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1
2
Title
3
Genomic
characterization
of
a
South
American
Phytophthora
hybrid
mandates
4
reassessment
of
the
geographic
origins
of
Phytophthora
infestans
5
6
Authors
7
Michael
D.
Martin1,2,
Filipe
G.
Vieira1,
Simon
Y.
W.
Ho3,
Nathan
Wales1,
Mikkel
8
Schubert1,
Andaine
Seguin-‐Orlando1,
Jean
B.
Ristaino4,
M.
Thomas
P.
Gilbert1,5
9
10
Author
affiliations
11
1
Centre
for
GeoGenetics,
Natural
History
Museum
of
Denmark,
University
of
12
Copenhagen,
Denmark
13
2
Center
for
Theoretical
Evolutionary
Genomics,
Department
of
Integrative
16
Australia
17
4
Department
of
Plant
Pathology,
North
Carolina
State
University,
Raleigh,
North
18
Carolina,
USA
19
5
Trace
and
Environmental
DNA
Laboratory,
Department
of
Environment
and
1
1
Abstract
2
3
As
the
oomycete
pathogen
causing
potato
late
blight
disease,
Phytophthora
4
infestans
triggered
the
famous
19th-‐century
Irish
potato
famine
and
remains
the
5
leading
cause
of
global
commercial
potato
crop
destruction.
But
the
geographic
6
origin
of
the
genotype
that
caused
this
devastating
initial
outbreak
remains
7
disputed,
as
does
the
New
World
center
of
origin
of
the
species
itself.
Both
8
Mexico
and
South
America
have
been
proposed,
generating
considerable
9
controversy.
Here,
we
readdress
the
pathogen’s
origins
using
a
genomic
dataset
10
encompassing
71
globally-‐sourced
modern
and
historical
samples
of
P.
infestans
11
and
the
hybrid
species
P.
andina,
a
close
relative
known
only
from
the
Andean
12
highlands.
Previous
studies
have
suggested
that
the
nuclear
DNA
lineage
behind
13
the
initial
outbreaks
in
Europe
in
1845
is
now
extinct.
Analysis
of
P.
andina’s
14
phased
haplotypes
recovered
eight
haploid
genome
sequences,
four
of
which
15
represent
a
previously
unknown
basal
lineage
of
P.
infestans
closely
related
to
16
the
famine-‐era
lineage.
Our
analyses
further
reveal
that
clonal
lineages
of
both
P.
17
andina
and
historical
P.
infestans
diverged
earlier
than
modern
Mexican
lineages,
18
casting
doubt
on
recent
claims
of
a
Mexican
center
of
origin.
Finally,
we
use
19
haplotype
phasing
to
demonstrate
that
basal
branches
of
the
clade
comprising
20
Mexican
samples
are
occupied
by
clonal
isolates
collected
from
wild
Solanum
21
hosts,
suggesting
that
modern
Mexican
P.
infestans
diversified
on
S.
tuberosum
22
after
a
host
jump
from
a
wild
species
and
that
the
origins
of
P.
infestans
are
more
23
complex
than
was
previously
thought.
24
2
1
Introduction
2
3
Species
in
the
oomycete
genus
Phytophthora
(“plant
destroyer”)
are
important
4
pathogens
on
many
plants
in
agricultural,
forest
and
aquatic
environs,
and
new
5
species
are
being
described
at
an
accelerating
pace
(Hansen
et
al.
2005;
Guha
6
Roy
and
Grünwald
2015).
Phytophthora
spp.
have
large
biological
and
agronomic
7
impacts
and
are
pathogenic
on
natural
populations
of
many
host
species
(e.g.
P.
8
ramorum;
Rizzo
et
al.
2005),
as
well
as
important
crops
such
as
tomatoes,
9
potatoes,
soybeans,
alfalfa,
peppers
and
cocoa
(Erwin
and
Ribeiro
1996).
10
Although
the
major
locales
of
diversification
of
their
major
hosts
have
been
11
identified,
centers
of
origin
of
many
Phytophthora
species
are
unknown
(Hansen
12
et
al.
2005).
13
Among
Phytophthora
species,
P.
infestans
is
perhaps
the
most
widely
14
known.
Its
reputation
arises
both
from
its
destructive
potential
as
a
plant
15
pathogen
that
was
once
responsible
for
great
human
loss,
and
to
a
particular
16
ability
to
inspire
scientific
controversy,
e.g.
in
its
early
identification
as
the
causal
17
agent
of
a
plant
disease
and
its
highly
disputed
New
World
origin
(Bourke
1991).
18
Placed
within
Phytophthora
clade
1c,
the
species
likely
originated
in
the
New
19
World
tropics,
the
center
of
diversity
for
many
host
species
(Douglas
and
Manos
20
2007;
Olmstead
et
al.
2008;
Serrano-‐Serrano
et
al.
2010).
Specifically
where
this
21
center
of
origin
lies,
however,
remains
debated
(Abad
and
Abad
1997;
Kroon
22
2010),
with
different
lines
of
evidence
pointing
to
either
central
Mexico
(Goss
et
23
al.
2014)
or
the
South
American
Andes
(Gómez-‐Alpizar
et
al.
2007).
Important
24
for
the
debate
is
that
P.
infestans
has
the
capacity
for
both
sexual
and
asexual
25
reproduction.
Sexual
populations
are
sources
of
novel
P.
infestans
diversity
and
26
were
first
discovered
in
Mexico
(Drenth
et
al.
1993;
Goodwin
1997),
although
27
asexual
lineages
are
also
highly
adaptable
due
to
an
unstable,
repeat-‐rich
28
genome
(Haas
et
al.
2009)
and
possibly
frequent
mitotic
recombination
29
(Goodwin
et
al.
1997;
Chamnanpunt
et
al.
2001;
Balloux
et
al.
2003).
30
At
least
four
lines
of
evidence
have
been
interpreted
as
supporting
a
31
Mexican
origin.
Firstly,
genetically
diverse,
sexually
reproducing
populations
32
have
been
observed
in
the
Toluca
valley
in
the
highlands
of
central
Mexico.
33
Secondly,
resistance
genes
against
P.
infestans
exist
in
wild
Mexican
potato
3
1
species
such
as
Solanum
demissum.
Thirdly,
the
closest
relatives
of
P.
infestans
2
yet
identified
(P.
ipomoeae
and
P.
mirabilis)
are
endemic
in
Mexico
(Grünwald
3
and
Flier
2005).
Finally,
although
both
mating
types
can
be
found
in
various
4
locales
within
Andean
South
America,
mating
types
are
geographically
isolated
5
and
no
sexual
populations
have
been
observed
there
(Perez
et
al.
2001;
Adler
et
6
al.
2002;
Forbes
et
al.
2013).
Goss
et
al.
(2014)
recently
performed
a
Bayesian
7
phylogeographic
analysis
of
four
nuclear
markers
and
concluded
a
Mexican
8
origin
for
the
species
and
the
entire
clade
1c.
Although
measures
of
nucleotide
9
diversity
were
higher
in
Andean
populations
at
all
but
one
locus,
the
higher
10
diversity
was
ascribed
to
hybridization
or
admixture
in
South
America.
11
However,
compelling
evidence
also
points
to
an
origin
in
the
South
12
American
Andes,
which
is
a
center
of
origin
of
cultivated
potatoes
and
where
13
historical
observations
of
endemic
late
blight
in
Andean
Solanaceae
hosts
were
14
reported
(Abad
and
Abad
1997;
Berkeley
1846;
Bourke
1964;
De
Bary
1863).
15
Secondly,
phylogenetic
analyses
of
mitochondrial
genome
sequences
from
P.
16
infestans
have
identified
two
major
haplogroups,
one
of
which
(‘type
II’)
exists
17
mostly
within
South
American
isolates
(Avila-‐Adame
et
al.
2006;
Martin
et
al.
18
2014).
Thirdly,
Gómez-‐Alpizar
et
al.
(2007)
used
coalescent
analyses
to
argue
19
that
the
oldest
mutations
in
analyzed
nuclear
and
mitochondrial
loci
were
20
present
only
in
South
American
isolates,
and
that
initial
migration
out
of
South
21
America
was
the
most
likely
scenario.
Fourthly,
elevated
allelic
diversity
of
the
22
US-‐1
clonal
lineage
in
Ecuador
has
been
suggested
as
evidence
that
this
lineage
is
23
endemic
there
(Forbes
et
al.
2013;
Oliva
et
al.
2007).
24
A
second
debated
question
relates
to
the
source
of
the
historical
25
genotypes
that
first
destroyed
potato
crops
on
a
global
scale.
Although
Mexico
is
26
the
clear
source
of
recent
migrations
of
more
virulent
genotypes
into
Europe
and
27
the
US
(Fry
2008),
the
ancestral
geographic
source
of
the
first
P.
infestans
28
introductions
into
the
US/Europe
in
the
1840s
is
still
unresolved
(Abad
and
29
Abad
1997;
Grünwald
and
Flier
2005;
Bourke
1964;
Birch
and
Cooke
2013).
30
Analysis
of
ancient
DNA
(aDNA)
has
been
useful
for
resolving
questions
about
31
the
migratory
history
of
P.
infestans
by
providing
a
direct
window
into
past
32
events.
For
example,
an
introduction
of
P.
infestans
carrying
the
US-‐1/Ib
33
mitochondrial
lineage
was
suspected
to
have
caused
the
famine-‐era
outbreaks
in
4
1
Europe,
until
PCR
and
genomic
sequencing
of
historical
P.
infestans
samples
2
embedded
in
herbarium-‐sourced
potato
leaves
revealed
it
was
an
entirely
3
different
lineage
(30,
31).
More
recent
aDNA
studies
have
reported
genomic
data
4
from
additional
historical
samples
of
P.
infestans
from
western
and
northern
5
Europe
(Martin
et
al.
2013;
Yoshida
et
al.
2013;
Martin
et
al.
2014).
Assembly
6
and
phylogenetic
analysis
of
whole
mitogenomes
from
historical
P.
infestans
7
assigned
these
19th-‐century
samples
to
a
novel
mitogenomic
lineage
called
8
HERB-‐1,
which
was
originally
proposed
as
extinct
(Birch
and
Cooke
2013,
9
Yoshida
et
al.
2013),
but
then
shown
to
be
extant
in
P.
infestans
isolates
from
10
both
Mexico
and
Ecuador
(Martin
et
al.
2014).
11
Ongoing
failure
in
resolving
these
questions
using
multilocus
genotyping
12
and
conventional
phylogeographic
analyses
mandates
the
adoption
of
new
13
approaches.
The
key
to
the
origins
of
P.
infestans
may
lie
in
P.
andina
(Gómez-‐
14
Alpizar
et
al.
2008;
Oliva
et
al.
2010),
a
close
Andean
relative
hypothesized
to
15
have
arisen
through
multiple
hybridizations
between
P.
infestans
and
an
as
yet
16
undescribed
species
within
Phytophthora
clade
1c
(Goss
et
al.
2011;
Blair
et
al.
17
2012).
Identified
to
date
only
within
a
limited
geographic
range
in
the
highlands
18
of
Ecuador
and
Peru
(Adler
et
al.
2004),
P.
andina
is
a
pathogen
on
various
19
Solanum
species,
and
in
some
South
American
locales
occurs
sympatrically
with
20
P.
infestans
on
S.
betaceum
and
S.
muricatum
(Forbes
et
al.
2013;
Gómez-‐Alpizar
21
et
al.
2008;
Oliva
et
al.
2010;
Pérez
2009;
Adler
et
al.
2004;
Cárdenas
et
al.
2011).
22
A
close
phylogenetic
relationship
between
P.
andina
and
P.
infestans
has
also
23
been
used
as
evidence
for
an
Andean
origin
of
both
species
(Gómez-‐Alpizar
et
al.
24
2007;
Adler
et
al.
2004).
Although
some
debate
its
status
as
a
novel
species
25
(Oliva
et
al.
2014;
Cárdenas
et
al.
2011;
Forbes
et
al.
2011),
inter-‐species
26
hybridization
is
common
in
Phytophthora
and
is
presumed
to
have
been
a
major
27
driver
of
evolution
within
the
genus.
This
is
because
hybridization
events
can
28
lead
to
changes
in
host
range
(‘host
jumping’),
the
loss
of
sex,
and
subsequent
29
speciation
(Goodwin
and
Fry
1994;
Brasier
et
al.
2000;
Grünwald
and
Flier
2005;
30
Raffaele
et
al.
2010;
Goss
et
al.
2011;
Blair
et
al.
2012;).
31
Of
key
relevance
to
the
origin
of
P.
infestans
is
the
observation
that
P.
32
andina
isolates
contain
two
highly
divergent
mtDNA
haplotypes
(Adler
et
al.
33
2004).
While
one
(Ic)
is
clearly
distinct
from
P.
infestans
lineages,
the
other
(Ia)
is
5
1
closely
related
to
the
historical
European
haplotypes
that
were
recently
assigned
2
to
the
HERB-‐1
mitogenome
lineage
(Yoshida
et
al.
2013;
Lassiter
et
al.
2015).
We
3
hypothesized
that
the
underlying
reason
for
this
may
be
relevant
for
a
full
4
understanding
of
P.
infestans
origins,
so
we
assembled
and
analyzed
a
genomic
5
dataset
of
globally
sourced
P.
infestans
and
P.
andina
samples.
To
resolve
the
6
aforementioned
open
questions
in
P.
infestans
population
biology
and
to
7
characterize
its
New
World
populations
as
potential
sources
of
the
historical
8
European
introductions,
here
we
present
phylogenetic
and
population
genetic
9
analyses
of
57
nuclear
genomes
and
68
mitochondrial
genomes
from
clade
1c
10
Phytophthora
species.
11
6
1
Results
2
3
Phylogenomic
analysis
of
mitogenome
sequences
4
We
generated
genomic
data
from
31
modern
and
historical
samples
and
5
assembled
sequence
data
from
all
previously
published
P.
infestans
genomic
6
datasets,
creating
the
largest
globally
distributed
sample
of
P.
infestans
genomic
7
data
yet
amassed
(fig.
1a;
table
S1).
We
then
subjected
putative
mitogenomic
8
reads
to
iterative,
reference-‐guided
assembly,
producing
mitogenome
assemblies
9
with
mean
read
depths
of
over
200×
(table
S2).
The
mitogenome
phylogeny
is
10
consistent
with
previous
estimates
based
on
smaller
datasets,
displaying
the
11
well-‐known
type
I/type
II
divergence
that
segregates
most
South
American
12
isolates
(fig.
1b).
13
Mitogenomes
of
P.
andina
isolates
EC3425
and
PaX
diverged
early
from
14
the
P.
infestans
clade,
supporting
previous
observations
that
these
lineages
had
15
their
origins
in
hybridization
events
in
which
the
mtDNA
donor
was
an
unknown
16
clade
1c
Phytophthora
spp.
(Lassiter
et
al.
2015).
Mitogenomes
from
19th-‐century
17
European
samples
of
P.
infestans
have
previously
been
assigned
to
a
distinct
18
lineage
called
HERB-‐1,
which
persists
in
extant
isolates
of
P.
infestans
from
19
Mexico
and
Ecuador
(Martin
et
al.
2014).
Remarkably,
the
lineage
also
persists
in
20
Ecuadorian
isolates
of
P.
andina
EC3394
and
P13803,
both
of
which
originate
21
from
S.
betaceum
hosts.
A
single
A
to
G
polymorphism
is
private
to,
and
22
diagnostic
of,
all
HERB-‐1
lineage
samples
(fig.
S1).
Nodes
uniting
HERB-‐1
23
isolates
of
P.
andina
with
their
closest
relatives
are
substantially
younger
than
24
the
most
recent
common
ancestor
(MRCA)
of
all
HERB-‐1
sequences
(264
years,
25
95%
highest
posterior
density
interval:
220–390
years)
and
were
assigned
26
relatively
young
ages
of
243
years
(95%
HPD
interval:
190–315)
for
EC3394
and
27
158
years
(95%
HPD
interval:
132–193)
for
P13803
(fig.
1b).
28
29
Phylogenomic
analysis
of
nuclear
genome
sequences
30
Nuclear
genomes
were
sequenced
to
between
0.2×
to
30.6×
mean
read
depth
31
over
the
entire
~240-‐Mbp
P.
infestans
T30-‐4
assembly
(fig.
S2).
Whole-‐genome
32
phylogenetic
analysis
identifies
six
major
lineages
encompassing
the
P.
infestans
33
and
P.
andina
samples
(fig.
1c,
fig.
S3)
that
we
term:
P.
andina
isolates
(AND);
7
8
9
1
MX
and
AGG
populations
showed
distributions
consistent
with
a
long
period
of
2
constant
population
size,
the
AND,
FAM,
US-‐1,
and
SA
populations
showed
a
3
major
increase
of
genomic
SNPs
with
allele
frequencies
around
50%.
We
tested
4
whether
mapping
errors
could
produce
the
unusual
SFS
we
observed
in
clonal
5
lineages,
but
found
that
the
pattern
persisted
even
when
limiting
the
analysis
to
6
uniquely
mappable
regions
of
the
genome
(fig.
S10).
We
propose
this
SFS
7
pattern
signifies
a
long
period
of
clonal
reproduction
that
began
when
the
8
original
genotype
lost
the
capacity
and/or
opportunity
for
sexual
reproduction,
9
fixing
its
own
heterozygous
alleles,
which
persisted
at
a
1:1
ratio
within
the
10
clonal
population
formed
by
its
descendants.
Thereafter,
deviation
from
50%
11
allele
frequency
at
these
sites
would
be
facilitated
only
by
forces
such
as
genetic
12
drift,
selection,
and
mitotic
recombination,
which
could
drive
some
alleles
to
13
fixation
in
different
clonal
sub-‐lineages.
Another
possible
explanation
for
these
14
SFS
observations
is
that
the
clonal
lineages
originated
in
hybridization
events
15
between
divergent
taxa,
with
a
similar
series
of
subsequent
events.
16
Our
investigation
of
loss-‐of-‐heterozygosity
(LOH)
tracts
revealed
that
17
they
are
relatively
common
throughout
all
clonal
lineages
examined.
Notably,
we
18
estimate
up
to
15%
of
the
genome
in
clonal
lineages
has
been
converted
to
19
homozygosity
due
to
mitotic
recombination
(table
S3).
The
MX
and
AGG
20
populations
produced
much
smaller
measures
around
1%.
From
our
estimates
21
on
supercontig1,
we
project
that
the
total
fraction
of
the
genome
phased
by
22
mitotic
recombination
is
6.1%
for
the
SA
lineage,
7.5%
for
the
US-‐1
lineage,
9.6%
23
for
the
FAM
lineage,
and
14.7%
for
the
AND
lineage.
24
25
Phylogenomic
estimates
from
phased
nuclear
haplotypes
26
Our
previous
analyses
indicated
substantial
inter-‐haplotype
divergence
in
clonal
27
individuals
that
could
have
implications
for
the
nature
of
the
most
basal
P.
28
infestans
lineages.
To
further
explore
the
evolutionary
history
of
the
highly
29
heterozygous
clonal
lineages,
we
performed
local-‐scale,
haplotype
frequency-‐
30
based
phasing
on
the
genotype
calls
for
55
ingroup
nuclear
genomes.
Assessing
31
this
phasing
using
publicly
available
Sanger
sequences
from
corresponding
32
cloned
PCR
products,
we
estimated
the
error
rate
at
~1.6%
(table
S4).
We
then
33
used
the
resulting
110
haplotype
sequences
to
infer
phylogenies
of
individual
10
11
1
demissum)
is
basal
to
all
other
MX-‐cluster
sequences.
At
supercontig
8,
one
2
haplotype
from
isolate
PIC99189
(collected
from
S.
stoloniferum)
is
basal
to
all
3
MX-‐cluster
sequences.
In
the
highest-‐likelihood
phylogenetic
trees
of
the
five
4
remaining
supercontigs,
basal
or
nearly
basal
positions
were
occupied
by
groups
5
of
wild-‐host
MX
isolates
or
MX
isolates
harboring
the
HERB-‐1
mitogenomic
6
lineage.
These
results
were
further
supported
by
Shimodaira-‐Hasegawa
(SH)
7
topology
tests.
For
each
supercontig
phylogenetic
analysis,
SH
testing
identified
8
between
0
and
21
equally
likely
trees
(table
S6).
In
every
case
in
which
equally
9
likely
trees
were
identified,
100%
of
the
equal-‐likelihood
trees
supported
the
10
node
segregating
a
basal
group
containing
wild-‐host
MX
isolates
or
MX
isolates
11
harboring
the
HERB-‐1
mitogenomic
lineage.
12
13
Genetic
differentiation
and
gene
flow
14
The
P.
infestans-‐like
haplotype
lineage
preserved
within
P.
andina
genomes
may
15
be
a
relic
of
ancient
gene
flow
that
provides
insight
into
the
evolutionary
history
16
of
P.
infestans
in
the
New
World.
To
evaluate
the
connectedness
of
our
defined
17
groups,
we
quantified
inter-‐cluster
differentiation
using
mean
pairwise
genetic
18
distances
(table
S7)
and
the
distribution
of
population
differentiation
(FST)
in
19
pairwise
comparisons
(fig.
4;
table
S8).
The
smallest
distance
to
the
AND
cluster
20
is
from
FAM,
while
the
lowest
pairwise
FST
value
for
the
FAM
cluster
is
with
AND,
21
indicating
a
close
relationship
between
these
lineages.
Very
small
distances
22
between
the
MX,
AGG,
SA
and
FAM
clusters
suggest
close
genetic
relationships
23
between
them.
Our
measures
of
FST
revealed
that
the
AGG
population
cluster
is
24
by
far
the
least
differentiated
on
average,
likely
due
to
a
history
of
admixture
and
25
gene
flow
with
both
Mexican
and
South
American
genotypes.
26
The
measures
establish
a
strong
genetic
relationship
between
P.
andina
27
and
the
FAM
cluster
that
suggests
some
ancient
gene
flow.
To
gain
insight
into
28
any
putative
past
hybridization
between
P.
andina
and
P.
infestans
populations,
29
we
looked
for
archaic
admixture
between
our
genetic
clusters
of
interest
using
30
the
D-‐statistic,
originally
developed
to
measure
introgression
of
the
Neanderthal
31
genome
into
modern
humans
(Green
et
al.
2010).
Population-‐wise
D-‐statistics
32
(Durand
et
al.
2011)
show
that
FAM
specimen
genomes
contain
strong
signals
of
33
introgression
with
AND
(table
S9).
These
results
were
consistent
no
matter
12
1
which
P.
infestans
population
was
chosen
for
comparison
(P2).
US-‐1
showed
2
much
smaller
but
significant
values
of
introgression
with
P.
andina.
We
detected
3
no
introgression
of
P.
andina
with
the
SA
or
MX
genetic
clusters,
thus
P.
andina
4
has
no
history
of
introgression
with
our
sample
of
modern
P.
infestans
5
populations
in
Mexico
or
South
America.
We
also
detected
no
signal
of
6
introgression
of
FAM
or
US-‐1
historical
outbreak
specimen
clusters
into
MX
or
7
SA
clusters.
Similarly,
we
detected
no
signal
of
introgression
of
MX
or
SA
8
populations
into
the
FAM
cluster,
indicating
that
historical
outbreaks
came
from
9
a
source
population
that
had
not
recombined
with
the
Mexican
or
South
10
American
populations
we
examined
in
this
study.
11
Phylogenetic
trees
have
been
widely
used
in
population
genetics
to
12
visualize
relationships
among
populations.
While
a
bifurcating
phylogeny
can
13
provide
a
valuable
initial
assessment,
this
model
assumes
that
populations
split
14
and
experienced
no
further
inter-‐population
gene
flow,
which
is
not
always
the
15
case.
Past
hybridization
events,
like
those
in
this
report,
violate
this
basic
16
assumption
of
a
bifurcating
tree
and
may
result
in
misleading
inferences.
To
17
account
for
this
effect,
we
used
TreeMix
(Pickrell
and
Pritchard
2012)
to
infer
18
patterns
of
population
splitting
and
mixing
from
genome-‐wide
allele
frequency
19
data
within
previously
defined
genetic
clusters.
20
Under
the
assumption
of
zero
gene
flow
events,
the
TreeMix
model
21
resulted
in
extremely
high
error
residuals,
indicating
that
our
data
are
most
22
compatible
with
one
or
more
admixture
events
in
the
history
of
the
P.
infestans
23
and
P.
andina,
all
of
which
are
reasonable
given
a
complex
history
of
human-‐
24
mediated
admixture
(fig.
S19).
Allowing
for
a
single
mixture
event,
we
see
a
25
strong
gene
flow
event
(34%
weight)
from
an
ancestral
P.
ipomoeae
population
26
to
the
P.
andina
cluster
AND,
which
is
placed
in
a
sister
position
relative
to
the
27
FAM
population
(fig.
5).
This
primary
event
indicates
the
origin
of
P.
andina
as
28
the
result
of
hybridization
between
an
unknown
relative
of
P.
ipomoeae
and
a
29
close
relative
of
the
FAM
clade,
which
has
a
recent
common
ancestor
with
P.
30
andina.
Assuming
more
than
one
inter-‐population
gene
flow
event,
there
are
31
signs
of
gene
flow
at
least
between
the
US-‐1
cluster
and
the
ancestor
of
both
P.
32
andina
and
FAM
clade.
At
42.3%
weight,
this
secondary
event
was
weaker
than
33
the
FAM
hybridization
that
gave
rise
to
P.
andina,
and
reflects
a
contribution
of
13
1
early
US-‐1
populations
to
ancestors
of
the
FAM
lineage
that
caused
the
famine
in
2
Europe.
14
1
Discussion
2
3
Relating
the
hybrid
P.
andina
and
the
Irish
potato
famine
4
Our
analyses
provide
strong
evidence
for
a
shared
evolutionary
history
of
P.
5
andina
and
the
P.
infestans
genotypes
that
triggered
the
first
global
outbreak
of
6
potato
blight
disease
in
1845
and
ultimately
underpinned
the
catastrophic
Irish
7
potato
famine.
Specifically,
genomic
phasing
of
the
sequence
data
from
four
8
modern
isolates
of
the
diploid
hybrid
P.
andina
recovers
four
haploid
genome
9
sequences
of
an
ancient
P.
infestans
lineage.
Most
notably,
this
lineage
is
sister
to
10
all
modern
and
historic
P.
infestans
genomes
that
have
been
sequenced
so
far,
11
and
so
predates
the
famine-‐era
lineage
introduced
outside
the
New
World
in
the
12
1840s.
We
acknowledge,
however,
that
one
likely
effect
of
the
estimated
1.6%
13
phasing
switch
error
rate
on
the
phylogenetic
position
of
the
P.
andina
would
be
14
to
attract
the
branches
of
P.
infestans-‐like
haplotypes
toward
outgroup
branches.
15
Thus
while
we
cannot
be
entirely
certain
of
the
precise
placement
of
these
P.
16
andina
haplotypes,
the
low
error
rate
and
the
other
evidence
we
present
suggest
17
they
belong
within
the
FAM
lineage.
It
is
also
unknown
if
this
lineage
still
18
persists
in
nature.
Still
only
a
small
number
P.
infestans
and
P.
andina
genomes
19
have
been
sequenced,
so
more
intense
sampling
in
Mexico
and
South
America,
20
followed
by
additional
genomic
sequencing,
could
settle
the
question.
21
P.
andina
is
thought
to
have
originated
from
multiple
hybridizations
22
involving
P.
infestans
(Blair
et
al.
2012).
Our
measures
of
exceptionally
high
23
genomic
heterozygosity
confirm
a
hybrid
origin
of
diploid
P.
andina
nuclear
24
genomes,
as
previously
inferred
from
a
few
nuclear
markers
(Goss
et
al.
2011).
25
Owing
to
the
unprecedented
number
and
diversity
of
genomes
analyzed,
our
26
study
now
provides
insights
into
the
nature
of
these
hybridization
events
and
27
important
clues
about
when
and
where
they
occurred.
Previous
studies
28
determined
that
isolates
of
P.
andina
possess
highly
divergent
Ic
or
Ia
mtDNA
29
haplotypes
(Oliva
et
al.
2010;
Goss
et
al.
2011,
Adler
et
al.
2004).
However,
our
30
tip-‐calibrated
mitogenome
phylogeny
indicates
that
type-‐Ia
P.
andina
isolates
31
actually
carry
the
HERB-‐1
lineage
in
Ecuador.
The
Bayesian
estimate
of
the
32
mitochondrial
tree
clearly
reveals
at
least
two
divergent
mitochondrial
lineages
33
among
the
19th-‐century
mitogenomes.
Indeed,
as
the
Ia
P.
andina
sequences
15
1
cluster
with
relatively
high
support
within
different
clades
of
the
HERB-‐1
2
lineage,
it
seems
that
there
were
at
least
two
hybridization
events
in
which
the
3
maternal
lineage
that
gave
rise
to
P.
andina
was
drawn
from
the
same
pool
of
P.
4
infestans
diversity
that
was
introduced
to
19th-‐century
Europe.
Since
neither
of
5
these
P.
andina
mitogenomes
diverged
earlier
than
the
MRCA
of
all
historical
6
HERB-‐1
P.
infestans
samples,
this
contradicts
the
hypothesis
that
a
single
7
mitochondrial
haplotype
was
introduced
into
Europe
in
the
19th
century
8
(Yoshida
et
al.
2013).
Instead,
as
suggested
by
Martin
et
al.
(2014),
at
least
two
9
HERB-‐1
haplotypes
were
introduced.
10
Hybridization
between
the
two
parent
species
of
P.
andina
must
have
11
occurred
where
they
shared
a
host
range.
Both
TreeMix
analysis
and
D-‐statistics
12
support
a
signal
of
ancestral
admixture
between
P.
andina
isolates
and
the
13
historical
FAM
samples.
This
is
conclusive
evidence
that
FAM-‐like
genotypes
14
once
existed
in
Ecuador
or
Peru,
the
known
range
of
P.
andina.
However,
despite
15
the
fact
that
P.
andina
and
P.
infestans
share
common
hosts
in
South
America,
and
16
likely
have
had
opportunities
to
mate
and
produce
pathogenic
offspring
(Forbes
17
et
al.
2013,
Pérez
2009;
Adler
et
al.
2004),
D-‐statistics
indicate
no
introgression
18
between
P.
andina
and
our
samples
of
the
SA
cluster,
which
were
largely
19
collected
from
modern
South
American
populations.
This
suggests
that
P.
andina
20
has
reproduced
asexually
since
its
initial
formation,
or
that
it
has
always
been
21
incompatible
with
P.
infestans.
Similarly,
we
did
not
detect
significant
22
introgression
between
the
FAM
or
US-‐1
groups
and
the
MX
or
SA
clusters.
If
23
sexual
reproduction
still
occurred
in
the
ancestors
of
these
lineages
after
24
divergence
of
the
MX
and
SA
clusters,
then
our
results
suggest
that
the
FAM
and
25
US-‐1
lineages
either
originated
outside
our
sampled
geographic
range
or
were
26
formerly
segregated
from
other
P.
infestans
populations
on
a
non-‐S.
tuberosum
27
host.
28
29
Allele
sequence
divergence
within
clonal
lineages
30
In
partially
clonal
P.
infestans
genomes,
the
differential
accrual
of
mutation
on
31
sister
chromosomes
produces
a
positive
correlation
between
genomic
32
heterozygosity
and
the
time
since
last
sexual
reproduction.
The
MX
and
AGG
33
isolates
have
the
lowest
levels
of
genomic
heterozygosity
as
well
as
LD
decay
16
1
that
indicates
recent
sexual
recombination.
Sexual
reproduction
is
known
to
2
occur
in
modern
populations
of
P
infestans
in
North
Europe,
but
US
lineages
are
3
mostly
asexual
(Fry
et
al.
2015).
Although
the
low
heterozygosity
of
herbarium-‐
4
derived
FAM
clonal
lineage
samples
is
closer
to
the
mean
heterozygosity
of
the
5
MX
and
AGG
samples
than
to
the
clonal
SA
samples,
this
is
probably
an
effect
of
6
‘frozen’
evolution
in
this
lineage,
which
may
have
only
recently
lost
sexual
7
reproduction
at
the
collection
date.
In
contrast,
chromosomes
within
the
US-‐1
8
samples,
which
were
collected
more
recently,
have
had
more
time
to
accrue
9
mutations
and
increase
heterozygosity.
We
ascribe
the
especially
high
10
heterozygosity
of
the
P.
andina
isolates
to
both
the
accrual
of
different
mutations
11
on
sister
chromosomes
since
the
loss
of
sexual
reproduction
and
their
divergent
12
hybrid
chromosomes.
We
cannot
rule
out,
however,
that
genomic
heterozygosity
13
in
clonal
lineages
is
mostly
generated
during
an
initially
wide
cross
between
14
divergent
genotypes,
after
which
sexual
reproduction
is
lost.
15
16
The
geographic
origin
of
P.
infestans
17
Our
data
also
allow
us
to
re-‐address
the
geographic
origin
of
P.
infestans.
Our
18
date
estimates
for
the
speciation
of
both
P.
infestans
and
P.
andina
do
not
19
preclude
a
human
connection,
as
they
are
well
within
the
time
of
early
European
20
exploration
of
Central
and
South
America.
Thus
it
is
tantalizing
to
speculate
that
21
both
species
originated
from
human-‐mediated
dispersal/hybridization
events
22
from
the
Andean
region
to
Mexico.
Although
it
has
been
recently
claimed
that
P.
23
infestans
originated
in
Mexico
(Goss
et
al.
2014,
Yoshida
et
al.
2013),
our
results
24
demonstrate
that
nuclear
genome
lineages
basal
to
modern
P.
infestans
diversity
25
exclusively
consist
of
samples
collected
outside
Mexico.
With
its
characteristic
26
and
deep
split
between
type
I
and
predominantly
Andean
type
II
haplotypes,
the
27
mitogenome
phylogeny
of
P.
infestans
also
suggests
an
ancient
segregation
event
28
that
cannot
satisfactorily
be
explained
by
an
entirely
Mexican
origin
of
the
29
species
(Griffith
and
Shaw
1998;
Avila-‐Adame
et
al.
2006;
Gómez-‐Alpizar
et
al.
30
2008;
Yoshida
et
al.
2013;
Martin
et
al.
2014).
Indeed,
because
the
most
basal
P.
31
infestans-‐like
nDNA
haplotypes
survive
within
P.
andina,
found
only
in
the
32
highlands
of
Peru
and
Ecuador,
our
phylogenetic
analyses
support
the
species’
33
center
of
origin
there.
17
1
2
Sampling
bias
and
early
host
switching
in
Mexican
populations
3
Our
observation
that
the
FAM
lineage
is
sister
to
all
modern
nuclear
genomic
4
diversity
was
unexpected.
Our
nuclear
genome
phylogeny
differs
substantially
5
from
those
of
Martin
et
al.
(2013)
and
Yoshida
et
al.
(2013),
both
of
which
6
reconstructed
trees
using
genomic
sequence
data
from
small
numbers
of
7
samples.
Our
larger
sample
captures
more
completely
P.
infestans
diversity,
8
which
we
feel
enables
a
more
accurate
reconstruction
of
the
genealogy
of
the
9
included
genomes.
However,
phylogenetic
reconstruction
can
be
influenced
by
10
the
inclusion
of
lineages
that
have
undergone
appreciable
genetic
exchange
(e.g.,
11
Larson
et
al.
2012).
Specifically,
recombination
can
lead
to
an
apparent
reduction
12
in
the
time
to
the
most
recent
common
ancestor
(Schierup
and
Hein
2000),
13
which
would
favor
the
grouping
of
the
sexually
reproducing
lineages
that
14
exchanged
genetic
material
more
recently.
Clonal
lineages
would
then
appear
15
genetically
distinct
from
sexually
reproducing
lineages.
This
is
not
likely
in
our
16
case
since
the
genetic
distance
from
the
FAM
lineage
to
all
other
modern
groups
17
is
approximately
equal,
suggesting
none
of
these
groups
is
the
source
population
18
of
the
FAM
lineage,
but
that
in
fact,
as
can
be
interpreted
from
the
phylogeny,
the
19
FAM
lineage
diverged
early
on
from
the
lineage
that
gave
rise
to
genotypes
from
20
contemporary
P.
infestans
populations.
21
Clonal
lineages
at
the
most
basal
branches
of
the
nuclear
genome
22
phylogeny
suggests
that
the
full
extent
of
P.
infestans
diversity
may
not
have
23
been
included
in
our
analysis.
But
the
only
apparent
bias
in
our
selection
of
24
available
isolates,
which
span
known
P.
infestans
diversity,
is
that
our
P.
infestans
25
samples
were
primarily
collected
from
S.
tuberosum
hosts.
Most
studies
of
the
26
genetic
diversity
of
P.
infestans
focus
on
isolates
from
potato
and
tomato
crops
27
due
to
their
economic
importance,
but
much
‘palaeoendemic’
diversity
may
exist
28
on
other
Solanaceae
of
the
Ecuadorian
Andes
(Adler
et
al.
2004).
Thus
an
29
entirely
different
type
of
sampling
bias
could
explain
our
results,
and
even
more
30
ancestral
lineages
may
exist
on
unsampled
wild
Solanum
hosts.
We
conclude
that
31
full
resolution
of
the
evolutionary
history
of
Phytophthora
species
in
the
Ic
clade
32
necessitates
intensive
sampling
of
all
the
clade
1c
species
over
a
broader
33
geographic
area
that
includes
Central
and
South
America.
18
19
20
21
1
were
performed
to
estimate
the
posterior
distributions
of
parameters,
including
2
the
tree.
3
4
Creation
of
a
multiple
sequence
alignment
of
the
nuclear
genome
5
The
GATK
UnifiedGenotyper
tool
was
used
with
a
minimum
genotype
quality
6
score
of
30
to
produce
Variant
Call
Format
(VCF)
files,
from
which
a
multiple
7
sequence
alignment
(MSA)
of
the
57
nuclear
genome
sequences
was
populated
8
with
polymorphic
bases
using
custom
Python
scripts.
In
this
VCF
to
MSA
format
9
conversion,
heterozygous
positions
were
assigned
standard
IUPAC
nucleotide
10
ambiguity
codes,
and
insertion/deletion
variants
were
ignored.
Included
sites
11
were
conservatively
restricted
to
those
uniquely
mappable
to
the
P.
infestans
12
T30-‐4
reference
as
determined
by
the
GEnome
Multitool
(GEM)
mappability
tool
13
(Derrien
et
al.
2012),
using
a
k-‐mer
size
of
65bp
and
maximum
of
3
mismatches.
14
These
uniquely
mappable
regions
of
the
genome
amounted
to
66.7Mbp.
This
15
master
nDNA
SNP
alignment
was
filtered
for
various
values
of
minimum
read
16
depth
in
downstream
analyses.
17
18
Maximum-‐likelihood
(ML)
phylogenetic
analysis
of
nuclear
genomes
19
Phylogenetic
inference
was
performed
using
maximum
likelihood
with
RAxML
20
v7.3.5
(Stamatakis
2006)
on
two
datasets:
(a)
concatenated
alignments
of
diploid
21
genotypes
and
(b)
phased
haplotype
sequences.
All
RAxML
analyses
employed
22
the
GTRGAMMA
(General
Time
Reversible
with
the
Γ
model
of
among-‐site
rate
23
heterogeneity
and
four
discrete
rate
categories)
substitution
model
(Yang
1996).
24
Consensus
trees
were
created
by
drawing
node
support
from
100
bootstrap
25
replicates
on
the
tree
of
highest
likelihood.
Each
tree
was
rooted
using
P.
26
mirabilis
sequence
as
outgroup.
27
For
the
genotype-‐based
analysis,
master
nDNA
SNP
alignment
positions
28
with
a
minimum
depth
of
two
reads
were
considered.
To
reduce
computational
29
burden,
only
the
six
largest
supercontigs
(comprising
861,892
SNPs)
were
used.
30
For
analysis
of
phased
haplotypes,
BEAGLE
v3.32
(Browning
2006;
Browning
31
and
Browning
2007)
utilized
ANGSD
genotype
likelihoods
under
default
settings
32
to
infer
two
phased
haplotype
sequences
and
impute
missing
genotype
calls
for
33
each
reference
supercontig.
As
BEAGLE’s
power
to
determine
and
impute
22
1
haplotypes
depends
on
larger
sample
sizes,
in
our
analysis
all
individuals
from
2
all
species
were
phased
together.
Only
SNP
positions
with
allelic
r2
≥
0.8
were
3
included,
but
applying
various
thresholds
for
this
parameter
produced
virtually
4
identical
phasing
results.
For
each
of
the
nine
longest
supercontigs,
we
used
5
RAxML
as
described
above
to
infer
a
phylogeny
from
an
MSA
of
all
haplotype
6
sequences
(2
×
57
sequences).
7
In
order
to
rigorously
assess
the
phylogenetic
placement
of
seemingly
8
basal
clonal
lineages
collected
from
non-‐S.
tuberosum
hosts,
we
used
RAxML
to
9
perform
the
nonparametric
Shimodaira-‐Hasegawa
(SH)
test
of
topology
10
(Shimodaira
and
Hasegawa
1999).
For
the
phylogenetic
analysis
of
each
11
supercontig
sequence
alignment,
this
test
identified
any
bootstrap
replicate
tree
12
whose
likelihood
was
not
significantly
(at
the
1%
level)
lower
than
that
of
the
13
highest-‐likelihood
tree.
We
then
used
RAxML
to
calculate
the
proportion
of
these
14
equally
likely
trees
that
supported
each
of
the
nodes
of
the
highest-‐likelihood
15
tree.
16
17
Bayesian
dating
analysis
of
nuclear
genes
18
To
estimate
the
evolutionary
timescale
of
the
nuclear
genome,
we
used
a
19
Bayesian
phylogenetic
approach.
Owing
to
the
effects
of
recombination,
different
20
loci
are
likely
to
have
incongruent
genealogies,
including
unequal
coalescence
21
times.
Accordingly,
we
performed
a
separate
dating
analysis
of
each
gene
and
22
summarised
the
gene-‐specific
date
estimates
to
obtain
a
distribution
of
23
coalescence
times.
To
perform
the
dating
analysis,
we
limited
the
data
set
to
50
24
genome
sequences
with
known
collection
dates.
Coding
sequences
for
each
of
25
18,178
annotated
gene
and
pseudogene
sequences
were
extracted
from
all
57
26
samples
and
concatenated
into
a
multiple
sequence
alignment
of
each
gene’s
27
coding
regions.
We
only
used
data
from
the
third
codon
positions,
in
order
to
28
minimise
the
confounding
effects
of
selection
on
estimates
of
recent
evolutionary
29
events
(Ho
et
al.
2011).
To
reduce
the
impacts
of
missing
data
(e.g.,
Lemmon
et
30
al.
2009),
we
only
retained
sites
with
data
available
for
>50%
of
the
samples.
31
After
these
steps,
we
excluded
any
genes
with
fewer
than
500
aligned
sites.
This
32
left
a
total
of
3,676
genes
for
the
dating
analysis
(Supplementary
File
2).
We
33
used
BEAST
1.8.0
to
estimate
the
genealogy
from
each
gene,
with
the
timescale
23
1
calibrated
using
the
ages
of
the
sequences.
We
used
the
HKY+G
substitution
2
model,
representing
a
balance
between
model
complexity
and
biological
3
plausibility.
A
strict
clock
was
assumed
for
all
genes.
Markov
chain
Monte
Carlo
4
analyses
were
run
in
duplicate
to
check
for
convergence.
5
6
Admixture
proportion
and
genetic
differentiation
estimation
7
ANGSD
v0.588
(Nielsen
et
al.
2012;
Korneliussen
et
al.
2013;
available
at
8
www.popgen.dk/angsd/)
was
used
to
estimate
genotype
likelihoods
for
each
9
sample
at
sites
likely
to
contain
SNP
variants
(command-‐line
options
-‐GL
1
-‐doGlf
10
2
-‐SNP_pval
1e-‐6),
resulting
in
1,371,306
SNP
sites
where
genotypes
passed
the
11
confidence
filter
in
at
least
14
(25%)
of
the
individuals.
We
then
employed
12
NGSadmix
v32
(Skotte
et
al.
2013)
to
use
these
genotype
likelihoods
to
estimate
13
the
proportion
of
each
resequenced
Phytophthora
spp.
genome
that
belonged
to
14
a
varying
number
of
assumed
ancestral
populations
under
the
assumption
of
15
Hardy-‐Weinberg
equilibrium
(e.g.
Pritchard
et
al.
2000).
For
each
number
of
16
assumed
ancestral
populations
(K)
from
1
to
12,
ten
independent
replicates
of
17
NGSadmix
were
performed
to
evaluate
convergence
of
the
simulations,
and
the
18
replicate
of
highest
likelihood
was
chosen.
To
estimate
pairwise
population
19
genomic
differentiation
(FST),
we
used
the
software
package
ngsTools
(Fumagalli
20
et
al.
2013).
21
22
TreeMix
analyses
23
We
used
TreeMix
v1.12
to
account
for
past
hybridization
events
that
violate
the
24
basic
assumptions
of
a
bifurcating
phylogenetic
tree.
More
specifically,
25
genotypes
were
called
from
genotype
likelihoods
using
ANGSD
(command-‐line
26
options
-‐GL
1
-‐SNP_pval
1e-‐6
-‐doGeno
5
-‐baq
1
-‐C
50
-‐minQ
10
-‐setMinDepth
50
-‐
27
doPost
2
-‐postCutoff
0.5
-‐geno_minDepth
2)
and
individual
samples
were
merged
28
into
populations
according
to
their
assignments
to
the
previously
defined
genetic
29
clusters.
Outgroup
isolates
PIC99167
(P.
ipomoeae)
and
PIC99114
(P.
mirabilis)
30
were
considered
separate
populations.
After
merging
the
genotype
data,
31
only
biallelic
variant
sites
without
missing
data
were
provided
to
TreeMix,
which
32
was
run
assuming
from
0
to
5
migration
events,
with
P.
mirabilis
as
the
root
33
population
(command-‐line
option
-‐root),
and
performing
a
round
of
global
24
1
rearrangements
of
the
graph
after
initial
fitting
(command-‐line
option
-‐global).
2
To
account
for
any
linkage
disequilibrium
in
sexual
populations,
we
3
grouped
together
blocks
of
1,000
SNPs.
To
avoid
convergence
to
local
maxima,
4
we
ran
100
replicates
for
each
scenario,
retaining
only
the
replicate
with
the
5
highest
likelihood.
6
25
1 Acknowledgments
2
This
project
was
principally
supported
by
Lundbeck
Foundation
grant
R52-‐5062
3
to
MTPG,
with
extra
support
from
Agriculture
and
Food
Research
Initiative
4
Competitive
Grants
Program
Grant
2011-‐68004-‐30154
to
JBR
and
DFF-‐MOBILEX
5
grant
DFF–132500136
to
FGV.
We
are
grateful
to
Sophien
Kamoun
and
his
team
6
for
granting
early
access
to
isolate
EC3425.
Special
thanks
to
Agnar
Helgason,
7
Rasmus
Nielsen,
Andy
Foote,
Søren
Rosendahl,
Sarah
Fordyce,
Morten
Limborg,
8
Shyam
Golpalakrishnan,
and
Kelly
Harris
for
very
useful
discussions.
Thanks
to
9
Amanda
Saville
for
technical
support
and
to
Mike
Coffey,
Greg
Forbes,
and
Nik
10
Grünwald
for
providing
isolates
of
P.
infestans
for
sequencing.
We
gratefully
11
acknowledge
The
Danish
National
High-‐Throughput
DNA
Sequencing
Centre
for
12
their
services.
Finally,
we
thank
four
anonymous
reviewers
for
their
helpful
13
comments
on
the
manuscript.
All
genomic
sequence
data
generated
for
this
14
study
have
been
deposited
in
the
Sequence
Read
Archive
under
accession
code
15
SRP055472.
16
26
1
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1
Figures
2
3
4
5
Fig.
1.
Relationships
within
a
global
sampling
of
historical
and
present-‐day
6
Phytophthora
infestans
genomes.
a,
Map
of
sample
collections
for
which
nuclear
7
genomic
data
was
analyzed.
Circle
colors
indicate
the
samples’
nuclear
genetic
8
cluster
assignment
in
panel
d.
b,
Chronogram
from
Bayesian
phylogenetic
9
analysis
of
P.
infestans
and
P.
andina
mitogenomes.
Mitogenome
sequences
were
10
calibrated
by
tip
(collection)
dates.
Red
branches
and
labels
indicate
P.
andina
11
isolates.
The
dashed
lines
illustrate
the
phylogenetic
position
of
two
type
Ic
P.
12
andina
mitogenomes
that
were
not
included
in
the
phylogenetic
reconstruction
13
because
they
did
not
cluster
with
the
P.
infestans
sequences,
which
violates
the
14
assumptions
of
the
BEAST
analysis.
Asterices
indicate
sequence
reads
from
15
Yoshida
et
al.
(2013).
Node
support
indicated
by
filled
circles:
black,
90-‐100%
34
1
support;
gray,
75-‐89%
support;
white,
50-‐74%
support.
Blue
bars
indicate
95%
2
highest
posterior
density
intervals
of
node-‐age
estimates
(not
shown
for
root
3
node).
Colored
boxes
indicate
genetic
cluster
from
panel
c.
c,
Nuclear
genome
ML
4
phylogeny.
Node
support
was
estimated
from
100
bootstrap
replicates.
Tips
with
5
red
stars
indicate
samples
belonging
to
the
HERB-‐1
mitogenomic
lineage.
d,
6
Admixture
bar
plot
showing
cluster
assignments
for
K
=
6
ancestral
populations.
7
The
labels
assigned
to
each
genetic
cluster
(AND,
FAM,
US-‐1,
MX,
AGG,
SA)
are
8
defined
in
the
Results
section
of
the
main
text.
9
35
1
2
3
Fig.
2.
Heterozygosity
mirrors
reproductive
strategy
within
P.
infestans
and
P.
4
andina.
Left,
Genomic
heterozygosity
(mean
±
SD)
for
each
genetic
cluster.
Right,
5
Site
frequency
spectrum
(SFS)
for
each
genetic
cluster.
The
x-‐axis
position
of
6
each
bar
indicates
the
number
of
occurrences
of
the
minor
allele
in
that
genetic
7
cluster.
The
height
of
each
colored
bar
indicates
the
normalized
proportion
of
8
genomic
SNPs
with
that
number
of
observed
minor
alleles.
Black
bar
heights
9
indicate
the
expected
distribution
(1/x)
for
a
sexually
reproducing
population
10
with
a
long
period
of
constant
population
size
under
the
infinite
sites
mutation
11
model.
Bar
labels
and
shading
are
consistent
with
fig.
1d.
Bars
for
completely
12
fixed
or
unobserved
minor
alleles
(those
with
counts
of
0
or
2n,
where
n
is
the
13
number
of
individuals
assigned
to
the
cluster)
are
not
shown.
14
36
1
2
Fig.
3.
Maximum-‐likelihood
phylogeny
of
phased
haplotypes
for
supercontig
1,
3
the
largest
scaffold
in
the
T30-‐4
reference
genome.
For
clarity,
long
branches
4
leading
to
the
outgroup
sample
haplotypes
are
not
shown.
Nodes
A,
B,
and
C
are
5
described
in
the
text.
Scale
bar
is
given
in
nucleotide
substitutions
per
site.
Node
37
1
labels
indicate
bootstrap
support
above
50%.
Major
clonal
lineages
are
shaded
2
corresponding
to
fig.
1d.
Colored
branches
indicate
other
samples
with
large
3
divergence
between
their
haplotype
sequences.
Red
stars,
HERB-‐1
mtDNA.
4
Yellow
stars,
non-‐S.
tuberosum
host.
5
38
1
2
3
Fig.
4.
Pairwise
measures
of
population
differentiation
and
genetic
distance
4
between
populations
of
P.
infestans
and
P.
andina.
Upper,
Genomic
FST
estimates
5
displayed
in
boxplots.
Box
height
indicates
the
interquartile
range.
Whiskers
6
extend
to
1.5
the
interquartile
range.
Bold
line
indicates
the
median
value.
7
Lower,
Heatmap
of
genetic
distance
estimates.
Histogram
over
color
legend
8
displays
the
number
of
measurements
within
each
genetic
distance
bin.
9
39
1
2
Fig.
5.
TreeMix
graph
representing
population
splitting
patterns
of
the
3
Phytophthora
groups
studied.
P.
mirabilis
was
used
as
outgroup
and
the
length
of
4
the
branches
are
proportional
to
the
genetic
drift
of
each
population.
Analysis
5
with
TreeMix
reveals
that
P.
andina
resulted
from
a
major
hybridization
event
6
between
an
unknown
outgroup
related
to
P.
ipomoeae
and
a
P.
infestans
7
genotype
most
related
to
FAM,
which
caused
the
Irish
potato
famine.
The
arrow
8
shows
the
direction
of
the
primary
inferred
hybridization
edge,
and
its
color
9
indicates
a
migration
weight
(the
fraction
of
ancestry
derived
from
the
migration
10
event)
of
34%.
40