Imaging: Getting the Picture Downhole

Geologists and petrophysicists use image logs to visualize rocks in situ and determine
structural geometry and formation properties. Image data help them analyze reservoir
properties such as heterogeneity, sedimentary conditions and structural features,
including fractures, folds and faults. Engineers have found that acquiring images
in oil-base mud systems is difficult because the insulating properties of oil often
renders conductivity-based imaging tools ineffective, especially for fracture analysis.
That limitation has been addressed with a newly introduced imaging tool for
oil-base mud systems.

Janice Brown
Fort Worth, Texas, USA

Bob Davis
Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, USA

Kiran Gawankar
Southwestern Energy
The Woodlands, Texas

Anish Kumar
Bingjian Li
Camron K. Miller
Houston, Texas

Robert Laronga
Peter Schlicht
Clamart, France

Oilfield Review 27, no. 2 (September 2015).
Copyright © 2015 Schlumberger.
adnVISION, FMI, FMI-HD, Formation MicroScanner,
MicroScope HD, OBMI, OBMI2, Quanta Geo, Sonic Scanner,
SonicScope and UBI are marks of Schlumberger.
1. For more on coring services: Andersen MA, Duncan B
and McLin R: “Core Truth in Formation Evaluation,”
Oilfield Review 25, no. 2 (Summer 2013): 16–25.
Figure 1. Electrical coring. As evidenced by this 1932 photograph from the
California, USA, oil fields, the originators of the wireline logging industry
envisioned the concept of electrical coring.
A picture is worth a thousand words because The evolution of imaging tools is part of a long
visualizing an object or concept is a powerful history of petrophysical tool development. The
means of assimilating large amounts of informa- first wireline logs were euphemistically referred
tion. Geologists and petrophysicists may use to as electrical coring; some of the early logging
imaging tools to visualize downhole formations. units displayed “Electrical Coring” below the
These tools provide information that can be cru- Schlumberger name (Figure 1). And yet, early
cial for determining rock and formation proper- wireline logs offered far too little information to
ties, especially when physical core samples are substitute for coring. Service providers advancing
not available. Wireline logging tools that can the science of well logging have developed tools
image the borehole are based on dipmeter tools, that probe the structure and mineralogy of for-
which were originally designed to determine for- mations almost to the level available from studies
mation geometry and structural properties. performed on cores.1 Images that represent the

4 Oilfield Review
September 2015 5
electrical properties of the borehole may also
provide geologists with core-like visualizations of
downhole conditions.
Cores, however, are preferred by geologists
studying downhole rock properties although the
length of coring intervals is often limited by
costs, and physical changes in the cores can
occur while bringing the samples to the surface.
From a cost and coverage standpoint, modern
logging tools can sometimes provide details of
the reservoir that might otherwise be unavailable
from physical cores. Although images cannot
replace cores, they can provide qualitative and
quantitative visual information when core is
absent; from a visual perspective, they are per-
haps the closest devices available for meeting
that original electrical coring vision.
The first imaging devices—introduced in the
1980s—were developed from tools designed to
acquire dipmeter measurements.2 Dipmeter tools
use a combination of electrical and mechanical
sensors to acquire data from which the magni-
tude and direction of formation dip can be deter-
mined. Geologists use dip information to help
them understand the subsurface geometry of geo-
logic structures; the information may then be
used to project structural geometry away from
the borehole out into the formation.
Continuous improvements and changes in
hardware, measurement physics, processing power,

Resistivity

40-in. Attenuation Quadrant Bulk

Density Data
34-in. Attenuation
Average Density
28-in. Attenuation
Density Image 1.9 g/cm3 2.9
22-in. Attenuation Density Correction
Mudcake
16-in. Attenuation –0.8 g/cm3 0.2
Bottom Density
Washout g/cm3 1.9 g/cm3 2.9
0.02 ohm.m 200 1.7 2.7 Neutron Density
Density Caliper Deviation 40-in. Phase Shift Sigma Left Density
1.9 g/cm3 2.9
8 in. 10 0 degree 90 34-in. Phase Shift 0 capture units 50 Bulk Density 1.9 g/cm3 2.9 Pyrite
Ultrasonic Caliper Collar 28-in. Phase Shift Image-Derived Density 1.9 Right Density
Rotation g/cm3 2.9 Water
8 in. 10 22-in. Phase Shift 1.9 g/cm3 2.9 1.9 g/cm3 2.9
0 rpm 500 Neutron Porosity Sandstone
Gamma Ray 16-in. Phase Shift Bulk Density Upper (Thermal) Up Density Quality
Depth, ft Clay Flags
0 gAPI 150 0.2 ohm.m 2,000 1.9 g/cm3 2.9 40 % –15 1.9 g/cm3 2.9

X10

X20

X30

X40

X50

Figure 2. LWD azimuthal imaging. The bulk density image from an adnVISION
tool (Track 3) provides information about the borehole circumference in a
horizontal well. Density data are also presented as curves (Tracks 3, 4 and
5) and are displayed according to the quadrant from which the data were
acquired (Tracks 3 and 5). Bulk density and neutron porosity data may be
affected by hole conditions as can be observed around X50 ft, where the
caliper indicates a washout (Track 1, blue shading). Because this well is
horizontal, the tool’s azimuthal outputs are referenced to up, down, left and
right. In a vertical well, the references are north, south, east and west.

6 Oilfield Review
Bed Dipping Away from Kickoff Point
Figure 3. Well placement using image data. Azimuthal log data in the
shapes of smiles and frowns help well placement engineers determine bit
corrections while drilling. When a wellbore crosses a bedding plane, the
azimuthal logging tool response indicates whether the wellbore is exiting
an ascending or descending geologic layer. When the wellbore cuts an
ascending layer (left), the first contact with the formation is at the bottom
data transmission and tool technologies eventually
led to imaging tools that provided much more than
formation dip. Imaging tools acquire high-resolu-
tion conductivity (or the reciprocal resistivity)
data from a very shallow depth of investigation and
provide an image of a portion of the wellbore cir-
cumference. These images are representative of
features intersecting the borehole.
By interpreting information generated by both
computer processing and manual correlations,
geologists can identify geologic features. Before
imaging tools were available, geologists used dip-
meter data primarily for guidance in planning the
next well location. They were able to determine
the direction needed to move up or down struc-
ture, the location of faults and the presence of
structural anomalies. Modern image logs provide
an opportunity to better understand reservoir geo-
logic characteristics and visualize the well within
the context of the reservoir.
Advancing beyond dipmeter tools, imaging tools
now allow interpreters to identify structural features
such as faults, folds, angular unconformities and bed-
ding geometry and infer paleotransport direction of
sands and conditions that existed during deposition.
Geologists can also use image logs to detect fractures
and define their properties—a crucial element in
characterizing tight reservoirs. They then incorpo-
rate fracture properties in completion designs and
use the information for field optimization.
The ability to detect small features such as
fractures is not easily performed in wells drilled
with oil-base mud (OBM) systems.3 The mud
and mudcake add a layer of electrical insulation in
the wellbore that usually renders traditional con-
ductivity-based imaging tools ineffective. Imaging
September 2015
Bed Dipping Toward Kickoff Point
Top
Bottom
Top
of the hole; when the bit exits the layer, the last contact will be at the top
of the hole. The image data appear as a frown. Conversely, measurements
from a wellbore that exits a descending bedding plane (right ) appear as a
smile. Based on these interpretations, drilling engineers may guide the bit
up or down to ensure that the wellbore remains in or reconnects with
a target zone.
tools designed for use in OBM systems have not
delivered the level of resolution that tools designed
for water-base mud (WBM) systems are able to
provide—determining quantitative properties of
fractures has been especially difficult. The Quanta
Geo photorealistic reservoir geology service, which
acquires images that are representative of the
borehole wall in the challenging environment of
OBM systems, was recently introduced to address
this situation.
This article reviews the evolution of imaging ser-
vices—from dipmeter tools to the latest generation
imaging devices. Case studies demonstrate the use
of image logs in OBM wells for stratigraphic analysis
of wells drilled in deepwater Gulf of Mexico environ-
ments and for analyzing fractures in wells drilled in
unconventional reservoirs.
Oilfield Review
SEPTEMBER
Painting a Wellbore Picture15
Imagingbecame
Before computers Fig 4 readily available,
ORSEPT 15 IMG
relatively high-resolution 4
dipmeter data were
acquired from downhole, and the information
was presented on photographic film. Analysts
read and interpreted these data manually—a
tedious process. The introduction of computer-
ized logging units and digital data processing
enabled higher sample-rate data to be acquired
than was previously possible. Modern logging
tools acquire more information than most
humans can assimilate, integrate and process.
Computer processing has become indispensable
for delivering information in a usable format.
The ability of logging-while-drilling (LWD)
tools to make azimuthal measurements from
around the circumference of the borehole has
also changed the way many analysts visualize
Top
Bottom
Top
downhole data. In a similar manner to that used
by conventional wireline logging devices, LWD
tools acquire data linearly via tool movement
along the well; however, azimuthal tools also
acquire data from the full circumference of the
wellbore as the tool rotates. Azimuthal data are
then presented as an image of the borehole,
“painting a picture” of the inside of the wellbore.
Because the tool orientation is measured simul-
taneously, the images can be aligned with the
geometry of the wellbore. However, the resolu-
tion of these data is insufficient for detecting
small details (Figure 2).
Many LWD tools can provide azimuthal data
presented in the form of wellbore images; such
tools include azimuthal gamma ray devices, the
MicroScope HD high-definition imaging-while-
drilling tool and the adnVISION azimuthal den-
sity neutron service.4 Image interpretation of
data from azimuthal tools has become crucial for
adjusting wellbore trajectory—up, down, left or
right—in real time in many horizontal drilling
operations (Figure 3).
2. For more on legacy imaging tool and image interpretation:
Wong SA, Startzman RA and Kuo T-B: “A New Approach
to the Interpretation of Wellbore Images,” paper
SPE 19579, presented at the 64th SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition, San Antonio, Texas, USA,
October 8–11, 1989.
3. For more on early logging services used for imaging in
OBM systems: Cheung P, Hayman A, Laronga R, Cook G,
Flournoy G, Goetz P, Marshall M, Hansen S, Lamb M, Li B,
Larsen M, Orgren M and Redden J: “A Clear Picture in
Oil-Base Muds,” Oilfield Review 13, no. 4 (Winter
2001/2002): 2–27.
4. For more on LWD azimuthal imaging tools and using
azimuthal data for structural steering: Amer A,
Chinellato F, Collins S, Denichou J-M, Dubourg I,
Griffiths R, Koepsell R, Lyngra S, Marza P, Murray D and
Roberts I: “Structural Steering—A Path to Productivity,”
Oilfield Review 25, no. 1 (Spring 2013): 14–31.
7
 1945 1968 1982 buttons on each of its four pads, which covered
more of the borehole in a single pass.
3 pads 4 pads 4 pads
3 sensors 4 sensors 8 sensors The FMI-HD high-definition formation micro-
imager is the latest generation Schlumberger
tool for assessing structure and stratigraphy of
rocks in WBM systems and some OBM systems.6
This tool is equipped with 192 pad-mounted sen-
sors, or button electrodes, and samples every
2.5 mm (Figure 5). The button electrodes are
arranged in parallel rows across the face of each
pad, and each pad has a hinged flap extension
that has its own parallel rows of sensors. When
the pads, which are mounted on caliper arms, are
Pad position in the borehole
extended, the flaps open and increase the cir-
cumferential coverage of the borehole. In an 8-in.
1986 1988 1991 borehole, the tool covers 80% of the circumfer-
ence. The design results in a 5-mm [0.2-in.] reso-
2 pads 2 pads 4 pads 8 pads
29 sensors 2 sensors 64 sensors 192 sensors lution; any feature 5 mm or larger can be directly
measured although much smaller features,
including fractures, can be imaged if there is suf-
ficient electrical contrast with the background.
For interpreters to visualize these data, the
measurements are converted from conductivity
values into images. These images are created
from the electrical measurements, which are
converted to pixels. Before image logs existed,
however, dipmeter interpretation relied on tad-
poles computed from wellbore data.
Pad position in the borehole

Figure 4. Imaging evolution. The original dipmeter tool from 1945 had
three pads; each pad had a single sensor button (top left). As successive
generations of tools were developed, engineers added pads and increased
the number of sensor buttons on each pad. The FMS tool (bottom left ),
introduced in the mid-1980s, was one of the first wireline tools to provide
image logs. Developers found that multiple parallel rows of buttons in the
original design were not necessary, and the original FMS tool was modified
in 1988 to have only two rows of sensors on each of its four pads for a total
of 64 sensors (bottom middle). The FMI fullbore formation microimager
(bottom right), introduced in 1991, has four pads that have four flaps and
a total of 192 sensors. The wellbore schematic below each tool shows
coverage by the pads in an 8-in. borehole.
Wireline logging tools were the first to acquire nitude and direction could be determined manu-
data that could be displayed as images from the ally or by computer. Successive generations of
circumference of a wellbore although few wireline dipmeter tools increased the number of sensors
tools have the azimuthal acquisition capabilities and pads, ultimately giving way to tool designs
commonly found in LWD tools. An exception is the that had sufficient sensor density to provide
UBI ultrasonic borehole imager tool, which uses a imaging capabilities (Figure 4).
rotating assembly to map the full circumference of The FMS Formation MicroScanner tool was
the borehole from ultrasonic reflectionsOilfield
of theReview
one of the first successful borehole imaging ser-
borehole wall. Because the UBI tool dependsSEPTEMBER 15 Equipped with four pads, the original tool
on vices.
Imaging Fig 5
the quality of the reflections from the borehole, it had 27 sensors on two of the pads, which acquired
ORSEPT 15 IMG 5
works best in hard formations. data every 2.5 mm [0.1 in.].5 The other two pads
Older generation devices that have multiple had only two button sensors each. This design
pads, such as the HDT high-resolution dipmeter permitted basic imaging of the borehole; how-
tool, acquired data from four regions inside the ever, covering the inside of the wellbore required
borehole. By correlating the data acquired from multiple passes and manual depth matching. An
around the wellbore, bedding or feature dip mag- updated FMS tool had two rows of eight sensor
Answers in the Tadpoles
Log analysts still use tadpoles from dipmeter logs
to describe downhole structural geometry and
stratigraphy. Tadpoles represent information
computed from raw dipmeter data; they provide
two main quantities: dip direction and dip magni-
tude (Figure 6). Each tadpole consists of a head
and a tail. The head of the tadpole is plotted on a
graph scaled from 0° to 90°, and the position of
the head on the scale indicates the magnitude of
the dip. The tail points in the downward direc-
tion, or dip, of the formation or feature, and the
display is based on a compass dial. True north is
at the top followed clockwise by east, south, west
and back to north through a full 360° cycle. By
reading the dip magnitude from the location of
the head and the direction from the tail, inter-
preters infer formation or feature geometry.
Tadpoles are computed from data acquired as
the tool traverses the borehole during logging; if
bedding planes with contrasting resistivities are
5. An FMS tool with four pads for imaging was a forerunner
of the FMI-HD tool. For more: Bourke L, Delfiner P,
Trouiller J-C, Fett T, Grace M, Luthi S, Serra O and
Standen E: “Using Formation MicroScanner Images,”
The Technical Review 37, no. 1 (January 1989): 16–40.
6. For more on the FMI service: Adams J, Bourke L and
Buck S: “Integrating Formation MicroScanner Images
and Cores with Case Studies,” Oilfield Review 2, no. 1
(January 1990): 52–65.

8 Oilfield Review
 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 60° 70° 80° 90°

X,376 N
W E
X,377
S Tadpole

X,378
Figure 6. Tadpole plots from dipmeter data. A
single tadpole computed from dipmeter tool
X,379 data indicates a variety of reservoir geometric
properties. The location of the head of the
tadpole on the scale indicates the magnitude of
formation dip. The tail of the tadpole points in
the downward direction. This example tadpole
indicates formation dip of 27° down to the west.
Tadpoles have evolved over the years to include
color coding, quality indicators and modifications
that represent fractures or other features.

encountered, the tool will detect those events

Figure 5. Latest generation imaging tool for WBM systems. The FMI-HD
tool, which has four pads and four flaps, has a total of 192 button sensors.
The caliper arms extend, and the flaps rotate to provide an acquisition
surface that is twice as wide as that of tools that have only four pads.
The close spacing and fixed distances between sensor buttons result in
high-resolution data; fixed spacing provides a systematic method for speed
correction. The tool generates a continuous stream of high-resolution
data (inset) from its 192 buttons from which images are generated.
E S
E W
Pad response
Borehole
1 2 3 4
N W
along the borehole (Figure 7). Should all pads
detect an event at the same depth, the relative
dip is 0°. If the sensors encounter a dipping bed
or feature crossing the wellbore, the sensors
detect it at various points inside the borehole.
The magnitude of dip is determined by comput-
ing the displacement of these events. A structural
dip of just 1° will cause approximately 5 mm of
displacement across an 8-in. borehole, which is
within the resolution range of the tool.
The position of one pad is referenced with
respect to true north, which determines the ori-
entation of the tool. This also defines the posi-
tion of the other pads and sensors. The
orientation of the pads in the borehole along
with the displacement between conductive or
Oilfield Review
SEPTEMBER 15
Imaging Fig 7
ORSEPT 15 IMG 7
S N E S W N 0° Tadpoles 90°
N N

High-angle
south dip
Resistive thin bed
Oilfield Review
SEPTEMBER 15
Imaging Fig 6 Displacement High-angle
between dip
4 dipmeter 3 4 ORSEPT 15 IMG 6 pad responses Low-angle
pads 2 south dip
1
Low-angle
dip 0° 90° 180° 270° 360°

Figure 7. Detecting bed boundaries and formation dip. As a dipmeter tool is
pulled through the wellbore (left), sensors on the pads intersect the bedding
plane or feature at various points along the borehole wall. By correlating
the points and determining the tool’s cardinal coordinates (middle left), the
bedding plane’s geometry can be computed. When the data from along the
inner surface of the borehole are unwrapped (middle) and presented in 2D
(middle right), a dipping bedding plane will form a sinusoid, which gives an
indication of the direction and magnitude of the formation dip. Analysts use
images from the inner surface of the borehole wall to visualize formation
geometry and identify features such as fractures and unconformities. The
down dip direction in the image appears to be to the west, although most
image data are presented using apparent dip. Based on the tadpoles
computed from these data (right ), which include rotation for wellbore and
tool drift, the true dip is down to the south.

September 2015 9
 position of the tool with respect to true north
and determine tool deviation from vertical.
When the contribution of the tool and well posi-
tion are rotating out, the true formation dip
AD angle from horizontal can be displayed as a tadpole.
Borehole
AD: Apparent dip A single tadpole is not sufficient for determin-
noncompensated
TD angle ing formation geometry. In the past, dipmeter
TD: True dip compensated interpretation, which is both an art and a sci-
for borehole drift
ence, was a process whereby analysts identified
trends or patterns in the tadpoles from whence
downhole structures could then be described.
Figure 8. Correction for borehole drift and formation geometry. Apparent dip The three primary patterns are often referred to
(AD) is the computed angle of the formation bedding plane or feature as by the colors red, blue and green (Figure 9). A
it crosses the borehole. True dip (TD) is AD corrected for the geometry of red pattern is increasing dip magnitude with
the well and tool drift; these rotated data reflect deviation from horizontal.
Some stratigraphic features such as the paleodepositional direction can be depth, a blue pattern is decreasing dip magni-
more easily seen in data that have the structural dip deleted (not shown) tude with depth and a green pattern is uniform,
because the resulting data may be representative of conditions that existed or unchanging, dip with depth. The azimuth of
at the time of deposition.
the dips should be constant or changing slowly
across the section or feature. Patterns can result
resistive events are used to define the depth, related to the tool orientation. This apparent from a variety of features, but interpreters used
direction and dip magnitude of a bedding plane dip can also be corrected for the angle and incli- the patterns primarily as guides for selecting the
or a feature. The direction and magnitude are nation of the wellbore, also referred to as bore- direction of offset well locations or defining depo-
then presented as an apparent dip, which is hole drift (Figure 8). Sensors measure the sitional direction. Dipmeter interpretations are
often used to explain why a well encountered
unexpected or missing formations sections, for
Borehole instance, as a result of crossing a fault.
Correlation Curve True dip angle and direction, degree drift,
degree Geologists interpreting dipmeter data and
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0 10 images today have gone far beyond recognizing
red, blue and green patterns. From images,
Structural dip they are able to interpret downhole structure
and stratigraphy.
Slope patterns:
faults, bars, reefs,
channels and downdip Evolution: Tadpoles to Images
thickening Traditional tadpole pattern recognition involved
taking a 2D concept and constructing a 3D vision
of the reservoir. This macro view of the downhole
Structural dip
environment was used to describe formation
Crossbedding and geometry, but the view inside the wellbore can
fracturing show the interpreter much more about rock and
formation characteristics. This task is accom-
plished using borehole image data.
Oilfield Review The conversion of tool measurements to
SEPTEMBER 15 Current patterns,
Imaging Fig 9 unconformities and images is analogous to the processes used in mod-
ORSEPT 15 IMGforeset
9 beds ern digital photography. One type of digital camera
in use today is the charge-coupled device (CCD).7
Structural dip
The heart of the camera is a densely packed array
of sensors. Incoming photons strike a portion of
Figure 9. Pattern recognition dipmeter interpretation. Green patterns the sensor surface and are converted to electrons
(Track 2) represent the general structural dip of a formation and are (Figure 10). An analog-to-digital converter accu-
usually more consistent in low-energy depositional environments such mulates the charge information from these elec-
as shales, as indicated in the correlation curve (Track 1) than in high- trons and transmits it for further processing and
energy deposition typical of sandstones. Abrupt changes in structural dip
can occur when a well crosses an unconformity or a fault. Red patterns eventual storage. The more densely packed the
are increasing dip with depth and may be indicative of approaching sensors are on the array, the greater the number of
faults, drape over structures and channels. Blue patterns are decreasing pixels and the higher the resolution.
dip with depth and may indicate bedding, paleodepositional direction,
deformation below faults and unconformities. The borehole geometry can 7. Charge-coupled device sensors were invented by
also be represented by tadpoles (Track 3). This well is drifting about 2° Willard Boyle and George Smith at AT&T Bell
from vertical toward the ENE. Laboratories, New Jersey, USA, in 1969.

10 Oilfield Review
 Unlike in film photography, in digital photog- Charge-Coupled Device
raphy, there is no “physical” image—photo-
graphs are reconstructed from digital data that
represent light falling onto the sensors. Similar
to the process in which digital cameras convert
Photons
signal data to pixels and collect pixels into strike
array
images, the high-resolution conductivity data
from the sensor buttons of imaging tools are con-
verted to pixels and then displayed together as an Analog-to-
Photon-to- digital converter
image (Figure 11). The image is not an actual electron
picture but a representation of the changes in conversion
conductivity along the inside of the wellbore.
Gain

Imaging Process
Data acquired during logging have little resem- Electron-to-voltage
blance to the final image product. The buttons conversion

produce a continuous stream of parallel conduc-
tivity measurements, which are transmitted
uphole and recorded. The 192 buttons of the
FMI-HD tool—each of which has a 5 mm diame-
ter—acquire a measurement with each 2.5 mm
of tool movement. The tool’s horizontal and verti-
cal sensor spacing, along with high sampling fre-
quency, enable the tool to measure features as
small as 5 mm, but it can resolve much smaller
Figure 10. Creating digital images. A charge-coupled device (CCD) camera
consists of an array of sensors. Light (photons) strikes the surface of
the CCD (left), and the sensors detect the photons and convert them to
electrons. Electrons are measured and converted to a voltage. The analog
voltage measurement is sent to a processor, where the measurement is
converted to digital data for storage. A CCD sensor does not create an
image as film cameras do; the image is recreated from stored data at each
pixel location. This process is similar to the process used for conversion of
conductivity (or resistivity) data to pixels for creating image logs.

Image Data
Borehole Position, Pad 1
Depth, Raw Button Conductivity Data
0 degree 360
ft
North West South East North
XX5.75

XX6.00

XX6.25

XX6.50

Oilfield Review
SEPTEMBER 15
XX6.75
Imaging Fig 11
ORSEPT 15 IMG 11
XX7.00

XX7.25

XX7.50

XX7.75

Figure 11. Data from the FMI-HD tool converted to an image log. The 192 buttons located on the FMI-HD tool’s four pads and four flaps generate a stream
of conductivity data (left). These data are processed, the values are assigned a scaled color, and an image is produced (right). The geologist analyzing the
images can modify the color scale and range to enhance features. The cardinal location of Pad 1 can be identified from the green curve at the far right.

September 2015 11
 Conductivity Curves events. Measurements such as tool position, the
Earth’s magnetic field properties, caliper data
and low-resolution sensor information are sam-
pled every 3.8 cm [1.5 in.].
Raw data must be reviewed for quality, and
corrections are applied as necessary during pro-
cessing. A crucial step in the QC process is speed
correction, in which the objective is to position
each measurement at the correct depth in the
borehole relative to all the other measurements.
Speed correction attempts to overcome nonuni-
form tool movement and ensure data integrity.
Histograms
Even slight changes in tool movement during
acquisition of high-resolution data can affect
image quality.
Frequency

Speed correction is often a two-step process.

Accelerometers in imaging tools detect incremental
tool movements; offsets for these small variations
are applied as a first-level correction. Because the
Original data Data after offset Data after offset and sensor buttons are arranged in parallel rows with a
equalization gain equalization
fixed spacing, changes in resistivity at boundary
Figure 12. Processing raw data. Streams of raw data from the button crossings can be compared. If the same event is
sensors (top) are depth shifted, offset and equalized (bottom). This found to be displaced between rows, the data can be
processing produces more consistent data and better image quality than
would be available from the raw data. shifted to adjust for the offset. Software-based tool
movement detection methods help to further refine
the initial speed correction. Combining the meth-
ods produces a robust correction; however, when
extreme tool movement irregularities occur, espe-
1
cially those of the stick-and-release variety, data
may not be recoverable.
Color or gray scale output

The next step in processing is to harmonize

the button responses (Figure 12). Raw button
responses are not calibrated, but button-to-but-
ton normalization can be used to ensure a reason-
able image is generated. In this step, gains and
offsets are computed for each button over a slid-
0 ing window—typically 5 to 30 m [15 to 100 ft]—to
Minimum Maximum
give all of the buttons a comparable response.
These normalized responses are then assigned a
color or gray scale value and presented as an
image of the borehole from 0° to 360°, with the left
edge at 0° and the right edge at 360° representing
Sampling window
for dynamic imaging true north. The center of the image at 180° repre-
Oilfield Review sents south. For horizontal wells, the top of the
SEPTEMBER 15 well is on the left and right (0° and 360°) edges
Minimum Maximum
Imaging FigHistogram
13 of image data
and the bottom of the well is in the center of the
ORSEPT 15 IMG 13
Sample window
for static imaging image (at 180°).
Figure 13. From borehole conductivity to borehole images. After offsets and Data are usually presented in both static and
normalization are applied, the processed data are assigned a color or gray dynamically enhanced modes—the latter can
scale based on the measured conductivity (or resistivity). In this scheme, increase the visible range of usable images
conductive features are represented by dark colors and resistive features (Figure 13). The static image helps the inter-
are represented by light colors. Because the resistivity range of the tool
is large, the data are usually presented in static mode and a dynamically preter maintain the image context—to recognize
adjusted mode. For static imaging, the peak value (green shading) whether one is interpreting a conductive or resis-
corresponds to a color or gray shade. For dynamic scaling, the computer tive bed—and to recognize major bed boundaries
samples the data outside the peak value (blue shading) and uses the
by their association with significant resistivity
information to create an enhanced image. The color or gray scales may also
be reversed to highlight resistive or conductive features. The various modes changes. The dynamic image allows the inter-
allow analysts to see details and features that might otherwise be masked.

12 Oilfield Review
Depth, Raw Data Tadpoles
ft

X,387
Depth, Image Data Tadpoles Depth, Image Data Tadpoles
ft ft

X,388 X,388 X,388

X,389 X,389 X,389

Figure 14. A case for images. Structural dip can be identified in the raw
data (left, Track 1). These data have been computer processed to generate
tadpoles (Track 2). The red tadpoles are generated from data covering
1-ft intervals; the blue tadpoles are output from 2 ft of data. Computed
results that have lower confidence are shown as open circle tadpoles;
the lines represent the computed sinusoids. In the image display (center),
the computer-generated tadpole is not related to a specific feature but
indicates trends derived from the raw data. A fracture crossing the
wellbore is more easily visualized from the image log than on the raw data,
and it has been marked by the analyst (right, purple) using image
workstation software. The analyst traces the fracture and allows the
software to compute its true dip magnitude and direction (purple tadpole).
The fracture crosses the wellbore at an angle magnitude of around 87°;
the true dip direction is down to the NE and its strike direction is NW–SE.
The analyst can also trace features such as bedding planes (green lines
and tadpoles) and faults and compare those with computer-generated
results (blue and red). The formation dip is about 10°, dipping to the NNE,
as indicated by both manual and computer-generated results.

preter to see the maximum detail of formation
texture and is useful for identifying sedimentary
structures, textures associated with complex
porosity systems and both natural and drilling-
induced fractures. Static equalization alone may
be used if the contrast range is small.
Images may be presented in a variety of colors
or in gray scale. A typical color scheme, referred
to as heated, uses a yellow-to-brown gradient that
is scaled from light to dark extremes. The actual
color is arbitrary but may help to highlight fea-
tures. Comparing color image logs to physical
cores can be disconcerting because the actual
rock will not have as much physical contrast as
the visual contrast typical of image logs. For that
reason, some analysts prefer gray scale images
for comparing images to core.
Computer interpretation software is often
used first to analyze the data and generate tad-
poles. The processed image data are then dis-
played on a workstation, where image analysts,
usually geologists, observe and identify features
such as structural dip, faults, fractures, crossbed-
ding planes and unconformities (Figure 14).
The process of image interpretation has been
described as observation, interpretation and
implication. The analyst’s first task is to review
the data in search of recognizable or observable
features. After features have been identified, the
analyst interprets them by making manual picks.
Because features striking the wellbore at an
angle present themselves as sinusoids, the ana-
lyst can define points along a feature and allow
the image workstation software to fit a sinusoid
and compute formation dip or feature geometry.
The software can also correct the data for bore-
hole drift. Stratigraphic features may be more
meaningful if the borehole dip is further cor-
rected by subtracting the structural dip compo-
nent, restoring the geometry to that of the
apparent depositional orientation.
The final task of the image analyst is to assess
the interpretation for implications. Analysis of
the structural geometry may be used to help plan
the next well, determine the lateral landing
point or establish field development alterna-
tives. Stratigraphic interpretation may include
identifying depositional implications and apply-
ing that information to understanding the nature
Oilfield Review
of the rocks. Identification of both natural and
SEPTEMBER 15
induced fractures can Fig
Imaging be 15
used in determining
fracture properties,
ORSEPT 15 IMGin15situ stress rela-
confirming
tionships and designing effective stimulation and
completion programs.
In addition to wireline imaging tools, other
technologies are available for imaging boreholes.
These include resistivity-based LWD logging tools
and acoustic imaging tools run on wireline.
LWD Imaging
Although many LWD tools provide image logs, the
combination of accurate tool movement, high-
resolution accelerometer data and high data
transmission rates have given wireline imaging
tools an advantage over LWD imaging services.
However, the inability of LWD images to resolve
small features has been addressed by a novel
processing approach developed by Schlumberger
researchers.
The MicroScope HD service has 1-cm [0.4-in.]
buttons and can sample every 5 mm. Although
this tool design can provide high-resolution mea-
surements, design alone is not sufficient to
resolve small features because tool movement
cannot be controlled to the level needed in the
drilling environment. Complicating the depth
control issue is the fact that LWD data are time
based rather than depth based, and pipe move-
ment at the drilling floor is indexed to tool move-
ment downhole. The large separation between
the point of acquisition and the depth reference
affects resolution quality.
To overcome tool movement issues, high-reso-
lution data are acquired with the MicroScope HD
tool along with magnetometer-based tool orienta-
tion data as the tool rotates.8 Since each tool has
a fixed sensor spacing, data from the borehole
circumference can be viewed as strips that have
a constant and known thickness. The time-based
measurements are converted to a depth-indexed
image using high-resolution axial and azimuthal
8. For more on the LWD imaging technique: Allouche M,
Chow S, Dubourg I, Ortenzi L and van Os R: “High-
Resolution Images and Formation Evaluation in Slim
Holes from a New Logging-While-Drilling Azimuthal
Laterolog Device,” paper SPE 131513, presented at the
SPE EUROPEC/EAGE Annual Conference and Exhibition,
Barcelona, Spain, June 14–17, 2010.

September 2015 13
sensor positions. As the tool is advanced up or
down the well, overlapping strips of data are
acquired. These strips of data have features that
are a fixed distance apart, which allows the
image strips to be merged, correlated to axial tool
movement and continually adjusted for depth
(Figure 15).
Using image data from the MicroScope HD
tool, analysts have been able to detect small fea-
tures. Datasets from this service are quite large
but are transmitted continuously during the drill-
ing operation or retrieved from the tool when it
returns to the surface. As with many other imaging
tools, this tool requires a conductive mud system.
Oil-Base Mud Imaging
Well operators use OBM systems because they
facilitate improved drilling performance.9 Since
the 1990s, most deepwater wells have been
drilled with OBM systems that use nonconductive
fluids; such systems preclude the use of logging
tools that function only in conductive fluids.10
Conductivity-based imaging tools rely on
detecting small changes in conductivity along the
surface of a borehole wall. However, OBM and
mudcake behave similar to electrical insulators,
obstructing current flow. Therefore, acquiring
wellbore images in OBM systems may not be fea-
sible using tools designed for acquiring data in
WBM; modifications to the FMI-HD tool, however,
have enabled acquisition of images in some
OBM environments.11
Early attempts to acquire dipmeter data in
OBM wells were often met with frustration.
Blades and scratchers were first used to remove
mud and mudcake from the borehole wall to pro-

Noncorrelated Correlated
Images Images

2,944
Correlation
depth
2,945 Surface-
Image Image Merged measured
strip strip strip 2,946 depth
Depth

Depth, ft
+ = 2,947

2,948

2,949

2,950

2,951
498 499 500 501 502 503 504 505
Time, 100 s

Top
Bed Boundary
Dynamic Image

Fault
Bottom
Resistive Fracture

Microfault
Top

Figure 15. High-resolution LWD imaging. Tool movement for LWD tools is
referenced to changes in drillpipe depth measured at the surface. Downhole
LWD data are time based. Depth is derived by associating the time of
acquisition to the depth measured at the surface. Depth accuracy available
from this system of measurement is insufficient for resolving fine details and
features. Schlumberger engineers developed a method that ties the fixed
spacing of the tool sensors to the data and correlates depth to data.
Overlapping data, viewed as strips (top left), are aligned and adjusted to
match tool movement and then merged. Examples of noncorrelated and
correlated data (top right) demonstrate the enhanced image resolution.
MicroScope HD image data can now be used to define structural features
and fractures (bottom). A log analyst has marked the almost vertical resistive
fractures (cyan) and faults (magenta and blue) crossing this horizontal
wellbore along with the bed boundaries (green) cut by the wellbore.

  9. For more on drilling with OBM systems: Bloys B,
Davis N, Smolen B, Bailey L, Houwen O, Reid P,
Sherwood J, Fraser L and Hodder M: “Designing and
Managing Drilling Fluid,” Oilfield Review 6, no. 2
(April 1994): 33–43.
10. Chen Y-H, Omeragic D, Habashy T, Bloemenkamp R,
Zhang T, Cheung P and Laronga R: “Inversion-Based
Workflow for Quantitative Interpretation of the
New-Generation Oil-Based Mud Resistivity Imager,”
Transactions of the SPWLA 55th Annual Logging
Symposium, Abu Dhabi, UAE (May 18–22, 2014):
paper LL.
11. For more on the FMI-HD service in OBM: Laronga R,
Lozada GT, Perez FM, Cheung P, Hansen SM, Rosas AM:
“A High-Definition Approach To Formation Imaging In
Wells Drilled With Nonconductive Muds,” Transactions
of the SPWLA 52nd Annual Logging Symposium,
Colorado Springs, Colorado, USA, May 14–18, 2011,
paper FFF.
12. Cheung P, Pittman D, Hayman A, Laronga R, Vessereau P,
Ounadjela A, Desport O, Hansen S, Kear R, Lamb M,
Borbas T and Wendt B: “Field Test Results of a New
Oil-Base Mud Formation Imager Tool,” Transactions of
the SPWLA 42nd Annual Logging Symposium, Houston
(June 17–20, 2001): paper XX.
13. Bourke LT and Prosser DJ: “An Independent Comparison
of Borehole Imaging Tools and Their Geological
Interpretability,” Transactions of the SPWLA 51st Annual
Logging Symposium, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
(June 19–23, 2010): paper GGG.
14. Bloemenkamp R, Zhang T, Comparon L, Laronga R,
Yang S, Marpaung S, Guinois EM, Valley G, Vessereau P,
Shalaby E, Li B, Kumar A, Kear R and Yang Y:
“Design and Field Testing of a New High-Definition
Microresistivity Imaging Tool Engineered for Oil-Based
Mud,” Transactions of the SPWLA 55th Annual Logging
Symposium, Abu Dhabi, UAE (May 18–22, 2014):
paper KK.

14 Oilfield Review
 Figure 16. Sonde and pad of the OBMI service. The OBMI tool (left ) has
four pads. Each pad (right) has two rows of sensor buttons. Current is
emitted from the sensors and returns to the electrodes above and below
the sensors. Because of the limited borehole coverage of this design, the
OBMI2 tool—consisting of two tools stacked and offset by 45°—was developed
(not shown).

vide an electrical path to ground, but these meth- developing a tool that could produce images in
ods did not prove feasible for imaging. The OBMI OBM systems comparable to those available from
Pad position
oil-base microimager tool was the first successful wells drilled with WBM. In 2014, the Quanta Geo in the borehole
tool for imaging in OBM systems.12 This tool has service was introduced (Figure 17).14 In design-
four pads located 90° from each other; each pad ing the new tool, engineers used button elec-
has five pairs of sensors spaced 1 cm apart trodes that function in a different manner
(Figure 16). This spacing provides approximately compared to those used in WBM imagers.
1-cm vertical and horizontal resolution, and pad To determine the formation’s electrical con-
coverage is approximately 32% of an 8-in. well- ductivity, imaging tools in WBM inject current
bore. The OBMI tool delivers images of large fea- directly into the formation from the button elec-
tures but is unable to detect fine details. trodes. Because OBM and mudcake act similar to
The OBMI2 integrated dual oil-base microim- electrical insulators, current is impeded from
agers features two stacked OBMI sondes oriented going into the formation and from returning
45° apart. This design doubles the circumferen- to the tool. To overcome this dilemma, the button
tial borehole coverage. In general, theOilfield
OBMI,Reviewelectrodes of the Quanta Geo service establish
OBMI2 and other OBM imaging devicesSEPTEMBERdo not capacitive
15 contact with the formation by sending
image small features as well as their WBM Imaging
coun- Fig current
17 at much higher frequencies—in the MHz
terparts do. ORSEPT 15 range—than
IMG 17 the current used in WBM imagers.
Not only can spatial resolution be a problem, Imagers designed for WBM operate with currents
the measurement technology used in most OBM in the kHz range.
imaging tools can introduce artifacts such as When OBM is used for drilling, rather than
shadow beds on the shoulders of high-contrast acting as a true insulator, the fluid and the mud-
environments, or the images may be affected by cake actually behave like a lossy dielectric. A
the orientation of the bedding planes. Mud-filled dielectric is a material that acts as a poor con-
cracks and drilling-induced features often distort ductor of electric current and impedes current
Figure 17. The Quanta Geo photorealistic
the image and mask formation geology. One inde- flow. Although a dielectric has properties similar
reservoir geology service. This tool has two
pendent study found that OBM imaging tools to those of an insulator, it differs in that the sonde sections; each section has four pads
resolved an order of magnitude fewer sedimen- impedance—defined as the resistance to flow of oriented at 90°, and the two tool sections are
tary features compared with those resolved by an AC composed of resistive and reactive compo- offset by 45°. Each spring-mounted pad is fully
Oilfieldand
independent Review
can swivel ±15° around the tool
tools run in WBM environments.13 nents—of a dielectric decreases inversely with SEPTEMBER
axis. The mechanical15 design allows the tool to
Realizing the need for a high-resolution imag- increased frequency. Imaging
be logged Figor18down direction. Azimuthal
in an up
ing solution, Schlumberger researchers began ORSEPT
coverage 15 IMG
in an 8-in. 18 is 98%.
borehole

September 2015 15
 and mudcake at two frequencies. During pro-
cessing, the analyst can determine which fre-
quency provides the optimal response.
Nonconductive mud Measurement current
flow path The Quanta Geo service outputs an imped-
Return electrode
ance measurement seen by the electrodes at the
two separate frequencies rather than the conduc-
Guard electrode tivity normally measured by WBM-based tools. A
consequence of using this technique is that the
Button electrodes measured impedance is not directly proportional
to the formation resistivity. Computing an
invaded zone resistivity (Rxo) from measured
data, which is usually available from WBM tool
measurements, is not an option.
Figure 18. Quanta Geo Pad design. Each of the eight identical pads for the Quanta Geo service has
a row of button electrodes surrounded by a guard electrode (left). Return electrodes are above and The Quanta Geo sonde has four pads oriented
below the button electrodes. Two high-frequency alternating currents are forced to flow through the at 90° and a second set of four pads located below
mud and mudcake into the formation; the currents (right, white arrows) return to the upper and lower the first set offset by 45°. The fully independent
electrodes, providing a symmetrical response. Current is prevented from returning directly to the
tool by the guard electrode. The current flowing from each button is measured and the impedance is pads are spring mounted and can swivel ±15°
computed. This impedance contains both the amplitude ratio between the voltage and current and the around the tool axis as well as longitudinally; this
phase shift for the two AC frequencies. Tool design provides a vertical resolution of 6 mm [0.24 in.] and mechanical design allows the tool to be logged in
a horizontal resolution of 3 mm [0.12 in.]. an up or down direction. Azimuthal coverage in
an 8-in. borehole is 98%. The tool operates across
a resistivity range of 0.2 to 20,000 ohm.m.
Conversely, formations act like resistors, and dielectric properties of the mud system. Below Each pad has a horizontal row of button
the resistance remains fairly constant over a the frequency upper limit, the permittivity of electrodes bounded above and below by guard
large resistivity and frequency range—up to a the formation is negligible and frequency- rings and return electrodes (Figure 18). High-
point. There is an upper limit to the frequency related changes in impedance measured by the frequency current emitted from each of the
of the current at which the contribution from tool arise from the mud and mudcake proper- 192 buttons capacitively connects to the forma-
the permittivity of the formation becomes non- ties. Design engineers correct for the contribu- tion and returns back to the tool. Using two return
negligible. Permittivity is a measure of how an tion to the impedance measurement from the electrodes provides a symmetrical tool response.
electric field affects, and is affected by, a dielec- mud and mudcake by using the phase difference The current flowing from each button is mea-
tric medium. Above the critical frequency, per- between the signals passing through the forma- sured, and the impedance is computed. This
mittivity of the formation combines with the tion and the signals passing through the mud impedance contains both the amplitude ratio

Conductive Resistive Conductive Resistive

Quanta Geo High- Quanta Geo

Dynamic Image Resolution Static Image
Gamma
Conductive Resistive Conductive Resistive Image Orientation, degree Ray Image Orientation, degree
South West North East South gAPI S W N E S
Quanta Geo High- Quanta Geo 0 150
Dynamic ImageOilfield Review
Resolution Static Image
Gamma
SEPTEMBER 15
Image Orientation, degree Ray Image Orientation, degree
South West North Imaging
East Fig 19
South gAPI S W N E S
ORSEPT 15 IMG
0 15019

Whole Core Whole Core

Figure 19. High-quality images. The Quanta Geo service provides high-quality images in wells drilled with OBM. Visible bedding planes in a whole core (left)
can be easily seen in the dynamic image (Track 1) but not so clearly seen in the static image (Track 3). A fault crossed by the wellbore (right) is visible in
both the dynamic image (Track 1) and the whole core taken across this section.

16 Oilfield Review
 FMI-HD Tool in WBM
Static Images
X,280
X,281
X,282
X,283
X,284
X,285
Figure 20. Photorealistic examples. Static (left, Track 1) and dynamic (Track 2) images are presented from data acquired with an
FMI-HD tool in a well drilled with WBM. Dynamic (right, Track 1) and static (Track 2) images from a well drilled with OBM using
data from a Quanta Geo service. These images can be used to identify stratigraphic features and structural dip.
between the voltage and current and a phase
shift for the two frequencies. The measured
impedance is a mix of the formation and the mud
responses. Electrode spacing and tool design pro-
vide a vertical resolution of 6 mm [0.24 in.] and a
horizontal resolution of 3 mm [0.12 in.] Two sam-
pling interval rates are available—5 mm [0.2 in.]
and 2.5 mm [0.1 in.]
Processed image data from the Quanta Geo
service produces photorealistic images never
before possible in OBM systems (Figure 19). Log
analysts use these high-resolution data to define
structural features such as faults and unconfor-
mities. Stratigraphic features such as crossbed-
ding and foreset beds can be identified;
depositional characteristics such as bioturba-
tion, clasts and scours can be recognized in the
September 2015
Quanta Geo Tool in OBM
Dynamic Images Dynamic Images
images. The high-quality images allow interpret-
ers to identify natural and drilling-induced frac-
tures and quantitatively determine their physical
properties. The image quality for data acquired
with the Quanta Geo tool is comparable to that of
the images available from the FMI-HD service
(Figure 20).
Deepwater Application
In the Gulf of Mexico, deepwater exploration
offers the potential for significant discoveries. In
the search for new sources of oil, operators rou-
tinely drill to 30,000 ft [9,100 m] and beyond.15
Oilfield
The cost of drilling Review
a single well is high, and the
SEPTEMBER 15
number of wells
Imaging Fig 21a structure is inten-
drilled into
tionally kept ORSEPT
to a minimum.
15 IMG 21 Because of the
extreme depths and possible subsalt placement of
target reservoirs, the structure and reservoir
Static Images
X,358
X,359
X,360
X,361
X,362
X,363
architecture may not be as well understood as it is
for shallower horizons. For proper placement of
the limited number of wells that are drilled to
develop these reservoirs, geologists must have a
clear understanding of the subsurface geometry.
Geologists start with seismic data to develop res-
ervoir models, but for fine-tuning the models, dip-
meter and image data are crucial.
Image acquisition in deepwater wells must be
performed almost universally in OBM drilling sys-
tems, and the ability to acquire high-quality
images has been challenging. This difficulty is
often compounded by the presence of low forma-
tion resistivity and little resistivity contrast
between beds; the formation signals are small,
and the system has little tolerance for measure-
ment error or noise.
15. Bloemenkamp et al, reference 14.
17
 Caliper 4
Interpreted Feature
Caliper 3
Caliper 2 Conductive Resistive Conductive Resistive
Caliper 1
8 in. 18 Bedding Planes
Image Orientation, degree Image Orientation, degree
Gamma Ray Depth, N E S W N True Dip N E S W N
0 gAPI 150
ft 0 90 180 270 360 0 degree 90 0 90 180 270 360

79

80

81

82

83

84

85

86

87

Figure 21. Gulf of Mexico deepwater exploration well. Analysts
initially interpreted the sands encountered in a deepwater
Gulf of Mexico well as massive channel sands. However, based
on interpretation from image data (Track 2), there may have
been as many as 50 individual sand bodies. This particular 7-ft
[2.1-m] sand interval appears to be uniform; however, the rapid
change in dip direction between the bottom and top (Track 3)
and the distorted bedding planes (Track 4) are indicative of
a slump fold. The 3D view (right) clarifies this; the magenta
planes show the bedding orientation. The net sand thickness
may be much less than it appears in conventional logs and may
be disconnected from the rest of the channel sand complex,
which will have implications for further field development. This
type of information is crucial for development of deepwater
reservoirs because operators limit the number of wells drilled.
(Adapted from Bloemenkamp et al, reference 14.)

Older generation OBM imaging tools provided
reasonable success for structural analysis although
structural dip determination can be difficult in
shales that have been altered during lithification
and burial. Sedimentological interpretation is
usually beyond the limits of these tools.
When high-resolution data are available, geol-
ogists can identify textural features from bore-
hole images to help them understand the internal
structure of thick sediment sections and to define
orientable features indicative of stratigraphy.
Conventional cores can provide this information;
however, because of their prohibitive cost in rig
time, acquiring cores in a large number of wells
or over extended openhole intervals is impracti-
cal in deepwater projects. The Quanta Geo ser-
vice was developed, in part, to address the need
for a tool capable of producing photorealistic
images in these challenging environments.
To test the imaging capabilities of the
Oilfield Review
Quanta Geo service, a deepwater
SEPTEMBER 15 Gulf of Mexico
Imaging Fig 227/8-in. wellbore. The
operator ran the tool in a 9
ORSEPT
well was drilled with a15 IMG 22 OBM typically
synthetic
used in the region. The logging toolstring
included a dipole sonic tool for determining for-
mation mechanical properties. Images were
acquired logging down while running in the hole
and logging up while pulling out of the hole. The
tool achieved an 80% circumferential coverage of
the wellbore.
Thick channel sands are common drilling
targets in deepwater exploration. Characterizing
these sands, and correctly understanding the
stratigraphy, can be illustrated by looking at the
information gleaned from the Quanta Geo ser-
vice. Interpreters were able to determine that a
sequence started with low-energy channel fill
followed by a rapid, high-energy influx of mate-
rial. Geologists further discovered that what
appeared to be a massive sand sequence from
standard log interpretation was actually a series
of approximately 50 individual depositional

18 Oilfield Review
 the Quanta Geo data should be unaffected by
invasion and comparable to the shale resistivities
measured from other sources. By comparing rel-
ative resistivities from this shallow depth of
investigation, geologists can obtain an accurate
Healed
fracture net sand count.
The orientation and geometry of drilling-
induced fractures were also identified. Such frac-
tures are helpful for establishing the maximum
horizontal stress direction, especially in combi-
nation with mechanical properties determined
from advanced acoustic measurements. Natural
fractures, which could rarely be visualized in
images from older generation OBM tools, were
numerous and easily identified.
lous responses, such as cycle skipping, which may
indicate the presence of fractures.
Drilling-induced fractures are frequently
observed in newly drilled wells. These fractures
result from wellbore failure during drilling and
can be caused by a high mud weight that breaks
down the formation. Drilling-induced fractures
can usually be distinguished from natural frac-
tures in well logs because they appear as mostly
parallel but incongruent pairs on opposing sides
of the wellbore in vertical wells (Figure 23).19
These fractures, which are indicative of the
Resistive Conductive

Fracture Characterization Image Orientation, degree

Depth, North East South West North
2 cm Naturally fractured reservoirs make up a signifi- ft 0 90 180 270 360
cant portion of global oil and gas reserves.16 The
Figure 22. Healed fracture. This fracture is filled presence of fractures and fracture networks
with mineralized material. Although healed
fractures such as this one may not contribute to adds complexity to reservoir analysis and reser- X,546
the intrinsic permeability of a reservoir section, voir characterization—a complexity that is
these types of fractures may be reactivated absent in reservoirs in which the matrix pore
during hydraulic stimulations. space dominates.17 Operators must understand
the nature and characteristics of fractures and X,547

events (Figure 21). In addition, the paleotrans-
port direction was inferred from the images.
Structural features—unconformities, faults and
high-stress regions—were also clearly visual-
ized in the image data. Understanding original
depositional conditions and structural geometry
aided in planning the optimal program for drill-
ing and development within the field.
The Quanta Geo service depth of investigation
is an order of magnitude shallower than than that
fracture networks in reservoirs that must be
hydraulically stimulated to produce commer-
cially. These fracture systems will greatly affect X,548
well performance and field development. As
such, completion programs and stimulation
designs must include the effects of natural frac-
X,549
tures and fracture networks.
Drilling-induced
A common fracture description system labels fracture
fractures as open, healed and partially healed.
Open fractures generally increase reservoir per- X,550

of legacy OBM imaging tools. In an OBM environ-
ment, mud filtrate usually flushes free formation
fluids from permeable sands in the shallow region
from which the Quanta Geo service acquires
data. The OBM filtrate filling pores in this shal-
low region has a highReview
Oilfield resistivity value. The rela-
tive resistivitySEPTEMBER 15 Quanta Geo service
measured by the
Imaging
in shales relates Fig 23to the conductive and
primarily
ORSEPT 15 IMG 23
immovable claybound water. Because shales,
which have little intrinsic permeability, are not
invaded, the relative resistivity computed from
16. Nelson R: Geologic Analysis of Naturally Fractured
Reservoirs 2nd ed. Woburn, Massachusetts, USA: Gulf
Professional Publishing, 2001.
17. For more on fractures and hydraulic stimulations:
Gale JFW, Reed RM and Holder J: “Natural Fractures in
the Barnett Shale and Their Importance for Hydraulic
Fracture Treatments,” AAPG Bulletin 91, no. 4
(April 2007): 603–622.
18. Nelson, reference 16.
19. For more on image logs used to analyze drilling-induced
fractures and in situ stress direction: Aadnøy BS and
Bell JS: “Classification of Drilling-Induced Fractures
and Their Relationship to In-Situ Stress Directions,”
The Log Analyst 39, no. 6 (November 1998): 27–42.
meability and offer conduits to fluid flow. During
drilling operations, open fractures fill with drill-
ing fluid or seal with mudcake.18 Healed frac- X,551
tures, also referred to as mineral-filled and
closed fractures, are common (Figure 22). After
they form, fractures can fill over time with a sec-
X,552
ondary cementing material, which is often
quartz, carbonate or a combination of minerals.
Unlike open fractures, healed fractures can
impede reservoir fluid flow. However, fracture X,553
stimulation programs often reactivate the frac-
ture network along healed surfaces. In some
cases, drilling alone can reactivate healed frac-
X,554
tures. Partially healed fractures exhibit varying
Figure 23. Drilling-induced fractures. Mechanical
degrees of open and closed properties.
failure of the borehole wall is evidenced by
For identifying and characterizing natural
drilling-induced fractures. These types of
fractures in situ, analysts may use well logs, which fractures are usually parallel features on image
are usually integrated with other techniques to logs. Drilling-induced fractures do not contribute
develop a macroscopic view of the reservoir. to production although they are useful indicators
of the direction of maximum principal stress.
Fractures are often inferred from logging tool
Drilling engineers can use this information when
responses rather than measured. For instance, developing well profiles and may change drilling
analysts may use sonic log data to identify anoma- mud properties to avoid future occurrences.

September 2015 19
Oilfield Review
SEPTEMBER 15
Imaging Fig 24
stress profile because they are associated with pulses is highly dependent on the geomechanical
the direction of maximum principal stress, do not properties and quality of the borehole surface.
contribute to production. The best results are achieved in hard formations
Another indicator of stress direction is bore- that have few drilling-induced effects. Dispersion
hole breakout, which is characterized by an oval curves from elastic shear waves are also used to
borehole observed in caliper logs. The presence characterize fracture systems.20 Tools such as the
of breakout along one axis is usually an indica- Sonic Scanner acoustic scanning platform can
tion of the direction of minimum principal stress. acquire these measurements on wireline. LWD
Breakout in one direction combined with the options include the SonicScope multipole sonic-
presence of fractures in the adjacent axes are while-drilling service. Optical methods include
indications of drilling-induced fractures; analysts downhole cameras and televiewers; mud-filled
can infer principal stress orientation based on environments are difficult to image using optical
these features. devices, however. The most common and effec-
Many tools and methods have been developed tive method for fracture evaluation involves high-
to detect natural fractures downhole. Some basic resolution electrical measurements. The FMI-HD
methods commonly deployed use seismic, ultra- and Quanta Geo services are examples of wireline
sonic, sonic, optical and electrical systems. logging tools and the MicroScope HD tool is an
Geologists can use seismic data to detect frac- LWD example.
ture swarms but not individual fractures. Until recently, fracture characterization
Ultrasonic tools, such as the UBI service, produce using imaging logs for wells drilled with OBM
full circumferential images of the borehole wall; posed problems for analysts. The spatial resolu-
however, image quality from reflected ultrasonic tion for tools such as the OBMI and OBMI2 ser-
N lation designs that properly leverage the fracture
Conductive Resistive W E Conductive
S mercial success and failure. Many of these wells
Bit Size
Classification
6 in. 16
Conductive fracture
Gamma Ray Resistive fracture
Image Orientation, degree Image Orientation, degree
0 gAPI 150 N E S W N True Dip N E
Depth, ft 0 90 180 270 360 0 degree 90 0
X,590
Stereonet plot
N
330°
0°
30°
300° 60°
W 270° 90° E
240° 120°
X,600 210°
180°
S
150°
X,610
Figure 24. Images from a naturally fractured zone. In this image from a well drilled in the Northeast
US, the gamma ray log (Track 1) is indicative of a shale. The dynamically generated image (Track 2)
has been interpreted by a geologist. The fractures on the image appear to be dipping to the south;
however, these data have not been corrected for borehole drift and tool position. The high-angle
fractures are actually dipping to the NNW (Track 3), as indicated by the modified tadpoles, which have
been corrected to give true dip. Their strike is ENE–WSW, which the stereonet plot clearly indicates;
stereonet plots stack interpreted data to simplify trend identification. The uninterpreted image (Track 4)
is presented for reference.
20
vices is about 1 cm, which is sufficient for
structural dip determination. However, the pho-
torealistic images provided by the Quanta Geo
service redefines OBM imaging both in quality
and resolution (Figure 24). This was demon-
strated recently in a horizontal well drilled in an
unconventional reservoir that has vertical and
subvertical fractures.
Finding Fractures in Unconventional Plays
The advances in technology that enable oil and
gas operators to exploit unconventional resources
such as organic shales, coalbed methane and
tight rocks include horizontal drilling and
hydraulic fracture stimulation. The presence of
natural fractures, and the activation of those
fractures using hydraulic stimulation, is one of
the key components for success. When operators
lack a thorough understanding of the fracture
networks in place, drilling operations, comple-
tion designs and stimulation programs may not
be optimal.21
For wells in which the presence of fracture
networks is key to success, completion and stimu-
Resistive systems can mean the difference between com-
are drilled using OBM systems, which makes frac-
ture characterization difficult because an OBM-
filled open fracture will have a resistivity signature
S W N
similar to that of a mineral-filled healed fracture.
90 180 270 360
The Quanta Geo service identifies fractures and
may, in some cases, be able to differentiate open
fractures from healed fractures.
Southwestern Energy drilled a vertical evalu-
ation well in an unconventional resource play in
the Northeast US. The zone of interest was drilled
using OBM and had an 8 1/2-in. borehole. The well
was used for data acquisition to understand and
characterize the reservoir and would then serve
as a pilot hole for a lateral well. A UBI tool was
run in addition to the Quanta Geo service, and
the images from the two sources were compared.
The increased circumferential coverage of
the borehole and its enhanced resolution allow
the Quanta Geo service to overcome limitations
inherent in older generation OBM imaging tools.
Analysts can usually detect high-angle fractures
intersecting the borehole that might not be obvi-
ous using data from other tools.
Data from the Quanta Geo service can also be
processed to evaluate tool standoff, a measure of
the degree of pad contact with the borehole wall.
The standoff image, generated using an advanced
inversion processing technique, is then used to
correct the image for standoff effects.22 These
data can also be used to generate a sensor stand-
Oilfield Review
 N
Conductive Resistive Conductive Resistive Low Standoff High Standoff
W E
S
Quanta Geo Static Images Quanta Geo Dynamic Images Classification Quanta Geo Inverted Acoustic Dynamic Amplitude Images
Standoff Static Images
Healed fracture
Open fracture
Depth, ft

Partial fracture
Image Orientation, degree Image Orientation, degree Image Orientation, degree Image Orientation, degree
N E S W N N E S W N True Dip N E S W N N E S W N
0 90 180 270 360 0 90 180 270 360 0 degree 90 0 90 180 270 360 0 90 180 270 360

975

Stereonet plot
N
0°
330° 30°

300° 60°

W 270° 90° E
980
240° 120°

210° 150°
180°
S

Figure 25. Differentiating open and healed fractures. Sinusoids indicate
fractures in the static image (Track 1) and the dynamic image (Track 2) from
the Quanta Geo service. Modified tadpoles and the stereonet plot (Track 3)
indicate the high angle of the fractures and their NNW–SSE strike direction.
Determining the fracture status—open or closed—from these images
alone is not possible. The UBI image (Track 5) shows many superficial
drilling artifacts—the effects of drilling and backreaming—and vertical
scratches from previous logging runs. The fracture at about 977 ft is visible
on all images. Two fractures at about 982 ft do not appear in the UBI image
or the inverted standoff image (Track 4). These fractures are likely closed.
By inference, the standoff image may be a useful indicator of the status of
fractures—open and closed.

off image, which is a quality indicator of the
image generated by the tool and can reflect the
presence of hole rugosity. Because the measure-
ment comes directly from the borehole wall, the
image resolves both geologic and drilling-induced
features. Another application of the standoff
image is the identification of open fractures.
Tools such as the UBI service are often used to
determine fracture status. Images derived from
the UBI service result from variations in the
acoustic reflectivity of the inner surface of the
wellbore. These images are sensitive to minor
changes in the surface. Open fractures filled with
fluid can be distinguished; however, healed frac-
20. For more on sonic data used for fracture detection:
Haldorsen JBU, Johnson DL, Plona T, Sinha B,
Valero H-P and Winkler K: “Borehole Acoustic Waves,”
Oilfield Review 18, no. 1 (Spring 2006): 34–43.
21. For more on geosteering and horizontal drilling:
Amer et al, reference 4.
22. For more on using standoff images for fracture
characterization: Chen et al, reference 10.
23. For more on using images from the UBI service for
fracture characterization: Ellis D, Engelman B,
Fruchter J, Shipp B, Jensen R, Lewis R, Scott H and
Trent S: “Environmental Applications of Oilfield
Technology,” Oilfield Review 8, no. 3 (Autumn 1996): 44–57.
tures filled with a material that has an acoustic tools in some ways approach that vision. Logging
impedance similar to that of the surrounding for- tools will never completely replace conventional
mation are invisible to the tool.23 This application coring because cores provide information that
has been used to infer open or closed fractures. extends beyond visual analysis. However, new
Log analysts compared acoustic reflection techniques and technologies are giving geologists
images with those from the Quanta Geo service, insights into downhole conditions in both WBM
including the standoff image (Figure 25). The and OBM wells never before possible.
interpreters were able to identify fractures in The answers from these technologies help
the dynamic and static images. The inverted guide developers of completion programs to focus
standoff images clearly identified the open frac- on the sweet spots in individual wells and also
tures, but healed fractures were not resolved. provide insight into reservoir properties on a
By inference, fractures observed only in the scale previously unattainable in OBM-drilled
standoff image are considered open; those not wells. When combined with information from
Oilfield Review
seen in the SEPTEMBER
standoff images15 are considered other petrophysical measurements and surface
closed or veryImaging
small open fractures.
Fig 26 For geolo- and subsurface seismic data, these new
ORSEPT
gists, the ability 15 IMG 26 the state of
to characterize approaches will enable operators to effectively
fractures in downhole conditions from evaluate their resources, optimize development
Quanta Geo data has great implications for well programs and, in some cases, move marginal
completion designs and field development. plays into the realm of commerciality. From a
financial standpoint, the resulting picture will be
The Future of Imaging worth more than mere words alone. —TS
Electrical coring was a vision of the early develop-
ers of wireline logging tools. The pictures painted
by the latest generation of photorealistic imaging

September 2015 21