp curves. A spiral transitiott between flat
curves and sharp curves is even inore desirable. On one-rvay roads such as
rarnps, the dil rence in radii of compound curves is not so ituporiant if the
second curve is flatter than the first. However, the use of compound curves on
ramps. which results in a flat curve between two sharper curves, is not good
practice.
(i) The designer should ensure thaL the required sight distance (i.e. decision sight
ciistance) is providecl when approaching interchanges and intersections'
4"3 \/ERTICAL AI,IGNMF'NT
4.3.1 Maximum Grades
The vertical profile of road affect tlie perfomrance of vehicles. The effect of grades on
trucks which have weight power ratio of about 18Okg/kw, is considered. The maximuln
grade controls in tenns of design speed is summarised in T'able 4-9A to 4'9F.
44
7
A Guide on Geometric
TABLE 4-9A: MAXIMUM GRADES FOR Rt. R2. Ul & U2

STANDARD ROADS
Design speed (kph)

Type of Terrain/Area
30 40 50 60 70 80
Flat & Type I 8 7 7 l 1 6
Rolling & Type II ll ll l0 t0 9 8
Mountainous & Tvpe III l6 l5 l4 t3 t2 l0
TABLE 4-9B : MAXIMUM GRADES FOR R3 AND R4 STANDARD R0ADS
Design speed (kph)

Type of Terrain
50 60 70 80 90 r00
Flat 1 7 7 6 6 5
Rolling 9 8 8 7 7 6
Mountainous r0 IO l0 9 9 8
TABLE 4.9C : MAXIMUI\{ GRADES FoR u3 AND u4 STANDARD ROADS
Design speed (kph)

Area Type
40 50 60 70 80
Type I 9 9 9 8 7
Type II t2 t1 10 9 8
Type III t3 I2 12 1l 10
TABLE 4.9D z MAXIMUM GRADES FOR R5 STANDARD ROADS
Design speed (kph)

Type of Terrain
-7n
60 80 90 r00 110
Flat 5 5
i
+ 4 a a
J
Rolling 6 6 5 5 -
A
+
Mountainous 8 1 7 6 6 5
TABLE 4-98 : MAXIMUM GRADES FOR U5 STANDARD ROADS
Design speed (kph)

Area Type of Terrain
s0 60 t0 80 90 r00
Type I 6 7 6 6 5 5
Type II q
8 7 7 6 6
Type III II 10 9 9 8 8
TABLE 4-9F : MAXIMUM GRADES FOR U6 AI{D R6 STAI'{DARD ROADS
Design speed (k
Type of Terrain/Area
Flat & Type I

Rolling & Type II
Mountainous & TVpe III
the grade is
The total upgrade for any section of road should not exceed 3000 m unless
less than 4 Vo.
4.3.2 Minimum Grades
percent may
A desirable minimum grade or 0.5 percent should be used. A grade of 0.35
be allowable where a high type pavement accurately crowned is used'
On straight
stretches traversing across wide areas of low lying swamps use
of even flatter grades may
water drainage outlet
be allowabte witn lrior approval. However, the design of the stonn
of the travelled
should be considered carefully at these location to ensure that flooding
lanes is avoided.
Where less than 0.5Volongrtudinal gradient is necessary, the superelevation runofflength

used should be the minimum valul permitted. This will minimise flat area
along the
wearing
carriageway where the cross falls are less than \Vo. The use of open textule
hydropianing'
course at this locations should be considered; this will heip in preventing
4.3.3 Critical Grade Length
upgrade
The term "critical grade length" indicates the maximum length of a designated
in speed' To
upon which a loaded truck can operate without an unreasonable reduction
of trucks is
establish the design values for ciitical grade lengths, for which gradeability
the determining factor, the following assumptions are made:-
(i) The weighr-power rario of a loaded truck is about 180 kglkw.
(ii) The average running speed as related to design speed is used to approximate
the
speed of vehicles beginning an uphill climb'
reduction in
(iii) The common basis for determining the critical grade length is a
that accident
speed of trucks below the averageiunning speed. Studies show
reduction exceeds
involvement rate increases siglificantly when truck speed
l5kph. For example accideniinvolvement rate is 2.4 times greater for 25kph
reduction than for a l5kph reduction.
The length of any given grade that will cause the speed of a representative truck
(lS0kglkw) enterin! the grade at 90k1r/h to reduce by various amounts below the
speed reduction
average running rp""O in shown graphically in Figure 4-5. The 25kph
curve should be used as the general design guide for determining the
critical iength of
srade.
AA
aDlducnoN
50
"*liii i
300 400 500 600
LEIIGTII OF GRADE (METERS)
GRADE FOR DESIGN

FIGT]RE 4-5 : CRITICAL LENGTIIS OF ltOkslkW'
FOR TYFICAL ffiAVY TRUCK OF
+t
A Cuide on Geometric Design of Roads
Where a particular section is made up of a combination of upgrade, the length of critical

grade, measured from tangent point to tangent point, should take into consideration, the
entire section of the combination.
Where the length of critical grade is exceededand especially where grade exceed5Vo,
consideration should be given to providing an added uphill lane, that is, the climbing
lane, for slow moving vehicles, particulariy where the volume is at or near capacity and
the truck volume is hish.
4.3.4 Climbing Lanes for Two Laned Roads
The following conditions and criteria, which reflect economic consideration, should be
satisfied to justify a clirnbing lane:
(i) Upgrade peak traffic flow rate in excess of 2AA vehicies per hour
(ii) Upgrade truck peak flow rate in excess of 20 vehicles per hour
(iii) One of the following conditions exist:
. A 25kph or greater speed reduction is expected for typical heavy truck.
. Level of service E or F exist on the grade
. A reduction of two or more levels of services is experienced approaching the

start of the grade.
Where climbing lanes are provided, the following requirement are to be followed:-
(a) the climbing lanes should begin near the foot of the grade and should be
proceeded by a tapered section of at least 50m iong'
(b) the width of the clirnbing lane should be the same as lhe main carriageway lane
width and in any case should not be less than 3.25m.
(c) the section of the road must be separated by a New Jersey Type Concrete Median
with adequate signing and markings and the opposing lane widened also to 2
lanes to make it a four lane divided carriageway.
(d) the climbing lane should end at least 60m beyond the crest and in particular
should be at a point where the sight distance is sufficient to permit passing with
safety. In addition, a coffesponding taper length as in (a) of l00m should be
provided.
(c) the shoulder on the outer edge of the climbing lane should be as wide as the
shoulder on the normal two laned section. Where conditions dictate otherwise,
a useable shoulder width of 1.25m is acceptable.
48
7
A Guide on Geontetic Design of Roads
4.3.5 Passing Lane Sections on Two-Lane Roads
Wliere a sufficient number and iength of safe passing sectiolt canuot be obtaincd in the
design of horizontal and vertical alignment alone, an occasional section of four lanes
may be introduced to provide more sections and length safe for passing. Such section
are particularly advantageous in rolling terrain, especially where the alignment is
winding or where the vertical profile includes critical lengths of grade. Four lane
sections should be sufficiently long to permit its effective usage.
The sections of four lanes introduced need not be divided. The use of a median, however
is advantageous and should be considered on roads carrying 500 vehicles per hour or
lnore.
The transitions between the two lane and four lane pavements should be located where
of change in width is in full view of the driver. Sections of four-lane road, particularly
divided sections should not be longer than 3 km so as to ensure that the driver does not
lose his awareness that the road is basicaliy a two lane facility.
Where four lane sections are not practical, passing one direction lane sections shall be
introduced at regular intervals. The passing lane must be at least 125m long and of full
lane width and preceded by a taper of 50m at the beginning and 100m at the end.
4.3.6 Climbing Lanes on Multilane Roads
Multilane roads more frequently have sufficient capacity to handle their traffic load,
including the normal percentage or slow-moving vehicles without becoming congested.
However where the volume is at or near capacity ( 1700 vehicle per hour per lane) and
the truck volume is high (2107o of total flow) so as to interfere with the normal flow of
traffic then addition of climbine lanes should be considered.
4.3.7 Vertical Curves
Vertical curves are used to effect a gradual change between tangent grades. They should
be simple in application and should result in a design that is safe, comfortable in
operation, pleasing in appearance and adequate for drainage. For simplicity, the
parabolic curve with an equivalent vertical axis centered on the vertical point of
intersection is used.
The rate of change of grade to successive points on the curve is a constant amount for
equal increments of horizontal distance, and equals the algebraic difference between the
intersecting tangent grades divided by the length of curve or A,/I- in percent per meter.
The reciprocal L/A is the horizontal distance in metre required to effect a 1 percent
change in gradient and is a measure of curvature. This quantity (L/A), termed k, is used
in determining the horizontal distance from the beginning of the vertical curve to the
apex or low point of the curve. The k value is also useful in determining the minimum
lengths of vertical curves for the various design speeds.
The lengths of vertical curves used should be as long as possible and above the minimum
values for the design speeds where economically feasibie.
49
A,9uide on Geometic De
(al Crest Vertical Curves
Minimum lengths of crest vertical curves are determined

by the sight distance
requirements. The stopping sight distance is
the ma.ior controi for the safe
operation at the design speed chosen. Passing
sight disiances are not used as ir
provides for an uneconomical design. An
exception may be at decision areas
such as sight distance to ramp exit gores where
iong.r rengths are necessary.
The basis formula for length of a parabolic
vertical curve in terms of algebraic
difference in grade and sight distince (using an
eye height of l.Orn and object
height of 0.15m) are as follows:
Where S is less than L, L= AS2

404
Where S is greater than L, L= 25 _ --'-

404
Where L = length of vertical curve(m )
S = sight distance (m)
A = algebraic difference in grades (percent)
Table 4-t0A indicates the required K values that

areto be used in design for the
various design speeds.
TABLE 4-r0A: CREST VERTTCAL CURVE (K VALUES)
Minimum
K value
(b) Sag Vertical Curves
At least four different criteria for establishing

lengths of sag verticai curves are
recognised. These are (r) headlight sight distan
c'omforr, (3) drainage
control and (4') a rule of thumb for general use "",\zlriaer
and this criterion is used to
establish the design vaiues for a range of lengths
of sag vertical curves. It is
again convenient to express the design control in
terms of the K value.
Table 4-108 indicates the minirnum K varues that
are fo be used.
Longer curves are desired wherever feasible

and should be used, but where K
values in excess of 55 are used, special attention
to drainage must be exercised.
shorter sag verticar curves may bliustified
for economic ,Juronr, in cases where
an existing element such as a structure which
is not ready for replacement
controls the vertical profile.
50
A Guide on Geometic Design of Raads
Drainage of curbed pavements are especially important on sag vertical curves

where a gradeline of not less than 0.3 percent within 15m of the level point must
be maintained.
TABLE 4-108 : SAG VERTICAL CURVE (K VALUES)
Design
Speed 110 100 90 80 10 60 50 40 30
(km/h)
Minimum a^
l8 4
62 51 40 3L 25 T2 8
K value
4.3.8 General Controls for Vertical Alignment
In addition to the specific controls, there are several general controls that should be
considered.
(a) A smooth gradeline with gradual changes should be strived for in preference to
a line with numerous breaks and short lengths of grade. While the maximum
grade and the critical length are controls, the manner in which they are applied
and fitted to the terrain on a continuous line determines the suitability and
appearance of the finished product.
(b) The 'roller coaster' or the 'hidden-dip' type of profile should be avoided. They
are avoided by use of horizontal curves or by more gradual grades.
(c) A broken back gradeline should be avoided, particularly in sags where the full
view of both vertical curves is not pleasing. This effect is very noticeable on
divided roadways with open median sections.
(d) On long grades, it is preferable to place the steepest grades at the bottom and
lighten the grades near the top of the ascent or to break the sustained grade by
short intervals of higher grade instead of a uniformed sustained grade that might
be only slightly below the allowable minimum-
(e) Where intersections at grade occur on sections with moderate to steep grades, it
is desirable to reduce the gradient through the intersection.
5l
4"4
Horizontal and vertical alignment should not

be designed independent.ly. They
complement each other. Excellence in their
design and in the desrgn of their
combination increase ufility and safety, encourage
uniforrn speecl, and improve
appearance, armost arways without acr<iitionar
cost.
Proper combination of horizontal alignment.

and profire is obtained by engineenng study
and consideration of the following general
controls.
(a) Curvature and grades should be in proper balance.
Tangent alignment or flat
curvature at the expense ofsteep or long grades,
and excessive curvature with flat
grades, are both poor design. A logicaio-esign
is a compromise between the two,
which offers the most in safety, capacity, ea-se
and uniiormity of operation, and
pleasing appearance within the pracrical
limits of terrain and area traversed.
(b) vertical curvature superimposed upon ho.izontal curvature,
generally results in a more pleasing iacility
or vice versa,
but it should be analysed for effect
upon traffic' Successive changes in profile not
in combination with horizontal
curvature may result in a series of humps visible
to the driver for some distance,
ahazardous condition.
(c) Sharp horizontal curvature should not be introduced

at or near the top of a
pronounced crest vertical curve. Their
condition is hazardous in that the driver
cannot perceive the horizontal change
in alignment, especially at night when the
headlight beams go straight ahead into ,pu.!.
Thehaiardor tnis ariangement is
avoided if the horizontal curve is made longer
than the vertical curve. Also,
suitable design can be by using design valuesiboue
the minimum for the design
speed.
(d) Somewhat allied to the above, sharp hori

zontal curvature should not be
introduced at or near the low point of u p.onoun.ed
sag verlical curve. Because
the road ahead is foreshortened any but flat
horizontal curvature assumes an
undesirable distorted appearance, fufther,
vehicular speeds, particularly of trucks,
often are high at the bottom of grades and
erratic operation may result, especially
at night.
(e) on 2-lane roads the need for safe passing sections

at frequent intervals and for
an appreciable percentage ofthe length
olthe road often supersedes the general
desirability for combination of horizontal and vertical
alignment. In these cases
' it is necessary to work toward long tangent sections to
secure sufficient passi'g
sight distance in design.
(0 Horizontal curvature and profile should be made

as flat as feasible at intersections
where sight distance along both roads is important
and vehicles may have to slow
down or stop.
52
(e) On divided roads, variation in the width of median and the use of separate
profiles and horizontal alignments should be considered to derive design and
operational advantages of one-way roadways. Where traffic justifies provision
of 4 lanes, a superior design without additional cost generally results from the
concept and logical design basis of one-way roadways.
(h) In residential areas the alignment should be designed to minimise nuisance

factors to the neighbourhood. Generally, a depressed road makes it less visible
and less noisy to adjacent residents. Minor horizontal alignment adjustments can
sometime be made to increase the buffer zone between the road and the
residential areas.
(i) Examples of poor and good practices are illustrated in Figure 4-6 z A to 4-6 : N
below:
TANGENT AIIGNMENT
PREFERRED--\
(A) PRONLE WITII TA}IGENT ALIGNMENT
NorE :- AVoID DESIGNING LITTLE LocAt DIps IN AN orrIERwIsE LoNc.

UNIFORMGRADE,
PREFERRED
(B) PROFILE WITH CUR.VED ALIGNMENT
NOTE :- sHoRT HUMps IN TIIE GRADE SHOULD BE AVOIDED.
F'IGURE4-6:A&B
LrNE oF srcHrnslTsgEN BoTToMLAND
PREFERRED
PROFILE
(C) DISTANT VIEW SHOWING BUMPS IN PROFILE GRADE LINE
NOTE :- A DISTANT SIDE VIEW OF A LONG GRADE TANGENT WILL

REVEAIEVERYBUMP ONIT.
ALIGNMENT
(D) SHORTTAI\IGENT ON A CREST BETWEEN TWO

HORIZONTAL CUR\rES
NoTE :- THIS COI.ItsINATION IS DEFICIENT FOR TWO REASONS'
THE TANGENT BEfi[ryEN T}iE CUR\ES IS TOO SHORT, AND TIIE
REVERSE OCCI.'RS ON A CREST.
FIGURE4-6zC&D
55
AlIGMvTENT
PROFILE
(E) SEARP ANGLE APPEARANCE

NOTE:- TT{IS COMBINAfiON PRESENTS A poORA?PEARANCE. T}tE
HORZONTAL CLJRVE LOOKS LIKE A SHAR-P ANGLE,
(F") DTSJOTNTED EFFECT

NorE :- A DISTOINTED EFFECT occ{tRs WHEN Tr{E BEGINNI}JG oF A
HoRIzoNTAL
CTIRVE IS HIDDEN FROM TI{E DRTVER BY A INTERVENING CREST WHILE
TIIE CONTINUATION OF TI{E CTIRVE IS VISIBLE IN THE DISTANCE BEYOND
THE INTERVENING CREST..
FIGURE4-6:E&F
56
V
SLrt\{MIT
PROFILE
(G) COINCIDTNG CURVES IN HORTZONTAL AND

VERTICAL DIMENSIONS
NOTE :- WHEN HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL CttRVEs coINcIDE A VERY
SATISFACTORY APPEARANCE RESULTS.
ATIGNMENT
Gr) oPPosrNG cuRvES rN HORTZONTAL AND

VERTICAL DIMENSIONS
NOTE :- WHEN HORIZONTAI AND VERTICAT CURVES OPPOSE' A VERY
SATISFACTORY APPEARANCE RESTILTS.
CTIRVES FOR TFM
/ -MIMMUM
DESIGNSPEED
ALIGNMENT
\ ./-
\/l-\
L DESIRABLE CURVE FOR APPeeRaNce
-]
.,
TI) FLAT C{IRVES APPROPRIATE FOR HORIZONT,AL WITTI
SMALL CENTRAL A}IGLES REGARDLESS OF PROFILE
NOTE:- VERY LONG FLAT CLJRVES, EVEN WHERENOT REQUIRED BY TI{E DESICN
SPEED, AIJO HAVE A PLEASING APPEARANCE WHEN TTIE CE}]TRAL
ANGLE IS VERY SMALL.
FIGURE4-6:G,H&I
57
-]_-
t\_
t-
I
--\ -*{-
HORTZONTAL AIIGNMENT
t t
- -
L
-
\ I
l-
PROFILE
(o COINCIDING CURVES VERTTCES rN HORTZONTAL

AND VERTICAL DIMENSIONS
NOTE :- THE CLASSIC CASE OF COORDINATION BETWEEN HORIZONTAL
AND VERTICAI ALIGNMENT IN WHICH TT{E VERTICES OF
HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL CURVES COINCIDE. CREATING
A zuCH EFFECT OF THREE-DIMENSIONAL S.CLIRVES,
COMPOSED OF CO}.IVEX AND CONCAVE IIELD(ES,
l-
I
1-
I
I
HORIZONTAI AI,IGNMENT
I
_-I
j
'\ \-_- -/- \
- -
PROFILE
(K) COINCIDING VERTICES WITH SINGLE.PHASE SKIP

NOTE :- A LENGITIMATE CASE OF COORDINATION : ONE pHASE IS SKIPPED IN
TI{E HORTZONTAL PLANE, BUT VERTICES STILL COINCIDE. TI{E LONG
TANGENT INPI.ANE IS SOF-|ENED BY VERTICAI CT,IRVATURE,
/
_----l -..-*--/
{
I
--i_ I
1 HORLZONTATAUGN},IE{I
tl I
ll__r_
.-----l--"\ \-!--'
FROFILE
(L) WEAK COORDINATTON OF EORTZONTAL AND

VERTICAL ALIGNMENTS
NOTE :- A CASE WTIH WEAK COORDINATION WHERE TI{E VERTTCAT ATTGNMENT IS
SHIFTED HALF A PTIASE WTTH RESPECT TO HORIZONTAI ALIGNMENT SO
T}IE VERTICES COINCIDE WTru POINTS OF IhIFLECTION. TIIE SUPERELEVATION
IN T}IIS CASE OCCURS ON GRADE, WHILE CRESTS AND SAGS TTAVE NORMAL
CROSS SECTIONS IN TIIE FIRST CASE, SIIPERSLEVATION OCCI]RS ON CRESTS
SAGS, WHILE GRADES I{A!E NORh,T,AL CROSS SECTIONS.
FIGURE 4-6 z J,K&L
58
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59
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60
A Cuide on Geometric Design o.f Roads
CHAPTER 5 - CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS
5.1 PAVEMENT
5.f .1 Surface Type
The selection of the pavement type is determined by the volume and composition of
traffic, soil characteristics, weather, availability of materials, the initial cost and the
overall annual maintenance and service life cost.
Pavements may be considered as three general types according to the volume of traffic
they carry - high, intermediate and low. High traffic volume pavements have smooth
riding qualities and good non-skid properties in all weather conditions. Intermediate
traffic volume pavements vary from high traffic volume pavements only slightly, are less
costly and with less strength than high traffic volurne pavements. Low traffic volume
pavements range from surface treated earth roads and stabilized matertals to loose
surface such as earth and gravel.
The important characteristics of surface type in relation to geometric design are the
ability of a surface to retain the shape and dimensions, the ability to drain, and the effect
on driver's behavior. Table 5-l gives the general selection of the pavement surface
types for the various road standards.
For minor roads of grades exceeding 87o, the surface and shoulder should be sealed to
prevent erosion.
The structural design of flexible pavement should be in accordance to Arahan Teknik

(Jalan) - 5/85 "Manual On Pavement Design".
TABLE 5-1 : TYPICAL PAVEMENT SURFACE TYPE
Design
Description
Standard
R6ru6 Asphaltic Concrete/Concrete
R5ru5 Asphaltic Concrete/Concrete
R4N4 Dense Bituminous Macadam/Asphaltic Concrete/Concrete
R3ru3 B ituminous Macadam/Concrete
RzN2 Surface Treatment/Semi srout
Rlrul Gravel/Semisrout
5.1.2 Normal Cross Slope
Cross slopes are an important element in the cross-section design and a reasonably steep
lateral slope is desirable to minimise water ponding on flat sections of uncurbed
pavements due to pavement imperfections or unequal settlements and to control the flow
of water adjacent to the curb on curbed pavements. The range of cross slopes for various
pavement types varies from 2.5Vo to 6.0Vo.
6l
A Guide on Geometic Design
The capacity of a
llqnwav primarily depends on rhe number of traffic lanes and rheir
widths' The lane width is determin"d uy the size of vehicle, averagedaily
of cornmercial vehicies and the requi.emenfs traffic volume
for overtaking and passing.
Marginal strip is a nalrow pavement strip attached
to both edges of a cariageway. It is
paved to the same standard as the
traffic lanes. For divided roads, the marginal
provided on both sides of the carriageways. strips are
The marginal strip is included as part of the
shoulder width' Edge line ma.kingire
applied to demarcate the through lane and
marginal strip and is to be located within the
the marginal strip.
Table 5'2 indicates the lane and marginal

strip width that are to be used for the various
road standards.
TABLE 5.2 : LANE & MARGINAL STRIP

wIDTHs
Design Standard Lane Width (m) Marginal Strip Width (m)
Interchange Rampl
Single Lane 4.50
Multi Lanes
Lt 1.50 Rt 0.50
3.50 Lt 0.50 Rt 0.50
Single Lane 4.50 Lr 1.50 Rt 0.50
Note : x denotes the total two_way width
5.3 SHOULDERS
5"3.1 Definition
A shoulder is defined as the portion of

the roadway continuous with the traveled
accommodation of stopped vehicles, way for
for emergen.f ur. and for laterar support
pavement. to the
A typical cross section showing shoulder and

verge is as shown in Figure 5.r.
az
re*ia':r%
a)
o
u0
c)
l- L
q)
!)
o
-
B A
-
I
cq
I h
c)
--+
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I
.61
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tl
l-r 'H t4
lt)
T- a
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q.(
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a I
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c) I
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-
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rh
+J
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0
0
rn
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-c!
.-I
g
F
bo
t-
'f
F t-l
(J tn
q)
L
FI
bo
.-
r-.
H
63
5.3.2 Functions
The main functions of shoulders are :_
(a) space is provided for emergency stoppin

g freeo{ the traffic iane.
(b) space is provided for the occasirnal motorist who desires to stop for
various
reasons.
(c) space is provided to escape pofential

accidents or reduce their severity.
(d) the sense of openness created by shoulders
of adequate width contributes to
driving ease and comfort.
(e) sight distance is improved in cut sections,
thereby improving safety.
(0 highway capacity is improved and uniform
speed is encouraged.
(g) lateral clearance is provided for signs and
guardrairs.
(h) structural support is given to the pavement.
5.3.3 Width of Shoulders
The normal usable shoulder width thatshould

be provided along high type facilities is
3m' However' in difficult terrain and
on low volume roads, usable shoulders of
may not be feasible. this width
Table 5-3A and 5-38 gives the widths of

shoulders for the various road standards in
rural and urban areas.
The shoulder widths on structures are defined

in Section 5.10. The width of shoulders
should also take into consideration car parks.
TABLE 5-3A : USABLE SHOULDER WIDTH (RURAL)
Usable Shoulder Widrh (m)
: Rollin Mountainous
::
R6 3.00 3.00 2.5A

R5 3.00 3.00 2.s0
R4 3.00 3.00 2.00
R3 )\n 2.50 2.AA
R2 2.40 2.0a r.50
R1 1.50 1.50 r.50
64
TABLE 5-38 : PAVED SHOULDER WIDTH ruRBAN)
Paved Shoulder Width (m)

Area Type *
I II**. III**
U6 3.00 3.00 2.50

U5 3.00 3.00 2.50
U4 3.00 2.50 2.04
U3 2.50 2.00 1.50
U2 2.00 1.50 1.50
U1 1.50 1.50 1.50
* For Area Type definition, see Table 3-28

x* For Area Type II & III, U1 to U4, shoulder may be replaced by sidewalk
5.3.4 Type of Shoulders

There are basically two types of shoulders namely paved and unpaved.
Paved shoulders can be either bituminous or concrete surfaced while unpaved shoulders
can be either crushed rock. earth or turf shoulders.
The paved shoulder widths are as shown in Table 5.4. The figures given are in addition
to the width required for parking.
TABLE 5.4 : PAVED SHOULDER WIDTH (RURAL)
Design
Paved Shoulder Width (m)
Standard
R6 Min 2.5
R5 Min 2.0
R4 1.5
R3 1.5
The structure and the cross slope of these shoulders are different and they are described
below. .
5.3.5 Shoulder Cross Slope

Ali shoulders should be sloped sufficiently to rapidly drain surface water but not to the
extend that vehicular use would be hazardous. Because the type of shoulder construction
has a bearing on the cross-slope, the two should be determined jointly.
Bituminous and concrete surface shoulders should be sloped from 2.5 to 6 percent, gravel
or crushed rock shoulders from 4 to 6 percent and turf shoulders 6 percent. Where kerbs
are used on the outside of the shoulders, the minimum cross-slope should not be less than
4 percent to prevent ponding on the roadway.
65
4 9!id" on Geometric De
At superelevated areas, the shoulder cross-slopes should

be adjusted to ensure that the
maximum ,.roll over,'does not exceed 6 percent.
5.3.6 ShoulderStructure
For shoulders to function effectively, they must be

sufficiently stable to support
occasional vehicle loads, in all kinds of weather
without rutting. paved or stabilised
shoulders offer manY advantages in this aspect.
The structu.e oi the paved shoulders
should be similar to that of the carriageway
for ati design standards. H"*;;;, ;;;;
gradients exceed 8vo the shoulders
snouti also be close turfed or sealed to prevent
erosion for R2 and Rl roads.
5.4 KERBS
5.4.1 General Consideration
The type and location of kerbs appreciably affect

driver's behaviour and in turn the
safety and usage of a road. Kerbs are uied
for drainage control, pavement edge
delineation, aesthetics, delineation of pedestrian
walkways and to assist in the orderly
development of the roadside.
Kerbs are needed mostly on roads in urban

areas. In rurar areas, the use of kerbs should
be avoided as far as possible except in
localised areas which has predominant aspects
an urban condition. of
5.4.2 Types of Kerbs
The two general classes of kerbs are barrier

kerbs and mountable kerbs and each has
numerous types and detail design may be designed as a separate unit or integrally
with the pavement. They may also lach
be designed wltn I gutter to form a combination
and gutter sectjon. kerb
Barrier kerbs are relatively high and steep

faced and are designed to inhibit or discourage
vehicles from leaving the roadway.
They should not be used on expressways. They
should also not be used where the design
speeds 70 kph or in combination with
traffic barriers' They are recommended foi """""a
use in builrup areas adjacent to footpaths
with considerable pedestrian traffic, where pedestrian
traffic is light, a semi-barrier type
may be used.
Mountable kerbs are used to define pavement

edges of through carriageways. For
channelisation islands, medians, outer separators
or any other required delineation within
the roadway, a semi-mountable type may be used.
Figures 5'2A and 5'28 show the various standard

types of kerbs that are to be used.
66
t7
FIGURE 5.2A : ROAD KERB DETAILS
TYPE OF KERB USE

TYPE OF K-ERB USF
I,)BA.RRHffiS 3.)MOWSUtrS
Euiatsts w ucd to inhr'bit Moutrblc Lcrbs t12e Ml ud
|sOF@ M2 rc dcigncd to discowc
vcbicla ftom leving thc
rudrry. Tbcycmmadcd wt trEfrc fioE moutBg a
f6uc ia boilt-rp rru Edi&@t t'affic irlud Roudebou'l s
to fmPatis or o partr with @adis! qc?t for lo.ng q
oridablo pctsiu traffic ovd-dllmtold volcl6.
od thc daigl spccd shotdd bc
lcs rh^n 70 lpL
Typc Bl kab ir garally uscd at

B1
outcr wc of thc supclcvarod
scdiou-
p
Wot@l
t
gl I TypB M2 kdb6 sc d6igred to
i
t-
l
Typc 82 tctb shoulda bc ucC
fc aorosl ms stim
sGcb ud
scd.ioB al
thc aupaclov8ted
i.Mmclo
"r
=L
t"
l"
colldt BEf8cc mo{f ud b
allow vchicld to @s ovd
ud to psrk cltr
cmirgmy duing magmcY.
of tbc
@lleisuf&cmE
1.) GAISIEL I€RJS
Cbrucl kabouldbcwd
alonr thc pavod sboulda wbc
tbc irfad reoffis colidmbtY
luee. It is nomrllY wcd oo
d-bshot wbdc dniD hs !o bc
wd fo &l.inariou phccd dmg tbo pavod sboulds
Nomalfy
EOP ud m dl i--cdiatly i! Asnt of b$iq
@
drsiDrgc (GudreilN* JaneY Briq)
'N int rs6tioil. lt i6 sitsblc fq It ws dairncd to minimiz thc
@o?ls
all rcads including expnxs*ays. avce cffi(' of thc cbrucl
It ir alrc fc uc o bridga whicb on tbc stairg md vcbiclc
b offsst &on hridgc nililg. sboulds bc sblo to drivc ova
this chancl nfcly.
NOTES:-
I. CONCRETE FOR CAST INSMU OR PRECAST CONCRETE KSRB SHALL BE GRADE 30/20.
2. CONCRTTE BEDDING SHALL BE GRADE 15,20.
3. THE FIMSHED KERB SHALL BE TRUE TO LINE, GRADE AND LEVEL TO WITHIN 15M
AND
SIIALL PRESENT A SMOOTH A?PEAXANCE FREE FROM KINKS AND DISTORTION.
61
FTGURE 5.28: ROAD KERB DETAILS
20 i00 50 100 (mi!.)

--mnm$
SECTION A-A
WITH RECTA IEULAR OPENING
()2
ya
1300r
FRONTVIEW OF KERB
l00m CONCRETE
FOI'NDATION
TE PIPE
68
.7
A Guide on Geomelric Design d Roads
The width of kerbs are considered as cross section elements entirely outside the traffic
lane width. However, for drainage kerbs, the gutter section may be considered as pan of
the marginal strip. Where roadways do not have any marginal strip, kerbs should be
offsetted by a minimum of 0.25 m.
5.4.3 Channel Kerbs

Channel kerbs should be considered for roads built on hieh embankment and for roads
with wide roadway.
SIDEWALKS
Sidewalks are accepted as integral parts of urban roads and should be provided except
on Urban Expressways or Major Arterials where the presence of pedestrians are minimal.
However, the need for sidewalks in many rural areas is great because of the high speed
and general lack of adequate lighting and due consideration must be given for it
especially at points of community development such as schools, local business and
industrial plants that results in high pedestrian concentrations. While there are no
numerical warrants, the justification for a sidewalk depends on the vehicle-pedestrian
hazard which is governed by the volumes of pedestrian and vehicular traffic, their
relative timing and the speed of the vehicular traffic.
In urban areas, sidewalks can be placed adjacent to the kerbs and raised above the
pavement. In the absence of kerbs, a strip of a minimum width of l.0m must be provided
between the sidewaik and the travelled way.
In rural areas, sidewalks must be placed well away from the travelled way and separated
from the shoulder by at least 1.0m.
A desirable width of 2.0m is to be provided for all sidewalks. Where there are restrictions
on right of way, a minimum of clear width of 1.5m can be considered. When provided,
sidewalks must have all weather surfaces. There must be no obstructions on sidewalks.
5.6 TRAFFIC BARRIERS
Traffic barriers are used to minimise the severity of potential accident involving vehicles
leaving the traveled way. Because bariers are ahazard in themselves, emphasis should
be on minimising the number of such installations. Arahan Teknik (Jalan) l/85 "Manual
On Design Guidelines of Longitudinal Traffic Barrier" (May, 1984) should be used for
the design of longitudinal traffic bariers.
5./ MEDIANS
5.7.1 General
A median is a highly desirable element on all roads canying four or more lanes and
should be provided wherever possible. The principal functions of a median are to provide
the desired freedom from the interference of opposing traffic, to provide a recovery area
for out-of-control vehicles, to provide for speed change and storage of right-tunring
vehicles and to orovide for future lanes.
69
A Guide on Geometric
For maximum efficiency, a median should be highly

visible both night and day and in
definite contrast to the through traffic lanes.
5.7.2 Median Width
Medians may be depressed, raised or flush with the pavement

surface. They should be
as wide as feasible but of a dimension in balanceo
wltn other components of the cross-
section. The general range of median width varies
from a minimum of l.5m in a Area
Type III urban situation to a desirable width of l8
m on a rural expressway. on wide
medians, it is essential to have a depressed centre
or swale to provide for drainage.
Table 5-5A and 5-58 gives the minimum and desirable

widrhs and types of medians rhar
are to be applied to the various road standards.
The median widths u, are the
dimensions between the through lane edges and ""prrrr.d any.
includes the right shouiders if
TABLE 5-5A : MEDIAN WIDTH (RURAL)
Median Width (m
Terrain
Rollin Mountainous
Minimum Minimum Desirable Minimum
TABLE 5.58 : MEDIAN WIDTH ruRBAN)
Median Width (m)
Minimum Minimum
5.8.1 General
Service roads are generally found in urban areas

and they can have numerous functions,
depending on the type ofroad they serve and the
character of the sunounding area. They
may be used to control access or function as a street
facility serving adjourning property.
They segregate local traffic from the higher speed
through traffic and intercept driveways
of residences and commercial establishments along
the road. Service roads also not only
provide more favourable access for commercial
ind residential development than the
faster moving afterials but also helps to preserve
the safety and capacity of the latter.
70
'17
A Guide on Geometic Design of Roads
5.8.2 Design Requirements
From an operational and safety standpoint, one way service roads are much preferred to
two-way and should be considered. One-way operation inconveniences local traffic to
some degree, but the advantages in reduction in Vehicular and pedestrian conflicts at
intersecting streets often fully compensate for this inconvenience.
Two-way service roads may be considered for partially developed urban areas where the
adjoining road system is so irregular and disconnected that one-way operation would
introduce considerable added travel distance and cause undue inconvenience. Two-way
service roads may also be necessary for suburban or rural areas where points of access
to the through facility are infrequent; where the service roads are widely spaced or where
there is no parallel street within reasonable distance of the service roads in urban areas
that are developed or likely to be developed.
The design of a service road is affected by the type of service it is intended to provide.
When provided, they should always cater for at least one side on-street parking. They
should be at least I .25 m wide for one-way operation and9.25 m for two-way operation.
Figure 5.3 gives the recommended layout for a two-way operation service road fronting
an urban arterial where the distance between junctions is greater than 0.5 km. The
minimum reserve width for a service road is 12 m.
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5.9 U.TURN
5.9.1 General
U-turns are categorised into two (2) types:
i) Dedicated U-turn - These U-turns are grade separated from the through traffic.
This form of U-tum should be considered for high speed and high volume
highway as the diverging and merging movements are on the slow lanes.
ii) Median Opening U-turn.
5.9.2 Location of U-Turns
U-turns may be required in the following circumstances:
a) Beyond intersections to accommodate minor turning movements not otherwise

provided in the intersection or interchange area.
b) Just ahead of an intersection to accommodate U-turn movements that would

interfere with through and other turning movements at the intersection. Where
a fairly wide median on the approach roadway has few openings, U-turning is
necessary to reach roadside areas. Advance separate openings for U-turn outside
the intersection proper will reduce interference.
c) In conjunction with minor crossroads where traffic is not permitted to cross the
major road but instead is required to turn left, enter the through traffic stream,
weave to the right, U-turn, then retum. On high-speed or high-volume roads, the
difficulty and long lengths required for weaving with safety usually make this
design pattern undesirable unless the volumes intercepted are light and the
median is of adequate width. This condition may occur where a crossroad with
high volume traffic, a shopping area, or other traffic generator that requires a
median opening nearby.
d) Locations occurring where regularly spaced openings facilitate maintenance

operations, policing, repair service of stalled vehicles, or other highway-related
activities. Openings for this purpose may be needed on controlled-access roads
and on divided roads through undeveloped areas.
e) Locations occuming on roads without control of access where median openings

at optimum spacing are provided to serve existing frontage developments and at
the sanre time minimize pressure for future ntedian openings.
The locations of U-turns are very important and traffic safety should be given due
consideration. As a general guide, Table 5.6 can be used to detennine the desirable
distances between U-turns.
13
A Guide on Geometric Design
TABLE 5.6 : DESIRABLE DISTANCE BETWEEN U.TURNS
Distance Between Design j Distance Between

U-Turns Standard I U-Turns
R6 No U-turns allowed U6 No U-turns allowed

R5 3km U5 2km
R4 2km U4 lkm
U3 lkm
5.9.3 DesignConsideration
u-turning vehicles interfere with through traffic

by encroaching on part or all of the
through traffic lanes. They are n11de uilo*
speeds and the required speed change is
normally madê the through traffic Ianes with weaving to and riom
91 ttre outer lanes. As
such, U-turn facilities are potentialhazard
areas. Careful consideration should be made
to design and locate the u-turn that are safe for
ail the road users.
For direct u-turns, the width of the highway, including
the median should be sufficient
to permit the turn to be made without encroachment
beyond the outer edges of the
pavements' Figure 5'4 gives the minimum
width of the median required for the various
types of maneuvers for direct U_turns.
The U-turn should be designed such that

the through traffic approaching the U-turn are
travelling at much lower than the highway
desigipeed. Traffic signage and calming
devices, etc. should be considered.
74
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5.10
5.10.1 Width of Shoulders
The width of the usable shoulders should follow that as indicated in Table 5-3A
and
5'38. The width of the shoulder of bridges and structures should be the same as that of
the carriageway.
Figures 5.5 show the typical bridge cross section.
5.10.2 Required Clearance
(a) The vertical height clearance of all structures above the roadway shall
be a
minimum of 5.3 meters over the entire width of traffic lanes, auxiliary Ianes
and
shoulders. It is recommended that an additional 0.1 meter be allowed for
future
pavement resurfacing. Whenever resurfacing will reduce the clearance to
less
than 5.3 meters, milling will be required to maintain the minimum clearance.
(b) For ciearance requirements over railways and waterways, reference should be
made to the relevant authorities.
(cJ Figure 5.6 indicates the clearance requirements for undemasses

of various cross
sections.
5.11 BUS LAYBYES
Bus laybyes serve to remove the bus from the through traffic ianes.
Its location and
design should therefore provide ready access in the safest and most
efficrent manner
possible. The basic requirement is that the deceleration, standing
and acceleration of the
buses be effected on pavement areas clear of and separated
fromihe through traffic lanes.
The locations of bus laybyes are impoftant so as not to impede

the normal flow of traffic.
In this respect, bus laybyes must not be located on any interchange
ramps or srmctures,
slip roads or within 60 m of any junction or intersection.
The distance between laybyes
too should not be less than 150 m. Liaison will need
to be made also with the relevant
bus companies and the respective Local Authority.
For school areas, provision of bus laybyes and parkings areas

should be specifically
studied so as to ensure the unirnpederj flow of triffic.
Figure 5.7 shows the typical layout and dimensions of bus laybyes that are
to be used
in both rural and urban areas. If possible, a dividing area between
the outer edge of the
roadway shoulder and the edge of the bus laybye lane should
be provided. This dividing
area should be as wide as possible but not less than 0.6
m.
The pavement areas of the laybyes should be of concrete

or other material fbr contrast
in coiour and texture with the through traffic Ianes to discourage
through traffic from
encroaching on or entering the bus stop.
/o
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17
FIGURE 5.6 : CLEARANCES AT UNDERPASS
LEFT CLEARANCES RIGHT CLEARANCES
3.0 m (Desirable)
1.5 m (Minimum)
2.0 m (Desirable)
1.25 n (Minimum)
TRAfFIC LANES
CENTRE PIER OR ABU"TMENT WITH SHOTILDER ONLY

-A- -D-
r om(MrNrMUrr{) ;ff,lHtrff]
5.3 m SIDEWALK (2.0 m)
BARRIER KERB WITH SIDEWALK

-B- -E-
2.0 m QDesirable)
1.25 m (Minimnm)
5.3 m
WITH AIIXTLIARY LANE WITH AIIXILIARY LANE

-c- -F-
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I
A Guide on Geometric Design
CHAPTER 6 . OTHER ELEMENTS AFFECTING GEOMETRIC DESIGN
6.1 ROAD SAFETY
Road safety has been a much neglected area in the design of roads, With
an increasing
number of accidents each year, attention to road safety should be emphasised,
While the
road element is oniy one of the three groups of influences causing accidents,
it is
nonetheless the responsibility of the designer to provide as safe
a road environment as
possible,
In this aspect, the road design should be one with uniformly high standards
applied
consistently over a section. It should avoid discontinuities
such as abrupt major changes
in design speeds, transitions in roadway cross-section, the
introduction of a short-radius
curve in a series of longer radius curves, a change from full
to partial control of access,
constrictions in roadway width by narrow bridges or other
structures, intersections
without adequate sight distances, or other failures to maintain consistency in the
roadway
design. The highway should offer no surprises to the driver, in terms
of either geometrics
or traffic controls.
The tendency to base- road designs upon minimum standards rather than to
adopt an
optimum design is unfortunate and must be avoided. A more liberal
and optimum design
must always be considered, and although it would cost a little
more in terms of capiLl
cost of the project, it would increase the road's level
of safety substantially.
All too often' minimum design standards attempt to rely, on the use of warning
signs or
other added roadside appurtenances for the safe operat;on that
could have been built in
by the use of higher design standards. Often tle safety deficiencies generated
by
minimum design are impossible to correct by any known tiaffic device
or ippurtenance.
A warning sign is a poor substitute for adequate geometric design.
the light to improve road safety, Road Safety Auditing (RSA) has
]n been introduced in
Malaysia since 1994-_It is a formal process to identify deficiencies in
road design at
different stages as welr as to identify hazardous features on existing
roads for erimrnation
so as to make the road safer for all road users.
RSA is carried out in five stages. The feasibility and planning

stage (Stage r),
preliminary design stage (stage2), detailed design
itage (stage 3), pre-opening stage
(Stage 4) and operationaVaudit of existing roads
j
lStage S;.
Rgference on RSA should be made to the "Guidelines For The Safety Audit
Of Roads
In Malaysia" published by the Roads Branch, pubiic works Department Malaysia.
6.2 D&AINAGE
Road drainage facilities provide for carrying water across the

right of way and for
removal of storm water from the road itself. These facilities
include bridges, culverts,
channels, gutters and various types of drains. Drainage
design considerations are an
integral part of geometric design and flood plain encriachments
fiequently affect the
highway alignmenr and profile.
80
The cost of drainage is neither incidental nor minor on most roads. Careful attention to
requirements for adequate drainage and protection of the highway from floods in all
phase of location and design will prove to be effective in reducing costs in both
construction ant maintenance.
Reference should be made to the relevant JKR manual on this subiect.
6.3 LIGHTING
Lighting may improve the safety of a road and the ease and comfort of on operation
thereon. Lighting of rural highways may be desirable but the need is much less than on
roads in urban areas. They are seldom justified except on critical portions such as
interchanges, intersections, railroad grade crossings, narrow or long bridges, tunnels and
areas where roadside interference is a factor.
Where lighting is being considered for future installation, considerable savings can be
effected through design and installation of necessary conduits under the pavements and
kerbs as part of the initial construction and should be considered.
Reference should be made to the relevant JKR manual on this subiect.
6.4 UTILITIES
All road improvements, whether upgraded within the existing right of way or entirely on
new right of way, generally involves the shifting of utility facilities. Although utilities
generally have little effect on the geometric design of the road, full consideration should
be given to measures necessary to preserve and protect the integrity and visual quality
of the road, its maintenance efficiency and the safety of traffic.
Utilities relocation shouid form part of design and the designer should liaise closely with
the relevant service authorities in determining the existing utilities and their proposed
relocation.
6.s SIGNING AND MARKINGS
Signing and marking are directly related to the design of the road and are features of
traffic control and operation that the engineer must consider in the geometric layout of
suchfacility. The signing and marking should be designed concurrently with the
geometrics as an integral part, and this will reduce significantly the possibility of future
operational problems. The signing and marking should follow the standards that have
been established. Reference should be made to Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 2A,2F.,2C and
2D on the design, usage and application of signs and markings.
6.6 TRAFFIC SIGNALS
Traffic control signals are devices that control vehicular and pedestrian traffic by
assigning the right of way to various movements for certain pretimed or traffic actuated
intervals of time. They are one of the key elements in the function of many urban roads
and should be integrated with the geometric design so as to achieve optimum operational
efficiency.
81
6.7
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
Erosion prevention is one of the major factors in design, construction

ancl matntenance
of highway. It should be considered early in the location and design stages.
Some degree
of erosion control can be incorporated into geometric design, particularly
in the cross-
section elements.
Landscape development should be in keeping with the character

of the road and its
environment. The general are of improvement include the followins:
(a) preservation of existing vegetation

(b) transplanting of existing vegetation where feasible
(c) planting of new vegetation
(d) selective clearing and thinning
(e) regeneration of natural plant slecies and material.
Landscaping of urban roads assume an additional importance in mitigating

the many
nuisances associated with urban traffic. Reference stroulO be made
to the relevant JKR
manual on this subject
The highway can and should be located and designed to complement

its environment and
serve as a catalyst to environmental improvement. The area
surrounding a proposed
highway is an interrelated system of natural, manmade and
sociologic variables. Changes
in one variable within this system cannot be made without
some effect on other variable.
Some of these consequences may be negligible, but others
may have strong and lasting
impact on the environment, including the sustenance and quality
of human lif.. B".uur"
highway location and design decisions have an effect on udju""n t
areadevelopment, it
is important that environmental variables be given full consideration. Environmental
impacts include social, economic and physical impacts. In geometric design,
only
physical impact- are aasessedl while the social and economic
impacts would have been
taken care of during the planning stage.
82
1W!1EF@@jfwF1,I@.
ile --
REFERENCES
l. ARAHAN TEKNIK JALAN 8/86: A Guide on Geometric Design of Roads, 1986
2. ISMAIL, MOHD. A: Thesis on Review of Highway Geometry Design Standards in

Malaysia, 1996
3. AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF STATE HIGHWAY AND TRANSPORTATION

OFFICIALS (AASHTO): A Policy on Design of Urban Highways And Arterial Streets,
r913
4. THE INSTITUTION OF HIGHWAYS AND TRANSPORTATION WITH

DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORT: Roads and Traffic in Urban Areas, 1987
5. TRANSPORT ROAD RESEARCH LABORATORY AND OVERSEAS

DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE. UNITED KINGDOM : TowaTds SafeT ROAdS iN
Developing Country, 199 I
6. JABATAN PERANGKAAN MALAYSIA: Banci Penduduk Malaysia, 1991
7. JABATAN PERANCANG BANDAR DAN DESA: Manual Piawaian Perancangan,

JPBD (IP) S.273 FN/HHffeb. 1998
8. AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF STATE HIGHWAY AND TRANSPORTATION

OFFICIALS (AASHTO): A Policy on Design of Highways And Streets, 1994
9. TRANSPORTATION AND RESEARCH BOARD: Highway Capacity Manual, Special

Report 209,1985
10. HIGFIWAY PLANNING UNIT, MINISTRY OF WORKS MALAYSIA: Trip Generation

Manual 1997.
83
*n5+f.!ry,'qw-:w
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
PUBLIC WORKS DEPARTMENT, MALAYSIA
Dato'Ir. Hj. Zainibin Omar
STANDING COMMITTEE ON TECHNOLOGY AND ROAD MANAGEMENT
Dato' Ir. Chew Swee Hock (Chairman)
TECHNICAL COMMITTEE ON GEOMETRICS ffC3)
Ir. Han Joke Kwang (Chairman)

Ir. Koid Teng Hye (Secrerary)
Ir. Aznam Abdul Rahim (WG Leader)
Ir. Tai Meu Choi (WG Leader)
Ir. Sam El-Ashwawi (WG Leader)
84

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F'OITEWORD

The cooperating bodies are:-

Public Works Department, Malaysia

This GUIDE ON GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF ROADS is the revision of the existing

ROAD ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION OF MALAYSIA

A GUIDE ON GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF ROADS

INDEX PAGE NO.

2. ROAD CLASSIFICATIONS AND DESIGN STANDARDS z

2.1 ROAD CLASSIFICATION / HIERARCHY 2

2.2 DESIGN STANDARDS FOR ROADS 5

2.3 ACCESS CONTROL 6

)4 SELECTION OF DESIGN STANDARDS 8

DESIGN CONTROL AND CRITERIA 11

J.l TOPOGRAPHY AND LAND USE ll

3.3 DESIGN VEHICLES CHARACTERISTICS l.+

4.1 SIGHT DISTANCE 25

+.J VERTICAL ALIGNMENT 44

4.4 COMBINATION OF HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL 52

5. CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS 61

5.6 TRAFFIC BARRIERS 6q

5. l0 BRIDGE AND STRUCTURE CROSS SECTION 16

5.t I BUS LAYBYES to

6. OTHER ELEMENTS AFFECTING GEOMETRIC DESIGN 80

6.I ROAD SAFETY 80

6.5 SIGNING AND MARKINGS 8I

AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

TABLE 2-I CHARACTERISTICS OF ROAD CATEGORIES A

TABLE2-2A SELECTION OF ACCESS CONTROL (RURAL) 8

TABLE2-28 SELECTION OF ACCESS CONTROL (URBAN) 8

TABLE 2-3 SELECTION OF DESIGN STANDARD 9

TABLE 3-2A DESIGN SPEED FOR RURAL ROADS 19

TABLE 3-2B DESIGN SPEED FOR URBAN ROADS 1q

TABLE 3-3 CONVERSION FACTORS TO P.C.U. 2l

CAPACITY RATIO (RURAL)

DISTANCE _ WET CONDITIONS

TABLE 4-4 MINIMUM PASSING SIGHT DISTANCES 30

TABLE 4-9E MAXIMUM GRADES FOR U5 STANDARD ROADS

TABLES PAGE NO.

TABLE 4-1OA CREST VERTICAL CURVE (K VALUES) 50

TABLE 5-1 TYPICAL PAVEMENT SURFACE TYPE 6l

TABLE 5-4 PAVED SHOULDER WIDTH (RURAL) 65

TABLE 5-5A MEDIAN WIDTH (RURAL) 70

FIGURE 2-I FLOW CHART FOR SELECION OFDESIGN STANDARDS IO

FIGURE 3-2 SU DESIGN VEHICLE 16

FIGURE 3-3 WB-15 DESIGN VEHICLE I1

FIGURE 3-4 RELATIONSHIP OF LEVEL OF SERVICE TO OPERATING 23

FIGUR.E 4-1 MEASURING SIGHT DISTANCE ON PLAN 32

FIGURE 4-2 MEASURING SIGHT DISTANCE ON PROFILE JJ

FIGURE 4-3 COMPARISON OF SIDE FRICTION FACTORS ASSUMED 35

FOR DESIGN OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF ROADS

FIGURE 4-4 DIAGRAMMATIC PROFILES SHOWING METHODS OF 4]

TYPICAL HEAVY TRUCK OF 180kg/kw.

FIGURE 4-6 E&F 56

FIGURE 4-6 G,H&I 57

FIGURE 4-6 J,K&L 58

FIGURE 5-1 TYPICAL CROSS SECTION OF SHOULDER AND VERGE 63

FIGURE 5-2A ROAD KERB DETAILS 67

FIGURE 5-28 ROAD KERB DETAILS 68

FIGURE 5-3 TWO-WAY SERVICE ROAD 72

.*1i 'i{F,:i'. Ei:. "'r:' iisif-.:" ;l ::5;;r.?;

CHAPTER 2 - ROAD CLASSIFICATIONS AND DESIGN STANDARDS

2.r ROAp CLASSTFTCATTON / HrERARelgy

2.1.1 The Importance of Road Classification