B i l ifi ti

Basic classification of soils
f il
 Granular –
Granular  gravel, sand, cohesionless
gra el  sand  cohesionless silts
‐ shear strength is characterized by grain‐to‐grain contact 
and friction
‐ contact unit per unit area = effective stress

 Cohesive soils – plastic silts, clays
‐ shear strength is strongly affected by chemical and 
electrical interactions among particles
‐ Atterberg limits are used to characterize such interactions 
(PI, PL, LL); PI’s of most clays = 40 to 80, bentonite = 400
Physical properties of soils
USCS

fines sand cobbles

bbl
gravel

.074 mm # 4 3”

Toyoura sand

Bentonite clay Photos from Towhata (2008)

Comparison of Particle Size Definitions
USDA

clay silt sand cobbles

gravel

2  # 4 3”
.05 mm

# 200 USCS

fines sand cobbles

g
gravel

.074 mm # 4 3”
 Particle size distribution
of a liquefiable soil

Source: Towhata (2008)

Weight and density of soils

Weight and density of soils
Density

Water content w = 

Mechanical behavior of sands
highly depends on Dr:
Effective stress 
and pore water pressure

Inter‐particle contact

Shear deformation 
and strength of sand
d t th f d
Direct shear test
Dilatancy or shear‐induced volume 
change (1/2)
h (1/2)

Loose sand Dense sand

Dilatancy or shear‐induced volume 
change (2/2)
h (2/2)

Rowe’s stress‐dilatancy relationship:
Undrained shear tests

Triaxial apparatus