Chapter 1 showed that a junction between n-type and p-type materials has asymmetrical conducting

properties enabling i to be used for rectification. A bipolar transistor includes two such junctions
arranged as shown in Fig. 2.1. Fig. 2.1(a) illustrates one basic type consisting of layer of n-type material
sandwiched between two layers of p-type material: such a transistor is referred to as a pnp- type A
second type, ustrated in Fig. 2.1(b) has a layer of p-type material sandwiched between two layers of n-
type semiconducting material: such a transistor is referred to as an npn-type In both types, for successful
operation. the central layer must be thin. However, it is not possible to construct bipolar transistors by
placing suitably-treated layers of semiconducting material in contact. One method which is employed is
to start with a single c ystal of, say, n-type germanium and to trea t so as to produce re ions of p-type
conductivity on either side of the remaining regicn of n-type conductivity Electrical connections are
made to each of the three diffe ent regions as suggested in Fig. 2.2. The thin central layer is know as the
base of the transistor and corresponds with the control grid of a triode valve. One of the remaining two
layers is known as the emitter and corresponds with the cathode of a triode valve. The remaining (third)
layer is known as the collector: it corresponds with the anode of the triode. The transistor may be
symmetrical and either of the outer layers may then be used as emitter the operating conditions
determine which of the outer layers behaves as emitter because in normal operation the emtter-base
junction is forward- biased whilst the base-collector junction is reverse-biased. In practice most bipolar
transistors are unsymmetrical with the collector junction larger than the emitter junction and is essential
to adhere to the emitter and collector connections prescribed by the manufacturer. The symbols used for
bipolar transistors in circuit diagrams are given in Fig. 2.3. The symbol shown at (a). in which the emitter
arrow is directed towards the base, is used for a pnp transistor and the symbol shown at (b) in which the
emitter arrow is directed away from the base, is used for an npn transistor An account of the principal
methods used in the manufacture of germanium and silicon transistors is given in Appendix A.

Operation of a pnp Transistor Fig. 2.4 illustrates the polarity of the potentials which are necessary in a
pnp-transistor amplifying ut. The emitter is biased slightly positively with respect to the base: this is an
example of forward bias and the external battery opposes the internal potential barrier associated with
the emitter-base junction. A considerable current therefore flows across this junction and this is carried
by holes from the p-type emitter (which move to the right into the base) and by electrons from the n-
type base (which move to the left into the emitter). However, because the impurity concentration in the
emitter is normally considerably greater than that of the base (this is adjusted during manufacture), the
holes carrying the emitter-base current greatly outnumber the electrons and we can say with ittle error
that the current flowing across the emitter-base junction is carried by holes moving from emitter to
base. Because holes and electrons play a part in the action, this type of transistor is known as bipolar
The collector is biased negatively with respect to the base: this is an example of reverse bias and the
external battery aids the internal potential barrier associated with the base-collector junction. If the
emitter-base junction were also reverse-biased, no holes would be injected into the base region from the
emitter and only a very small current would flow across the base-collector junction. This is the reverse
current (described in Chapter: it is a saturation current independent of the collector-base voltage.
However, when the emitter-base junction is forward-biased. the injected holes have a marked effect on
the collector current: this is the essence of bipolar transistor action. The holes arte njected into the base.
which is particularly hin layer most of them cross the base by diffusion and on reaching the collector-
base junction are swept into the collector region. The reverse bias of the base-collector junction ensures
the collection of all the holes crossing this junction, whether these are present in the base region as a
result of breakdown of covalent bonds by virtue of thermal agitation or are injected into it by the action
of the emitter. A few of the holes which leave the emitter combine with electrons in the base and so
cease to exist but the majority of the holes (commonly more than 95 per cent) succeed in reaching the
collector. Thus the increase in collector current due to hole-injection by the emitter is nearly equal to the
current flowing across the emitter-base junction. The balance of the emitter carriers (equal to, say, 5 per
cent) is neutralised by electrons in the base region and to maintain charge neutrality more electrons flow
into the base, constituting a base current. The collector current even though it may be considerably
increased by forward bias of the emitter-base junction, is still independent of the collector voltage. This
is another way of saying that the output resistance of the tran- sistor is extremely high: it can in fact be
several megohms. The input resistance is approximately that of a forward-biased junction diode and is
commonly of the order of 25 2 A smali change in the input (emitter) current of the transistor s faithfully
reproduced in the output (collector) current but, of course, at a slightly smaller ampli- tude. Clearly such
an amplifier has no current gain but because the output resistance is many times the input resistance it
can give voltage gain. To illustrate this suppose a 1-mV signal source is connected to the 25-2 input. This
gives rise to an emitter current of 1/25 mA, .e. 40 HA. The collector current is slightly less than this but as
an approximation suppose the output current is also 40 HA. A common value of load resistance is 5 k and
for this value the output voltage is given by 5,000 x 40 x 10 e. 200 mV equivalent to a voltage gain of 200
Bias Supplies for a pnp Transistor Fig. 2.5 shows a pnp transistor connected to supplies as required in one
form of amplifying circuit. For forward bias of the emitter base junction, the emitter is made positive
with respect to the base for reverse bias of the base-collector junction, the collector is made negative
with respect to the base. Fig. 2.5 shows separate batteries used to provide these two bias supplies and i
is significant that the batteries are connected in series, the positive terminal of one being

connected to the negative terminal of the other. The base voltage in fact lies between that of the
collector and the emitter and thus a single battery can be used to provide the two bias supplies by con
necting it between emitter and collector, the base being returned to a tapping point on the battery or to
a potential divider connected across the battery. The potential divider technique (Fig. 2.6) is often used
in transistor circuits and a pnp transistor operating with the emitter circuit earthed requires a negative
collector voltage. The arrow in the transistor symbol shows the direction of conventional current flow,
i.e. is in the opposite direction to that of electron flow through the transistor. Operation of an npn
Transistor The action of an npn junction transistor is similar to that of a pnp type just described but the
bias polarities and directions of current

flow are reversed. Thus the charge carriers are predominantly electrons and the collector bias voltage for
an earthed-emitter circuit must be positive. Common-base, Common-emitter and Common-collector
Amplifiers So far we have described amplifying circuits in which the emitter current determines the
collector current: it is, however, more usual in transistor circuits to employ the external base current to
control the collector or emitter current. Used in this way the transistor is a current amplifier because the
collector (and emitter) current can easily be 100 times the controlling (base) current and variations in the
input current are faithfully portrayed by much larger variations in the output current Thus we can
distinguish three ways in which the transistor may be used as an amplifier (a) with emitter current
controlling collector current, (b) with base current controlling collector current, (c) with base current
controing emitter current. It is significant that in all these modes of use, operation of the transistor is
given in terms of input and output current. This is an inevitable consequence of the physics of the
bipolar transistor: such transistors are current-controlled devices: by contrast thermionic valves and
field-effect transistors are voltage-controlled devices. Corresponding to the three modes of operation
listed above there are three fundamental transistor amplifying circuits: these are shown

in Fig. 2.7. At signal frequencies the impedance of the collector voltage supply is assumed negligibly
small and thus we can say for circuit (a) that the input is applied between emitter and base and that the
output is effectively generated between collector and base Thus the base connection is common to the
input and output circuits this amplifier is therefore known as the common-base type. In (b) the input is
again applied between base and emitter but the output is effectively generated between collector and
emitter. This is therefore the common-emitter amplifier, probably the most used of all transistor
amplifying circuits. In (c) the input is effectively between base and collector, the output being generated
between emitter and collector. This is the common-collector circuit but it is better known as the emitter
follower