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DIGIAC 1750
Potentiometer
A potentiometer is a three-terminal resistor with a sliding or rotating contact that
forms an adjustable voltage divider. If only two terminals are used, one end and
the wiper, it acts as a variable resistor.
In a circuit diagram, a potentiometer is represented by one of the two symbols
below.
Potentiometer
Transducers
A device that converts variations in a physical quantity, such as pressure or
brightness, into an electrical signal, or vice versa.
Potentiometers are also very widely used as a part of displacement transducers
because of the simplicity of construction and because they can give a large output
signal.
Types of Potentiometer:
Slider Potentiometer
A linear potentiometer transducer consists of a potentiometer, which is short
circuited by a slider. Let the resistance position caused by the slider movement be
BC. As the movement of the slider moves further to the right, the amount of
resistance increases. This increase in resistance value can be noted according to the
corresponding change in the linear displacement of the slider.
Character:
Tiny size slide potentiometer for side adjustment type, travel=10mm.
Observations
s.no 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
voltage 11.88 11.22 9.65 8.19 6.84 5.15 4.31 2.82 1.01 0.58
s.no 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
voltage 4.98 4.13 3.04 1.79 0.63 -0.67 -1.82 -2.92 -4.04 -4.92
CONCLUSION
This lab effectively showed the working of slide and rotary potentiometer. It
demonstrated how to set-up a DIGIAC 1750 trainer, and how to manipulate it in a
laboratory setting. In addition, the lab provided a demonstration of the
potentiometer output voltage. Although significant error existed in this lab, the
results still reflect the relationships governing the DIGIAC 1750 trainer sufficiently
for understanding in an experimental contextual environment.
INTRODUCTION:
The Wheatstone bridge is a circuit used to compare an unknown resistance with a
known resistance. The bridge is commonly used in control circuits. For instance, a
temperature sensor in an oven often consists of a resistor with a resistance that
increases with temperature. This temperature-dependent resistor is compared
with a control resistor (outside the oven) to control a heater and maintain a set
temperature.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
A schematic of a Wheatstone bridge is shown below:
PROCEDURE
The unknown resistor is Rx, the resistor Rk is known, and the two resistors R1 and
R2 have a known ratio R2:R1, although their individual values may not be known.
A galvanometer G measures the voltage difference VAB between points A and B.
Either the known resistor Rk or the ratio R2:R1 is adjusted until the voltage
difference VAB is zero and no current flows through G. When VAB = 0, the bridge is
said to be “balanced”. Since VAB = 0, the voltage drops from C to A must equal the
voltage drop from C to B, VCA =VCB. Likewise, we must have VAD = VBD.
EQUATIONS
(1) IRa1=IbRk
(2) I Ra 2=IbR x
CONCLUSION
This lab effectively showed how the Wheatstone bridge provides a mechanism to
calculate an unknown resistance using the known relationships given through the
resistivity correlation to length. It demonstrated how to set-up a Wheatstone
bridge and how to manipulate a Wheatstone bridge in a laboratory setting. In
addition, the lab provided a demonstration of the aforementioned linear
relationships. Although significant error existed in this lab, the results still reflect
the relationships governing the Wheatstone bridge sufficiently for understanding
in an experimental contextual environment.
INTRODUCTION
What is a meter?
A meter is any device built to accurately detect and display an electrical quantity in
a form readable by a human being.
Voltmeter
A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring electrical potential difference
between two points in an electric circuit.
Ammeter
An ammeter is a measuring instrument used to measure the current in a circuit.
Multi-range voltmeter
Calculation
V = IR
So
V = I (Rs + Rm)
V/Im= Rs + Rm
Rm = 10k, Ifs = 0.98mA, V = 15V
Rs = 15/0.98mV - 10K
= 5K ohm V = 25 V
Rs = 15K ohm
PMMC
The permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC) instruments consists of a light coil of
copper wire, suspended in the field of permanent magnet current in the coil to
produce magnetic field that interacts with the wire field resulting in rotation of the
coil. A pointer connected with the coil deflects over a calibrated scale, modify the
level of current flowing in the coil, for this to occur, three forces are operating
1. Deflecting force
2. Controlling force
3. Damping force
The deflecting force causes the pointer to move from its two position, where
current passes through it.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Procedure
The permanent magnetic coil (PMMC) analog meter can be used as a multistage
volt meter and multi range ammeter by connecting resistance in series and in
parallel.
CONCLUSION
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Equation
𝑍1 𝑍3
=
𝑍2 𝑍4
Types of bridges
1. Capacitor bridge
2. Inductance bridge
3. Maxwell’s bridge
Capacitor bridge
The capacitance bridges are used to measure unknown capacitance by the same
phenomena of wheat stone bridge.
C1=C2*(R4/R3)
Inductance bridge
The inductance bridge is used to measure the unknown inductance. The basic
configuration is shown below
L1=R2*R3*C4
Maxwell bridge
Procedure
Conclusion
In this lab we learnt is that the by using a single bridge we can measure unknown
inductance and capacitance. This reduces the hardware that is used in Maxwell’s
inductance capacitance bridge and Schering bridge, which ultimately reduces the
cost. The Q-factor can be improved by using high quality of inductor and capacitor
and by increasing the value of resistors
INTRODUCTION
STRAIN
STRAIN GAUGE
It is often easy to measure the parameters like length, displacement, weight etc.
that can be felt easily by some senses. However, it is very difficult to measure the
dimensions like force, stress and strain that cannot be really sensed directly by any
instrument. For such cases special devices called strain gauges are very useful.
The most widely used gauge, however, is the bonded metallic strain gauge. The
metallic strain gauge consists of a very fine wire or, more commonly, metallic foil
arranged in a grid pattern. The grid pattern maximizes the amount of metallic wire
or foil subject to strain in the parallel direction. The cross sectional area of the grid
is minimized to reduce the effect of shear strain and Poisson Strain. The grid is
bonded to a thin backing, called the carrier, which is attached directly to the test
specimen. Therefore, the strain experienced by the test specimen is transferred
directly to the strain gauge, which responds with a linear change in electrical
resistance.
alignment marks
solder tabs
active grid
length
carrier
Gauge Factor
A fundamental parameter of the strain gauge is its sensitivity to strain, expressed
quantitatively as the gauge factor (GF). Gauge factor is defined as the ratio of
fractional change in electrical resistance to the fractional change in length (strain):
∆R / R ∆R / R
GF = -------------- = --------------
∆L / L ε
The Gauge Factor for metallic strain gauges is typically around 2.
CIRCUIT DIGARAM
Wheatstone Bridge
The electrical circuit containing the strain gauge is as important as the gauge itself.
It is the job of the electrical circuit to relate the change in the gauge's resistance to
a measurable change in voltage. The Wheatstone Bridge circuit is the most popular
choice for accomplishing this. It is also called a quarter bridge circuit because the
gauge itself is one of four resistances in the circuit.
PROCEDURE
Connect the circuit and set the amplifier # 1 Gain coarse to 100.
Switch on the power supply and set the offset voltage output to zero.
Place all your Ten weight and check the meter deflection.
Note the value of output voltage.
Repeat these steps for all your loads and record the value.
READINGS
No of coins
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Output voltage
CONCLUSION
In this lab we have learnt about strain and working of strain gauge. A strain gauge
is a thin strip of metal designed to measure mechanical load by changing resistance
when stressed (stretched or compressed within its elastic limit).
Strain gauge resistance changes are typically measured in a bridge circuit, to allow
for precise measurement of the small resistance changes, and to provide
compensation for resistance variations due to temperature.
INTRODUCTION
PHOTO TRANSISTOR
A phototransistor is a device that converts light energy into electric energy.
Phototransistors are similar to photo resistors but produce both current and
voltage, while photo resistors only produce current.
Lamp 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
voltages/brightness
O/P V 4.92 4.86 4.57 4.16 3.07 1.98 0.53 0.37 0.22 0.21
PHOTO DIODE
A photodiode is a semiconductor device that converts light into an electrical
current. The current is generated when photons are absorbed in the photo diode.
Photodiodes may contain optical filters, built-in lenses, and may have large or small
surface areas.
Lamp 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
voltages/brightness
O/P V 0.34 0.35 0.36 0.40 0.46 0.60 0.81 1.05 1.60
Lamp 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
voltages/brightness
O/P V 4.92 4.92 4.89 4.73 4.44 4.01 3.19 2.45 1.57 1.35
Procedure
Connect circuit as shown in figure.
Configure the two DMM as voltmeter range of 20v.v1 measure the
phototransistor voltage and v2 measure the filament voltage.
Fit the opaque clear over the plastic enclosure to exclude all ambient light.
Switch on the power supply and set the 10kohm wire wound resistor to
minimum for zero output voltage.
Take the readings.
CONCLUSION
In this lab, we understood the concept of optical sensors and different transducer
and analyze its behavior on light intensity when we apply different intensity lights
by varying the resistance of the light source and analyze the output of the photo
transistor. We understood that the relation between light and resistance is directly
proportional to each other.
INTRODUCTION
LVDT stands for “Linear Variable Differential Transformer”
An LVDT is essentially a non-contacting transducer that can convert the rectilinear
motion of an object to which it is mechanically coupled to an analog signal which
can be used to determine the displacement of the object. They are extremely
accurate, robust, and proven through years of use in high pressure hydraulic
environments. LVDTs are extremely accurate, capable of resolving movements as
small as a few millionths of an inch, however only have a stroke range of
approximately 5 inches. But using CPI’s highly developed sensor core, our sensor
converts the relatively long stroke of hydraulic cylinders to the short stroke of the
LVDT via a patented linear to rotary to linear mechanism that is unique in the
industry.
The LVDT technology used by CPI is extremely accurate, tough, and reliable. LVDT
linear position sensors are available that can measure movements as small as a few
millionths of an inch up to several inches, and others are capable of measuring
positions up to ±120 inches (±0.5 m).
CIRCUIT DIGARAM
Equation
Vab = Va – Vb
PROCEDURE
Connect the LVDT circuit on DIGAC 1750 trainer.
Observe the output of LDVT.
Change the position of moveable core, right to left.
Observe the output at different position.
Advantage
Friction-Free Operation
Infinite Resolution
Unlimited Mechanical Life
Null Point Repeatability
Fast Dynamic Response
Absolute Output
RESULT
CONCLUSION
Our linear variable differential transformer generated linear behavior when the
core was fully inserted into the inner coil. Once the core left the inner coil, which
was responsible for driving the flux within the core, the induced flux decreased
significantly-causing a plunge towards a zero induction value. For the central, well
behaved portion, the linear plot actually consisted of three separate
lines. The slope of these lines varied according to the number of loops enclosing
the iron core. The left side was enclosed by only the inner coil and the negative coil.
At the zero point all three coils enclosed the core. Finally, when the core was moved
to the right side the core was enclosed by only the inner coil and the positive coil.
This experiment should be repeated with a longer iron core.
INTRODUCTION
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
The Air Flow Transducer
Reading
CONCLUSION
This lab effectively shows the working principle of Air Flow Transducer and Air
Pressure Transducer. Airflow flow is the movement of air from one area to another.
The primary cause of airflow is the existence of gradients. Measuring the airflow is
necessary in many applications such as ventilation (to determine how much air is
being replaced).
Designing and Analyzing the Working of Temperature Sensor
Abstract
This Lab reviews various methods of utilizing bipolar transistors and integrated
circuits as temperature transducers. Starting with a study of the temperature
dependence of the base emitter voltages of bipolar transistors, the properties of
single-transistor temperature sensors are discussed. Next, integrated circuits that
generate an accurate output current or voltage proportional to the absolute
temperature (PTAT) are presented, along with a novel type of integrated circuit
that generates an output voltage on a °C, °F or an arbitrary scale. The accuracy,
stability and calibration problems of the different transducers are discussed and
compared with each other. Finally, a smart IC sensor with on-chip microcomputer
interfacing is described.
INTRODUCTION
A temperature sensor is a device, typically, a thermocouple or RTD, that provides
for temperature measurement through an electrical signal. A thermocouple
(T/C) is made from two dissimilar metals that generate electrical voltage in direct
proportion to changes in temperature.
Pin Description:
Observation / Readings
Main advantage of LM35 is that it is linear i.e. 10mv/°C which means for every
degree rise in temperature the output of LM35 will rise by 10mv. So if the output
of LM35 is 220mv/0.22V the temperature will be 22°C. So if room temperature is
32°C then the output of LM35 will be 320mv i.e. 0.32V.
Conclusion
In this lab we learnt about the LM35 temperature sensor can be used to sense
internal temperature. LM35 is a very common and easy to use temperature sensor
transistor. The circuit only needs one component, which is LM35 itself. By
interfacing the output of LM35 to ADC of Arduino, we can obtain the actual
temperature reading.
Reference
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/240419190_Thermal_sensors_based_on_transistors