Commercial Production of

Currants and Gooseberries in the

Inland Northwest and
Intermountain West of the United
States: Opportunities and Risks
Danny L. Barney

ADDITIONAL INDEX WORDS. Ribes, white pine blister rust

SUMMARY. During the 1800s and early 1900s, red and white currants (Ribes L. subgenus Ribes), black currants
(Ribes subgenus Coreosma), and gooseberries (Ribes subgenus Grossularia) were grown commercially in the
United States. Because Ribes serve as alternative hosts of white pine blister rust (Cronartium ribicola J. C.
Fischer) (WPBR), which was introduced from Europe, the federal government and many states either banned or
severely restricted currant and gooseberry production beginning about 1933. The development of WPBR
resistant pines and black currants (the most susceptible cultivated Ribes) renewed interest in commercial Ribes
production. Climatic and soil conditions in selected areas of the U.S. inland northwest and intermountain west
(INIW) are favorable for commercial currant and gooseberry production. Challenges to the establishment of a
Ribes industry are labor, marketing, diseases, and pests. Careful site and cultivar selection are critical for
successful commercial production. This article describes Ribes opportunities and risks associated with currant
and gooseberry production in the INIW. The region includes Idaho and surrounding areas in Montana,
Nevada, Oregon, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming.

B
eginning as early as the 1400s, herbalists collected wild currants and goose-
berries for use in medicines (Bunyard, 1917 cited by Hedrick, 1925). By the
1500s, domestication efforts had begun. Two centuries later red currants
and gooseberries were popular garden fruit in Western Europe, and black currants
were sold at farmers markets in Russia. Currants came to North America in 1629 in
a shipment to the Massachusetts Bay Colony (Shoemaker, 1955) and gooseberries
soon followed.
Ribes are quite easy to breed and progeny generally resemble their parents. Com-
mercial and hobby growers in Europe and North America took on the challenge of
improving the crops and the number of cultivars increased rapidly. Gooseberries
exemplify this point. In 1778, at least 23 cultivars were known (Brennan, 1996).
Hedrick (1925) described more than 1,000 gooseberry cultivars.

Plant, Soil, and Entomological Sciences Department, University of Idaho, Sandpoint Research and Extension
Center, 2105 N. Boyer Avenue, Sandpoint, ID 83864.
This research was supported by the University of Idaho and Idaho Agricultural Experiment Station, manuscript no.
99729. Funding was also provided by the USDA–ARS Pacific Northwest Small Fruit Research Program, Special
Project IDA9104214. Use of trade names in this publication does not imply endorsement of the named products
or criticism of similar ones not mentioned. The cost of publishing this paper was defrayed in part by the payment
of page charges. Under postal regulations, this paper therefore must be hereby marked advertisement solely to
indicate this fact.

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July–September 2000 10(3) 557
 Harmat et al. (1990) stated that
several thousand gooseberries had been
named, but emphasized that only a
few were suitable for commercial cul-
tivation. Currant breeding programs
were active in the U.S. in the first half
of the 1900s in Illinois, Minnesota,
Oregon, New York, North Dakota,
and South Dakota. At least 18 species
have contributed to the development
of currant and gooseberry cultivars
(Harmat et al., 1990).
By the late 1800s, currants and
gooseberries were grown commercially
in Canada and the United States. Ac-
cording to the 1920 census (Hedrick,
1925), U.S. farmers grew approxi-
mately 7,400 acres (3,000 ha) of com-
mercial currants and gooseberries.
Most of that production was centered
in middle Atlantic, upper midwest,
and northeast states, with scattered
production across the northern half of
the country. New York was the leading
currant producer, and approximately
500 acres (200 ha) of commercial Ribes
fields were located in the INIW at that
time. Red and white currants domi-
nated the U.S. market with little goose-
berry or black currant production.
White currants are color variants of red
currants and were bred from the same
species. Gooseberries were grown, to a
limited degree, in Oregon, Michigan,
Washington, and Colorado (Shoe-
maker, 1955). Canadians favored black
currants, which made up approximately
half that country’s production. Red
currants and gooseberries each made
up about 25 % of the Canadian market
(Shoemaker, 1955).
Commercial production of cur-
rants and gooseberries continued and
expanded in Europe through the
1900s. Germany, Poland, and Russia
are the leading gooseberry producers.
Poland and Germany also lead in the
production of red and white currants.
Black currants are the primary Ribes
crop grown worldwide with major pro-
duction in Russia, Britain, and other
European countries. According to the
United Nations’ Food and Agricul-
ture Organization (FAO), 463,515
tons (421,378 t) of currants and
156,854 tons (142,595 t) of goose-
berries were produced on 245,532
acres (99,406 ha) in Europe and the
Baltic states during 1998 (FAO, 2000).
The FAO statistical database contained
no record of currant or gooseberry
production in North America for the
period 1990–98.
558
Disaster came to the North Ameri-
can Ribes industry because of an im-
ported disease. Several times between
1898 and 1910, foresters accidentally
introduced WPBR to North America
on infected North American white pine
seedlings (Pinus L.) grown in and im-
ported from Europe (Detwiler, 1933).
Ironically, the disease does little dam-
age to Ribes. However, it causes can-
kers that girdle and kill eastern and
western white pines (Pinus strobus L.
and P. monticola Dougl. Ex D. Don)
and other five-needled pines. By the
late 1920s, millions of pines had been
killed by the disease and state and
federal efforts were underway to re-
strict or eliminate Ribes production
and to eradicate native Ribes species.
Blister rust control efforts virtually
eliminated commercial currant and
gooseberry production in the United
States.
Eradication efforts in the INIW
proved ineffective and efforts turned
to breeding pines resistant to the dis-
ease (Carlson, 1978). With the devel-
opment of rust-resistant strains of pines,
the U.S. federal government no longer
restricts Ribes production, although
direct importation of Ribes from for-
eign countries other than Canada is
prohibited. New Hampshire and North
Carolina ban all Ribes production and
13 other states restrict production.
Within the INIW, Montana prohibits
black currant production but allows
production of red currants, white cur-
rants, and gooseberries. None of the
other states in the region have regula-
tions that apply specifically to Ribes.
Large-scale Ribes production in
the INIW, while feasible, has yet to be
developed. Small-scale production has
increased during the past decade and it
is becoming increasingly common to
find currants and gooseberries for sale
at farmers markets and through mar-
ket gardeners.
Climatic and soil
requirements
Topography and climate vary tre-
mendously throughout the INIW.
Average minimum winter temperatures
range from 0 to –40 oF (–20 to –40 oC)
and precipitation from less than 10 to
more than 60 inches (25 to 150 cm)
per year. Within this diverse region are
many locations suitable for commer-
cial Ribes production.
Cultivated currants and goose-
berries are adapted to cool, moist sites
and favor deep, well-drained soils rich
in organic matter and with pH values
between 5.5 and 7.0 (Barney, 1996a).
Many cultivars are hardy to between –
22 and –31 oF (–30 and –35 oC)
(Harmat et al., 1990), providing a
distinct advantage for fruit growers in
this mountainous region. Ribes’ cold
hardiness is probably greater than the
previously cited research indicates, as
currants and gooseberries are grown in
regions where winter temperatures of
–40 oF (–40 oC) or less are common.
The plants are less tolerant of heat.
Harmat et al. (1990) noted foliar in-
jury at 86 oF (30 oC) although the
author has successfully grown currants
and gooseberries in an area with occa-
sional summer temperatures greater
than 100 oF (38 oC) and frequent days
with temperatures at or above 86 oF.
Adequate soil moisture apparently re-
duces heat stress problems. Intense
sunlight combined with high tempera-
tures can cause the berries to sunscald.
Production requires 160 to 200 grow-
ing degree days (41 oF or 5 oC base
temperature) and a 120 to 140-d frost-
free growing season (Harmat et al.,
1990). Yields are best in full sun, but
partial shade from trees, mountains, or
other topographic features may be
desirable at sites with clear days and
temperatures frequently above 95 oF
(35 oC). Establishing fields on north-
facing slopes can help reduce heat stress
and retard bloom in the spring. Cur-
rants bloom early in spring and the
flowers are susceptible to frost dam-
age.
Opportunities
With many farm commodities
currently providing poor economic
returns, interest in high-value specialty
crops is increasing. Strong consumer
demand for fruit products and dietary
supplements provide opportunities for
currant and gooseberry commercial-
ization. Currants and gooseberries are
excellent sources of vitamins A, B, and
C. Some black currant cultivars con-
tain vitamin C concentrations four
times greater than those found in cit-
rus (Citrus L.) fruit (Westwood, 1993).
The berries also provide pectins, fruc-
tose, and various mineral elements.
The seeds of black currants contain
essential fatty acids, including gamma-
linolenic acid (Brennan, 1990). Black
currant leaves and buds are rich in
phenolic compounds and have been
used in herbal medicines for centuries.
●
July–September 2000 10(3)
In Russia, black currant leaves are also
used to make a tea resembling green
tea in flavor.
Black currants dominate the Eu-
ropean Ribes market. Although their
strong flavor makes fresh berries rather
unpalatable, juice, jams, syrups, and
wines are popular products. Approxi-
mately 75% of the berries are used for
juice (Brennan, 1990). Black currants
are also used to color yogurt and other
dairy products. Red currants can also
be used for juice and are often pro-
cessed into jellies and syrups. White
currants are made into baby food in
some European countries (Harmat et
al., 1990). The large seeds limit fresh
consumption, but there are niche mar-
kets for fresh red and white currants to
be used in garnishes and other culinary
applications. Gooseberries are gener-
ally used for jams, jellies, pastries, and
deserts. Their resemblance to grapes
in taste, texture, and size may allow
them to substitute for table grapes in
niche markets, and gooseberries are
also sold canned for use in pastry fill-
ings and other dessert applications.
Dale (1992) reported strong de-
mand in Canada for black currant prod-
ucts and estimated that more than
Table 1. Promising commercial currant and gooseberry cultivars for the U.S. inland northwest and intermountain west.
Black currantsw
Ben Tirran
Titania
Red currantsv
Minnesota 71
Rovada
Rondom
Rotet
Wilder
White currantsv
White Currant 1301
White Imperial
Gooseberriesv
Captivator
Oregon Champion
Poorman
Pixwell
Shefford
Speedwell
zDisease resistance: MS = modeartely resistant = foliage moderately susceptible but fruit usually acceptable; R = resistant = foliage shows few or no symptoms most years; I =
immune = symptoms have not been observed.
yHarvest: H = suitable for hand harvest; M = suitable for mechanical harvesting.
xUse: All = suitable for all home and commercial uses.
wBlack currants: ‘Titania’ is reportedly immune to white pine blister rust. ‘Ben Nevis’ and ‘Swedish Black’ develop few blister rust lesions compared with other black currant
cultivars, but are somewhat susceptible.
vRed and white currants and gooseberries can be infected by white pine blister rust under severe conditions. In the author’s Idaho field trials, blister rust symptoms have not
been observed on the cultivars listed in this table.
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July–September 2000 10(3)
20,000 acres (8,100 ha) of black cur-
rants would be needed to capture 1%
of the North American juice market.
Estimates place today’s commercial
Ribes production in North America at
less than 500 acres (200 ha) (Barney,
1996b), representing small-scale op-
erations across the northern U.S. and
southern Canada.
Active Ribes breeding programs
and the free flow of scientific informa-
tion throughout the world may help
give impetus to reestablishing a cur-
rant and gooseberry industry in North
America. Whereas early breeders fo-
cused on fruit size, today the emphasis
in on pest and disease resistance, fruit
quality, and suitability for mechanical
harvesting. In gooseberries, develop-
ment of thornless cultivars is also a
priority.
Risks
Currant and gooseberry produc-
tion, like all farming, carries inherent
risks. Factors limiting commercial de-
velopment include labor, marketing,
diseases, and pests. Lack of production
and marketing technical support are
also challenges.
Planting and establishment prac-
Disease resistancez
Powdery Blister
mildew rust
R R
R I
MS
MS
MS
MS
R R
R R
MS
MS
MS
MS
MS
MS
MS
tices for currants and gooseberries are
similar to those for blueberries. Fewer
nurseries carry commercial quantities
of Ribes, however, and the cost of
planting stock can be higher per unit
than for blueberries. Quarantines on
the importation of Ribes into the
United States can also make it difficult
for growers to obtain new and desir-
able cultivars. Trellises are not required,
but protection from deer, birds, and
other vertebrate pest may be needed in
some areas.
Inadequate labor to grow and
harvest currants and gooseberries may
seriously hinder expansion of Ribes
production in the INIW. Most currant
and gooseberry production systems
require substantial pruning labor each
year, comparable to raspberry (Rubus
idaeus L.) production but more than
would be required for blueberries (Vac-
cinium corymbsum L.). Pruning, how-
ever, can take place over several months,
reducing the need for many field work-
ers. Hand harvesting both currants
and gooseberries is labor intensive.
Harmat et al. (1990) estimated that 65
to 70% of the total labor in producing
Ribes goes into hand harvesting. Un-
like raspberries, ripe currants and
Harvesty Usex
H, M All
H, M All
R H, M All
R H, M All
R H, M All
R H, M All
H, M All
H, M All
R H, M All
R H, M All
R H, M All
R H, M All
R H, M All
R H, M All
R H, M All
559
gooseberries can hang on the canes
and maintain acceptable market qual-
ity for a week or more, providing a
relatively long harvest window. Where
suitable markets exist or can be devel-
oped, U-pick operations significantly
reduce labor costs. White currants pro-
vide the greatest yields with about 9
ton/acre (20 t·ha–1), followed by red
currants at 4.5 to 7 ton/acre (10 to 16
t·ha–1) and gooseberries at 4.5 ton/
acre (10 t·ha –1) (Childers, 1978;
Harmat et al., 1990). Black currants
produce the lowest yields at about 2
ton/acre (4.5 t·ha–1) (Harmat et al.,
1990) although newer cultivars ap-
pear likely to increase yields signifi-
cantly. A person can hand harvest about
8.8 lb (4 kg) of black currants, 17.6 lb
(8 kg) of red or white currants, and 22
lb (10 kg) of gooseberries per hour
(Harmat et al., 1990). Hand-held
pneumatic or electric shakers can speed
up hand harvesting. For grower-picked
fruit, hand-harvesting costs may be
prohibitive for all but small opera-
tions. Costs would be particularly high
in areas throughout the region where
migrant farm workers are not tradi-
tionally found.
For large-scale production, Eu-
ropean farmers use over-row mechani-
cal harvesters. Because imported over-
row Ribes harvesters cost in the
$100,000 range, joint purchase of a
harvester by a collective of growers
might be required to meet equipment
acquisition and maintenance cost limi-
tations. Smaller harvesters designed
for blueberries and built in North
America might be adapted to currants
and gooseberries. Cultivar selection
and field layout are important deci-
sions in reducing harvest labor. Culti-
vars with long, easily picked fruit clus-
ters (strigs) make hand harvest faster
and easier and reduce damage to ber-
ries. Growers planning to use mechani-
cal harvesters must allow adequate row
spacing for the machines and room at
the ends of rows to turn equipment
around.
Marketing presents another chal-
lenge for U.S. Ribes producers. Resi-
dents of the U.S. are generally unfa-
miliar with currants or gooseberries,
and producers face the task of intro-
ducing essentially new and novel fruit.
Today’s refrigeration and transporta-
tion technologies allow traditional and
exotic fruit to be imported from
throughout the world, creating stiff
competition for consumer dollars.
560
Where consumers are familiar with
currants and gooseberries, the associa-
tion may be negative. For decades,
forestry crews throughout various parts
of North America worked to eradicate
Ribes and save pines. Particularly in
traditional logging areas, consumer
education will be an important aspect
of marketing. On the positive side,
currants and gooseberries lend them-
selves to many value-added products
that are suited to specialty and niche
markets.
Powdery mildew [Sphaerotheca
mors-uvae (Schw.) Berk.] causes the
most damage of any disease in the
region discussed in this paper. The
fungus attacks the stems, leaves, and
fruit of Ribes. Serious infections stunt
or kill the canes and render fruit ined-
ible. Black currants are generally more
susceptible to the disease than red and
white currants. Gooseberries with
North American species in their ge-
netic backgrounds are more resistant
to powdery mildew than are cultivars
derived solely from European species.
Pesticide registrations for Ribes crops
are extremely limited and chemical
control of powdery mildew is largely
restricted to sulfur sprays. Fortunately,
mildew-resistant or tolerant cultivars
are available for all Ribes crops (Table
1).
WPBR is a minor biological prob-
lem for Ribes growers. Infected cur-
rants and gooseberries seldom suffer
more than premature defoliation. In-
fected pines, however, often die. Log-
ging has historically been a major con-
tributor to INIW economies and may
be threatened by increased Ribes in-
troduction and cultivation. Pines can
only be infected by basidiospores from
Ribes. Because basidiospores usually
travel about 1 mile (1.6 km) or less,
isolation of currant and gooseberry
fields from five-needled pines should
reduce the likelihood of infecting trees
(Detwiler, 1933; Skilling, 1975). Ae-
ciospores produced by pines, how-
ever, can reportedly travel several hun-
dred miles to infect currants and goose-
berries (Skilling, 1975). Ribes can also
be infected by urediospores formed on
other nearby Ribes. Both native Ribes
species and cultivated currants and
gooseberries can serve as bridges, al-
lowing the pathogen to infect pines
over a wide geographic range. At least
28 species of native Ribes are found
within the area discussed in this paper
(Hitchcock and Cronquist, 1973;
Welsh and Moore, 1973). These spe-
cies vary in their susceptibility to
WPBR.
Black currants derived solely from
R. nigrum L. are the most WPBR-
susceptible cultivated Ribes, but other
crops can become infected. The red
currant cultivar ‘Viking,’ once thought
to be immune to rust, can develop rust
symptoms in laboratory tests
(Zambino, 2000). Selection of blister
rust-resistance is a high priority for
Ribes breeders in North America. The
Canadian cultivars ‘Consort,’ ‘Cru-
sader,’ and ‘Coronet’ possess the Cr
gene derived from R. ussuriense and
are immune to WPBR. They are mod-
erately to very susceptible to powdery
mildew, however, and their fruit qual-
ity is poor compared with many other
black currant cultivars. ‘Titania,’ from
Sweden, also has the Cr gene and is
resistant to mildew. The fruit quality is
better than the Canadian cultivars, but
still does not meet world market juice
standards. Suggested WPBR-resistant
cultivars of black, red, and white cur-
rants and gooseberries are listed in
Table 1.
Widespread planting of WPBR
resistant white pines has reduced risks
to the logging industry. However,
noncommercial but environmentally
important pine species in the region,
including whitebark pine (Pinus
albicaulis Engelm.), limber pine (P.
flexilis James) and bristlecone pine (P.
aristata Engelm.) are also susceptible
to WPBR. White pine blister rust is
endemic on native pine and Ribes spe-
cies throughout the INIW. Several
strains of WPBR may exist in different
parts of North America. The most
serious threat currant and gooseberry
production poses may be the potential
of introducing virulent strains to dif-
ferent locations. Crossing existing
strains may also produce new, more
virulent types that could overcome the
resistance displayed by certain pine
populations.
The basidiospores that infect pines
form only on Ribes leaves. Once cur-
rants or gooseberries are defoliated,
they are reportedly no longer conta-
gious. Plants to be shipped from one
region to another should be dormant
and free of leaves. Proper site and
cultivar selection combined with im-
portation of inspected Ribes nursery
stock will reduce the threat that culti-
vated currants and gooseberries pose
for pines.
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July–September 2000 10(3)
 Worldwide, reversion disease is
the most serious disease on black cur-
rants (Trajkovski and Anderson, 1992).
Although the causal organism has not
been isolated, it appears to be a virus or
virus-like pathogen that is spread by
the gall mite (Cecidophyopsis ribis
Nalepa). The mite vector spreads rap-
idly through plantations and infected
plants decline over two to four years.
There are no treatments and infected
plants must be destroyed. Breeding
programs are underway in Europe to
develop black currant cultivars resis-
tant to the disease and/or vector.
Neither reversion disease nor the mite
that vectors it are known to exist in
North America and aggressive quaran-
tine programs should reduce the threat
of importing them. The absence of the
disease and vector provide North
American growers an advantage over
their European counterparts.
Several pests can cause serious
damage to cultivated Ribes in the INIW
(DeAngelis et al., 1999). Most serious
are imported currant worm (Nematus
ribesii Scopoli), currant fruit fly or
gooseberry maggot (Epochra
canadensis Loew.), and gooseberry
fruitworm (Zophodia convolutella
Hübner). The imported currant worm
feeds on leaves and moderate infesta-
tions can quickly defoliate bushes. This
pest, however, is easily controlled with
several insecticides registered for Ribes.
Currant fruit fly and gooseberry fruit
worm are more difficult to control
than the imported currant worm, but
both cultural controls and pesticides
are available. Currant aphid
(Cryptomyzus ribis L.) is another com-
mon but easily controlled pest in the
region.
Fewer pesticides are registered for
Ribes in the U.S. than for blueberries,
raspberries, and other small fruit crops
grown on larger scales. With pesticide
development and registration costs
increasing, and social and legislative
pressures to reduce pesticide use also
increasing, the lack of chemical con-
trols is unlikely to improve. The impe-
tus, therefore, is on the development
of cultural practices and cultivars that
control pests and diseases without pes-
ticide inputs. Disease-resistant culti-
vars are available for all Ribes crops. An
advantage to this situation is the po-
tential suitability of currants and goose-
berries for the growing organic food
market.
●
July–September 2000 10(3)
Results and discussion
Climate, topography, and soils in
selected regions of the INIW are favor-
able for commercial production of
currants and gooseberries. Cold hardi-
ness and early ripening make Ribes
viable alternatives where winters are
too cold or growing seasons too short
and cool for grapes or other berry or
tree fruit crops. Challenges growers
face include labor, marketing, diseases,
and pests. Careful site and cultivar
selection reduce production problems.
Labor requirements can be reduced
through efficient field layout and the
use of hand-held shakers or over-row
mechanical harvesters. U-pick opera-
tions may be feasible in certain areas,
particularly when Ribes are part of a
diversified fruit farm. Currants and
gooseberries are nutritious and easily
made into many value-added prod-
ucts. Initial marketing efforts should
probably focus on local sales and/or
specialty and niche markets. Consumer
education about currants and goose-
berries will be an important part of
marketing.
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