JOURNALOF GEOPHYSICAL

RESEARCH,VOL. 88, NO. Bll, PAGES9407-9418, NOVEMBER

10, 1983

COLLISION, ROTATION, AND THE INITIATION OF SUBDUCTION

IN THE EVOLUTION OF SULAWESI, INDONESIA

Eli A. Silver, RobertMcCaffrey

1, andRandallB. Smith
2
Earth Sciences Board and Center for Coastal Marine Studies, University of California

.A.
bst-ra'ct. The island of Sulawesi, Indonesia, [Coney et al., 1980; Jones et al., 1982; Williams
has been shaped and deformed as a result of and Hatcher, 1982]. Here we examine the effect on
collision with the Sula platform, a sliver of the island of Sulawesi of the middle Miocene col-
continental material from the northern margin of lision by the Sula platform.
Australia-New Guinea. The collision has resulted The primary collision event in the Southeast
in rotation of the north volcanic arm of Sulawesi Asian region was that of Australia colliding with
and the development of the accretionary wedge of the Indonesian island arcs. Hamilton [1979] inter-
the North Sulawesi trench. The North Sulawesi preted a sequential collision, beginning in west-
trench changes laterally from a zone of no active ern New Guinea (Irian Jaya) in early Miocene time,
deformation in the eastern part to a wide accre- and progressing eastward to Papua New Guinea in
tionary wedge in the west. Early stages of thrust- late Miocene time. Rotation of the Banda arc
ing produce a steep frontal slope (8ø-16ø), indi- appears to have accompaniedthe collision.
cative of relatively high basal shear stress, In addition to rotation of the Banda arc,
w•ereas the more advanced(western) zone of slices of northern Irian Jaya apparently have been
thrusting produces a gentle (2 ø) slope, consistent displaced westward to collide with the Sulawesi
with low basal shear stress. Reported paleomagnet- arc. The largest slice is the Sula platform. The
ic data suggest post late Eocene counter-clockwise platform includes Paleozoic and early Mesozoic
rotation of the North Arm, and the offshore geo- granitic, volcanic, and metamorphic rocks; Juras-
physics are explained by a pivot of the North Arm sic black shale overlying a basal quartz sand-
with respect to the Celebes basin about the east- stone; Cretaceous clastic sediments and marls; and
ern end of the arc. Convergence between the north lower Tertiary sandstone and limestone. A similar
Banda basin and Southeast Sulawesi is documented geologic section is found in the Bird's Head re-
by the presence of the Tolo thrust. Its outcrop is gion of Irian Jaya, providing the basis for the
strongly arcuate and its accretionary wedge varies suggested correlation between these areas [Hamil-
in width from a minimum of a few kilometers at ton, 1979]. Hamilton illustrates in his recon-
each end to a maximumof 30-40 km in the central struction that the source terrane for the platform
part. The northern end transforms to the left- has been moving rapidly northward relative to
lateral Matano fault, with a reported offset of 20 Southeast Asia during the Neogene.
km. The southern end of the thrust projects toward The major fault systems of Sulawesi at pre-
the deformed rocks of Buton, but the structural sent can be described broadly as conforming to a
relations there are not clear. The Matano fault pole of rotation located at the north tip of the
zone appears to connect westward with the Palu island. These fault systems form an arcuate
fault, which forms the western transform of the trench-trench-transform geometry, and we will
North Sulawesi trench. The Palu-Matano fault sys- explore that geometry and its apparent evolution
tem acts as a trench-trench transform between the
in this paper. The dominant tectonic elements are
North Sulawesi trench and the Tolo thrust, and the North Sulawesi trench, the Palu-Matano trans-
this system is described by the same rotation pole form, and the Tolo thrust (Figure 1). We Will
as that for the Sulawesi North Arm. examinethe systemin that order. The deformation
appearsto have beendriven by the colllsiøn be-
Introduction tween Sulawesi and the Sula platform, and we dis-
cuss the internal zone of that collision in a
The broad collision zone of eastern Indonesia separate paper.
displays a variety of nonterminal collision events
driven primarily by rapid convergence of the Aus- Field Program and Data Presentation
tralian plate and continent from the south and the
Pacific, Caroline, and Philippine plates from the Marine geophysical study of the collision
east against the eastern Sunda, Banda, Sulawesi, zone was carried out during two cruises aboard the
and Halmahera arcs (Figure 1). We have proposed R/V Thomas Washington (from Scripps Institution of
[Silver and Smith, 1983] that this complex colli- Oceanography) on Indopac 10 and Mariana 9 expedi-
sion zone can provide a modern example of the tions in 1977 and 1979, respectively. Track lines
processes involved in the accretion of terranes, are shown on Figure 2. Supplementary data are from
reported commonly from ancient mountain belts Indopac 7 and 8 and from various other cruises
through the area, and someof the latter data are
presented by Hamilton [1979]. Data are largely
1Now
at Department
of EarthandPlanetary
Sciences,
seismic
reflection,gravity,magnetics,
seismic
Ma•sachussettsInstituteof Technology. refraction, and bathymetric surveys. A few pro-
Now at Sohio Petroleum Company• files are multichannel seismic lines which have
received preliminary processing. Seismic profiles
Copyright 1983 by the American Geophysical Union. are presented largely as line drawing interpreta-
tions of original records. Several profiles are
Paper number 3Bl159. s,own with free air gravity and magnetic anomaly
0148-0227 / 83/003B-1159505.00 data. Satellite navigation was used for ship loca-

9407
9408 Silver et al.: Collision, Rotation, and Initiation of Subduction

UnaUna0 GORONTALO
Volcano
•<• BASIN

I
I

-Greyhoun
d
Strait Fault

Tolo
Thrust

BONE
GULF

pUjung
andan[ %TUKANG

I I
120 122 124 126 128
Island Arc Volcanic Mesozoic and Cenozoic
OphioliteComplex • and
Associated
RocksI• Sedimentary Rocks
• Sheeted
Dikes1(undifferentiated
.almahera) b•
on
Schist
PaleozoicandTriassic
•;[7•Rocks
I;• MaflcRøcks
Ultramafic
I-
Rock..• I• Melange 'v-v' THRUST
upper

• FAULT
Fig. 1. Generalized tectonic map of Sulawesi and the Molucca Sea region, showing major
lithologic sequences and faults. Location map shown as inset (B, Banda arc; ES, Eastern
Sunda arc). Bird's Head region of Irian Jaya (New Guinea) is located just north of the
symbol "B" on the inset map. Scale along right axis in degrees of latitude, where 1ø
equals 111 km.

rich. All original data are available through the
National Geophysical and Solar-Terrestrial Data
Center in Boulder, Colorado.
The North Sulawesi Tremch
Hamilton [1979] and Katili [1975] interpreted
the North Sulawesi trench as a zone of subduction
accommodating convergence between the Celebes
basin and Sulawesi North Arm. Katili considered
only the western part to be active, but Hamilton
[1979] showedthe eastern part to be active also.
Our more detailed study presented here is in good
agreement with Hamilton. Weissel [1980] identified
Eocene magnetic anomalies in the Celebes basin
which become younger toward the North Sulawesi
trench, implying post-F. ocene subduction beneath
the trench. We surveyed the eastern end in some
detail because of the chance to study a zone of
convergence showing a rapid change in subduction
rate along strike. The five profiles (lines 16 to
25) in Figure 3 display this variation.
These profiles show a westward increase in
width of the accretionary prism, a varying struc-
rural style in the forearc region, and an indepen-
dently varying structure of the frontal thrust
zone. In the easternmost line (16) the slope basin
is deformed, but there is no obvious frontal
thrust. Acoustic penetration into the undeformed
Celebes basin strata is minimal here, possibly
indicating coarse sediment in this corner of the
basin. The zone of thrust accretion is 15 km wide
in profile 18 and has a broad outer ridge and a
narrow forearc basin.
The zoneof frontal thrusting is wide• in
line 21 (over 20 km wide), and the thrusts appear
to verge south (landward). Vergence is indi-
cared by the apparent dip of the faults, by the
fact that the lowermost fold shows faulting prima-
œily on its south side, and by the level plateau
surface (60-80 kin) rather than a sloping surface.
This structure is comparable to that off central
Washington where landward verging thrusts have
been well established [Silver, 1972; Carson et
al., 1974; Seely, 1977; Barnard, 1978]. The
southern part of this plateau (60 km) appears to
 Silver et al.: Collision, Rotation, and Initiation of Subduction 9409

Kolondal, ..

ß
PLATFORM
.

oSorøa
Malili

•55

BONE
GULF '"
BANDA SEA

5 62 _
.(• • Tukang
Besi
0I I
200
I
• Islands Kilometers
6 I I Go•'ø•
I •1 I i I I -
122 124 126 128
Fig. 2. Track of R/V Thomas Washin•to.n on Mariana 9 and Indopac 7 and 10 expeditions.
Data along tracks include seismic reflection, gravity, magnetics, and bathymetry. Heavy
lines locate profiles shown in this report. Also shown are geographic features discus-
sed in text.

be bounded by several south dipping thrusts. terial that may have been first deposited on and
Lines 24 and 25 show a wide accretionary later interthrust with the accretionary wedge.
wedge with seaward verging thrusts, and they fol- The cross-sectional area of the wedge in
low the surface of oceanic crust below the accre- profile 25, from 35 to 80 kin, excluding the region
tionary zone. Theyare adjacent profiles, but line of slope deposition, is approximately200 km2.
25 is a 21-fold multichannel profile. Note the For a steady state sediment input of 2 km of
apparently higher resolution in the single-channel sediment always about to be accreted at the toe
line (24) and the deeper penetration in the non- of the wedge and assuming 40% reduction in volume
migrated multichannel line (Figure 4). The top of during accretion [Moore and Karig, 1976], the
the oceaniccrust formsa prominentreflector that total undeformed
area wouldbe 333 km2, and it
can be traced beneath the accreting prism for 40 implies 120 km of convergence at this location.
km on line 25. It probably coincides with the main This figure is a minimum value because of the
basal thrust a few kilometers south of the frontal probability that some of the sedimentary section
thrust. The basal thrust is low angle (less than is not accreted but is removed by subduction. The
6ø) except where it cuts through the sedimentary predicted minimum convergence at the vicinity of
section at the toe of the accretionary wedge. Una Una is about 240 km if we assume a pole of
Line 25 allows us to estimate the cross- rotation at the east end of the North Arm (discus-
sectional area of the accretionary wedge because sed below) because Una Una is twice as far from
we can trace the basal thrust nearly to where it this pole of rotation as is line 25. The observed
intersects the front of the constructional arc length of the seismic zone here is about 350 kin.
ediface (40 kin, Figures 3 and 4). The accretion- The geometry of the accretionary wedge, in
ary wedge is composed of both accreted thrust which the size of the wedge increases westward,
slices of Celebes basin strata and of arc aas been explained by Hamilton [1979] as due to
derived material deposited directly on the wedge. rotation of the North Arm about a pivot which is
Although we can estimate and correct for the lat- now located near the eastern end of the arm.
ter deposits in estimating accretionary volume, we Hamilton feels that the pivot has migrated east-
can't distinguish possible sedimentary basin ma- waro with time as the North Sulawesi trench in-
9410 Silver et al.: Collision, Rotation, and Initiation of Subduction

0 Kilometers 20 40 60
I I
o
Seconds s N
2-way
time 2

_
Line 16 / ----

0 K,Iometers 1:)0 40 60 80 I00

0 kilometers 20 40 60 80
.,'S ........ N'

'-- •-;.-:: "o.. ,

LINE 21

0 Kilometers 20 40 60 80 ,90
o .i I T I 1

South North
Seconds .

2 -way
time 4 - >,-_.__-.

•--__•'•-. >;•:..• -? 7.•.__--;•..•••

...... '- •--:" .///7 •:' :'>•:,--
Line • o '• .: - //' -•• •

20 kilOlW?efl
20

Fig. 3. Line drawing interpretations of profiles crossing the North Sulawesi trench.
Lines 16, 18, 21, and 24 are single-channel profiles (Vertical exaggeration = 6.7x).
Line 25 is a 21-fold multichannel profile (rE = 3.5x). See Figure 2 for location.
 Silver et al.: Collision, Rotation, and Initiation of Subduction 9411

North Sulawesi Trench

s N

Seconds ............
_2
Km

6
Time
8 6

10 8

Line 2 5
0 10 2O
I I

Km
Fig. 4. Detail of multichannel profile 25.

creased in size and the East Sangibe trench de- stress. As the amount of slip increases (for areas
creased. The idea of rotation is supported by of thick sediment accretion), the basal thrust
paleomagnetic results of Otofuji et al. [1981]. Decoroes well established, fluid pressures increase
They indicate that more than 90ø of clockwise and the thrust surface becomes hydraulically
rotation occurred after the Eocene but before the interconnected, and the frictional resistance
Plio-Pleistocene. These data must be viewed cau- along the thrust surface decreases sharply. Note
tiously because of the difficulty in correcting the significantly increased flattening of the
for local tectonic effects. outer 15 •m of the wedge in line 21, compared with
The variation in structure of the accretion- line 18 (Figure 3). By line 24 the whole slope
ary wedge as seen in Figure 4 may indicate changes region (outer 60 kin) is very low angle. This
in basal shear stress as the thrust develops. region may prove valuable for future studies of
Recent wor• by Davis et al. [1983] and Cnapple the initiation of thrusting.
[1978] shows that the shape (or taper) of the A southward dipping seismic zone extends from
accretionary wedge depends on both the basal shear the North Sulawesi trench to about 300-kin depth
stress (w•ich is the sum of the stress due to the beneath Una Una volcano, but the zone is observ-
surface slope and that due to compression on the able only in the region from 121.8ø to 122.2øE
wedge) and the internal strength of the material. (Figure 5). Several shallow earthquakes are oh-
The wedge taper is defined as the sum of the served north of the North Arm between 120ø and
surface slope of the wedge plus the basal slope of 123øE, and these are possibly related to the
the main thrust. It seems unlikely that radical trench. Two focal plane mechanisms for earthquakes
changes in the internal strength of the wedge are at the trench suggest north-south compression, one
occurring over these profiles because the material at 121.06øE [Cardwell et al., 1980] and the other
accreting to the front of the wedge is most likely at 123.28øE [McCaffrey, 1981]. Any connection
similar along its length. Thus until we are able between the seismic zone and Una Una volcano how-
to measure the strength of the materials within ever, is yet unresolved.
the wedge, we suggest that it is most likely that
significant changes in the shape or taper of the The Palu-Matano Fault Syste.m.
wedge are due largely to differences in the basal
shear stress, which, in turn, are critically de- The Palu fault is the major structure cutting
pendent upon fluid pressures. the South Arm (Figure 1). Holocene left slip is
The profiles shown in Figure 3 illustrate established on the fault [Tjia, 1981] and its
major changes in the surface slope of the wedge. geomorphic expression is clear. Hamilton [1979]
Measured surface slopes of the wedge in profiles considered this fault to be a bounding transform
16, 18, and 21 range from 8ø to 16ø while the for the west end of the North Sulawesi trench and
slopes of lines 24 and 25 are 2ø. We infer from that it may connect with the Matano fault. A1-
these observations (and from the assumption of thoug[• such a connection is likely, it has yet to
nonsignificant variation in strength of materials •e established.
along the wedge front) that in the initial stages The Palu fault has na• six M>=7.0 earthquakes
of thrust development, or where the amountof slip since 1897 [Duda, 1965; Bath and Duda, 1975]. The
is small, the thrust has a high basal shear seaward extension of the fault is drawn by Hamil-
9412 Silver et al.: Collision, Rotation, and initiation of Subduction

Sulawesi - Lake Poso

ß

N th X,• ß May 28, 1977

% -• ._ .._ o
2ON

o
o• 0ø

Le•ePoso•• , 2ø

½•PTH•
) • ß o O-60KM
ß 61- I00 4ø
B 101-200
• a 201-300
• 301- 4OO
0 & 401-500
• X • 500KM h rn
I I
6ø$ - , -
118øE 122ø 126OE ß Dilatation
o
Compressional
x Nodal
Fig. 5. Map of earthquake epicenters in the Sulawesi region (left) and preliminary
fault plane solution for the Lake Poso earthquake of May 28, 1977. Lower hemisphere
plot.

ton [1979] to intersect the North Sulawesi trenci• the east margin of SE Sulawesi. This thrust marks
at about 119.2øE, but the shallow seismic activity the zone of convergence between southeast Sulawesi
aligns in a zone taat is more nearly parallel to and the northwest Banda basin, and it appears
the sharp bend in the North Arm (Figure 5). These to join the Matano fault zone onshore. The loca-
earthquakes may outline a branca of the Palu lion and structure of the Tolo thrust are well
fault. controlled by reflection profiles (Figures 6 and
In north-central Sulawesi seismic activity is 7). The zone of oeformation associated with the
shallow and scattered. Fitch [1970] published a t•rust is greatest in the central part and dies
focal plane solution from the Palu fault suggest- off toward either end. In the south it may splay
ing left-lateral motion. Figure 5 shows a fault into a series of faults trending toward and east
plane solution for the event of May 28, 1977, of Buton Island.
which had a similar mechanism but probably occurr- The northernmost profile which shows the
ed nearer to Lake Poso than the event reported by thrust is line 50 (Figure 6), where the associat-
Fitch [1970]. This earthquake was near tL•e Poso ed zone of deformation (30 kin) is only 5 •m wide.
fault, which bounds the western margin of the Line 48 does not indicate thrusting nor does S17
la•e, and suggests that at least some left-lateral immediately aojacent. By liae 51 the deformation
motion is taken up on faults other than the Palu. zone is 20 km wide and clearly defined, wit• a
The area around Lake Poso is a broad zone of small turbidire Oasin (40 •m) trapped •enind
oeformation [Katili, 1978] and is near the region the deformed outer ridge. The zone of deforma-
of probable intersection of the Palu and Hatano tion is over 30 •m wide in line 53, is well
faults. defined, and has also trapped a small sediment-
Moderate earthquake activity is associated ary basin. The deformed zone maintains a width
with the Matano fault in east-central Sulawesi. of 30-40 km around the central part of rue
Few earthquakes are reported in International thrust, then decreases to 10 •m in line 58,
Seismological Center oulletins, but McCaffrey and less than 10 km in line 60, and about 5 km in line
Sutardjo [1982] reported three which occurred near 61 (Fi.•ure 7).
the lake and t•ad a nortt• striking normal faulting Hamilton [1979] suggested that the Matano
composite fault plane solution. La•e Matano may be fault offset true turust. We find it more reason-
a small pull-apart basin offsetting the Matano aole to consider the Matano fault as the inland
fault. Only one event L•as been identified along continuation of tae Tolo turust, intersecting the
the seaward extension of the Matano fault near the tt•rust at its north end, just north of line 50.
Tolo thrust (Figure 5). By this view, a continuous tectonic zone can be
followed from Buton northward to the Matano fault,
The Tolo Thrust then NW along the Palu fault to the North Sulawesi
trench. The Matano-Palu faults would taen repre-
The Tolo thrust [Silver, 1981] is a long, sent a transform system oetween the Tolo thrust
arcuate thrust fault that cuts t•e Tolo Gulf off and the Nort• Sulawesi trench.
 Silver et al.: Collision, Rotation, and Initiation of Subduction 9413

i
seconds
2
2-way
-3
t•me
.4

-5

-6

IOO

, o

0 kilometers 20 40 60 80 I00 120

' W ............ E

•2

0 20I Km 40I 60I 80I I00

I

Fig. 6. Line drawing interpretations of profiles 50, 51, and 53 crossing the northern
part of the Tolo thrust. (VE = 6.7x.) Free air gravity and magnetic anomaly profiles
are shown 'for profile 51. See Figure 2 for location.

In two areas, local bathymetric highs are north Banda basin east of the Tolo thrust
colliding with the Tolo thrust. The northern aign (e.g., line 53, 100 kin; line 60, 75 km). Hamilton
is best seen in line 54 (Figure 7, 130 km), the [1979] mappedone of these faults, w•icn traps an
southern in lines 60 and 61 (Figure 7). One asymmetric sedimentary basin, as an inactive
effect of these collisions appears to be a steep- trench. These are not zones of subduction (pre-
ening of the main thrust near the toe, which sumably implied by his use of "trench") because
oasically reflects the west slope of these ridges. the sediment fill in the small fault basins is not
The southern ridge is associated with a local deformed. They may nave originated as either
bend in the mappeG outcrop of the thrust. The normal or reverse faults.
effect of tt•e northern ridge is less clear. The dramatic decrease in widta of the wedge
Magnetic anomalies are localized over both ridges, in both directions away from the central part o•
implying volcanic composition. the tarust appears characteristic of a Slide pne-
Faults of large vertical separation cut the nomenon, but the geometry of the deformed zone
9414 Silver et al.: Collision, Rotation, and Initiation of Subduction

0 20 Km
i 40 i 60
I 80 i I•00 120
i 140
• SW NE -2
sec.

: '
0 kilometers 20 40 60 80 I00
W E

6.O

LINE
58 •,-, . . :: ..;,:'•':•

0 KILOMETERS 40 60 80 I00
0 ! i i i i

SW NE

Second

4
"•'.•,•
;- __-,
2-way
lime

6
'•'•:•._•_ TOLO
•RUST
:y•.•5•,•, ._ • ---•- -

LINE 60 .•.

0 KILOMETERS •0 40 •0 eo IOO I•O 140

0 , , , ,. , ,

NW SE
.,

2-

Seconds

• 'wey TOLO THRUST

IIInl

Fig. 7. Line drawing interpretations of profiles 54, 58, 60, and 61 crossing the
southern part of the Tolo thrust. (VE = 6.7x.) See Figure 2 for location.

behind the thrust leads us to view its formation •ence along the north part of the Tolo thrust
as a tectonic tttrust. Lines 51 and 53 especially should decrease progressively as its trend ap-
snow a distinct •ifference in the structure of proaches that of the Matano fault, just as ooser-
the wedge compared to t[•e slope above it. We see ved.
no sign in any profile of an upslope source region The southern end of the Tolo thrust projects
for the wedge material. Instead, the weage appears into a transverse, northwest trending slope that
accreted to the slope, ann a small tilted sed- lies alon• the north east ooundary of the Tukang
imentary basin is trapped in the site of initial Besi platform. This ooundary may cut-off the
accretion. If the convergence direction were that thrust from progressing farther to the south. If,
of the Matano fault, then the component of convet- however, we project the trend of the thrust south-
 Silver et al.: Collision, Rotation, and Initiation of Subduction 9415

8,0 •

Ki ometers 2:0 40 60
I I i , I i i I i

SecondsZ sw NE
2:-way3
time 4
_

Line 6 4

Fig. 8. Line drawing interpretations of profiles 62 and 64, taken over the NE corner
of the Tukang Besi platform. (VE = 6.7x.) See Figure 2 for location.

ward to Buton, we encounter a broad zone of fold- direction from major tectonic features, and al-
ing. Structures mapped on Buton are aligned sub- though we now have better structural Control,
parallel to the thrust. we are in general agreement with interpretations
Hamilton [1979] suggested that the northeast of Hamilton [1979]. Based on the dominant direc-
margin of the platform might be an inactive tion and sense of slip on thrust and lateral
trench, but we see no evidence for that on pro- faults, it appears that tile Sula platform collided
files 62 and 64 (Figure 8) or on other profiles ia northwestward relative to Sulawesi.
this region. A local zone of minor thrusting is we infer northwesterly motion of the Sula
developed on the NE flank of the island ridge platform relative to South Sulawesi on the oasis
in line 64 (10 kin), resulting in deformation of of several significant observations. One is the
sediments in a small turbidice basin, but the arcuate trace of the Batui and related ti%rust
thrust has nearly or entirely died out in faults on the northwest side of the platform (dis-
line 62 (0-20 •m). Bedrock aas not oeen reported cussed in a separate paper), implying a leading
from the platform, as only coral terrace deposits edge to the moving block. Second, several lines of
crop out on the islands. Although the gross evidence exist for a clockwise rotation of the
structure of the platform is northwest oriented, Nort• Arm of Sulawesi, that is most easily ex-
W. H. Hetzel (unpublished report, 1936) reports plained as having oeen driven by the northwesterly
northeast striking late Neogene beds on Wangi- collision of the platform. The accretionary wedge
Wangi, perpendicular to those of the platform but along the north margin of North Arm increases in
parallel to those of Buton. width westward, and the Matano and Palu stri•e
The deformation associated with the Tolo slip faults transform oetween the Tolo thrust and
thrust and its northern extensions appears to die the North Sulawesi trenton. Both the wedge geometry
out southward. Alternatively, the deformation and the arcuate pattern of transform faulting are
could oe distributed among a series of poorly consistent with a rotation of the Nortit Arm about
mappedfault strands that cut the Banda basin, but a pivot near the east end of the ar m. Finally, but
except for the enigmatic structure Oounding the with some uncertainty, paleomagnetic data of Oto-
eastern margin of the Tukang Besi platform, such fuji et al. [1981] indicate large clockwise rota-
faults nave not been identified. tion of the westernmost part of North Arm, Oetween
Eocene and Pliocene.
Discussion While several lines of evidence for rotation
of the Nortb Arm seem to fit qualitatively, there
The convergence direction between the Sula are quantitative problemswith this interpreta-
platform and Sulawesi is difficult to determine by tion. If 90ø of rotation of North Arm were taken
commonplate tectonic methods because of uncer- up Oy slip along the Palu-Matano fault system, it
tainties in major plate motions [e.g. Molnar and implies muca more offset than the geological and
Tapponnier, 1975; Hamilton, 1979; Cardwell and geometric evidence seemingly allow. Also, while
Isac•s, 1978; Bowin et al., 1980], the abundance the rotation reported by Otofuji et al. was com-
of small plates in eastern Indonesia, and the pleted by Pliocene time, seismic and structural
difficulty of determining movement rates be- data indicate much deformation of the North Sula-
tween these plates. We can estimate convergence wesi trench in Plio-Pleistocene time.
9416 Silver et al.: Collision, Rotation, and Initiation of Subduction

Present 12_0 Km Offset

I

Partial

Explanation

• Volcanic
Arc
• Schist Belt
• Ophiolite
':••'•MesozoicSediment
•-:,--":•
Sula Platform 200 Km Offset 250 Km Offset
Active Fault
Inactive Fault

0 400 2 I
Kilometer

Fig. 9. Hypothetical reconstructions of Sulawesi, based on observed geological

relations. (a) Present setting, showing all faults used in the reconstructions. (b)
Offset of rocks along the Palu, Lawanopo, and Matano faults, constrained by closing the
northern part of the BoneGulf and by geology along the Matano fault. (c)Offset along
the Palu fault and its extension in the Bone Gulf plus closure of the gulf. (d) Slip
along the Palu fault and its extension through central Sulawesi, juxtaposing rocks of
the ophiolite suite more tightly. Fault names: 1, North Sulawesi; 2, Palu; 3, Matano;
4, Tolo; 5, Lawanopo; 6, Bone Gulf; 7, Kolonodale.

We suggest tnat the rotation reported by of Sulawesi. Finally, we add about 50 km of slip
Otofuji eta!. may have occurred largely prior to on the Palu-Kolonodale fault, the latter passing
both the deformation we see in the North Sulawesi through Kolonodale (Figure 9). This movement pro-
trench and the offset along the Palu and Matano duces a tighter outcrop pattern for the op•iolite
faults. The trench deformation indicates pernaps and suggests a tectonic explanation for the appa-
200-300 •m of convergence, althouga these values rent sharp cutoff of the schist belt in its north
are approximations and based on a number of un- end. The total movement of the North Arm along the
tested assumptions. Offset on the Matano fault is Palu fault, according to these reconstructions, is
perhaps 20 km [Allmad, 1978] and that along the about 250 km.
Palu fault is unknown. Slip of 500-1000 k•,• would The difference between this value and the
drastically disrupt the regional pattern of vol- 350-kin length of the deep seismic zone may be
canic, metamorphic, and ophiolitic oelts presently partly explaineo by the width of the accretionary
observed on Sulawesi, while 150-250 km could be prism, wtlich is 50-100 km wide on the west end
accommodatedreasonably, as follows (see Figure (see Figure 3, line 24, and Figure 98 of Hamilton
9). [1979]). A large discrepancy is seen, aowever,
Tae 20 km of slip on the Matano fault esti- Oetween the rotation of tile North Arm implied in
mated by Ahmad[1978] Provides a good measure of Figure 9 (20 ø) and the 90ø of rotation indicated
the convergence necessary to create the Tolo by Otofuji et al. [1981]. If we assumethat both
thrust. Tais structure is probably young, and the our constructions and those of Otofuji et al. are
Matano fault is presently active [McCaffrey and valid, the resolution may be in the timing of
Sutardjo, 1982]. We can produce an additional 100 events. The 250 km of offset that we construct
•m of slip along the Palu fault by connecting it, could reasonably •ave occurred in the past 5 Ma,
via a small spreading center in tae northern Bone at a rate of 50 mm/Ma along the Palu fault. The
Gulf [Hamilton, 1979], to the Lawanopofault [Fig- rotations measured by Otofuji et al. could have
ure 9]. By connecting the Palu fault with the Oegunas early as late Eocene time, and the bulk
eastern margin of the BoneGulf and closing the of the rotation resulted from a very different
gulf, as in Figure 9, we can producean additional mechanism,such as subductionon the SE side of
80 •m of slip. This offset is not tightly con- the North Arm. Alternatively, Otofuji et al. may
strained except that muchmore slip than this nave observed local rotations of small blocks near
would leave an excessive offset along the NWcoast major fault zones, not representative of the be-
 Silver et al.: Collision, Rotation, and Initiation of Subduction 9417

havior of the entire North Arm. Such rotations are North America, J_•.Geophys. Res., 85, 7115-7131,
being discovered increasingly in well-studied 1980.
tectonic regions [e.g., Beck, 1980]. Interesting- Bowin, C., G. M. Purdy, C. Johnston, G. G. Shor,
ly, tae study area of Otofuji et al. lies close to L. Lawver, H. M. S. Hartono, and P. Jezek, Arc-
a major fault indicated by Katili [1978]. continent collision in Banda Sea region, Am.
The structural geometry of the North Sulawesi Assoc. Pet. Geol. Bull., 64, 868-915, 1980.
trench is nicely described by a negative rotation Cardwell, R. K., and B. L. Isacks, Geometry of the
(clockwise as viewed from above) about a pole subducted lithosphere beneath the Banda Sea in
located at t•e eastern end of the Nort• Arm (as eastern Indonesia from seismicity and fault-plane
suggested by Hamilton [1979]). The arcuate nature solutions, J_•.Geophys. Res., • 2825-2838,
of the Palu fault is nearly, though not quite, a 1978.
small circle a0out this pole. The Matano fault Cardwell, R. K., B. L. Isacks, and D. E. Karig,
deviates by a few degrees from a small circle path The spatial distribution of earthquakes, focal
out the Lawanopo fault lies close to that path. mechaaism solutions and subducted lithosphere in
The Tolo thrust satisfies this geometry as well. the Philippine and northeastern Indonesian Is-
The continuation of this system south and east lands, in The Tectonic and Geo!o•ic Evolution of
into the Banda Sea is unclear at present. The Southeast Asian Seas and Islands• .Geop.
hys.
rather close correspondence of a number of tecton- Mono•r. Ser., Vol. 23, edited by D. E. Hayes,
ic elements to this nearby rotation pole is more pp. 1-35, AGU, Washington, D.C., 1980.
surprising than the deviations because the complex Carson, B., J. Yuan, P. B. Myers, Jr., and W.D.
movement history of the Sula platform should have Barnard, Initial deep sea sediment deformation
produced varying rotation poles though time. at the base of the Washington contiaental slope:
The development of the complex collision zone A response to subduction, Geology, 2, 561-564,
as we now observe it in eastern Indonesia involves 1974.
a variety of processes acting in widely differing Chapple, W. M., Mechanics of thin-skinned fold-
directions. Continued slivering of New Guinea, in and-thrust belts, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 89,
a manner similar to that of the Sula platform, 1189- 1204, 1978.
would result in a complex stack of continental Coney, P. J., D. L. Jones, and J. W. H. Monger,
fragments superimposed in the reverse order to Cordilleran suspect terranes, Nature, 288, 329-
their original distributions. The northernmost 333, 1980.
slice of New Guinea becomes the southernmost Davis, D., J. Suppe, and F. A. Dahlen, Mechanics
sliver in the collision zone. Such slivers, when of fold-and-thrust belts and accretionary
molded into a linear mountain belt and surrounded wedges' J. Geoph¾s. Res., 88, 1153-1172, 1983.
by highly strained metamorphic rocks, might be Duda, S. J., Secular seismic energy release in
interpreted as "basement core complexes." Grossly the circum-Pacific belt, ..Tect•nophysics, 2, 409-
misleading interpretations of ancient mountain 452, 1965.
belts can arise from focusing on a two-dimensional Fitch, T., Earthquake mechanisms and island arc
cross-sectional evolution of the oelts. Active, tectonics in the Indonesian-Philippine region,
collision zones cannot provide detailed analogs Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am., 60, 565-591, 1970.
for ancient moutain belts, out the modern settings Hamilton, W., Tectonics of the Indonesian region,
can illustrate mechanical processes that may have U.S. Geol. S•rv. Prof. Pap.. 1.078, 345 p., 1979.
played important roles in their development. Jones, D. L., N.J. Silberling, W. Gilbert, and P.
J. Coney, Character, distribution, and tecton-
Acknowledgments. We thaa• J. A. Katili, 'l-i. •.i. ic significance of accretionary terranes in the
S. Hartono, Joe Widartoyo, and Yoko Joyodiwiryo central Alaska range: J. Geoph¾s. Rest, 87,
for their continual support in carrying out this 3709-3717, 1982.
wor•. We are grateful to Warren Hamilton, Rooert Katili, J. A., Volcanism and plate tectonics in
Coleman, Jason Saleeby, Carl Bowin, and an uniden- the Indonesian island arcs, Teconoph¾sics, 26,
tified AGU reviewer for their careful and thought- 165-188, 1975.
ful reviews of drafts of this paper. We also taan• Katili, J. A., Past and present geotectonic posi-
Peggy Plumley and Audrey Wright for drafting tion of Sulawesi, Indonesia, Tectomophysics , 45,
assistance and the officers, crews, and scientific 289-322, 1978.
parties of the R/V ThomasWashington on Mariana 9 McCaffrey, R., Crustal structure and tectonics of
and Indopac 10 expeditions for excellent support the Molucca Sea collision zone, Indonesia,
in obtaining the marine geophysical data. Support- thesis, 157 pp., Univ. of Calif., Santa Cruz,
ed by NSF grant OCE78-08693 to EAS. 1981.
McCaffrey, R., and R. Sutardjo, Reconnaissance
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