Eenrgy Audit and Management Books-Guide

Energy Audit and Management
Table of Contents
1. General Aspect of Energy Management and Energy Audit
1.1. Energy Scenario
1.2. Basics of Energy and Its various Forms
1.3. Energy Management and Audit
1.4. Material and Energy Balance
1.5. Energy Action Planning
1.6. Financial management
1.7. Project Management
1.8. Energy Monitoring and Targeting
1.9. Global Environmental Concerns
2. Energy Efficiency in Thermal Utilities
2.1. Fuels and Combustion
2.2. Boilers
2.3. Steam System
2.4. Furnaces
2.5. Insulation and Refractories
2.6. FBC Boilers
2.7. Cogeneration
2.8. Waste Heat Recovery
2.9. Annexure
3. Energy Efficiency in Electrical Utilities
3.1. Electrical System
3.2. Electrical Motors
3.3. Compressed Air System
3.4. HVAC and Refrigeration System
3.5. Fans and Blowers
3.6. Pumps and Pumping System
3.7. Cooling Tower
3.8. Lighting System
3.9. DG Set System
3.10. Electrical Efficiency Technologies in Electrical Systems
3.11. Annexure
4. Energy Performance Assessment for Equipment & Utility Systems
4.1. Energy Performance Assessment of Boilers
4.2. Energy Performance Assessment of Furnaces
4.3. Energy Performance Assessment of Cogeneration and Turbines (Gas, Steam)
4.4. Energy Performance Assessment of Heat Exchangers
4.5. Energy Performance Assessment of Motors and Variable Speed Drives
4.6. Energy Performance Assessment of Fans and Blowers
4.9. Energy Performance Assessment of HVAC Systems
4.10. Energy Performance Assessment of Lighting Systems
4.11. Performing Financial Analysis
4.12. Application of Non-Conventional & Renewable Energy Sources
4.13. Waste Minimization and Resource Conservation
1. ENERGY SCENARIO
Syllabus
Energy Scenario: Commercial and Non-Commercial Energy, Primary Energy Resources,
Commercial Energy Production, Final Energy Consumption, Energy Needs of Growing
Economy, Long Term Energy Scenario, Energy Pricing, Energy Sector Reforms, Energy
and Environment: Air Pollution, Climate Change, Energy Security, Energy Conservation
and its Importance, Energy Strategy for the Future, Energy Conservation Act-2001 and its
Features.
1.1 Introduction
Energy is one of the major inputs for the economic development of any country. In the case of
the developing countries, the energy sector assumes a critical importance in view of the ever-
increasing energy needs requiring huge investments to meet them.
Energy can be classified into several types based on the following criteria:
• Primary and Secondary energy

• Commercial and Non commercial energy
• Renewable and Non-Renewable energy
1.2 Primary and Secondary Energy

Primary energy sources are
those that are either found or
stored in nature. Common pri-
mary energy sources are coal,
oil, natural gas, and biomass
(such as wood). Other primary
energy sources available
include nuclear energy from
radioactive substances, thermal
energy stored in earth's interi-
or, and potential energy due to
earth's gravity. The major pri-
mary and secondary energy
sources are shown in Figure 1.1
Primary energy sources are
mostly converted in industrial
utilities into secondary energy
sources; for example coal, oil
Figure 1.1 Major Primary and Secondary Sources
or gas converted into steam
Bureau of Energy Efficiency 1

1. Energy Scenario
and electricity. Primary energy can also be used directly. Some energy sources have non-ener-
gy uses, for example coal or natural gas can be used as a feedstock in fertiliser plants.
1.3 Commercial Energy and Non Commercial Energy
Commercial Energy
The energy sources that are available in the market for a definite price are known as commer-
cial energy. By far the most important forms of commercial energy are electricity, coal and
refined petroleum products. Commercial energy forms the basis of industrial, agricultural,
transport and commercial development in the modern world. In the industrialized countries,
commercialized fuels are predominant source not only for economic production, but also for
many household tasks of general population.
Examples: Electricity, lignite, coal, oil, natural gas etc.
Non-Commercial Energy
The energy sources that are not available in the commercial market for a price are classified as
non-commercial energy. Non-commercial energy sources include fuels such as firewood, cattle
dung and agricultural wastes, which are traditionally gathered, and not bought at a price used
especially in rural households. These are also called traditional fuels. Non-commercial energy
is often ignored in energy accounting.
Example: Firewood, agro waste in rural areas; solar energy for water heating, electricity
generation, for drying grain, fish and fruits; animal power for transport, threshing, lifting water
for irrigation, crushing sugarcane; wind energy for lifting water and electricity generation.
1.4 Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy

Renewable energy is energy obtained from sources that are essentially inexhaustible. Examples
of renewable resources include wind power, solar power, geothermal energy, tidal power and
hydroelectric power (See Figure 1.2). The most important feature of renewable energy is that it
can be harnessed without the release of harmful pollutants.
Non-renewable energy is the conventional fossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas, which are
likely to deplete with time.
Figure 1.2 Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy

1. Energy Scenario
1.5 Global Primary Energy Reserves*

Coal
The proven global coal reserve was estimated to be 9,84,453 million
tonnes by end of 2003. The USA had the largest share of the global
reserve (25.4%) followed by Russia (15.9%), China (11.6%). India
was 4th in the list with 8.6%.
Oil
The global proven oil reserve was estimated to be 1147 billion barrels by the end of 2003. Saudi
Arabia had the largest share of the reserve with almost 23%.
(One barrel of oil is approximately 160 litres)
Gas
The global proven gas reserve was estimated to be 176 trillion cubic metres
by the end of 2003. The Russian Federation had the largest share of the
reserve with almost 27%.
(*Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy, June 2004)
World oil and gas reserves are estimated at just 45 years and 65
years respectively. Coal is likely to last a little over 200 years
Global Primary Energy Consumption

The global primary energy consumption at the end of 2003 was equivalent to 9741 million
tonnes of oil equivalent (Mtoe). The Figure 1.3 shows in what proportions the sources men-
tioned above contributed to this global figure.
Figure 1.3 Global Primary Energy Consumption

1. Energy Scenario
The primary energy consumption for few of the developed and developing countries are shown
in Table 1.1. It may be seen that India's absolute primary energy consumption is only 1/29th of
the world, 1/7th of USA, 1/1.6th time of Japan but 1.1, 1.3, 1.5 times that of Canada, France
and U.K respectively.
TABLE 1.1 PRIMARY ENERGY CONSUMPTION BY FUEL, 2003
In Million tonnes oil equivalent

Oil Natural Coal Nuclear Hydro Total
Country Gas Energy electric
USA 914.3 566.8 573.9 181.9 60.9 2297.8
Canada 96.4 78.7 31.0 16.8 68.6 291.4
France 94.2 39.4 12.4 99.8 14.8 260.6
Russian Federation 124.7 365.2 111.3 34.0 35.6 670.8
United Kingdom 76.8 85.7 39.1 20.1 1.3 223.2
China 275.2 29.5 799.7 9.8 64.0 1178.3
India 113.3 27.1 185.3 4.1 15.6 345.3
Japan 248.7 68.9 112.2 52.2 22.8 504.8
Malaysia 23.9 25.6 3.2 - 1.7 54.4
Pakistan 17.0 19.0 2.7 0.4 5.6 44.8
Singapore 34.1 4.8 - - - 38.9
TOTAL WORLD 3636.6 2331.9 2578.4 598.8 595.4 9741.1
Energy Distribution Between Developed and Developing Countries

Although 80 percent of the world's popula-
tion lies in the developing countries (a four-
fold population increase in the past 25 years),
their energy consumption amounts to only 40
percent of the world total energy consump-
tion. The high standards of living in the
developed countries are attributable to high-
energy consumption levels. Also, the rapid
population growth in the developing coun-
Figure 1.4: Energy Distribution Between D eveloped
tries has kept the per capita energy consump- and Developing Countries
tion low compared with that of highly indus-
trialized developed countries. The world average energy consumption per person is equivalent
to 2.2 tonnes of coal. In industrialized countries, people use four to five times more than the
world average, and nine times more than the average for the developing countries. An American
uses 32 times more commercial energy than an Indian.

1. Energy Scenario
1.6 Indian Energy Scenario

Coal dominates the energy mix in India, contributing to 55% of the total primary energy pro-
duction. Over the years, there has been a marked increase in the share of natural gas in prima-
ry energy production from 10% in 1994 to 13% in 1999. There has been a decline in the share
of oil in primary energy production from 20% to 17% during the same period.
Energy Supply
Coal Supply
India has huge coal reserves, at least 84,396 million tonnes of proven recoverable reserves (at
the end of 2003). This amounts to almost 8.6% of the world reserves and it may last for about
230 years at the current Reserve to Production (R/P) ratio. In contrast, the world's proven coal
reserves are expected to last only for 192 years at the current R/P ratio.
Reserves/Production (R/P) ratio- If the reserves remaining at the end of the year are divided
by the production in that year, the result is the length of time that the remaining reserves would
last if production were to continue at that level.
India is the fourth largest producer of coal and lignite in the world. Coal production is con-
centrated in these states (Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Orissa, Jharkhand, West Bengal).
Oil Supply
Oil accounts for about 36 % of India's
total energy consumption. India today
is one of the top ten oil-guzzling
nations in the world and will soon
overtake Korea as the third largest
consumer of oil in Asia after China
and Japan. The country's annual crude
oil production is peaked at about 32
million tonne as against the current
peak demand of about 110 million
tonne. In the current scenario, India's
oil consumption by end of 2007 is
expected to reach 136 million
tonne(MT), of which domestic production will be only 34 MT. India will have to pay an oil bill
of roughly $50 billion, assuming a weighted average price of $50 per barrel of crude. In 2003-
04, against total export of $64 billion, oil imports accounted for $21 billion. India imports 70%
of its crude needs mainly from gulf nations. The majority of India's roughly 5.4 billion barrels
in oil reserves are located in the Bombay High, upper Assam, Cambay, Krishna-Godavari. In
terms of sector wise petroleum product consumption, transport accounts for 42% followed by
domestic and industry with 24% and 24% respectively. India spent more than Rs.1,10,000 crore
on oil imports at the end of 2004.

1. Energy Scenario
Natural Gas Supply

Natural gas accounts for about 8.9 per cent of energy consumption in the country. The current
demand for natural gas is about 96 million cubic metres per day (mcmd) as against availability
of 67 mcmd. By 2007, the demand is expected to be around 200 mcmd. Natural gas reserves
are estimated at 660 billion cubic meters.
Electrical Energy Supply

The all India installed capacity of electric power generating sta-
tions under utilities was 1,12,581 MW as on 31st May 2004,
consisting of 28,860 MW- hydro, 77,931 MW - thermal and
2,720 MW- nuclear and 1,869 MW- wind (Ministry of Power).
The gross generation of power in the year 2002-2003 stood at
531 billion units (kWh).
Nuclear Power Supply

Nuclear Power contributes to about 2.4 per cent of electricity
generated in India. India has ten nuclear power reactors at five nuclear power stations produc-
ing electricity. More nuclear reactors have also been approved for construction.
Hydro Power Supply

India is endowed with a vast and viable hydro potential for power generation of which only
15% has been harnessed so far. The share of hydropower in the country's total generated units
has steadily decreased and it presently stands at 25% as on 31st May 2004. It is assessed that
exploitable potential at 60% load factor is 84,000 MW.
Final Energy Consumption

Final energy consumption is the actual energy demand at the user end. This is the difference
between primary energy consumption and the losses that takes place in transport, transmission
& distribution and refinement. The actual final energy consumption (past and projected) is
given in Table 1.2.
TABLE 1.2 DEMAND FOR COMMERCIAL ENERGY FOR FINAL

CONSUMPTION (BAU SCENARIO)
Source Units 1994-95 2001-02 2006-07 2011-12

Electricity Billion Units 289.36 480.08 712.67 1067.88
Coal Million Tonnes 76.67 109.01 134.99 173.47
Lignite Million Tonnes 4.85 11.69 16.02 19.70
Natural Gas Million Cubic Meters 9880 15730 18291 20853
Oil Products Million Tonnes 63.55 99.89 139.95 196.47
Source: Planning Commission BAU:_Business As Usual

1. Energy Scenario
Sector Wise Energy Consumption in India

The major commercial energy consuming sectors in the
country are classified as shown in the Figure 1.5. As seen
from the figure, industry remains the biggest consumer of
commercial energy and its share in the overall consumption
is 49%. (Reference year: 1999/2000)
1.7 Energy Needs of Growing Economy Figure 1.5 Sector Wise Energy
Consumption (1999-2000)
Economic growth is desirable for developing countries, and
energy is essential for economic growth. However, the relationship between economic growth
and increased energy demand is not always a straightforward linear one. For example, under
present conditions, 6% increase in India's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) would impose an
increased demand of 9 % on its energy sector.
In this context, the ratio of energy demand to GDP is a useful indicator. A high ratio reflects
energy dependence and a strong influence of energy on GDP growth. The developed countries,
by focusing on energy efficiency and lower energy-intensive routes, maintain their energy to
GDP ratios at values of less than 1. The ratios for developing countries are much higher.
India's Energy Needs

The plan outlay vis-à-vis share of energy is given in Figure 1.6. As seen from the Figure, 18.0%
of the total five-year plan outlay is spent on the energy sector.
PLANWISE OUTLAY
Figure 1.6 Expenditure Towards Energy Sector
Per Capita Energy Consumption

The per capita energy consumption (see Figure 1.7) is too low for India as compared to devel-
oped countries. It is just 4% of USA and 20% of the world average. The per capita consump-
tion is likely to grow in India with growth in economy thus increasing the energy demand.

1. Energy Scenario
Figure 1.7 Per Capita Energy Consumption
Energy Intensity
Energy intensity is energy consumption per unit of GDP. Energy intensity indicates the devel-
opment stage of the country. India's energy intensity is 3.7 times of Japan, 1.55 times of USA,
1.47 times of Asia and 1.5 times of World average.
1.8 Long Term Energy Scenario for India
Coal
Coal is the predominant energy source for power production in India, generating approximate-
ly 70% of total domestic electricity. Energy demand in India is expected to increase over the
next 10-15 years; although new oil and gas plants are planned, coal is expected to remain the
dominant fuel for power generation. Despite significant increases in total installed capacity dur-
ing the last decade, the gap between electricity supply and demand continues to increase. The
resulting shortfall has had a negative impact on industrial output and economic growth.
However, to meet expected future demand, indigenous coal production will have to be greatly
expanded. Production currently stands at around 290 Million tonnes per year, but coal demand
is expected to more than double by 2010. Indian coal is typically of poor quality and as such
requires to be beneficiated to improve the quality; Coal imports will also need to increase dra-
matically to satisfy industrial and power generation requirements.
Oil
India's demand for petroleum products is likely to rise from 97.7 million tonnes in 2001-02 to
around 139.95 million tonnes in 2006-07, according to projections of the Tenth Five-Year Plan.
The plan document puts compound annual growth rate (CAGR) at 3.6 % during the plan peri-
od. Domestic crude oil production is likely to rise marginally from 32.03 million tonnes in
2001-02 to 33.97 million tonnes by the end of the 10th plan period (2006-07). India's self suf-
ficiency in oil has consistently declined from 60% in the 50s to 30% currently. Same is expect-

1. Energy Scenario
ed to go down to 8% by 2020. As shown in

the figure 1.8, around 92% of India's total
oil demand by 2020 has to be met by
imports.
Natural Gas
India's natural gas production is likely to
rise from 86.56 million cmpd in 2002-03
to 103.08 million cmpd in 2006-07. It is
mainly based on the strength of a more
than doubling of production by private
operators to 38.25 mm cmpd. Figure 1.8 India's Oil Balance
Electricity
India currently has a 142700
160000
peak demand shortage
140000
of around 14% and an
120000
energy deficit of 8.4%. 100000
Keeping this in view 80000
and to maintain a GDP 60000
(gross domestic prod- 40000
700 97.7 3522.5
uct) growth of 8% to 20000
10%, the Government 0

Proved Reserve Consumption
of India has very pru-
India 700 97.7
dently set a target of World 142700 3522.5
215,804 MW power
generation capacity by Figure 1.9 Proven Oil Reserve/Consumption (in Million Tonnes)
March 2012 from the India Vs World (At End 2002)
level of 100,010 MW as
on March 2001, that is a capacity addition of 115,794 MW in the next 11 years (Table 1.3).
In the area of nuclear power the objective is to achieve 20,000 MW of nuclear generation capac-
ity by the year 2020.
TABLE 1.3 INDIA'S PERSPECTIVE PLAN FOR POWER FOR ZERO DEFICIT
POWER BY 2011/12 (SOURCE TENTH AND ELEVENTH FIVE-YEAR
PLAN PROJECTIONS)
Thermal Gas / LNG / Nuclear Hydro Total(MW)

(Coal) (MW) Diesel (MW) (MW) (MW)
Installed capacity as on Gas: 10,153
March 2001 61,157 Diesel: 864 2720 25,116 100,010
Additional capacity 53,333 20,408 9380 32,673 115,794
(2001-2012)
Total capacity as on 114,490 31,425 12,100 57,789 215,804
March 2012 (53.0%) (14.6%) (5.6%) (26.8%)

1. Energy Scenario
1.9 Energy Pricing in India

Price of energy does not reflect true cost to society. The basic assumption underlying efficien-
cy of market place does not hold in our economy, since energy prices are undervalued and ener-
gy wastages are not taken seriously. Pricing practices in India like many other developing coun-
tries are influenced by political, social and economic compulsions at the state and central level.
More often than not, this has been the foundation for energy sector policies in India. The Indian
energy sector offers many examples of cross subsidies e.g., diesel, LPG and kerosene being
subsidised by petrol, petroleum products for industrial usage and industrial, and commercial
consumers of electricity subsidising the agricultural and domestic consumers.
Coal
Grade wise basic price of coal at the pithead excluding statutory levies for run-of-mine (ROM)
coal are fixed by Coal India Ltd from time to time. The pithead price of coal in India compares
favourably with price of imported coal. In spite of this, industries still import coal due its high-
er calorific value and low ash content.
Oil
As part of the energy sector reforms, the government has attempted to bring prices for many of
the petroleum products (naphtha, furnace oil, LSHS, LDO and bitumen) in line with interna-
tional prices. The most important achievement has been the linking of diesel prices to interna-
tional prices and a reduction in subsidy. However, LPG and kerosene, consumed mainly by
domestic sectors, continue to be heavily subsidised. Subsidies and cross-subsidies have result-
ed in serious distortions in prices, as they do not reflect economic costs in many cases.
Natural Gas
The government has been the sole authority for fixing the price of natural gas in the country. It
has also been taking decisions on the allocation of gas to various competing consumers. The gas
prices varies from Rs 5 to Rs.15 per cubic metre.
Electricity
Electricity tariffs in India are structured in a relatively simple manner. While high tension con-
sumers are charged based on both demand (kVA) and energy (kWh), the low-tension (LT) con-
sumer pays only for the energy consumed (kWh) as per tariff system in most of the electricity
boards. The price per kWh varies significantly across States as well as customer segments with-
in a State. Tariffs in India have been modified to consider the time of usage and voltage level
of supply. In addition to the base tariffs, some State Electricity Boards have additional recov-
ery from customers in form of fuel surcharges, electricity duties and taxes. For example, for an
industrial consumer the demand charges may vary from Rs. 150 to Rs. 300 per kVA, whereas
the energy charges may vary anywhere between Rs. 2 to Rs. 5 per kWh. As for the tariff adjust-
ment mechanism, even when some States have regulatory commissions for tariff review, the
decisions to effect changes are still political and there is no automatic adjustment mechanism,
which can ensure recovery of costs for the electricity boards.

1. Energy Scenario
1.10 Energy Sector Reforms

Since the initiation of economic reforms in India in 1991, there has been a growing acceptance
of the need for deepening these reforms in several sectors of the economy, which were essen-
tially in the hands of the government for several decades. It is now been realized that if sub-
stance has to be provided to macroeconomic policy reform, then it must be based on reforms
that concern the functioning of several critical sectors of the economy, among which the infra-
structure sectors in general and the energy sector in particular, are paramount.
Coal
The government has recognized the need for new coal policy initiatives and for rationalization
of the legal and regulatory framework that would govern the future development of this indus-
try. One of the key reforms is that the government has allowed importing of coal to meet our
requirements. Private sector has been allowed to extract coal for captive use only. Further
reforms are contemplated for which the Coal Mines Nationalization Act needs to be amended
for which the Bill is awaiting approval of the Parliament.
The ultimate objective of some of the ongoing measures and others under consideration is
to see that a competitive environment is created for the functioning of various entities in this
industry. This would not only bring about gains in efficiency but also effect cost reduction,
which would consequently ensure supply of coal on a larger scale at lower prices. Competition
would also have the desirable effect of bringing in new technology, for which there is an urgent
and overdue need since the coal industry has suffered a prolonged period of stagnation in tech-
nological innovation.
Oil and Natural Gas

Since 1993, private investors have been allowed to import and market liquefied petroleum gas
(LPG) and kerosene freely; private investment is also been allowed in lubricants, which are not
subject to price controls. Prices for naphtha and some other fuels have been liberalized. In 1997
the government introduced the New Exploration Licensing Policy (NELP) in an effort to pro-
mote investment in the exploration and production of domestic oil and gas. In addition, the
refining sector has been opened to private and foreign investors in order to reduce imports of
refined products and to encourage investment in downstream pipelines. Attractive terms are
being offered to investors for the construction of liquefied natural gas (LNG) import facilities.
Electricity
Following the enactment of the Electricity Regulatory Commission Legislation, the Central
Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC) was set up, with the main objective of regulating
the Central power generation utilities. State level regulatory bodies have also been set up to set
tariffs and promote competition. Private investments in power generation were also allowed.
The State SEBs were asked to switch over to separate Generation, Transmission and
Distribution corporations. There are plans to link all SEB grids and form a unified national
power grid.
Electricity Act, 2003

The government has enacted Electricity Act, 2003 which seeks to bring about a qualitative
transformation of the electricity sector. The Act seeks to create liberal framework of develop-

1. Energy Scenario
ment for the power sector by distancing Government from regulation. It replaces the three exist-
ing legislations, namely, Indian Electricity Act, 1910, the Electricity (Supply) Act, 1948 and
the Electricity Regulatory Commissions Act, 1998. The objectives of the Act are "to consoli-
date the laws relating to generation, transmission, distribution, trading and use of electricity and
generally for taking measures conducive to development of electricity industry, promoting
competition therein, protecting interest of consumers and supply of electricity to all areas, ratio-
nalization of electricity tariff, ensuring transparent policies regarding subsidies, promotion of
efficient and environmentally benign policies, constitution of Central Electricity Authority,
Regulatory Commissions and establishment of Appellate Tribunal and for matters connected
therewith or incidental thereto."
The salient features of the Electricity Act, 2003 are:

i) The Central Government to prepare a National Electricity Policy in consultation with State
Governments. (Section 3)
ii) Thrust to complete the rural electrification and provide for management of rural distribution
by Panchayats, Cooperative Societies, non-Government organisations, franchisees etc.
(Sections 4, 5 & 6)
iii) Provision for licence free generation and distribution in the rural areas. (Section 14)
iv) Generation being delicensed and captive generation being freely permitted. Hydro projects
would, however, need clearance from the Central Electricity Authority. (Sections 7, 8 & 9)
v) Transmission Utility at the Central as well as State level, to be a Government company - with
responsibility for planned and coordinated development of transmission network. (Sections 38
& 39)
vi) Provision for private licensees in transmission and entry in distribution through an indepen-
dent network, (Section 14)
vii) Open access in transmission from the outset. (Sections 38-40)
viii) Open access in distribution to be introduced in phases with surcharge for current level of
cross subsidy to be gradually phased out along with cross subsidies and obligation to supply.
SERCs to frame regulations within one year regarding phasing of open access. (Section 42)
ix) Distribution licensees would be free to undertake generation and generating companies
would be free to take up distribution businesses. (Sections 7, 12)
x) The State Electricity Regulatory Commission is a mandatory requirement. (Section 82)
xi) Provision for payment of subsidy through budget. (Section 65)
xii) Trading, a distinct activity is being recognised with the safeguard of the Regulatory
Commissions being authorised to fix ceilings on trading margins, if necessary. (Sections 12, 79
& 86)
xiii) Provision for reorganisation or continuance of SEBs. (Sections 131 & 172)
xiv) Metering of all electricity supplied made mandatory. (Section 55)
xv) An Appellate Tribunal to hear appeals against the decision of the CERC and
SERCs. (Section 111)
xvi) Provisions relating to theft of electricity made more stringent. (Section 135-150)
xvii) Provisions safeguarding consumer interests. (Sections 57-59, 166) Ombudsman scheme
(Section 42) for consumers grievance redressal.

1. Energy Scenario
1.11 Energy and Environment

The usage of energy resources in industry
leads to environmental damages by polluting
the atmosphere. Few of examples of air pollu-
tion are sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrous oxide
(NOX) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions
from boilers and furnaces, chloro-fluro car-
bons (CFC) emissions from refrigerants use,
etc. In chemical and fertilizers industries,
toxic gases are released. Cement plants and
power plants spew out particulate matter.
Typical inputs, outputs, and emissions for a
typical industrial process are shown in Figure Figure 1.10 Inputs & Outputs of Process
1.10.
Air Pollution
A variety of air pollutants have known or suspected harmful effects on human health and the
environment. These air pollutants are basically the products of combustion from fossil fuel use.
Air pollutants from these sources may not only create problems near to these sources but also
can cause problems far away. Air pollutants can travel long distances, chemically react in the
atmosphere to produce secondary pollutants such as acid rain or ozone.
Evolutionary Trends in Pollution Problems

In both developed and rapidly industrialising countries, the major historic air pollution
problem has typically been high levels of smoke and SO2 arising from the combustion of sul-
phur-containing fossil fuels such as coal for domestic and industrial purposes.
Smogs resulting from the combined effects of black smoke, sulphate / acid aerosol and fog
have been seen in European cities until few decades ago and still occur in many cities in devel-
oping world. In developed countries, this problem has significantly reduced over recent decades
as a result of changing fuel-use patterns; the increasing use of cleaner fuels such as natural gas,
and the implementation of effective smoke and emission control policies.
In both developed and developing countries, the major threat to clean air is now posed by
traffic emissions. Petrol- and diesel-engined motor vehicles emit a wide variety of pollutants,
principally carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) and particulates, which have an increasing impact on urban air quality.
In addition, photochemical reactions resulting from the action of sunlight on NO2 and VOCs
from vehicles leads to the formation of ozone, a secondary long-range pollutant, which impacts
in rural areas often far from the original emission site. Acid rain is another long-range pollutant
influenced by vehicle NOx emissions.
Industrial and domestic pollutant sources, together with their impact on air quality, tend to
be steady-state or improving over time. However, traffic pollution problems are worsening
world-wide. The problem may be particularly severe in developing countries with dramatically
increasing vehicle population, infrastructural limitations, poor engine/emission control tech-
nologies and limited provision for maintenance or vehicle regulation.

1. Energy Scenario
The principle pollutants produced by industrial, domestic and traffic sources are sulphur
dioxide, nitrogen oxides, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, ozone, hydrocarbons, benzene,
1,3-butadiene, toxic organic micropollutants, lead and heavy metals.
Brief introduction to the principal pollutants are as follows:
Sulphur dioxide is a corrosive acid gas, which combines with water
vapour in the atmosphere to produce acid rain. Both wet and dry deposi-
tion have been implicated in the damage and destruction of vegetation
and in the degradation of soils, building materials and watercourses. SO2
in ambient air is also associated with asthma and chronic bronchitis. The
principal source of this gas is power stations and industries burning fos-
sil fuels, which contain sulphur.
Nitrogen oxides are formed during high temperature combustion

processes from the oxidation of nitrogen in the air or fuel. The principal
source of nitrogen oxides - nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2),
collectively known as NOx - is road traffic. NO and NO2 concentrations
are greatest in urban areas where traffic is heaviest. Other important
sources are power stations and industrial processes.
Nitrogen oxides are released into the atmosphere mainly in the form
of NO, which is then readily oxidised to NO2 by reaction with ozone.
Elevated levels of NOx occur in urban environments under stable meteorological conditions,
when the air mass is unable to disperse.
Nitrogen dioxide has a variety of environmental and health impacts. It irritates the respira-
tory system and may worsen asthma and increase susceptibility to infections. In the presence of
sunlight, it reacts with hydrocarbons to produce photochemical pollutants such as ozone.
Nitrogen oxides combine with water vapour to form nitric acid. This nitric acid is in turn
removed from the atmosphere by direct deposition to the ground, or transfer to aqueous droplets
(e.g. cloud or rainwater), thereby contributing to acid deposition.
Acidification from SO2 and NOx
Acidification of water bodies and soils, and the consequent impact on agriculture, forestry and
fisheries are the result of the re-deposition of acidifying compounds resulting principally from
the oxidation of primary SO2 and NO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion. Deposition may
be by either wet or dry processes, and acid deposition studies often need to examine both of
these acidification routes.
Airborne particulate matter varies widely in its physical and chem-
ical composition, source and particle size. PM10 particles (the fraction of
particulates in air of very small size (<10 µm)) are of major current con-
cern, as they are small enough to penetrate deep into the lungs and so
potentially pose significant health risks. In addition, they may carry sur-
face-absorbed carcinogenic compounds into the lungs. Larger particles,
meanwhile, are not readily inhaled, and are removed relatively efficient-
ly from the air by settling.
A major source of fine primary particles are combustion processes, in particular diesel com-

1. Energy Scenario
bustion, where transport of hot exhaust vapour into a cooler exhaust pipe can lead to sponta-
neous nucleation of "carbon" particles before emission. Secondary particles are typically
formed when low volatility products are generated in the atmosphere, for example the oxida-
tion of sulphur dioxide to sulphuric acid. The atmospheric lifetime of particulate matter is
strongly related to particle size, but may be as long as 10 days for particles of about 1mm in
diameter.
Concern about the potential health impacts of PM10 has increased very rapidly over recent
years. Increasingly, attention has been turning towards monitoring of the smaller particle frac-
tion PM2.5 capable of penetrating deepest into the lungs, or to even smaller size fractions or total
particle numbers.
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a toxic gas, which is emitted into the

atmosphere as a result of combustion processes, and from oxidation of
hydrocarbons and other organic compounds. In urban areas, CO is pro-
duced almost entirely (90%) from road traffic emissions. CO at levels
found in ambient air may reduce the oxygen-carrying capacity of the
blood. It survives in the atmosphere for a period of approximately 1
month and finally gets oxidised to carbon dioxide (CO2).
Ground-level ozone (O3), unlike other primary pollutants mentioned

above, is not emitted directly into the atmosphere, but is a secondary pol-
lutant produced by reaction between nitrogen dioxide (NO2), hydrocar-
bons and sunlight. Ozone can irritate the eyes and air passages causing
breathing difficulties and may increase susceptibility to infection. It is a
highly reactive chemical, capable of attacking surfaces, fabrics and rub-
ber materials. Ozone is also toxic to some crops, vegetation and trees.
Whereas nitrogen dioxide (NO2) participates in the formation of
ozone, nitrogen oxide (NO) destroys ozone to form oxygen (O2) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2).
For this reason, ozone levels are not as high in urban areas (where high levels of NO are emit-
ted from vehicles) as in rural areas. As the nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons are transported out
of urban areas, the ozone-destroying NO is oxidised to NO2, which participates in ozone for-
mation.
Hydrocarbons
There are two main groups of hydrocarbons of concern: volatile organic compounds (VOCs)
and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). VOCs are released in vehicle exhaust gases
either as unburned fuels or as combustion products, and are also emitted by the evaporation of
solvents and motor fuels. Benzene and 1,3-butadiene are of particular concern, as they are
known carcinogens. Other VOCs are important because of the role they
play in the photochemical formation of ozone in the atmosphere.
Benzene is an aromatic VOC, which is a minor constituent of petrol
(about 2% by volume). The main sources of benzene in the atmosphere
are the distribution and combustion of petrol. Of these, combustion by
petrol vehicles is the single biggest source (70% of total emissions)

1. Energy Scenario
whilst the refining, distribution and evaporation of petrol from vehicles accounts for approxi-
mately a further 10% of total emissions. Benzene is emitted in vehicle exhaust not only as
unburnt fuel but also as a product of the decomposition of other aromatic compounds. Benzene
is a known human carcinogen.
1,3-butadiene, like benzene, is a VOC emitted into the atmosphere
principally from fuel combustion of petrol and diesel vehicles. Unlike ben-
zene, however, it is not a constituent of the fuel but is produced by the com-
bustion of olefins. 1,3-butadiene is also an important chemical in certain
industrial processes, particularly the manufacture of synthetic rubber. It is
handled in bulk at a small number of industrial locations. Other than in the
vicinity of such locations, the dominant source of 1,3-butadiene in the atmosphere are the motor
vehicles. 1,3 Butadiene is also a known, potent, human carcinogen.
TOMPs (Toxic Organic Micropollutants) are produced by the incomplete
combustion of fuels. They comprise a complex range of chemicals some of
which, although they are emitted in very small quantities, are highly toxic
or and carcinogenic. Compounds in this category include:
· PAHs (PolyAromatic Hydrocarbons)
· PCBs (PolyChlorinated Biphenyls)
· Dioxins
· Furans
Heavy Metals and Lead

Particulate metals in air result from activities such as fossil fuel com-
bustion (including vehicles), metal processing industries and waste inciner-
ation. There are currently no emission standards for metals other than lead.
Lead is a cumulative poison to the central nervous system, particularly
detrimental to the mental development of children.
Lead is the most widely used non-ferrous metal and has a large number
of industrial applications. Its single largest industrial use worldwide is in the manufacture of
batteries and it is also used in paints, glazes, alloys, radiation shielding, tank lining and piping.
As tetraethyl lead, it has been used for many years as an additive in petrol; with the increas-
ing use of unleaded petrol, however, emissions and concentrations in air have reduced steadily
in recent years.
Climatic Change
Human activities, particularly the combustion of fossil fuels, have made the blanket of green-
house gases (water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, ozone etc.) around the earth thicker. The
resulting increase in global temperature is altering the complex web of systems that allow life
to thrive on earth such as rainfall, wind patterns, ocean currents and distribution of plant and
animal species.
Greenhouse Effect and the Carbon Cycle

Life on earth is made possible by energy from the sun, which arrives mainly in the form of vis-

1. Energy Scenario
Figure 1.11 The Greenhouse Effect
ible light. About 30 percent of the sunlight is scattered back into space by outer atmosphere and
the balance 70 percent reaches the earth's surface, which reflects it in form of infrared radiation.
The escape of slow moving infrared radiation is delayed by the green house gases. A thicker
blanket of greenhouse gases traps more infrared radiation and increase the earth's temperature
(Refer Figure 1.11).
Greenhouse gases makeup only 1 percent of the atmosphere, but they act as a blanket
around the earth, or like a glass roof of a greenhouse and keep the earth 30 degrees warmer than
it would be otherwise - without greenhouse gases, earth would be too cold to live. Human activ-
ities that are responsible for making the greenhouse layer thicker are emissions of carbon diox-
ide from the combustion of coal, oil and natural gas; by additional methane and nitrous oxide
from farming activities and changes in land use; and by several man made gases that have a
long life in the atmosphere.
The increase in greenhouse gases is happening at an alarming rate. If greenhouse gases emis-
sions continue to grow at current rates, it is almost certain that the atmospheric levels of carbon
dioxide will increase twice or thrice from pre-industrial levels during the 21st century.
Even a small increase in earth's temperature will be accompanied by changes in climate-
such as cloud cover, precipitation, wind patterns and duration of seasons. In an already highly
crowded and stressed earth, millions of people depend on weather patterns, such as monsoon
rains, to continue as they have in the past. Even minimum changes will be disruptive and diffi-
cult.
Carbon dioxide is responsible for 60 percent of the "enhanced greenhouse effect". Humans
are burning coal, oil and natural gas at a rate that is much faster than the rate at which these fos-
sil fuels were created. This is releasing the carbon stored in the fuels into the atmosphere and
upsetting the carbon cycle (a precise balanced system by which carbon is exchanged between
1. Energy Scenario
the air, the oceans and land vegetation taking place over millions of years). Currently, carbon
dioxide levels in the atmospheric are rising by over 10 percent every 20 years.
Current Evidence of Climatic Change

Cyclones, storm, hurricanes are occurring more frequently and floods and draughts are more
intense than before. This increase in extreme weather events cannot be explained away as ran-
dom events.
This trend toward more powerful storms and hotter, longer dry periods is predicted by com-
puter models. Warmer temperatures mean greater evaporation, and a warmer atmosphere is able
to hold more moisture and hence there is more water aloft that can fall as precipitation.
Similarly, dry regions are prone to lose still more moisture if the weather is hotter and hence
this leads to more severe droughts and desertification.
Future Effects
Even the minimum predicted shifts in climate for the 21st century are likely to be significant
and disruptive. Predictions of future climatic changes are wide-ranging. The global tempera-
ture may climb from 1.4 to 5.8 degrees C; the sea level may rise from 9 to 88 cm. Thus, increas-
es in sea level this century are expected to range from significant to catastrophic. This uncer-
tainty reflects the complexity, interrelatedness, and sensitivity of the natural systems that make
up the climate.
Severe Storms and Flooding

The minimum warming forecast for the next 100 years is more than twice the 0.6 degree C
increase that has occurred since 1900 and that earlier increase is already having marked conse-
quences. Extreme weather events, as predicted by computer models, are striking more often and
can be expected to intensify and become still more frequent. A future of more severe storms and
floods along the world's increasingly crowded coastlines is likely.
Food Shortages
Although regional and local effects may differ widely, a general reduction is expected in poten-
tial crop yields in most tropical and sub-tropical regions. Mid-continental areas such as the
United States' "grain belt" and vast areas of Asia are likely to become dry. Sub-Saharan Africa
where dryland agriculture relies solely on rain, the yields would decrease dramatically even
with minimum increase in temperature. Such changes could cause disruptions in food supply in
a world is already afflicted with food shortages and famines.
Dwindling Freshwater supply

Salt-water intrusion from rising sea levels will reduce the quality and quantity of freshwater
supplies. This is a major concern, since billions of people on earth already lack access to fresh-
water. Higher ocean levels already are contaminating underground water sources in many parts
of the world.
Loss of Biodiversity
Most of the world's endangered species (some 25 per cent of mammals and 12 per cent of birds)
may become extinct over the next few decades as warmer conditions alter the forests, wetlands,

1. Energy Scenario
and rangelands they depend on, and human development blocks them from migrating else-
where.
Increased Diseases
Higher temperatures are expected to expand the range of some dangerous "vector-borne" dis-
eases, such as malaria, which already kills 1 million people annually, most of them children.
A World Under Stress

Ongoing environmentally damaging activities such as overgrazing, deforestation, and denuded
agricultural soils means that nature will be more vulnerable than previously to changes in cli-
mate.
Similarly, the world's vast human population, much of it poor, is vulnerable to climate
stress. Millions live in dangerous places such as floodplains or in slums around the big cities of
the developing world. Often there is nowhere else for population to move. In the distant past,
man and his ancestors migrated in response to changes in habitat. There will be much less room
for migration in future.
Global warming almost certainly will be unfair. The industrialized countries of North
America and Western Europe, and other countries such as Japan, are responsible for the vast
amount of past and current greenhouse-gas emissions. These emissions are incurred for the high
standards of living enjoyed by the people in those countries.
Yet those to suffer most from climate change will be in the developing world. They have
fewer resources for coping with storms, with floods, with droughts, with disease outbreaks, and
with disruptions to food and water supplies. They are eager for economic development them-
selves, but may find that this already difficult process has become more difficult because of cli-
mate change. The poorer nations of the world have done almost nothing to cause global warm-
ing yet is most exposed to its effects.
Acid Rain
Acid rain is caused by release of SOX and NOX from combustion of fossil fuels, which then mix
Figure 1.12

1. Energy Scenario
with water vapour in atmosphere to form sulphuric and nitric acids respectively (Refer Figure
1.12).
The effects of acid rain are as follows:
• Acidification of lakes, streams, and soils
• Direct and indirect effects (release of metals, For example: Aluminum which washes away
plant nutrients)
• Killing of wildlife (trees, crops, aquatic plants, and animals)
• Decay of building materials and paints, statues, and sculptures
• Health problems (respiratory, burning- skin and eyes)
1.12 Energy Security

The basic aim of energy security for a nation is to reduce its dependency on the imported ener-
gy sources for its economic growth.
India will continue to experience an energy supply shortfall throughout the forecast period.
This gap has widened since 1985, when the country became a net importer of coal. India has
been unable to raise its oil production substantially in the 1990s. Rising oil demand of close to
10 percent per year has led to sizable oil import bills. In addition, the government subsidises
refined oil product prices, thus compounding the overall monetary loss to the government.
Imports of oil and coal have been increasing at rates of 7% and 16% per annum respective-
ly during the period 1991-99. The dependence on energy imports is projected to increase in the
future. Estimates indicate that oil imports will meet 75% of total oil consumption requirements
and coal imports will meet 22% of total coal consumption requirements in 2006. The imports
of gas and LNG (liquefied natural gas) are likely to increase in the coming years. This energy
import dependence implies vulnerability to external price shocks and supply fluctuations, which
threaten the energy security of the country.
Increasing dependence on oil imports means reliance on imports from the Middle East, a
region susceptible to disturbances and consequent disruptions of oil supplies. This calls for
diversification of sources of oil imports. The need to deal with oil price fluctuations also neces-
sitates measures to be taken to reduce the oil dependence of the economy, possibly through fis-
cal measures to reduce demand, and by developing alternatives to oil, such as natural gas and
renewable energy.
Some of the strategies that can be used to meet future challenges to their energy security are
• Building stockpiles
• Diversification of energy supply sources
• Increased capacity of fuel switching
• Demand restraint,
• Development of renewable energy sources.
• Energy efficiency
• Sustainable development
Although all these options are feasible, their implementation will take time. Also, for coun-
tries like India, reliance on stockpiles would tend to be slow because of resource constraints.
Besides, the market is not sophisticated enough or the monitoring agencies experienced enough
to predict the supply situation in time to take necessary action. Insufficient storage capacity is
another cause for worry and needs to be augmented, if India has to increase its energy stock-

1. Energy Scenario
pile.
However, out of all these options, the simplest and the most easily attainable is reducing
demand through persistent energy conservation efforts.
1.13 Energy Conservation and its Importance

Coal and other fossil fuels, which have taken three
million years to form, are likely to deplete soon. In the
last two hundred years, we have consumed 60% of all
resources. For sustainable development, we need to
adopt energy efficiency measures.
Today, 85% of primary energy comes from non-
renewable, and fossil sources (coal, oil, etc.). These
reserves are continually diminishing with increasing Figure 1.13
consumption and will not exist for future generations
(see Figure 1.13).
What is Energy Conservation?

Energy Conservation and Energy Efficiency are separate,
but related concepts. Energy conservation is achieved
when growth of energy consumption is reduced, measured
in physical terms. Energy Conservation can, therefore, be
the result of several processes or developments, such as
productivity increase or technological progress. On the
other hand Energy efficiency is achieved when energy
intensity in a specific product, process or area of produc-
tion or consumption is reduced without affecting output,
consumption or comfort levels. Promotion of energy effi-
ciency will contribute to energy conservation and is there-
Figure 1.14
fore an integral part of energy conservation promotional
policies.
Energy efficiency is often viewed as a resource option like coal, oil or natural gas. It pro-
vides additional economic value by preserving the resource base and reducing pollution. For
example, replacing traditional light bulbs with Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFLs) means you
will use only 1/4th of the energy to light a room. Pollution levels also reduce by the same
amount (refer Figure 1.14).
Nature sets some basic limits on how efficiently energy can be used, but in most cases our
products and manufacturing processes are still a long way from operating at this theoretical
limit. Very simply, energy efficiency means using less energy to perform the same function.
Although, energy efficiency has been in practice ever since the first oil crisis in 1973, it has
today assumed even more importance because of being the most cost-effective and reliable
means of mitigating the global climatic change. Recognition of that potential has led to high
expectations for the control of future CO2 emissions through even more energy efficiency
improvements than have occurred in the past. The industrial sector accounts for some 41 per
cent of global primary energy demand and approximately the same share of CO2 emissions. The

1. Energy Scenario
Figure 1.15
benefits of Energy conservation for various players are given in Figure 1.15.
1.14 Energy Strategy for the Future

The energy strategy for the future could be classified into immediate, medium-term and long-
term strategy. The various components of these strategies are listed below:
Immediate-term strategy:
• Rationalizing the tariff structure of various energy products.
• Optimum utilization of existing assets
• Efficiency in production systems and reduction in distribution losses, including those in
traditional energy sources.
• Promoting R&D, transfer and use of technologies and practices for environmentally sound
energy systems, including new and renewable energy sources.
Medium-term strategy:
• Demand management through greater conservation of energy, optimum fuel mix, structur-
al changes in the economy, an appropriate model mix in the transport sector, i.e. greater
dependence on rail than on road for the movement of goods and passengers and a shift
away from private modes to public modes for passenger transport; changes in design of dif-
ferent products to reduce the material intensity of those products, recycling, etc.
• There is need to shift to less energy-intensive modes of transport. This would include mea-
sures to improve the transport infrastructure viz. roads, better design of vehicles, use of
compressed natural gas (CNG) and synthetic fuel, etc. Similarly, better urban planning
would also reduce the demand for energy use in the transport sector.
• There is need to move away from non-renewable to renewable energy sources viz. solar,
wind, biomass energy, etc.

1. Energy Scenario
Long-term strategy:
Efficient generation of energy resources
• Efficient production of coal, oil and natural gas
• Reduction of natural gas flaring
Improving energy infrastructure

• Building new refineries
• Creation of urban gas transmission and distribution network
• Maximizing efficiency of rail transport of coal production.
• Building new coal and gas fired power stations.
Enhancing energy efficiency

• Improving energy efficiency in accordance with national, socio-economic, and environ-
mental priorities
• Promoting of energy efficiency and emission standards
• Labeling programmes for products and adoption of energy efficient technologies in large
industries
Deregulation and privatization of energy sector

• Reducing cross subsidies on oil products and electricity tariffs
• Decontrolling coal prices and making natural gas prices competitive
• Privatization of oil, coal and power sectors for improved efficiency.
Investment legislation to attract foreign investments.
• Streamlining approval process for attracting private sector participation in power gener-
ation, transmission and distribution .
1.15 The Energy Conservation Act, 2001 and its Features
Policy Framework - Energy Conservation Act - 2001

With the background of high energy saving potential and its benefits, bridging the gap between
demand and supply, reducing environmental emissions through energy saving, and to effec-
tively overcome the barrier, the Government of India has enacted the Energy Conservation Act
- 2001. The Act provides the much-needed legal framework and institutional arrangement for
embarking on an energy efficiency drive.
Under the provisions of the Act, Bureau of Energy Efficiency has been established with
effect from 1st March 2002 by merging erstwhile Energy Management Centre of Ministry of
Power. The Bureau would be responsible for implementation of policy programmes and coor-
dination of implementation of energy conservation activities.
Important features of the Energy Conservation Act are:
Standards and Labeling

Standards and Labeling (S & L) has been identified as a key activity for energy efficiency
improvement. The S & L program, when in place would ensure that only energy efficient equip-
ment and appliance would be made available to the consumers.

1. Energy Scenario
The main provision of EC act on Standards and Labeling are:
• Evolve minimum energy consumption and performance standards for notified equip-
ment and appliances.
• Prohibit manufacture, sale and import of such equipment, which does not conform to the
standards.
• Introduce a mandatory labeling scheme for notified equipment appliances to enable con-
sumers to make informed choices
• Disseminate information on the benefits to consumers
Designated Consumers
The main provisions of the EC Act on designated consumers are:
• The government would notify energy intensive industries and other establishments as
designated consumers;
• Schedule to the Act provides list of designated consumers which covered basically ener-
gy intensive industries, Railways, Port Trust, Transport Sector, Power Stations,
Transmission & Distribution Companies and Commercial buildings or establishments;
• The designated consumer to get an energy audit conducted by an accredited energy audi-
tor;
• Energy managers with prescribed qualification are required to be appointed or designat-
ed by the designated consumers;
• Designated consumers would comply with norms and standards of energy consumption
as prescribed by the central government.
Certification of Energy Managers and Accreditation of Energy Auditing Firms

The main activities in this regard as envisaged in the Act are:
A cadre of professionally qualified energy managers and auditors with expertise in policy
analysis, project management, financing and implementation of energy efficiency projects
would be developed through Certification and Accreditation programme. BEE to design train-
ing modules, and conduct a National level examination for certification of energy managers and
energy auditors.
Energy Conservation Building Codes:

The main provisions of the EC Act on Energy Conservation Building Codes are:
• The BEE would prepare guidelines for Energy Conservation Building Codes (ECBC);
• These would be notified to suit local climate conditions or other compelling factors by
the respective states for commercial buildings erected after the rules relating to energy
conservation building codes have been notified. In addition, these buildings should have
a connected load of 500 kW or contract demand of 600 kVA and above and are intend-
ed to be used for commercial purposes;
• Energy audit of specific designated commercial building consumers would also be pre-
scribed.
Central Energy Conservation Fund:

The EC Act provisions in this case are:

1. Energy Scenario
• The fund would be set up at the centre to develop the delivery mechanism for large-scale
adoption of energy efficiency services such as performance contracting and promotion
of energy service companies. The fund is expected to give a thrust to R & D and demon-
stration in order to boost market penetration of efficient equipment and appliances. It
would support the creation of facilities for testing and development and to promote con-
sumer awareness.
Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE):

• The mission of Bureau of Energy Efficiency is to institutionalize energy efficiency ser-
vices, enable delivery mechanisms in the country and provide leadership to energy effi-
ciency in all sectors of economy. The primary objective would be to reduce energy inten-
sity in the Indian Economy.
• The general superintendence, directions and management of the affairs of the Bureau is
vested in the Governing Council with 26 members. The Council is headed by Union
Minister of Power and consists of members represented by Secretaries of various line
Ministries, the CEOs of technical agencies under the Ministries, members representing
equipment and appliance manufacturers, industry, architects, consumers and five power
regions representing the states. The Director General of the Bureau shall be the ex-offi-
cio member-secretary of the Council.
• The BEE will be initially supported by the Central Government by way of grants through
budget, it will, however, in a period of 5-7 years become self-sufficient. It would be
authorized to collect appropriate fee in discharge of its functions assigned to it. The BEE
will also use the Central Energy Conservation Fund and other funds raised from various
sources for innovative financing of energy efficiency projects in order to promote ener-
gy efficient investment.
Role of Bureau of Energy Efficiency

• The role of BEE would be to prepare standards and labels of appliances and equipment,
develop a list of designated consumers, specify certification and accreditation procedure,
prepare building codes, maintain Central EC fund and undertake promotional activities
in co-ordination with center and state level agencies. The role would include develop-
ment of Energy service companies (ESCOs), transforming the market for energy effi-
ciency and create awareness through measures including clearing house.
Role of Central and State Governments:

The following role of Central and State Government is envisaged in the Act
• Central - to notify rules and regulations under various provisions of the Act, provide ini-
tial financial assistance to BEE and EC fund, Coordinate with various State
Governments for notification, enforcement, penalties and adjudication.
• State - to amend energy conservation building codes to suit the regional and local cli-
matic condition, to designate state level agency to coordinate, regulate and enforce pro-
visions of the Act and constitute a State Energy Conservation Fund for promotion of
energy efficiency.

1. Energy Scenario
Enforcement through Self-Regulation:

E.C. Act would require inspection of only two items. The following procedure of self-regula-
tion is proposed to be adopted for verifying areas that require inspection of only two items that
require inspection.
• The certification of energy consumption norms and standards of production process by

the Accredited Energy Auditors is a way to enforce effective energy efficiency in
Designated Consumers.
• For energy performance and standards, manufacturer's declared values would be
checked in Accredited Laboratories by drawing sample from market. Any manufacturer
or consumer or consumer association can challenge the values of the other manufactur-
er and bring to the notice of BEE. BEE can recognize for challenge testing in disputed
cases as a measure for self-regulation.
Penalties and Adjudication:

• Penalty for each offence under the Act would be in monetary terms i.e. Rs.10,000 for
each offence and Rs.1,000 for each day for continued non Compliance.
• The initial phase of 5 years would be promotional and creating infrastructure for
implementation of Act. No penalties would be effective during this phase.
• The power to adjudicate has been vested with state Electricity Regulatory Commission
which shall appoint any one of its member to be an adjudicating officer for holding an
enquiry in connection with the penalty imposed.
Features Extracted from The Energy Conservation Act, 2001.
CHAPTER -I
Definitions
In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires: -
(a) "accredited energy auditor" means an auditor possessing qualifications specified under
clause (p) of sub-section (2) of section 13;
(b) " Appellate Tribunal" means Appellate Tribunal for Energy Conservation established under
section 30;
(c) "building" means any structure or erection or part of a structure or erection, after the rules
relating to energy conservation building codes have been notified under clause (a) of sec-
tion 15 of clause (l) of sub-section (2) of section 56, which is having a connected load of
500kW or contract demand of 600 kVA and above and is intended to be used for commer-
cial purposes;
(d) "Bureau" means the Bureau of Energy Efficiency established under subsection (l) of sec-
tion 3;
(e) "Chairperson" means the Chairperson of the Governing council;
(f) "designated agency" means any agency designated under clause (d) of section 15;
(g) "designated consumer" means any consumer specified under clause (e) of section 14;
(h) "energy" means any form of energy derived from fossil fuels, nuclear substances or mate-

1. Energy Scenario
rials, hydro-electricity and includes electrical energy or electricity generated from renew-
able sources of energy or bio-mass connected to the grid;
(i) "energy audit" means the verification, monitoring and analysis of use of energy including
submission of technical report containing recommendations for improving energy effi-
ciency with cost benefit analysis and an action plan to reduce energy consumption;
(j) "energy conservation building codes" means the norms and standards of energy consump-
tion expressed in terms of per square meter of the area wherein energy is used and includes
the location of the building;
(k) "energy consumption standards" means the norms for process and energy consumption
standards specified under clause (a) of section 14;
(l) "Energy Management Centre" means the Energy Management Centre set up under the
Resolution of the Government of India in the erstwhile Ministry of Energy, Department of
Power No. 7(2)/87-EP (Vol. IV), dated the 5th July, 1989 and registered under the Societies
Registration Act, 1860; (21 of 1860)
(m) "energy manager" means any individual possessing the qualifications prescribed under
clause (m) of section 14;
(n) " Governing Council" means the Governing Council referred to in section 4;
(o) "member" means the member of the Governing Council and includes the Chairperson;
(p) "notification" means a notification in the Gazette of India or, as the case may be, the
Official Gazette of a State;
(q) "prescribed" means prescribed by rules made under this Act;
(r) "regulations" means regulations made by the Bureau under this Act;
(s) "schedule" means the Schedule of this Act;
(t) "State Commission" means the State Electricity Regulatory Commission established under
sub-section (l) of section 17 of the Electricity Regulatory Commissions Act, 1998; (14 of
1998)
(u) words and expression used and not defined in this Act but defined in the Indian Electricity
Act, 1910 or the Electricity (Supply) Act, 1948 or the Electricity Regulatory Commissions
Act, 1998 shall have meanings respectively assigned to them in those Acts. (9 of 1940, 54
of 1948,14 of 1998)
CHAPTER IV,
SECTION 13
Powers and Functions of Bureau
(1) The Bureau shall, effectively co-ordinate with designated consumers, designated agencies
and other agencies, recognise and utilise the existing resources and infrastructure, in per-
forming the functions assigned to it by or under this Act
(2) The Bureau may perform such functions and exercise such powers as may be assigned to
it by or under this Act and in particular, such functions and powers include the function and
power to -
(a) recommend to the Central Government the norms for processes and energy consumption
standards required to be notified under clause (a) of section 14 ;
(b) recommend to the Central Government the particulars required to be displayed on label
on equipment or on appliances and manner of their display under clause (d) of section
14;

1. Energy Scenario
(c) recommend to the Central Government for notifying any user or class of users of ener-
gy as a designated consumer under clause (e) of section 14;
(d) take suitable steps to prescribe guidelines for energy conservation building codes under
clause (p) of section 14;
(e) take all measures necessary to create awareness and disseminate information for effi-
cient use of energy and its conservation;
(f) arrange and organize training of personnel and specialists in the techniques for efficient
use of energy and its conservation;
(g) strengthen consultancy services in the field of energy conservation;

(h) promote research and development in the field of energy conservation;
(i) develop testing and certification procedure and promote testing facilities for certification
and testing for energy consumption of equipment and appliances;
(j) formulate and facilitate implementation of pilot projects and demonstration projects for
promotion of efficient use of energy and its conservation;
(k) promote use of energy efficient processes, equipment, devices and systems;
(l) promote innovative financing of energy efficiency projects;
(m)give financial assistance to institutions for promoting efficient use of energy and its con-
servation;
(n) levy fee, as may be determined by regulations, for services provided for promoting effi-
cient use of energy and its conservation;
(o) maintain a list of accredited energy auditors as may be specified by regulations;
(p) specify, by regulations, qualifications for the accredited energy auditors;
(q) specify, by regulations, the manner and intervals of time in which the energy audit shall
be conducted ;
(r) specify, by regulations, certification procedures for energy managers to be designated or
appointed by designated consumers;
(s) prepare educational curriculum on efficient use of energy and its conservation for edu-
cational institutions, boards, universities or autonomous bodies and coordinate with
them for inclusion of such curriculum in their syllabus;
(t) implement international co-operation programmes relating to efficient use of energy and
its conservation as may be assigned to it by the Central Government;
(u) perform such other functions as may be prescribed.
CHAPTER V, SECTION 14
Power of Central Government to Facilitate and Enforce Efficient use of Energy and its
Conservation
The Central Government may, by notification, in consultation with the Bureau, -
(a) specify the norms for processes and energy consumption standards for any equipment,
appliances which consumes, generates, transmits or supplies energy;
(b) specify equipment or appliance or class of equipments or appliances, as the case may be,
for the purposes of this Act;
(c) prohibit manufacture or sale or purchase or import of equipment or appliance specified
under clause (b) unless such equipment or appliances conforms to energy consumption
standards;

1. Energy Scenario
Provided that no notification prohibiting manufacture or sale or purchase or import or

equipment or appliance shall be issued within two years from the date of notification issued
under clause (a) of this section;
(d) direct display of such particulars on label on equipment or on appliance specified under
clause (b) and in such manner as may be specified by regulations;
(e) specify, having regarding to the intensity or quantity of energy consumed and the amount
of investment required for switching over to energy efficient equipments and capacity or
industry to invest in it and availability of the energy efficient machinery and equipment
required by the industry, any user or class of users of energy as a designated consumer for
the purposes of this Act;
(f) alter the list of Energy Intensive Industries specified in the Schedule;
(g) establish and prescribe such energy consumption norms and standards for designated con-
sumers as it may consider necessary: Provided that the Central Government may pre-
scribe different norms and standards for different designated consumers having regard
to such factors as may be prescribed;
(h) direct, having regard to quantity of energy consumed or the norms and standards of ener-
gy consumption specified under clause (a) the energy intensive industries specified in the
Schedule to get energy audit conducted by an accredited energy auditor in such manner and
intervals of time as may be specified by regulations;
(i) direct, if considered necessary for efficient use of energy and its conservation, any desig-
nated consumer to get energy audit conducted by an accredited energy auditor;
(j) specify the matters to be included for the purposes of inspection under sub-section (2) of
section 17;
(k) direct any designated consumer to furnish to the designated agency, in such form and man-
ner and within such period, as may be prescribed, the information with regard to the ener-
gy consumed and action taken on the recommendation of the accredited energy auditor;
(l) direct any designated consumer to designate or appoint energy manger in charge of activ-
ities for efficient use of energy and its conservation and submit a report, in the form and
manner as may be prescribed, on the status of energy consumption at the end of the every
financial year to designated agency;
(m) prescribe minimum qualification for energy managers to be designated or appointed under
clause (l);
(n) direct every designated consumer to comply with energy consumption norms and stan-
dards;
(o) direct any designated consumer, who does not fulfil the energy consumption norms and
standards prescribed under clause (g), to prepare a scheme for efficient use of energy and
its conservation and implement such scheme keeping in view of the economic viability of
the investment in such form and manner as may be prescribed;
(p) prescribe energy conservation building codes for efficient use of energy and its conserva-
tion in the building or building complex;
(q) amend the energy conservation building codes to suit the regional and local climatic con-
ditions;
(r) direct every owner or occupier of the building or building complex, being a designated
consumer to comply with the provisions of energy conservation building codes for efficient

1. Energy Scenario
(s) direct, any designated consumer referred to in clause (r), if considered necessary, for effi-
cient use of energy and its conservation in his building to get energy audit conducted in
respect of such building by an accredited energy auditor in such manner and intervals of
time as may be specified by regulations;
(t) take all measures necessary to create awareness and disseminate information for efficient
(u) arrange and organise training of personnel and specialists in the techniques for efficient use
of energy and its conservation;
(v) take steps to encourage preferential treatment for use of energy efficient equipment or
appliances: Provided that the powers under clauses (p) and (s) shall be exercised in con-
sultation with the concerned State.
CHAPTER VI, SECTION 15

Power Of State Government To Facilitate And Enforce Efficient Use Of Energy And Its
Conservation
The State Government may, by notification, in consultation with the Bureau -
(a) amend the energy conservation building codes to suit the regional and local climatic con-
ditions and may, by rules made by it, specify and notify energy conservation building codes
with respect to use of energy in the buildings;
(b) direct every owner or occupier of a building or building complex being a designated con-
sumer to comply with the provisions of the energy conservation building codes;
(c) direct, if considered necessary for efficient use of energy and its conservation, any desig-
nated consumer referred to in clause (b) to get energy audit conducted by an accredited
energy auditor in such manner and at such intervals of time as may be specified by regu-
lations;
(d) designate any agency as designated agency to coordinate, regulate and enforce provisions
of this Act within the State;
(e) take all measures necessary to create awareness and disseminate information for efficient
(f) arrange and organise training of personnel and specialists in the techniques for efficient use
of energy and its conservation;
(g) take steps to encourage preferential treatment for use of energy efficient equipment or
appliances;
(h) direct, any designated consumer to furnish to the designated agency, in such form and man-
ner and within such period as may be specified by rules made by it, information with regard
to the energy consumed by such consumer;
(i) specify the matters to be included for the purposes of inspection under sub-section (2) of
section 17;
(1) The State Government shall constitute a Fund to be called the State Energy Conservation
Fund for the purposes of promotion of efficient use of energy and its conservation within
the State.
(2) To the Fund shall be credited all grants and loans that may be made by the State
Government or, Central Government or any other organization or individual for the pur-
poses of this Act.

1. Energy Scenario
(3) The Fund shall be applied for meeting the expenses incurred for implementing the provi-
sions of this Act.
(4) The Fund created under sub-section (l) shall be administered by such persons or any
authority and in such manner as may be specified in the rules made by the State
Government.
(1) The designated agency may appoint, after the expiry of five years from the date of com-
mencement of this Act, as many inspecting officers as may be necessary for the purpose of
ensuring compliance with energy consumption standard specified under clause (a) of sec-
tion 14 or ensure display of particulars on label on equipment or appliances specified under
clause (b) of section 14 or for the purpose of performing such other functions as may be
assigned to them.
(2) Subject to any rules made under this Act, an inspecting officer shall have power to -
(a) inspect any operation carried on or in connection with the equipment or appliance speci-
fied under clause (b) of section 14 or in respect of which energy standards under clause (a)
of section 14 have been specified;
(b) enter any place of designated consumer at which the energy is used for any activity and
may require any proprietor, employee, director, manager or secretary or any other person
who may be attending in any manner to or helping in, carrying on any activity with the help
of energy -
(i) to afford him necessary facility to inspect -
(A) any equipment or appliance as he may require and which may be available at such place;
(B) any production process to ascertain the energy consumption norms and standards;
(ii) to make an inventory of stock of any equipment or appliance checked or verified by him;
(iii) to record the statement of any person which may be useful for, or relevant to, for efficient
use of energy and its conservation under this Act.
(3) An inspecting officer may enter any place of designated consumer -
(a) where any activity with the help of energy is carried on; and
(b) where any equipment or appliance notified under clause (b) of section 14 has been kept,
during the hours at which such places is open for production or conduct of business con-
nected therewith.
(4) An inspecting officer acting under this section shall, on no account, remove or cause to be
removed from the place wherein he has entered, any equipment or appliance or books of
accounts or other documents.
The Central Government or the State Government may, in the exercise of its powers and per-
formance of its functions under this Act and for efficient use of energy and its conservation,
issue such directions in writing as it deems fit for the purposes of this Act to any person, offi-
cer, authority or any designated consumer and such person, officer or authority or any desig-
nated consumer shall be bound to comply with such directions.
Explanation - For the avoidance of doubts, it is hereby declared that the power to issue
directions under this section includes the power to direct -
(a) regulation of norms for process and energy consumption standards in any industry or build-
ing or building complex; or
(b) regulation of the energy consumption standards for equipment and appliances.

1. Energy Scenario
CHAPTER VIII, SECTION 26

Penalties and Adjudication
(1) If any person fails to comply with the provision of clause (c) or the clause (d) or clause (h)
or clause (i) or clause (k) or clause (l) or clause (n) or clause (r) or clause (s) of section
14 or clause (b) or clause (c) or clause (h) of section 15, he shall be liable to a penalty
which shall not exceed ten thousand rupees for each such failures and, in the case of con-
tinuing failures, with an additional penalty which may extend to one thousand rupees for
every day during which such failures continues:
Provided that no person shall be liable to pay penalty within five years from the date of
commencement of this Act.
(2) Any amount payable under this section, if not paid, may be recovered as if it were an arrear
of land revenue.
(1) For the purpose of adjudging section 26, the State Commission shall appoint any of its
members to be an adjudicating officer for holding an inquiry in such manner as may be pre-
scribed by the Central Government, after giving any person concerned a reasonable oppor-
tunity of being heard for the purpose of imposing any penalty.(2) While holding an
inquiry the adjudicating officer shall have power to summon and enforce the attendance of
any person acquainted with the facts and circumstances of the case of give evidence or pro-
duce any document which in the opinion of the adjudicating officer, may be useful for or
relevant to the subject-matter of the inquiry, and if, on such inquiry, he is satisfied that the
person has failed to comply with the provisions of any of the clauses of the sections spec-
ified in section 26, he may impose such penalty as he thinks fit in accordance with the pro-
visions of any of those clauses of that section:
Provided that where a State Commission has not been established in a State, the
Government of that State shall appoint any of its officer not below the rank equivalent to
a Secretary dealing with legal affairs in that State to be an adjudicating officer for the pur-
poses of this section and such officer shall cease to be an adjudicating officer immediate-
ly on the appointment of an adjudicating officer by the State Commission on its establish-
ment in that State: Provided further that where an adjudicating officer appointed by a State
Government ceased to be an adjudicating officer, he shall transfer to the adjudicating offi-
cer appointed by the State Commission all matters being adjudicated by him and thereafter
the adjudicating officer appointed by the State Commission shall adjudicate the penalties
on such matters.
While adjudicating the quantum of penalty under section 26, the adjudicating officer shall have
due regard to the following factors, namely:-
(a) the amount of disproportionate gain or unfair advantage, wherever quantifiable, made as a
result of the default;
(b) the repetitive nature of the default.No civil court shall have jurisdiction to entertain any suit
or proceeding in respect of any matter which an adjudicating officer appointed under this
Act or the Appellate Tribunal is empowered by or under this Act to determine and no
injunction shall be granted by any court or other authority in respect of any action taken or
to be taken in pursuance of any power conferred by or under this Act.

1. Energy Scenario
CHAPTER IX, SECTION 30

Appellate Tribunal for Energy Conservation
The Central Government shall, by notification, establish an Appellate Tribunal to be known as
the Appellate Tribunal for Energy Conservation to hear appeals against the orders of the adju-
dicating officer or the Central Government or the State Government or any other authority
under this Act
CHAPTER X,
Miscellaneous
SECTION 61
The provisions of this Act shall not apply to the Ministry or Department of the Central
Government dealing with Defence, Atomic Energy or such other similar Ministries or
Departments undertakings or Boards or institutions under the control of such Ministries or
Departments as may be notified by the Central Government.
THE SCHEDULE
[See section 2 (s)]
List of Energy Intensive Industries and other establishments specified as

designated consumers
1. Aluminium;
2. Fertilizers;
3. Iron and Steel;
4. Cement;
5. Pulp and paper;
6. Chlor Akali;
7. Sugar;
8. Textile;
9. Chemicals;
10. Railways;
11. Port Trust;
12. Transport Sector (industries and services);
13. Petrochemicals, Gas Crackers, Naphtha Crackers and Petroleum Refineries;
14. Thermal Power Stations, hydel power stations, electricity transmission companies
and distribution companies;
15. Commercial buildings or establishments;
Full version of this act may be obtained from www.bee-india.nic.in

1. Energy Scenario
QUESTIONS
1. Define the following terms with three examples for each -
a) Primary and Secondary Energy.
b) Commercial and Non-commercial Energy.
c) Renewable and Non-renewable Energy
2. In terms of coal reserve India's position in the world is
(a) 10th (b) 17th (c) 4th (d) 26th
3. The world oil reserves is expected to last another
(a) 300 years (b) 45 years (c) 600 years (d) forever
4. Of the total primary energy consumption in India coal accounts for
(a) 35% (b) 46% (c) 55% (d) 75%
5. List atleast five States where coal deposits are concentrated in India.
6. How much % of our Country's oil consumption is imported and how much does it
cost (approximately) per year?
7. Name any three places of oil reserves located in India.
8. What is the hydro power generation potential available in India, and how much is
exploited so far?
9. What are the % shares of commercial energy consumption in industrial and agricul
tural sectors?
10. How is economic growth linked to energy consumption?
11. What do you think of strategies required for long-term management of energy in
India?
12. Discuss the subsidies and cross subsidies in oil sector in India.
13. Write in few words about the various reforms in the energy sector.
14. Though Plant Respiration and Decomposition release more than ten times CO2
released by human activities, explain why CO2 is regarded as a potential threat to
the planet.
15. The contribution of CO2 to the green house gases is
(a) 23% (b) 95% (c) 54% (d) 0%
16. What are the implications of Global warming?
17. Describe the Greenhouse effect.
18. The excess of which gas in the atmosphere is the main cause for greenhouse effect?
19. Name three greenhouse gases. Which one of them produces the maximum green
house effect?

1. Energy Scenario
20. What are the major pollutants in burning fossil fuels?

21. Differentiate between energy conservation and energy efficiency.
22. What are the benefits for industry through implementing energy efficiency
programme?
23. Why energy conservation is important in the prevailing energy scenario?
24. The energy conservation act requires that all designated energy consumers should
get energy audits conducted by
(a) Energy manager (b) accredited energy auditor (c) managing director (d) char
tered accountant
25. Name five designated consumers under the energy conservation act.
26. Name any three main provisions of the EC act, 2001 as applicable to the designated
consumers.
27. List the incorrect statement and correct the same.The Energy Conservation Act,
2001 requires that
a) designated consumer to furnish to the designated agency, in such form and man
ner and within such period as may be prescribed the information with regard to the
energy purchased and action taken on the recommendation of energy auditor.b)
direct, if consider necessary, for efficient use of energy and its conservation, to get
energy audit conducted by a certified energy auditor.
REFERENCES
1. Encyclopedia of Energy - McGraw Hill Publication
2. Handbook of Energy Engineering , The Fairmont Press Inc - Albert Thumann
3. Energy Handbook, Von Nostrand Reinhold Company - Robert L. Loftness
4. Cleaner Production - Energy Efficiency Manual for GERIAP, UNEP, Bangkok prepared by
National Productivity Council
5. Statistics have been drawn from BP Statistical Review of World Energy, June 2003,
International Energy Outlook, March 2002, Energy Information administration, Office of
integrated analysis and forecasting, US department of energy, Washington
6. Indian Planning commission statistics
7. The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI)
www.bp.com/centres/energy
www.eia.doe.gov
www.epa.org

2. BASICS OF ENERGY AND ITS VARIOUS FORMS
Syllabus
Basics of Energy and its various forms: Electricity basics - DC & AC currents,
Electricity tariff, Load management and Maximum demand control, Power factor.
Thermal basics -Fuels, Thermal energy contents of fuel, Temperature & Pressure, Heat
capacity, Sensible and Latent heat, Evaporation, Condensation, Steam, Moist air and
Humidity & Heat transfer, Units and conversion.
2.1 Definition
Energy is the ability to do work and work is the transfer of energy from one form to another. In
practical terms, energy is what we use to manipulate the world around us, whether by exciting
our muscles, by using electricity, or by using mechanical devices such as automobiles. Energy
comes in different forms - heat (thermal), light (radiant), mechanical, electrical, chemical, and
nuclear energy.
2.2 Various Forms of Energy

There are two types of energy - stored (potential) energy and working (kinetic) energy. For
example, the food we eat contains chemical energy, and our body stores this energy until we
release it when we work or play.
2.2.1 Potential Energy
Potential energy is stored energy and the energy of position (gravitational). It exists in various
forms.
Chemical Energy
Chemical energy is the energy stored in the bonds of atoms and molecules. Biomass, petrole-
um, natural gas, propane and coal are examples of stored chemical energy.
Nuclear Energy
Nuclear energy is the energy stored in the nucleus of an atom - the energy that holds the nucle-
us together. The nucleus of a uranium atom is an example of nuclear energy.
Stored Mechanical Energy

Stored mechanical energy is energy stored in objects by the application of a force. Compressed
springs and stretched rubber bands are examples of stored mechanical energy.

2. Basics of Energy and its Various Forms
Gravitational Energy
Gravitational energy is the energy of place or position. Water in a reservoir behind a hydropow-
er dam is an example of gravitational energy. When the water is released to spin the turbines, it
becomes motion energy.
2.2.2 Kinetic Energy

Kinetic energy is energy in motion- the motion of waves, electrons, atoms, molecules and sub-
stances. It exists in various forms.
Radiant Energy
Radiant energy is electromagnetic energy that travels in transverse waves. Radiant energy
includes visible light, x-rays, gamma rays and radio waves. Solar energy is an example of radi-
ant energy.
Thermal Energy
Thermal energy (or heat) is the internal energy in substances- the vibration and movement of
atoms and molecules within substances. Geothermal energy is an example of thermal energy.
Motion
The movement of objects or substances from one place to another is motion. Wind and
hydropower are examples of motion.
Sound
Sound is the movement of energy through substances in longitudinal (compression/rarefaction)
waves.
Electrical Energy
Electrical energy is the movement of electrons. Lightning and electricity are examples of elec-
trical energy.
2.2.3 Energy Conversion
Energy is defined as "the ability to do work." In this sense, examples of work include moving
something, lifting something, warming something, or lighting something. The following is an
example of the transformation of different types of energy into heat and power.
Oil burns to generate heat -->
Heat boils water -->
Water turns to steam --> More the number of
Steam pressure turns a turbine --> conversion stages, lesser
Turbine turns an electric generator --> the overall energy
efficiency
Generator produces electricity -->
Electricity powers light bulbs -->
Light bulbs give off light and heat
It is difficult to imagine spending an entire day without using energy. We use energy to light our
cities and homes, to power machinery in factories, cook our food, play music, and operate our
TV.

2.2.4 Grades of Energy

High-Grade Energy
Electrical and chemical energy are high-grade energy, because the energy is concentrated in a
small space. Even a small amount of electrical and chemical energy can do a great amount of
work. The molecules or particles that store these forms of energy are highly ordered and com-
pact and thus considered as high grade energy. High-grade energy like electricity is better used
for high grade applications like melting of metals rather than simply heating of water.
Low-Grade Energy
Heat is low-grade energy. Heat can still be used to do work (example of a heater boiling water),
but it rapidly dissipates. The molecules, in which this kind of energy is stored (air and water
molecules), are more randomly distributed than the molecules of carbon in a coal. This disor-
dered state of the molecules and the dissipated energy are classified as low-grade energy.
2.3 Electrical Energy Basics

Electric current is divided into two types: Directional Current (DC) and Alternating Current
(AC).
Directional (Direct) Current

A non-varying, unidirectional electric current (Example: Current produced by batteries)
Characteristics:
• Direction of the flow of positive and negative charges does not change with time
• Direction of current (direction of flow for positive charges) is constant with time
• Potential difference (voltage) between two points of the circuit does not change polarity
with time
Alternating Current
A current which reverses in regularly recurring intervals of time and which has alternately pos-
itive and negative values, and occurring a specified number of times per second. (Example:
Household electricity produced by generators, Electricity supplied by utilities.)
Characteristics:
· Direction of the current reverses periodically with time
· Voltage (tension) between two points of the circuit changes polarity with time.
· In 50 cycle AC, current reverses direction 100 times a second (two times during onecycle)
Ampere (A)
Current is the rate of flow of charge. The ampere is the basic unit of electric current. It is that
current which produces a specified force between two parallel wires, which are 1 metre apart
in a vacuum.
Voltage (V)
The volt is the International System of Units (SI) measure of electric potential or electromo-

tive force. A potential of one volt appears across a resistance of one ohm when a current of one
ampere flows through that resistance.
1000 V = 1 kiloVolts (kV)
Resistance
Voltage
_______
Resistance =
Current
The unit of resistance is ohm (Ω)
Ohm' Law
Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference across it, provided the temperature and other external conditions remain constant.
Frequency
The supply frequency tells us the cycles at which alternating current changes. The unit of fre-
quency is hertz (Hz :cycles per second).
Kilovolt Ampere (kVA)

It is the product of kilovolts and amperes. This measures the electrical load on a circuit or sys-
tem. It is also called the apparent power.
Voltage x Amperes
For a single phase electrical circuit , Apparent power (kVA) =
1000
3 x Voltage x Amperes
For a three phase electrical circuit , Apparent power (kVA) =
1000
kVAr (Reactive Power)

kVAr is the reactive power. Reactive power is the portion of apparent power that does no work.
This type of power must be supplied to all types of magnetic equipment, such as motors, trans-
formers etc. Larger the magnetizing requirement, larger the kVAr.
Kilowatt (kW) (Active Power)

kW is the active power or the work-producing part of apparent power.
Voltage x Amperes x Power factor

For sin gle phase, Power ( kW ) =
1000
1.732 x Voltage x Amperes x Power factor

For Three phase, Power ( kW ) =
1000

Power Factor
Power Factor (PF) is the ratio between the active power (kW) and apparent power (kVA).
When current lags the voltage like in inductive loads, it is called lagging power factor and when
current leads the voltage like in capacitive loads, it is called leading power factor.
Inductive loads such as induction motors, transformers, discharge lamp, etc. absorb com-
paratively more lagging reactive power (kVAr) and hence, their power factor is poor. Lower the
power factor; electrical network is loaded with more current. It would be advisable to have
highest power factor (close to 1) so that network carries only active power which does real
work. PF improvement is done by installing capacitors near the load centers, which improve
power factor from the point of installation back to the generating station.
Kilowatt-hour (kWh)
Kilowatt-hour is the energy consumed by 1000 Watts in one hour. If 1kW (1000 watts) of a elec-
trical equipment is operated for 1 hour, it would consume 1 kWh of energy (1 unit of electrici-
ty).
For a company, it is the amount of electrical units in kWh recorded in the plant over a month
for billing purpose. The company is charged / billed based on kWh consumption.
Electricity Tariff
Calculation of electric bill for a company

Electrical utility or power supplying companies charge industrial customers not only based on
the amount of energy used (kWh) but also on the peak demand (kVA) for each month.
Contract Demand
Contract demand is the amount of electric power that a customer demands from utility in a spec-
ified interval. Unit used is kVA or kW. It is the amount of electric power that the consumer
agreed upon with the utility. This would mean that utility has to plan for the specified capacity.
Maximum demand
Maximum demand is the highest average kVA recorded during any one-demand interval with-
in the month. The demand interval is normally 30 minutes, but may vary from utility to utility
from 15 minutes to 60 minutes. The demand is measured using a tri-vector meter / digital ener-
gy meter.

Prediction of Load
While considering the methods of load prediction, some of the terms used in connection with
power supply must be appreciated.
Connected Load - is the nameplate rating (in kW or kVA) of the apparatus installed on a con-
sumer's premises.
Demand Factor - is the ratio of maximum demand to the connected load.
Load Factor - The ratio of average load to maximum load.
Average Load
Load Factor =
Maximum Load
The load factor can also be defined as the ratio of the energy consumed during a given period
to the energy, which would have been used if the maximum load had been maintained through-
out that period. For example, load factor for a day (24 hours) will be given by:
Energy consumed during 24 hours
Load Factor =
Maximum load recorded x 24 Hours
PF Measurement
A power analyzer can measure PF directly, or alternately kWh, kVAh or kVArh readings are
recorded from the billing meter installed at the incoming point of supply. The relation kWh /
kVAh gives the power factor.
Time of Day (TOD) Tariff

Many electrical utilities
like to have flat
demand curve to
achieve high plant effi-
ciency. They encourage
user to draw more
power during off-peak
hours (say during night
time) and less power
during peak hours. As
per their plan, they
offer TOD Tariff,
which may be incen-
tives or disincentives.
Energy meter will
record peak and non-
peak consumption sep-
arately by timer con-
trol. TOD tariff gives
opportunity for the user to reduce their billing, as off peak hour tariff charged are quite low in
comparison to peak hour tariff.

Three phase AC power measurement

Most of the motive drives such as pumps, compressors, machines etc. operate with 3 phase AC
Induction motor. Power consumption can be determined by using the relation.
Power = √3 x V x I x CosΦ
Portable power analysers /instruments are available for measuring all electrical parameters.
Example:
A 3-phase AC induction motor (20 kW capacity) is used for pumping operation. Electrical
parameter such as current, volt and power factor were measured with power analyzer. Find
energy consumption of motor in one hour? (line volts. = 440 V, line current = 25 amps and PF
= 0.90).
Energy consumption = √ 3 x 0.440 (kV) x 25(A) x 0.90(PF) x 1(hour) = 17.15 kWh
Motor loading calculation

The nameplate details of motor, kW or HP indicate the output parameters of the motor at full
load. The voltage, amps and PF refer to the rated input parameters at full load.
Example:
A three phase,10 kW motor has the name plate details as 415 V, 18.2 amps and 0.9 PF. Actual
input measurement shows 415 V, 12 amps and 0.7 PF which was measured with power analyz-
er during motor running.
Rated output at full load = 10 kW

Rated input at full load = 1.732 x 0.415 x 18.2 x 0.9 = 11.8 kW
The rated efficiency of motor at full load = (10 x 100) / 11.8 = 85%
Measured (Actual) input power = 1.732x 0.415 x 12x 0.7 = 6.0 kW
Measured kW 6 .0
Motor loading % = x 100 = x 100 = 51.2 %
Rated kW 11.8
Which applications use single-phase power in an industry?

Single-phase power is mostly used for lighting, fractional HP motors and electric heater appli-
cations.
Example :
A 400 Watt mercury vapor lamp was switched on for 10 hours per day. The supply volt is 230
V. Find the power consumption per day? (Volt = 230 V, Current = 2 amps, PF = 0.8)
Electricity consumption (kWh) = V x I x Cos x No of Hours

= 0.230 x 2 x 0.8 x 10 = 3.7 kWh or Units

Example :
An electric heater of 230 V, 5 kW rating is used for hot water generation in an industry. Find
electricity consumption per hour (a) at the rated voltage (b) at 200 V
(a) Electricity consumption (kWh) at rated voltage = 5 kW x 1 hour = 5 kWh.

(b) Electricity consumption at 200 V (kWh) = (200 / 230)2 x 5 kW x 1 hour = 3.78 kWh.
2.4 Thermal Energy Basics
Temperature and Pressure

Temperature and pressure are measures of the physical state of a substance. They are closely
related to the energy contained in the substance. As a result, measurements of temperature and
pressure provide a means of determining energy content.
Temperature
It is the degree of hotness or coldness measured on a definite scale. Heat is a form of energy;
temperature is a measure of its thermal effects. In other words, temperature is a means of deter-
mining sensible heat content of the substance
In the Celsius scale the freezing point of water is 0°C and the boiling point of water is 100°C
at atmospheric pressure.
To change temperature given in Fahrenheit (°F) to Celsius (°C)
Start with (°F); subtract 32; multiply by 5; divide by 9; the answer is (°C)
To change temperature given in Celsius (°C) to Fahrenheit (°F)
Start with (°C); multiply by 9; divide by 5; add on 32; the answer is (°F)
°C = (°F - 32) x 5/9

Pressure
It is the force per unit area applied to outside of a body. When we heat a gas in a confined space,
we create more force; a pressure increase. For example, heating the air inside a balloon will
cause the balloon to stretch as the pressure increases.
Pressure, therefore, is also indicative of stored energy. Steam at high pressures contains
much more energy than at low pressures.
Heat
Heat is a form of energy, a distinct and measurable property of all matter. The quantity of heat
depends on the quantity and type of substance involved.
Unit of Heat
Calorie is the unit for measuring the quantity of heat. It is the quantity of heat, which can raise
the temperature of 1 g of water by 1°C.
Calorie is too small a unit for many purposes. Therefore, a bigger unit Kilocalorie (1 Kilocalorie

= 1000 calories) is used to measure heat. 1 kilocalorie can raise the temperature of 1000g (i.e.
1kg) of water by 1°C.
However, nowadays generally joule as the unit of heat energy is used. It is the internation-
ally accepted unit. Its relationship with calorie is as follows:
1 Calorie = 4.187 J
Specific Heat
If the same amount of heat energy is supplied to equal quantities of water and milk, their tem-
perature goes up by different amounts. This property is called the specific heat of a substance
and is defined as the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1kg of a substance
through 1°C.
The specific heat of water is very high as compared to other common substances; it takes a
lot of heat to raise the temperature of water. Also, when water is cooled, it gives out a large
quantity of heat.
TABLE 2.1 SPECIFIC HEAT OF SOME COMMON

SUBSTANCES
Substance Specific Heat (Joules / kg °C)

Lead 130
Mercury 140
Brass 380
Copper 390
Iron 470
Glass 670
Aluminium 910
Rubber 1890
Ice 2100
Alcohol 2400
Water 4200
Sensible heat
It is that heat which when added or subtracted results in a change of temperature.
Quantity of Heat
The quantity of heat, Q, supplied to a substance to increase its temperature by t°C depends on
– mass of the substance (m)

– increase in temperature (∆t)
– specific heat of the substance (Cp)

The quantity of heat is given by:
Q = mass x specific heat x increase in temperature

Q = m x Cp x ∆t
Phase Change
The change of state from the solid state to a liquid state is called fusion. The fixed temperature
at which a solid changes into a liquid is called its melting point.
The change of a state from a liquid state to a gas is called vaporization.
Latent heat of fusion

The latent heat of fusion of a substance is the quantity of heat required to convert 1kg solid to
liquid state without change of temperature. It is represented by the symbol L. Its unit is Joule
per kilogram (J/Kg)
Thus, L (ice) = 336000 J/kg,
Latent Heat of Vaporization

The latent heat of vaporization of a substance is the quantity of heat required to change 1kg of
the substance from liquid to vapour state without change of temperature. It is also denoted by
the symbol L and its unit is also J/kg. The latent heat of vaporization of water is 22,60,000 J/kg.
When 1 kg of steam at 100°C condenses to form water at 100°C, it gives out 2260 kJ (540
kCals) of heat. Steam gives out more heat than an equal amount of boiling water because of its
latent heat.
Latent heat
It is the change in heat content of a substance, when its physical state is changed without a
change in temperature.
Super Heat
The heating of vapour, particularly saturated steam to a temperature much higher than the boil-
ing point at the existing pressure. This is done in power plants to improve efficiency and to
avoid condensation in the turbine.
Humidity
The moisture content of air is referred to as humidity and may be expressed in two ways: spe-
cific humidity and relative humidity.
Specific Humidity
It is the actual weight of water vapour mixed in a kg of dry air.
Humidity Factor
Humidity factor = kg of water per kg of dry air (kg/kg).

Relative Humidity (RH)

It is the measure of degree of saturation of the air at any dry-bulb (DB) temperature. Relative
humidity given as a percentage is the actual water content of the air divided by the moisture
content of fully saturated air at the existing temperature.
Dew Point
It is the temperature at which condensation of water vapour from the air begins as the temper-
ature of the air-water vapour mixture falls.
Dry bulb Temperature

It is an indication of the sensible heat content of air-water vapour mixtures.
Wet bulb Temperature

It is a measure of total heat content or enthalpy. It is the temperature approached by the dry bulb
and the dew point as saturation occurs.
Dew Point Temperature
It is a measure of the latent heat content of air-water vapour mixtures and since latent heat is a
function of moisture content, the dew point temperature is determined by the moisture content.
Fuel Density
Density is the ratio of the mass of the fuel to the volume of the fuel at a stated temperature.
Specific gravity of fuel

The density of fuel, relative to water, is called specific gravity. The specific gravity of water is
defined as 1. As it is a ratio there are no units. Higher the specific gravity, higher will be the
heating values.
Viscosity
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its internal resistance to flow. All liquid fuels decrease
in viscosity with increasing temperature
Calorific Value
Energy content in an organic matter (Calorific Value) can be measured by burning it and mea-
suring the heat released. This is done by placing a sample of known mass in a bomb calorime-
ter, a device that is completely sealed and insulated to prevent heat loss. A thermometer is
placed inside (but it can be read from the outside) and the increase in temperature after the sam-
ple is burnt completely is measured. From this data, energy content in the organic matter can be
found out.
The heating value of fuel is the measure of the heat released during the complete combus-
tion of unit weight of fuel. It is expressed as Gross Calorific Value (GCV) or Net Calorific Value
(NCV). The difference between GCV and NCV is the heat of vaporization of the moisture and
atomic hydrogen (conversion to water vapour) in the fuel. Typical GCV and NCV for heavy fuel
oil are 10,500 kcal/kg and 9,800 kcal/kg.

Heat Transfer
Heat will always be transferred from higher temperature to lower temperature independent of
the mode. The energy transferred is measured in Joules (kcal or Btu). The rate of energy trans-
fer, more commonly called heat transfer, is measured in Joules/second (kcal/hr or Btu/hr).
Heat is transferred by three primary modes:
o Conduction (Energy transfer in a solid)
o Convection (Energy transfer in a fluid)
o Radiation (Does not need a material to travel through)
Conduction
The conduction of heat takes place, when two bodies are in contact with one another. If one
body is at a higher temperature than the other, the motion of the molecules in the hotter body
will vibrate the molecules at the point of contact in the cooler body and consequently result in
increase in temperature.
The amount of heat transferred by conduction depends upon the temperature difference, the
properties of the material involved, the thickness of the material, the surface contact area, and
the duration of the transfer.
Good conductors of heat are typically substances that are dense as they have molecules
close together. This allows the molecular agitation process to permeate the substance easily. So,
metals are good conductors of heat, while gaseous substance, having low densities or widely
spaced molecules, are poor conductors of heat. Poor conductors of heat are usually called insu-
lators.
The measure of the ability of a substance to insulate is its thermal resistance. This is com-
monly referred to as the R-value (RSI in metric). The R-value is generally the inverse of the
thermal conductivity, the ability to conduct heat.
Typical units of measure for conductive heat transfer are:
Per unit area (for a given thickness)

Metric (SI) : Watt per square meter (W/m2 )
Overall
Metric (SI) : Watt (W) or kilowatts (kW)
Convection
The transfer of heat by convection involves the movement of a fluid such as a gas or liquid from
the hot to the cold portion. There are two types of convection: natural and forced.
In case of natural convection, the fluid in contact with or adjacent to a high temperature
body is heated by conduction. As it is heated, it expands, becomes less dense and consequent-
ly rises. This begins a fluid motion process in which a circulating current of fluid moves past
the heated body, continuously transferring heat away from it.
In the case of forced convection, the movement of the fluid is forced by a fan, pump or other
external means. A centralized hot air heating system is a good example of forced convection.
Convection depends on the thermal properties of the fluid as well as surface conditions at
the body and other factors that affect the ability of the fluid to flow. With a low conductivity
fluid such as air, a rough surface can trap air against the surface reducing the conductive heat

transfer and consequently reducing the convective currents.

Units of measure for rate of convective heat transfer are:
Metric (SI) : Watt (W) or kilowatts (kW)
Thermal Radiation
Thermal radiation is a process in which energy is transferred by electromagnetic waves similar
to light waves. These waves may be both visible (light) and invisible. A very common example
of thermal radiation is a heating element on a heater. When the heater element is first switched
on, the radiation is invisible, but you can feel the warmth it radiates. As the element heats, it
will glow orange and some of the radiation is now visible. The hotter the element, the brighter
it glows and the more radiant energy it emits.
The key processes in the interaction of a substance with thermal radiation are:
Absorption the process by which radiation enters a body and
becomes heat
Transmission the process by which radiation passes through a body
Reflection the process by which radiation is neither absorbed or transmitted
through the body; rather it bounces off
Objects receive thermal radiation when they are struck by electromagnetic waves, thereby
agitating the molecules and atoms. More agitation means more energy and a higher tempera-
ture. Energy is transferred to one body from another without contact or transporting medium
such as air or water. In fact, thermal radiation heat transfer is the only form of heat transfer pos-
sible in a vacuum.
All bodies emit a certain amount of radiation. The amount depends upon the body's tem-
perature and nature of its surface. Some bodies only emit a small amount of radiant energy for
their temperature, commonly called low emissivity materials (abbreviated low-E). Low-E win-
dows are used to control the heat radiation in and out of buildings. Windows can be designed
to reflect, absorb and transmit different parts of the sun's radiant energy.
The condition of a body's surface will determine the amount of thermal radiation that is
absorbed, reflected or re-emitted. Surfaces that are black and rough, such as black iron, will
absorb and re-emit almost all the energy that strikes them. Polished and smooth surfaces will
not absorb, but reflect, a large part of the incoming radiant energy.
Typical units of measure for rate of radiant heat transfer

Metric (SI) Watt per square meter (W/m2)
Evaporation
The change by which any substance is converted from a liquid state and carried off as vapour.
Example: People are cooled by evaporation of perspiration from the skin and refrigeration is
accomplished by evaporating the liquid refrigerant. Evaporation is a cooling process.
Condensation
The change by which any substance is converted from a gaseous state to liquid state.

Example: Condensation on the other hand is a heating process. As molecules of vapour con-
dense and become liquid, their latent heat of vapourisation evidences itself again as sensible
heat, indicated by a rise in temperature. This heating effect of condensation is what causes the
considerable rise in atmospheric temperature often noted as fog forms and as rain or snow
begins to fall.
Steam
Steam has been a popular mode of conveying energy, since the industrial revolution. The fol-
lowing characteristics of steam make it so popular and useful to the industry:
• High specific heat and latent heat
• High heat transfer coefficient
• Easy to control and distribute
• Cheap and inert
Steam is used for generating power and also used in process industries, such as, sugar,
paper, fertilizer, refineries, petrochemicals, chemical, food, synthetic fibre and textiles. In the
process industries, the high pressure steam produced in the boiler, is first expanded in a steam
turbine for generating power. The extraction or bleed from the turbine, which are generally at
low pressure, are used for the process. This method of producing power, by using the steam gen-
erated for process in the boiler, is called "Cogeneration."
How to read a Steam Table?

Select the pressure and temperature of the steam at which you want to find the enthalpy. Read
the intersection of pressure and temperature for enthalpy (Heat content in the steam)
First law of Thermodynamics

It states that energy may be converted from one form to another, but it is never lost from the
system.
Second Law of Thermodynamics

• In any conversion of energy from one form to another, some amount of energy will be dis
sipated as heat.
• Thus no energy conversion is 100 % efficient.
• This principle is used in energy equipment efficiency calculations.
Law of Conservation of Matter

• In any physical or chemical change, matter is neither created nor destroyed, but it may be
changed from one form to another.
• For example, if a sample of coal were burnt in an enclosed chamber, carbon in coal would
end up as CO2 in the air inside the chamber; In fact, for every carbon atom there would be
one carbon dioxide molecule in the combustion products (each of which has one carbon
atom). So the carbon atoms would be conserved, and so would every other atom. Thus, no
matter would be lost during this conversion of the coal into heat.
• This principle is used in energy and material balance calculations

2.5 Units and Conversions

The energy units are wide and varied. The usage of units varies with country, industry sector,
systems such as FPS, CGS, MKS and SI, and also with generations of earlier period using FPS
and recent generations using MKS. Even technology/equipment suppliers adopt units that are
different from the one being used by the user of that technology/equipment. For example some
compressor manufacturers specify output in m3/min while some specify in cubic feet/minute or
even in litres/second. All this cause confusion and hence the need for this chapter on units and
conversions.
Energy Units
1 barrel of oil = 42 U.S. gallons (gal) = 0.16 cubic meters (m3)
1 MW 1,000 kW
1 kW 1,000 Watts
1 kWh 3,412 Btu
1 kWh 1.340 Hp hours
1,000 Btu 0.293 kWh
1 Therm 100,000 Btu (British Thermal Units)
1 Million Btu 293.1 Kilowatt hours
100,000 Btu 1 Therm
1 Watt 3.412 Btu per hour
1 Horsepower 746 Watts or 0.746 Kilo Watts
1 Horsepower hr. 2,545 Btu
1 kJ 0.239005 Kilocalories
1 Calorie 4.187 Joules
1 kcal/Kg 1.8 Btu's/lb.
1 Million Btu 252 Mega calories
1 Btu 252 Calories
1 Btu 1,055 Joules
1 Btu/lb. 2.3260 kJ/kg
1 Btu/lb. 0.5559 Kilocalories/kg
Power (Energy Rate) Equivalents

1 kilowatt (kW) 1 kilo joule /second (kJ/s)
1 kilowatt (kW) 3413 BTU/hour (Btu/hr.)
1 horsepower (hp) 746 watts (0.746 kW)
1 Ton of refrigeration 12000 Btu/hr.
Pressure:
Gauge pressure is defined relative to the prevailing atmospheric pressure (101.325 kPa at sea
level), or as absolute pressure:
Absolute Pressure = Gauge Pressure + Prevailing Atmospheric Pressure

Units of measure of pressure:

Metric (SI) : kilopascals (kPa)
1 pascal (Pa) = 1 Newton/m2 (N/m2 )
1 physical atmosphere (atm) = 101325 Pa = 760 mm of mercury (mm Hg)
= 14.69 lb-force/in2 (psi)
1 technical atmosphere (ata) = 1 kilogram-force/cm2 (kg/cm2)= 9.806650 × 104 Pa
Power:
1 W = 1 J/s = 0.9478×10-3 Btu/s = 3.41214 Btu/hr
Fuel to kWh (Approximate conversion)
Natural gas M3 x 10.6 kWh
Ft3 x 0.3 kWh
therms x 29.3 kWh
LPG (propane) m3 x 25 kWh
Coal kg x 8.05 kWh
Coke kg x 10.0 kWh
Gas oil litres x 12.5 kWh
Light fuel oil litres x 12.9 kWh
Medium fuel oil litres x 13.1 kWh
Heavy fuel oil litres x 13.3 kWh
Prefixes for units in the International System

Prefix Symbol Power Example USA/Other
exa E 1018 quintillion
peta P 1015 pentagram (Pg) quadrillion/billiard
tera T 1012 terawatt (TW) trillion/billion
giga G 109 gigawatt (GW) billion/milliard
mega M 106 megawatt (MW) million
kilo k 103 kilogram (kg)
hecto h 102 hectoliter (hl)
deka da 101 dekagram (dag)
deci d 10-1 decimeter (dm)
centi c 10-2 centimeter (cm)
milli m 10-3 millimeter (mm)
micro µ 10-6 micrometer (µm)
nano n 10-9 nanosecond (ns)
pico p 10-12 picofarad (pf)
femto f 10-15 femtogram (fg)
atto a 10-18

Energy
To: TJ Gcal Mtoe MBtu GWh

From: Multiply by:
TJ 1 238.8 2.388 x 10-5 947.8 0.2778
Gcal 4.1868 x 10-3 1 10-7 3.968 1.163 x 10-3
Mtoe 4.1868 x 104 107 1 3.968 x 107 11630
MBtu 1.0551 x 10-3 0.252 2.52 x 10-8 1 2.931 x 10-4
GWh 3.6 860 8.6 x 10-5 3412 1
Mass
To: kg t lt st lb
From: multiply by:
kilogram (kg) 1 0.001 9.84 x 10-4 1.102 x 10-3 2.2046
tonne (t) 1000 1 0.984 1.1023 2204.6
long ton (lt) 1016 1.016 1 1.120 2240.0
short ton (st) 907.2 0.9072 0.893 1 2000.0
pound (lb) 0.454 4.54 x 10-4 4.46 x 10-4 5.0 x 10-4 1
Volume
To: gal U.S. gal U.K. bbl ft3 l m3

From: multiply by:
U.S. gallon (gal) 1 0.8327 0.02381 0.1337 3.785 0.0038
U.K. gallon (gal) 1.201 1 0.02859 0.1605 4.546 0.0045
Barrel (bbl) 42.0 34.97 1 5.615 159.0 0.159
Cubic foot (ft3) 7.48 6.229 0.1781 1 28.3 0.0283
Litre (l) 0.2642 0.220 0.0063 0.0353 1 0.001
Cubic metre (m3) 264.2 220.0 6.289 35.3147 1000.0 1

QUESTIONS
1. Discuss one energy conversion activity with various losses occurring stage wise.
2. The reactive power is represented by
(a) kVA (b) kW (c) kVAr (d) PF
3. A fluorescent tube light consumes 40 W for the tube and 10 W for choke. If the
lamp operates for 8 hours a day for 300 days in a year, calculate the total energy cost
per annum if the energy cost is Rs.3/- per kWh
4. Power factor is the ratio of
(a) kW / kVA (b) kVA / kW (c) kVA / kVAr (d) kVAr / kV
5. Define the term load factor.
6. What do you understand by the term calorific value?
7. What are the three modes of heat transfer? Explain with examples?
8. Explain why steam is used commonly in industries?
9. If an electric heater consumes 4 kWh, what will be the equivalent kilocalories?
10. Why a cube of ice at 0oC is more effective in cooling a drink than the same quantity
of water at 0oC?
11. 10 kg of steam at 100oC with latent heat of vapourisation 2260 kJ is cooled to 50oC.
If the specific heat of water is 4200 J/kgoC, find the quantity of heat given out.
REFERENCES
1. Energy Dictionary, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York - V Daniel Hunt.
2. Cleaner Production – Energy Efficiency Manual for GERIAP, UNEP, Bangkok prepared
by National Productivity Council
www.eia.doe.gov/kids/btudef.html
www.calculator.org/properties.html
www.katmarsoftware.com

3. ENERGY MANAGEMENT AND AUDIT
Syllabus
Energy Management & Audit: Definition, Energy audit- need, Types of energy audit,
Energy management (audit) approach-understanding energy costs, Bench marking, Energy
performance, Matching energy use to requirement, Maximizing system efficiencies,
Optimizing the input energy requirements, Fuel and energy substitution, Energy audit
instruments
3.1 Definition & Objectives of Energy Management

The fundamental goal of energy management is to produce goods and provide services with the
least cost and least environmental effect.
The term energy management means many things to many people. One definition of ener-
gy management is:
"The judicious and effective use of energy to maximize profits (minimize

costs) and enhance competitive positions"
(Cape Hart, Turner and Kennedy, Guide to Energy Management Fairmont press inc. 1997)
Another comprehensive definition is
"The strategy of adjusting and optimizing energy, using systems and procedures so as to
reduce energy requirements per unit of output while holding constant or reducing total
costs of producing the output from these systems"
The objective of Energy Management is to achieve and maintain optimum energy procurement
and utilisation, throughout the organization and:
• To minimise energy costs / waste without affecting production & quality

• To minimise environmental effects.
3.2 Energy Audit: Types And Methodology

Energy Audit is the key to a systematic approach for decision-making in the area of energy man-
agement. It attempts to balance the total energy inputs with its use, and serves to identify all
the energy streams in a facility. It quantifies energy usage according to its discrete functions.
Industrial energy audit is an effective tool in defining and pursuing comprehensive energy man-
agement programme.
As per the Energy Conservation Act, 2001, Energy Audit is defined as "the verification, mon-

3. Energy Management and Audit
itoring and analysis of use of energy including submission of technical report containing rec-
ommendations for improving energy efficiency with cost benefit analysis and an action plan to
reduce energy consumption".
3.2.1 Need for Energy Audit

In any industry, the three top operating expenses are often found to be energy (both electrical
and thermal), labour and materials. If one were to relate to the manageability of the cost or
potential cost savings in each of the above components, energy would invariably emerge as a
top ranker, and thus energy management function constitutes a strategic area for cost reduction.
Energy Audit will help to understand more about the ways energy and fuel are used in any
industry, and help in identifying the areas where waste can occur and where scope for improve-
ment exists.
The Energy Audit would give a positive orientation to the energy cost reduction, preventive
maintenance and quality control programmes which are vital for production and utility activi-
ties. Such an audit programme will help to keep focus on variations which occur in the energy
costs, availability and reliability of supply of energy, decide on appropriate energy mix, identi-
fy energy conservation technologies, retrofit for energy conservation equipment etc.
In general, Energy Audit is the translation of conservation ideas into realities, by lending
technically feasible solutions with economic and other organizational considerations within a
specified time frame.
The primary objective of Energy Audit is to determine ways to reduce energy consumption
per unit of product output or to lower operating costs. Energy Audit provides a " bench-mark"
(Reference point) for managing energy in the organization and also provides the basis for plan-
ning a more effective use of energy throughout the organization.
3.2.2 Type of Energy Audit

The type of Energy Audit to be performed depends on:
- Function and type of industry
- Depth to which final audit is needed, and
- Potential and magnitude of cost reduction desired
Thus Energy Audit can be classified into the following two types.
i) Preliminary Audit
ii) Detailed Audit
3.2.3 Preliminary Energy Audit Methodology

Preliminary energy audit is a relatively quick exercise to:
• Establish energy consumption in the organization
• Estimate the scope for saving
• Identify the most likely (and the easiest areas for attention
• Identify immediate (especially no-/low-cost) improvements/ savings
• Set a 'reference point'
• Identify areas for more detailed study/measurement
• Preliminary energy audit uses existing, or easily obtained data

3.2.4 Detailed Energy Audit Methodology

A comprehensive audit provides a detailed energy project implementation plan for a facility,
since it evaluates all major energy using systems.
This type of audit offers the most accurate estimate of energy savings and cost. It considers
the interactive effects of all projects, accounts for the energy use of all major equipment, and
includes detailed energy cost saving calculations and project cost.
In a comprehensive audit, one of the key elements is the energy balance. This is based on an
inventory of energy using systems, assumptions of current operating conditions and calculations
of energy use. This estimated use is then compared to utility bill charges.
Detailed energy auditing is carried out in three phases: Phase I, II and III.
Phase I - Pre Audit Phase

Phase II - Audit Phase
Phase III - Post Audit Phase
A Guide for Conducting Energy Audit at a Glance

Industry-to-industry, the methodology of Energy Audits needs to be flexible.
A comprehensive ten-step methodology for conduct of Energy Audit at field level is pre-
sented below. Energy Manager and Energy Auditor may follow these steps to start with and
add/change as per their needs and industry types.

Ten Steps Methodology for Detailed Energy Audit


Phase I -Pre Audit Phase Activities

A structured methodology to carry out an energy audit is necessary for efficient working. An
initial study of the site should always be carried out, as the planning of the procedures neces-
sary for an audit is most important.
Initial Site Visit and Preparation Required for Detailed Auditing

An initial site visit may take one day and gives the Energy Auditor/Engineer an opportunity to
meet the personnel concerned, to familiarize him with the site and to assess the procedures nec-
essary to carry out the energy audit.
During the initial site visit the Energy Auditor/Engineer should carry out the following
actions: -
• Discuss with the site's senior management the aims of the energy audit.
• Discuss economic guidelines associated with the recommendations of the audit.
• Analyse the major energy consumption data with the relevant personnel.
• Obtain site drawings where available - building layout, steam distribution, compressed air
distribution, electricity distribution etc.
• Tour the site accompanied by engineering/production
The main aims of this visit are: -

• To finalise Energy Audit team
• To identify the main energy consuming areas/plant items to be surveyed during the audit.
• To identify any existing instrumentation/ additional metering required.
• To decide whether any meters will have to be installed prior to the audit eg. kWh, steam,
oil or gas meters.
• To identify the instrumentation required for carrying out the audit.
• To plan with time frame
• To collect macro data on plant energy resources, major energy consuming centers
• To create awareness through meetings/ programme
Phase II- Detailed Energy Audit Activities

Depending on the nature and complexity of the site, a comprehensive audit can take from sev-
eral weeks to several months to complete. Detailed studies to establish, and investigate, energy
and material balances for specific plant departments or items of process equipment are carried
out. Whenever possible, checks of plant operations are carried out over extended periods of
time, at nights and at weekends as well as during normal daytime working hours, to ensure that
nothing is overlooked.
The audit report will include a description of energy inputs and product outputs by major
department or by major processing function, and will evaluate the efficiency of each step of the
manufacturing process. Means of improving these efficiencies will be listed, and at least a pre-
liminary assessment of the cost of the improvements will be made to indicate the expected pay-
back on any capital investment needed. The audit report should conclude with specific recom-
mendations for detailed engineering studies and feasibility analyses, which must then be per-
formed to justify the implementation of those conservation measures that require investments.

The information to be collected during the detailed audit includes: -

1. Energy consumption by type of energy, by department, by major items of process equip
ment, by end-use
2. Material balance data (raw materials, intermediate and final products, recycled
materials, use of scrap or waste products, production of by-products for re-use in other
industries, etc.)
3. Energy cost and tariff data
4. Process and material flow diagrams
5. Generation and distribution of site services (eg.compressed air, steam).
6. Sources of energy supply (e.g. electricity from the grid or self-generation)
7. Potential for fuel substitution, process modifications, and the use of co-generation
systems (combined heat and power generation).
8. Energy Management procedures and energy awareness training programs within the
establishment.
Existing baseline information and reports are useful to get consumption pattern, production cost
and productivity levels in terms of product per raw material inputs. The audit team should col-
lect the following baseline data:
- Technology, processes used and equipment details
- Capacity utilisation
- Amount & type of input materials used
- Water consumption
- Fuel Consumption
- Electrical energy consumption
- Steam consumption
- Other inputs such as compressed air, cooling water etc
- Quantity & type of wastes generated
- Percentage rejection / reprocessing
- Efficiencies / yield
DATA COLLECTION HINTS

It is important to plan additional data gathering carefully. Here are some basic tips to avoid wasting time
and effort:
• measurement systems should be easy to use and provide the information to the accuracy that is
needed, not the accuracy that is technically possible
• measurement equipment can be inexpensive (flow rates using a bucket and stopwatch)
• the quality of the data must be such that the correct conclusions are drawn (what grade of prod
uct is on, is the production normal etc)
• define how frequent data collection should be to account for process variations.
• measurement exercises over abnormal workload periods (such as startup and shutdowns)
• design values can be taken where measurements are difficult (cooling water through heat exchang
er)
DO NOT ESTIMATE WHEN YOU CAN CALCULATE
DO NOT CALCULATE WHEN YOU CAN MEASURE

Draw process flow diagram and list process steps; identify waste streams and obvious
energy wastage
An overview of unit operations, important process steps, areas of material and energy use and
sources of waste generation should be gathered and should be represented in a flowchart as
shown in the figure below. Existing drawings, records and shop floor walk through will help in
making this flow chart. Simultaneously the team should identify the various inputs & output
streams at each process step.
Example: A flowchart of Penicillin-G manufacturing is given in the figure3.1 below. Note

that waste stream (Mycelium) and obvious energy wastes such as condensate drained and steam
leakages have been identified in this flow chart
The audit focus area depends on several issues like consumption of input resources, energy
efficiency potential, impact of process step on entire process or intensity of waste generation /
energy consumption. In the above process, the unit operations such as germinator, pre-fermen-
tor, fermentor, and extraction are the major conservation potential areas identified.
Figure 3.1

Identification of Energy Conservation Opportunities

Fuel substitution: Identifying the appropriate fuel for efficient energy conversion
Energy generation :Identifying Efficiency opportunities in energy conversion equipment/util-
ity such as captive power generation, steam generation in boilers, thermic fluid heating, optimal
loading of DG sets, minimum excess air combustion with boilers/thermic fluid heating, opti-
mising existing efficiencies, efficienct energy conversion equipment, biomass gasifiers,
Cogeneration, high efficiency DG sets, etc.
Energy distribution: Identifying Efficiency opportunities network such as transformers,
cables, switchgears and power factor improvement in electrical systems and chilled water, cool-
ing water, hot water, compressed air, Etc.
Energy usage by processes: This is where the major opportunity for improvement and many
of them are hidden. Process analysis is useful tool for process integration measures.
Technical and Economic feasibility

The technical feasibility should address the following issues
• Technology availability, space, skilled manpower, reliability, service etc

• The impact of energy efficiency measure on safety, quality, production or process.
• The maintenance requirements and spares availability
The Economic viability often becomes the key parameter for the management acceptance. The
economic analysis can be conducted by using a variety of methods. Example: Pay back method,
Internal Rate of Return method, Net Present Value method etc. For low investment short dura-
tion measures, which have attractive economic viability, simplest of the methods, payback is
usually sufficient. A sample worksheet for assessing economic feasibility is provided below:
Classification of Energy Conservation Measures

Based on energy audit and analyses of the plant, a number of potential energy saving projects
may be identified. These may be classified into three categories:

1. Low cost - high return;

2. Medium cost - medium return;
3. High cost - high return
Normally the low cost - high return projects receive priority. Other projects have to be analyzed,
engineered and budgeted for implementation in a phased manner. Projects relating to energy
cascading and process changes almost always involve high costs coupled with high returns, and
may require careful scrutiny before funds can be committed. These projects are generally com-
plex and may require long lead times before they can be implemented. Refer Table 3.1 for pro-
ject priority guidelines.
3.3 Energy Audit Reporting Format

After successfully carried out energy audit energy manager/energy auditor should report to the
top management for effective communication and implementation. A typical energy audit
reporting contents and format are given below. The following format is applicable for most of
the industries. However the format can be suitably modified for specific requirement applicable
for a particular type of industry.



The following Worksheets (refer Table 3.2 & Table 3.3) can be used as guidance for energy
audit assessment and reporting.
TABLE 3.2 SUMMARY OF ENERGY SAVING RECOMMENDATIONS
S.No. Energy Saving Annual Energy Annual Capital Simple

Recommendations (Fuel & Electricity) Savings Investment Payback
Savings (kWh/MT Rs.Lakhs (Rs.Lakhs) period
or kl/MT)
1
2
3
4
Total
TABLE 3.3 TYPES AND PRIORITY OF ENERGY SAVING MEASURES
Type of Energy Annual Annual

Saving Options Electricity Savings Priority
/Fuel savings
KWh/MT or kl/MT (Rs Lakhs)
A No Investment
(Immediate)
- Operational
Improvement
- Housekeeping
B Low Investment
(Short to Medium Term)
- Controls
- Equipment Modification
- Process change
C High Investment
(Long Term)
- Energy efficient Devices
- Product modification
- Technology Change


3.4 Understanding Energy Costs

Understanding energy cost is vital factor for awareness creation and saving calculation. In
many industries sufficient meters may not be available to measure all the energy used. In such
cases, invoices for fuels and electricity will be useful. The annual company balance sheet is the
other sources where fuel cost and power are given with production related information.
Energy invoices can be used for the following purposes:
• They provide a record of energy purchased in a given year, which gives a base-line for
future reference
• Energy invoices may indicate the potential for savings when related to production
requirements or to air conditioning requirements/space heating etc.
• When electricity is purchased on the basis of maximum demand tariff
• They can suggest where savings are most likely to be made.
• In later years invoices can be used to quantify the energy and cost savings made through
energy conservation measures
Fuel Costs
A wide variety of fuels are available for
thermal energy supply. Few are listed
below:
• Fuel oil
• Low Sulphur Heavy Stock (LSHS)
• Light Diesel Oil (LDO)
• Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)
• COAL
• LIGNITE
• WOOD ETC.
Understanding fuel cost is fairly simple

and it is purchased in Tons or Kiloliters.
Availability, cost and quality are the main
Figure 3.2 Annual Energy Bill
three factors that should be considered
while purchasing. The following factors should be taken into account during procurement of
fuels for energy efficiency and economics.
• Price at source, transport charge, type of transport

• Quality of fuel (contaminations, moisture etc)
• Energy content (calorific value)
Power Costs
Electricity price in India not only varies from State to State, but also city to city and consumer
to consumer though it does the same work everywhere. Many factors are involved in deciding
final cost of purchased electricity such as:
• Maximum demand charges, kVA
(i.e. How fast the electricity is used? )

• Energy Charges, kWh

(i.e., How much electricity is consumed? )
• TOD Charges, Peak/Non-peak period
(i.e. When electricity is utilized ?)
• Power factor Charge, P.F
(i.e., Real power use versus Apparent power use factor )
• Other incentives and penalties applied from time to time
• High tension tariff and low tension tariff rate changes
• Slab rate cost and its variation
• Type of tariff clause and rate for various categories such as commercial, residential,
industrial, Government, agricultural, etc.
• Tariff rate for developed and underdeveloped area/States
• Tax holiday for new projects
Example: Purchased energy Bill

A typical summary of energy purchased in an industry based on the invoices
TABLE 3.4
Type of energy Original units Unit Cost Monthly Bill Rs.

Electricity 5,00,000 kWh Rs.4.00/kWh 20,00,000
Fuel oil 200 kL Rs.10,000/ kL 20,00,000
Coal 1000 tons Rs.2,000/ton 20,00,000
Total 60,00,000
Unfortunately the different forms of energy are sold in different units e.g. kWh of electricity,
liters of fuel oil, tonne of coal. To allow comparison of energy quantities these must be con-
verted to a common unit of energy such as kWh, Giga joules, kCals etc.
Electricity (1 kWh) = 860 kCal/kWh (0.0036 GJ)

Heavy fuel oil (Gross calorific value, GCV) =10000 kCal/litre ( 0.0411 GJ/litre)
Coal (Gross calorific value, GCV) =4000 kCal/kg ( 28 GJ/ton)
3.5 Benchmarking and Energy Performance

Benchmarking of energy consumption internally (historical / trend analysis) and externally
(across similar industries) are two powerful tools for performance assessment and logical evo-
lution of avenues for improvement. Historical data well documented helps to bring out energy
consumption and cost trends month-wise / day-wise. Trend analysis of energy consumption,
cost, relevant production features, specific energy consumption, help to understand effects of
capacity utilization on energy use efficiency and costs on a broader scale.
External benchmarking relates to inter-unit comparison across a group of similar units.
However, it would be important to ascertain similarities, as otherwise findings can be grossly

misleading. Few comparative factors, which need to be looked into while benchmarking exter-
nally are:
• Scale of operation
• Vintage of technology
• Raw material specifications and quality
• Product specifications and quality
Benchmarking energy performance permits
• Quantification of fixed and variable energy consumption trends vis-à-vis production
levels
• Comparison of the industry energy performance with respect to various production
levels (capacity utilization)
• Identification of best practices (based on the external benchmarking data)
• Scope and margin available for energy consumption and cost reduction
• Basis for monitoring and target setting exercises.
The benchmark parameters can be:
• Gross production related
e.g. kWh/MT clinker or cement produced (cement plant)
e.g. kWh/kg yarn produced (Textile unit)
e.g. kWh/MT, kCal/kg, paper produced (Paper plant)
e.g. kCal/kWh Power produced (Heat rate of a power plant)
e.g. Million kilocals/MT Urea or Ammonia (Fertilizer plant)
e.g. kWh/MT of liquid metal output (in a foundry)
• Equipment / utility related

e.g. kW/ton of refrigeration (on Air conditioning plant)
e.g. % thermal efficiency of a boiler plant
e.g. % cooling tower effectiveness in a cooling tower
e.g. kWh/NM3 of compressed air generated
e.g. kWh /litre in a diesel power generation plant.
While such benchmarks are referred to, related crucial process parameters need mentioning for
meaningful comparison among peers. For instance, in the above case:
• For a cement plant - type of cement, blaine number (fineness) i.e. Portland and process
used (wet/dry) are to be reported alongside kWh/MT figure.
• For a textile unit - average count, type of yarn i.e. polyester/cotton, is to be reported
along side kWh/square meter.
• For a paper plant - paper type, raw material (recycling extent), GSM quality is some
important factors to be reported along with kWh/MT, kCal/Kg figures.
• For a power plant / cogeneration plant - plant % loading, condenser vacuum, inlet cool
ing water temperature, would be important factors to be mentioned alongside heat rate
(kCal/kWh).
• For a fertilizer plant - capacity utilization(%) and on-stream factor are two inputs worth
comparing while mentioning specific energy consumption
• For a foundry unit - melt output, furnace type, composition (mild steel, high carbon
steel/cast iron etc.) raw material mix, number or power trips could be some useful oper

ating parameters to be reported while mentioning specific energy consumption data.

• For an Air conditioning (A/c) plant - Chilled water temperature level and refrigeration
load (TR) are crucial for comparing kW/TR.
• For a boiler plant - fuel quality, type, steam pressure, temperature, flow, are useful com
parators alongside thermal efficiency and more importantly, whether thermal efficiency
is on gross calorific value basis or net calorific value basis or whether the computation
is by direct method or indirect heat loss method, may mean a lot in benchmarking exer
cise for meaningful comparison.
• Cooling tower effectiveness - ambient air wet/dry bulb temperature, relative humidity,
air and circulating water flows are required to be reported to make meaningful sense.
• Compressed air specific power consumption - is to be compared at similar inlet air tem
perature and pressure of generation.
• Diesel power plant performance - is to be compared at similar loading %, steady run
condition etc.
Plant Energy Performance

Plant energy performance (PEP) is the measure of whether a plant is now using more or less
energy to manufacture its products than it did in the past: a measure of how well the energy
management programme is doing. It compares the change in energy consumption from one
year to the other considering production output. Plant energy performance monitoring compares
plant energy use at a reference year with the subsequent years to determine the improvement
that has been made.
However, a plant production output may vary from year to year and the output has a sig-
nificant bearing on plant energy use. For a meaningful comparison, it is necessary to determine
the energy that would have been required to produce this year production output, if the plant
had operated in the same way as it did during the reference year. This calculated value can then
be compared with the actual value to determine the improvement or deterioration that has taken
place since the reference year.
Production factor
Production factor is used to determine the energy that would have been required to produce this
year's production output if the plant had operated in the same way as it did in the reference year.
It is the ratio of production in the current year to that in the reference year.
Current year ' s production
Production factor =
Reference year ' s production
Reference Year Equivalent Energy Use

The reference year's energy use that would have been used to produce the current year's pro-
duction output may be called the "reference year energy use equivalent" or "reference year
equivalent" for short. The reference year equivalent is obtained by multiplying the reference
year energy use by the production factor (obtained above)
Reference year equivalent = Reference year energy use x Production factor
The improvement or deterioration from the reference year is called "energy performance" and

is a measure of the plant's energy management progress. It is the reduction or increase in the
current year's energy use over the reference, and is calculated by subtracting the current year's
energy use from the reference years equivalent. The result is divided by the reference year
equivalent and multiplied by 100 to obtain a percentage.
Reference year equivalent - Current year' s energy

Plant energy performance = x 100
Reference year equivalent
The energy performance is the percentage of energy saved at the current rate of use compared
to the reference year rate of use. The greater the improvement, the higher the number will be.
Monthly Energy Performance

Experience however, has shown that once a plant has started measuring yearly energy perfor-
mance, management wants more frequent performance information in order to monitor and
control energy use on an on-going basis. PEP can just as easily be used for monthly reporting
as yearly reporting.
3.6 Matching Energy Usage to Requirement

Mismatch between equipment capacity and user requirement often leads to inefficiencies due to
part load operations, wastages etc. Worst case design, is a designer's characteristic, while opti-
mization is the energy manager's mandate and many situations present themselves towards an
exercise involving graceful matching of energy equipment capacity to end-use needs. Some
examples being:
• Eliminate throttling of a pump by impeller trimming, resizing pump, installing variable
speed drives
• Eliminate damper operations in fans by impeller trimming, installing variable speed dri
ves, pulley diameter modification for belt drives, fan resizing for better efficiency.
• Moderation of chilled water temperature for process chilling needs
• Recovery of energy lost in control valve pressure drops by back pressure/turbine adop
tion
• Adoption of task lighting in place of less effective area lighting
3.7 Maximising System Efficiency

Once the energy usage and sources are matched properly, the next step is to operate the equip-
ment efficiently through best practices in operation and maintenance as well as judicious tech-
nology adoption. Some illustrations in this context are:
• Eliminate steam leakages by trap improvements
• Maximise condensate recovery
• Adopt combustion controls for maximizing combustion efficiency
• Replace pumps, fans, air compressors, refrigeration compressors, boilers, furnaces,
heaters and other energy consuming equipment, wherever significant energy efficiency
margins exist.

Optimising the Input Energy Requirements

Consequent upon fine-tuning the energy use practices, attention is accorded to considerations
for minimizing energy input requirements. The range of measures could include:
• Shuffling of compressors to match needs.

• Periodic review of insulation thickness
• Identify potential for heat exchanger networking and process integration.
• Optimisation of transformer operation with respect to load.
3.8 Fuel and Energy Substitution

Fuel substitution: Substituting existing fossil fuel with more efficient and less cost/less pol-
luting fuel such as natural gas, biogas and locally available agro-residues.
Energy is an important input in the production. There are two ways to reduce energy depen-
dency; energy conservation and substitution.
Fuel substitution has taken place in all the major sectors of the Indian economy. Kerosene
and Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) have substituted soft coke in residential use.
Few examples of fuel substitution
• Natural gas is increasingly the fuel of choice as fuel and feedstock in the fertilizer, petro
chemicals, power and sponge iron industries.
• Replacement of coal by coconut shells, rice husk etc.
• Replacement of LDO by LSHS
Few examples of energy substitution
Replacement of electric heaters by steam heaters
Replacement of steam based hotwater by solar systems
Case Study : Example on Fuel Substitution

A textile process industry replaced old fuel oil fired thermic fluid heater with agro fuel fired
heater. The economics of the project are given below:
A: Title of Recommendation : Use of Agro Fuel (coconut chips) in place of Furnace
oil in a Boiler
B: Description of Existing System
and its operation : A thermic fluid heater with furnace oil currently.
In the same plant a coconut chip fired boiler is
operating continuously with good performance.
C: Description of Proposed system
and its operation : It was suggested to replace the oil fired thermic
fluid heater with coconut chip fired boiler as the
company has the facilities for handling coconut
chip fired system.

D: Energy Saving Calculations

Old System
Type of fuel Firing : Furnace Oil fired heater
GCV : 10,200 kCal/kg
Avg. Thermal Efficiency : 82%
Heat Duty : 15 lakh kCal / hour
Operating Hours : 25 days x 12 month x 24 hours = 7,200 hrs.
Annual Fuel Cost : Rs.130 lakh (7200 x 1800 Rs./hr.)
Modified System
Type of fuel saving = Coconut chips fired Heater
GCV = 4200 kCal/kg
Average Thermal Efficiency = 72 %
Heat Duty = 15 lakh kCal / hour
Annual Operating Cost = 7200 x 700 Rs./hr = 50 lakh
Annual Savings = 130 - 50 = Rs.80 lakh .
Additional Auxiliary Power +
Manpower Cost = Rs. 10 lakh
Net Annual Saving = Rs. 70 lakh
Investment for New Coconut Fired heater = Rs. 35 lakh
Simple pay back period = 6 months
3.9 Energy Audit Instruments
The requirement for an energy audit such as identification and quantification of energy neces-
sitates measurements; these measurements require the use of instruments. These instruments
must be portable, durable, easy to operate and relatively inexpensive. The parameters generally
monitored during energy audit may include the following:
Basic Electrical Parameters in AC &DC systems - Voltage (V), Current (I), Power factor, Active
power (kW), apparent power (demand) (kVA), Reactive power (kVAr), Energy consumption
(kWh), Frequency (Hz), Harmonics, etc.
Parameters of importance other than electrical such as temperature & heat flow, radiation, air
and gas flow, liquid flow, revolutions per minute (RPM), air velocity, noise and vibration, dust
concentration, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), pH, moisture content, relative humidity, flue gas
analysis - CO2, O2, CO, SOx, NOx, combustion efficiency etc.
Key instruments for energy audit are listed below.
The operating instructions for all instruments must be understood and staff should familiarize
themselves with the instruments and their operation prior to actual audit use.

Electrical Measuring Instruments:

These are instruments for measuring major
electrical parameters such as kVA, kW, PF,
Hertz, kVAr, Amps and Volts. In addition
some of these instruments also measure
harmonics.
These instruments are applied on-line i.e

on running motors without any need to
stop the motor. Instant measurements can
be taken with hand-held meters, while
more advanced ones facilitates cumulative
readings with print outs at specified
intervals.
Combustion analyzer:
This instrument has in-built chemical cells
which measure various gases such as O2, CO,
NOX and SOX.
Fuel Efficiency Monitor:

This measures oxygen and temperature of the
flue gas. Calorific values of common fuels
are fed into the microprocessor which calcu-
lates the combustion efficiency.
Fyrite:
A hand bellow pump draws the flue gas
sample into the solution inside the fyrite. A
chemical reaction changes the liquid volume
revealing the amount of gas. A separate fyrite
can be used for O2 and CO2 measurement.

Contact thermometer:
These are thermocouples which measures for
example flue gas, hot air, hot water tempera-
tures by insertion of probe into the stream.
For surface temperature, a leaf type probe is

used with the same instrument.
Infrared Thermometer:
This is a non-contact type measurement
which when directed at a heat source directly
gives the temperature read out. This instru-
ment is useful for measuring hot spots in
furnaces, surface temperatures etc.
Pitot Tube and manometer:

Air velocity in ducts can be measured using
a pitot tube and inclined manometer for fur-
ther calculation of flows.
Water flow meter:

This non-contact flow measuring device
using Doppler effect / Ultra sonic principle.
There is a transmitter and receiver which are
positioned on opposite sides of the pipe. The
meter directly gives the flow. Water and other
fluid flows can be easily measured with this
meter.

Speed Measurements:
In any audit exercise speed measurements are
critical as thay may change with frequency,
belt slip and loading.
A simple tachometer is a contact type instru-

ment which can be used where direct access
is possible.
More sophisticated and safer ones are non

contact instruments such as stroboscopes.
Tachometer Stroboscope
Leak Detectors:
Ultrasonic instruments are available which
can be used to detect leaks of compressed air
and other gases which are normally not pos-
sible to detect with human abilities.
Lux meters:
Illumination levels are measured with a lux
meter. It consists of a photo cell which sens-
es the light output, converts to electrical
impulses which are calibrated as lux.

QUESTIONS
1. List down the objective of energy management..
2. What are the managerial functions involved in energy management?
3. Explain why managerial skills are as important as technical skills in energy
management?
4. What are the various steps in the implementation of energy management in an
organization?
5. State the importance of energy policy for industries.
6. Explain the role of training and awareness in energy management programme?
7. What is an energy audit?
8. Explain briefly the difference between preliminary and detailed energy audits?
9. What is the significance of knowing the energy costs?
10. What are the benefits of benchmarking energy consumption?
11. Explain the implications of part load operation of energy equipment with examples?
12. What do you understand by the term fuel substitution? Give examples.
13. What are the parameters that can be measured by on line power analyser?
14. Name the one instrument used to measure CO2 from boilers stack is
(a) Infrared thermometer (b) Fyrite (c) Anemometer (d) Pitot tube
15. Non contact flow measurement can be carried out by
(a) Orifice meter (b) Turbine flow meter (c) Ultrasonic flow meter (d) Magnetic
flow meter
16. Non contact speed measurements can be carried out by
(a) Tachometer (b) Stroboscope (c) Oscilloscope (d) Odometer
REFERENCES
1. NPC energy audit manual and reports
2. Energy management handbook, John Wiley and Sons - Wayne C. Turner
3. Guide to Energy Management, Cape Hart, Turner and Kennedy
www.eeca.govt.nz
www.energyusernews.com/

4. MATERIAL AND ENERGY BALANCE
Syllabus
Material and Energy balance: Facility as an energy system, Methods for preparing
process flow, Material and energy balance diagrams.
Material quantities, as they pass through processing operations, can be described by material
balances. Such balances are statements on the conservation of mass. Similarly, energy quanti-
ties can be described by energy balances, which are statements on the conservation of energy.
If there is no accumulation, what goes into a process must come out. This is true for batch oper-
ation. It is equally true for continuous operation over any chosen time interval.
Material and energy balances are very important in an industry. Material balances are fun-
damental to the control of processing, particularly in the control of yields of the products. The
first material balances are determined in the exploratory stages of a new process, improved dur-
ing pilot plant experiments when the process is being planned and tested, checked out when the
plant is commissioned and then refined and maintained as a control instrument as production
continues. When any changes occur in the process, the material balances need to be determined
again.
The increasing cost of energy has caused the industries to examine means of reducing ener-
gy consumption in processing. Energy balances are used in the examination of the various
stages of a process, over the whole process and even extending over the total production sys-
tem from the raw material to the finished product.
Material and energy balances can be simple, at times they can be very complicated, but the
basic approach is general. Experience in working with the simpler systems such as individual
unit operations will develop the facility to extend the methods to the more complicated situa-
tions, which do arise. The increasing availability of computers has meant that very complex
mass and energy balances can be set up and manipulated quite readily and therefore used in
everyday process management to maximise product yields and minimise costs.
4.1 Basic Principles

If the unit operation, whatever its nature
is seen as a whole it may be represented
diagrammatically as a box, as shown in
Figure. 4. 1. The mass and energy going
into the box must balance with the mass
and energy coming out.
Figure 4.1: Mass and Energy Balance

4. Material and Energy Balance
The law of conservation of mass leads to what is called a mass or a material balance.
Mass In = Mass Out + Mass Stored
Raw Materials = Products + Wastes + Stored Materials.
ΣmR = ΣmP + ΣmW + ΣmS
(where Σ (sigma) denotes the sum of all terms).
ΣmR = ΣmR1 + ΣmR2 + ΣmR3 = Total Raw Materials
ΣmP = Σmp1 + ΣmP2 + ΣmP3 = Total Products.
ΣmW= SmW1 + S mW2 + SmW3 = Total Waste Products
ΣmS = ΣmS1 + ΣmS2 + ΣmS3 = Total Stored Products.
If there are no chemical changes occurring in the plant, the law of conservation of mass will
apply also to each component, so that for component A:
mA in entering materials = mA in the exit materials + mA stored in plant.
For example, in a plant that is producing sugar, if the total quantity of sugar going into the plant
is not equalled by the total of the purified sugar and the sugar in the waste liquors, then there is
something wrong. Sugar is either being burned (chemically changed) or accumulating in the
plant or else it is going unnoticed down the drain somewhere. In this case:
MA = (mAP + mAW + mAU)
where mAU is the unknown loss and needs to be identified. So the material balance is now:
Raw Materials = Products + Waste Products + Stored Products + Losses
where Losses are the unidentified materials.
Just as mass is conserved, so is energy conserved in food-processing operations. The ener-
gy coming into a unit operation can be balanced with the energy coming out and the energy
stored.
Energy In = Energy Out + Energy Stored
ΣER = ΣEP + ΣEW + ΣEL + ΣES
where
ΣER = ER1 + ER2 + ER3 + ……. = Total Energy Entering
ΣEp = EP1 + EP2 + EP3 + ……. = Total Energy Leaving with Products
ΣEW = EW1 + EW2 + EW3 + … = Total Energy Leaving with Waste Materials
ΣEL = EL1 + EL2 + EL3 + ……. = Total Energy Lost to Surroundings
ΣES = ES1 + ES2 + ES3 + ……. = Total Energy Stored

Energy balances are often complicated because forms of energy can be interconverted, for
example mechanical energy to heat energy, but overall the quantities must balance.
4.2 The Sankey Diagram and its Use

The Sankey diagram is very useful tool
to represent an entire input and output
energy flow in any energy equipment or
system such as boiler, fired heaters, fur-
naces after carrying out energy balance
calculation. This diagram represents
visually various outputs and losses so
that energy managers can focus on find-
ing improvements in a prioritized man-
ner.
Example: The Figure 4.2 shows a
Sankey diagram for a reheating furnace.
From the Figure 4.2, it is clear that Figure 4.2: Energy Balance for a Reheating Furnace
exhaust flue gas losses are a key area for
priority attention.
Since the furnaces operate at high temperatures, the exhaust gases leave at high tempera-
tures resulting in poor efficiency. Hence a heat recovery device such as air preheater has to be
necessarily part of the system. The lower the exhaust temperature, higher is the furnace effi-
ciency.
4.3 Material Balances

The first step is to look at the three basic categories: materials in, materials out and materials
stored. Then the materials in each category have to be considered whether they are to be treat-
ed as a whole, a gross mass balance, or whether various constituents should be treated sepa-
rately and if so what constituents. To take a simple example, it might be to take dry solids as
opposed to total material; this really means separating the two groups of constituents, non-water
and water. More complete dissection can separate out chemical types such as minerals, or chem-
ical elements such as carbon. The choice and the detail depend on the reasons for making the
balance and on the information that is required. A major factor in industry is, of course, the
value of the materials and so expensive raw materials are more likely to be considered than
cheaper ones, and products than waste materials.
Basis and Units

Having decided which constituents need consideration, the basis for the calculations has to be
decided. This might be some mass of raw material entering the process in a batch system, or
some mass per hour in a continuous process. It could be: some mass of a particular predomi-
nant constituent, for example mass balances in a bakery might be all related to 100 kg of flour
entering; or some unchanging constituent, such as in combustion calculations with air where it

is helpful to relate everything to the inert nitrogen component; or carbon added in the nutrients
in a fermentation system because the essential energy relationships of the growing micro-organ-
isms are related to the combined carbon in the feed; or the essentially inert non-oil constituents
of the oilseeds in an oil-extraction process. Sometimes it is unimportant what basis is chosen
and in such cases a convenient quantity such as the total raw materials into one batch or passed
in per hour to a continuous process are often selected. Having selected the basis, then the units
may be chosen such as mass, or concentrations which can be by weight or can be molar if reac-
tions are important.
4.3.1 Total mass and composition

Material balances can be based on total mass, mass of dry solids, or mass of particular compo-
nents, for example protein.
Example: Constituent balance

Skim milk is prepared by the removal of some of the fat from whole milk. This skim milk is
found to contain 90.5% water, 3.5% protein, 5.1% carbohydrate, 0.1% fat and 0.8% ash. If the
original milk contained 4.5% fat, calculate its composition assuming that fat only was removed
to make the skim milk and that there are no losses in processing.
Basis: 100 kg of skim milk.
This contains, therefore, 0.1 kg of fat. Let the fat which was removed from it to make skim milk
be x kg.
Total original fat =(x + 0.1)kg
Total original mass = (100 + x) kg
and as it is known that the original fat content was 4.5% so
(x + 0.1) / (100 + x) = 0.045

where = x + 0.1 = 0.045(100 + x)
x = 4.6 kg
So the composition of the whole milk is then fat = 4.5%, water = 90.5/104.6 = 86.5 %, protein
= 3.5/104.6 = 3.3 %, carbohydrate= 5.1/104.6 = 4.9% and ash = 0.8%
Concentrations
Concentrations can be expressed in many ways: weight/ weight (w/w), weight/volume (w/v),
molar concentration (M), mole fraction. The weight/weight concentration is the weight of the
solute divided by the total weight of the solution and this is the fractional form of the percent-
age composition by weight. The weight volume concentration is the weight of solute in the total
volume of the solution. The molar concentration is the number of molecular weights of the
solute expressed in kg in 1 m3 of the solution. The mole fraction is the ratio of the number of
moles of the solute to the total number of moles of all species present in the solution. Notice
that in process engineering, it is usual to consider kg moles and in this chapter the term mole
means a mass of the material equal to its molecular weight in kilograms. In this chapter per-
centage signifies percentage by weight (w/w) unless otherwise specified.

Example:Concentrations
A solution of common salt in water is prepared by adding 20 kg of salt to 100 kg of water, to
make a liquid of density 1323 kg/m3. Calculate the concentration of salt in this solution as a (a)
weight fraction, (b) weight/volume fraction, (c) mole fraction, (d) molal concentration.
(a) Weight fraction:
20 / (100 + 20) = 0.167: % weight / weight = 16.7%
(b) Weight/volume:
A density of 1323kg/m3 means that lm3 of solution weighs 1323kg, but 1323kg of salt solution
contains
(20 x 1323 kg of salt) / (100 + 20) = 220.5 kg salt / m3
1 m3 solution contains 220.5 kg salt.
Weight/volume fraction = 220.5 / 1000 = 0.2205
And so weight / volume = 22.1%
c) Moles of water = 100 / 18 = 5.56
Moles of salt = 20 / 58.5 = 0.34
Mole fraction of salt = 0.34 / (5.56 + 0.34) = 0.058
d) The molar concentration (M) is 220.5/58.5 = 3.77 moles in m3
Note that the mole fraction can be approximated by the (moles of salt/moles of water) as the
number of moles of water are dominant, that is the mole fraction is close to 0.34 / 5.56 = 0.061.
As the solution becomes more dilute, this approximation improves and generally for dilute solu-
tions the mole fraction of solute is a close approximation to the moles of solute / moles of sol-
vent.
In solid / liquid mixtures of all these methods can be used but in solid mixtures the con-
centrations are normally expressed as simple weight fractions.
With gases, concentrations are primarily measured in weight concentrations per unit vol-
ume, or as partial pressures. These can be related through the gas laws. Using the gas law in the
form:
pV = nRT
where p is the pressure, V the volume, n the number of moles, T the absolute temperature, and
R the gas constant which is equal to 0.08206 m3 atm / mole K, the molar concentration of a gas
is then
n / V = p/RT
and the weight concentration is then nM/V where M is the molecular weight of the gas.
The SI unit of pressure is the N/m2 called the Pascal (Pa). As this is of inconvenient size for
many purposes, standard atmospheres (atm) are often used as pressure units, the conversion
being 1 atm = 1.013 x 105 Pa, or very nearly 1 atm = 100 kPa.

Example: Air Composition

If air consists of 77% by weight of nitrogen and 23% by weight of oxygen calculate:
(a) the mean molecular weight of air,
(b) the mole fraction of oxygen,
(c) the concentration of oxygen in mole/m3 and kg/m3 if the total pressure is 1.5 atmospheres
and the temperature is 25 °C.
(a) Taking the basis of 100 kg of air: it contains 77/28 moles of N2 and 23/32 moles of O2
Total number of moles = 2.75 + 0.72 = 3.47 moles.
So mean molecular weight of air = 100 / 3.47 = 28.8
Mean molecular weight of air = 28.8
b) The mole fraction of oxygen = 0.72 / (2.75 + 0.72) = 0.72 / 3.47 = 0.21
Mole fraction of oxygen = 0.21
(c) In the gas equation, where n is the number of moles present: the value of R is 0.08206 m3
atm/mole K and at a temperature of 25 °C = 25 + 273 = 298 K, and where V= 1 m3
pV = nRT
and so, 1.5 x 1 = n x 0.08206 x 298
n = 0.061 mole/m3
weight of air = n x mean molecular weight
= 0.061 x 28.8 = 1.76 kg / m3
and of this 23% is oxygen, so weight of oxygen = 0.23 x 1.76 = 0.4 kg in 1 m3
Concentration of oxygen = 0.4kg/m3
or 0.4 / 32 = 0.013 mole / m3
When a gas is dissolved in a liquid, the mole fraction of the gas in the liquid can be determined
by first calculating the number of moles of gas using the gas laws, treating the volume as the
volume of the liquid, and then calculating the number of moles of liquid directly.
Example: Gas composition

In the carbonation of a soft drink, the total quantity of carbon dioxide required is the equivalent
of 3 volumes of gas to one volume of water at 0 °C and atmospheric pressure. Calculate (a) the
mass fraction and (b) the mole fraction of the CO2 in the drink, ignoring all components other
than CO2 and water.
Basis 1 m3 of water = 1000 kg
Volume of carbon dioxide added = 3 m3
From the gas equation, pV = nRT
1 x 3 = n x 0.08206 x 273
n = 0.134 mole.
Molecular weight of carbon dioxide = 44

And so weight of carbon dioxide added = 0.134 x 44 = 5.9 kg

(a) Mass fraction of carbon dioxide in drink = 5.9 / (1000 + 5.9) = 5.9 x 10-3
(b) Mole fraction of carbon dioxide in drink = 0.134 / (1000/18 + 0.134) = 2.41 x 10-3
4.3.2 Types of Process Situations

Continuous Processes
In continuous processes, time also enters into consideration and the balances are related to unit
time. Thus in considering a continuous centrifuge separating whole milk into skim milk and
cream, if the material holdup in the centrifuge is constant both in mass and in composition, then
the quantities of the components entering and leaving in the different streams in unit time are
constant and a mass balance can be written on this basis. Such an analysis assumes that the
process is in a steady state, that is flows and quantities held up in vessels do not change with
time.
Example: Balance across equipment in continuous centrifuging of milk

If 35,000kg of whole milk containing 4% fat is to be separated in a 6 hour period into skim milk
with 0.45% fat and cream with 45% fat, what are the flow rates of the two output streams from
a continuous centrifuge which accomplishes this separation?
Basis 1 hour's flow of whole milk
Mass in
Total mass = 35000/6 = 5833 kg.
Fat = 5833 x 0.04 = 233 kg.
And so Water plus solids-not-fat = 5600 kg.
Mass out
Let the mass of cream be x kg then its total fat content is 0.45x. The mass of skim milk is (5833
- x) and its total fat content is 0.0045 (5833 - x)
Material balance on fat:
Fat in = Fat out
5833 x 0.04 = 0.0045(5833 - x) + 0.45x. and so x = 465 kg.
So that the flow of cream is 465 kg / hr and skim milk (5833 - 465) = 5368 kg/hr
The time unit has to be considered carefully in continuous processes as normally such process-
es operate continuously for only part of the total factory time. Usually there are three periods,
start up, continuous processing (so-called steady state) and close down, and it is important to
decide what material balance is being studied. Also the time interval over which any measure-
ments are taken must be long enough to allow for any slight periodic or chance variation.
In some instances a reaction takes place and the material balances have to be adjusted
accordingly. Chemical changes can take place during a process, for example bacteria may be
destroyed during heat processing, sugars may combine with amino acids, fats may be hydrol-
ysed and these affect details of the material balance. The total mass of the system will remain

the same but the constituent parts may change, for example in browning the sugars may reduce
but browning compounds will increase.
Blending
Another class of situations which arise are blending problems in which various ingredients are
combined in such proportions as to give a product of some desired composition. Complicated
examples, in which an optimum or best achievable composition must be sought, need quite
elaborate calculation methods, such as linear programming, but simple examples can be solved
by straightforward mass balances.
Drying
In setting up a material balance for a process a series of equations can be written for the vari-
ous individual components and for the process as a whole. In some cases where groups of mate-
rials maintain constant ratios, then the equations can include such groups rather than their indi-
vidual constituents. For example in drying vegetables the carbohydrates, minerals, proteins etc.,
can be grouped together as 'dry solids', and then only dry solids and water need be taken,
through the material balance.
Example: Drying Yield

Potatoes are dried from 14% total solids to 93% total solids. What is the product yield from each
1000 kg of raw potatoes assuming that 8% by weight of the original potatoes is lost in peeling.
Basis 1000kg potato entering
As 8% of potatoes are lost in peeling, potatoes to drying are 920 kg, solids 129 kg
Mass in (kg) Mass out (kg)
Potato solids 140 kg Dried product 92
Water 860 kg Potato solids 140 x (92/100)
=129 kg
Associated water 10 kg
Total product 139 kg
Losses
Peelings-potato
Solids 11 kg
Water 69 kg
Water evaporated 781 kg
Total losses 861 kg
Total 1000 kg
Product yield = 139/1000=14%
Often it is important to be able to follow particular constituents of the raw material through
a process. This is just a matter of calculating each constituent.

4.4 Energy Balances

Energy takes many forms, such as heat, kinetic energy, chemical energy, potential energy but
because of interconversions it is not always easy to isolate separate constituents of energy bal-
ances. However, under some circumstances certain aspects predominate. In many heat balances
in which other forms of energy are insignificant; in some chemical situations mechanical ener-
gy is insignificant and in some mechanical energy situations, as in the flow of fluids in pipes,
the frictional losses appear as heat but the details of the heating need not be considered. We are
seldom concerned with internal energies.
Therefore practical applications of energy balances tend to focus on particular dominant
aspects and so a heat balance, for example, can be a useful description of important cost and
quality aspects of process situation. When unfamiliar with the relative magnitudes of the vari-
ous forms of energy entering into a particular processing situation, it is wise to put them all
down. Then after some preliminary calculations, the important ones emerge and other minor
ones can be lumped together or even ignored without introducing substantial errors. With expe-
rience, the obviously minor ones can perhaps be left out completely though this always raises
the possibility of error.
Energy balances can be calculated on the basis of external energy used per kilogram of
product, or raw material processed, or on dry solids or some key component. The energy con-
sumed in food production includes direct energy which is fuel and electricity used on the farm,
and in transport and in factories, and in storage, selling, etc.; and indirect energy which is used
to actually build the machines, to make the packaging, to produce the electricity and the oil and
so on. Food itself is a major energy source, and energy balances can be determined for animal
or human feeding; food energy input can be balanced against outputs in heat and mechanical
energy and chemical synthesis.
In the SI system there is only one energy unit, the joule. However, kilocalories are still used
by some nutritionists and British thermal units (Btu) in some heat-balance work.
The two applications used in this chapter are heat balances, which are the basis for heat
transfer, and the energy balances used in analysing fluid flow.
Heat Balances
The most common important energy form is heat energy and the conservation of this can be
illustrated by considering operations such as heating and drying. In these, enthalpy (total heat)
is conserved and as with the mass balances so enthalpy balances can be written round the var-
ious items of equipment. or process stages, or round the whole plant, and it is assumed that no
appreciable heat is converted to other forms of energy such as work.
Enthalpy (H) is always referred to some reference level or datum, so that the quantities are rel-
ative to this datum. Working out energy balances is then just a matter of considering the vari-
ous quantities of materials involved, their specific heats, and their changes in temperature or
state (as quite frequently latent heats arising from phase changes are encountered). Figure 4.3
illustrates the heat balance.

Figure 4.3: Heat Balance
Heat is absorbed or evolved by some reactions in processing but usually the quantities are small
when compared with the other forms of energy entering into food processing such as sensible
heat and latent heat. Latent heat is the heat required to change, at constant temperature, the
physical state of materials from solid to liquid, liquid to gas, or solid to gas. Sensible heat is that
heat which when added or subtracted from materials changes their temperature and thus can be
sensed. The units of specific heat are J/kg K and sensible heat change is calculated by multi-
plying the mass by the specific heat by the change in temperature, (m x c x ∆T). The units of
latent heat are J/kg and total latent heat change is calculated by multiplying the mass of the
material, which changes its phase by the latent heat. Having determined those factors that are
significant in the overall energy balance, the simplified heat balance can then be used with con-
fidence in industrial energy studies. Such calculations can be quite simple and straightforward
but they give a quantitative feeling for the situation and can be of great use in design of equip-
ment and process.
Example: Dryer heat balance

A textile dryer is found to consume 4 m3/hr of natural gas with a calorific value of 800 kJ/mole.
If the throughput of the dryer is 60 kg of wet cloth per hour, drying it from 55% moisture to
10% moisture, estimate the overall thermal efficiency of the dryer taking into account the latent
heat of evaporation only.
60 kg of wet cloth contains

60 x 0.55 kg water = 33 kg moisture
and 60 x (1-0.55) = 27 kg bone dry cloth.
As the final product contains 10% moisture, the moisture in the product is 27/9 = 3 kg
And so Moisture removed / hr = 33 - 3 = 30 kg/hr
Latent heat of evaporation = 2257 kJ/K
Heat necessary to supply = 30 x 2257 = 6.8 x 104 kJ/hr
Assuming the natural gas to be at standard temperature and pressure at which 1 mole occupies
22.4 litres

Rate of flow of natural gas = 4 m3/hr = (4 x 1000)/22.4 = 179 moles/hr

Heat available from combustion = 179 x 800 = 14.3 x 104 kJ/hr
Approximate thermal efficiency of dryer = heat needed / heat used
= 6.8 x 104 / 14.3 x 104 = 48%
To evaluate this efficiency more completely it would be necessary to take into account the
sensible heat of the dry cloth and the moisture, and the changes in temperature and humidity of
the combustion air, which would be combined with the natural gas. However, as the latent heat
of evaporation is the dominant term the above calculation gives a quick estimate and shows how
a simple energy balance can give useful information.
Similarly energy balances can be carried out over thermal processing operations, and indeed
any processing operations in which heat or other forms of energy are used.
Example: Autoclave heat balance in canning

An autoclave contains 1000 cans of pea soup. It is heated to an overall temperature of 100 °C.
If the cans are to be cooled to 40 °C before leaving the autoclave, how much cooling water is
required if it enters at 15 °C and leaves at 35 °C?
The specific heats of the pea soup and the can metal are respectively 4.1 kJ/ kg °C and
0.50 kJ/ kg °C. The weight of each can is 60g and it contains 0.45 kg of pea soup. Assume that
the heat content of the autoclave walls above 40 °C is 1.6 x 104 kJ and that there is no heat loss
through the walls.
Let w = the weight of cooling water required; and the datum temperature be 40°C, the tem-
perature of the cans leaving the autoclave.
Heat entering
Heat in cans = weight of cans x specific heat x temperature above datum
= 1000 x 0.06 x 0.50 x (100-40) kJ = 1.8 x 103 kJ
Heat in can contents = weight pea soup x specific heat x temperature above datum
= 1000 x 0.45 x 4.1 x (100 - 40) = 1.1 x 105 kJ
Heat in water = weight of water x specific heat x temperature above datum
= w x 4.186 x (15-40)
= -104.6 w kJ.
Heat leaving
Heat in cans = 1000 x 0.06 x 0.50 x (40-40) (cans leave at datum temperature) = 0
Heat in can contents = 1000 x 0.45 x 4.1 x (40-40) = 0
Heat in water = w x 4.186 x (35-40) = -20.9 w

HEAT-ENERGY BALANCE OF COOLING PROCESS; 40°C AS DATUM LINE

Heat Entering (kJ) Heat Leaving (kJ)
Heat in cans 1800 Heat in cans 0
Heat in can contents 11000 Heat in can contents 0
Heat in autoclave wall 16000 Heat in autoclave wall 0
Heat in water -104.6 w Heat in water -20.9 W
Total heat entering 127.800 – 104.6 w Total heat leaving -20.9 W
Total heat entering = Total heat leaving
127800 – 104.6 w = -20.9 w
w = 1527 kg
Amount of cooling water required = 1527 kg.
Other Forms of Energy

Motor power is usually derived, in factories, from electrical energy but it can be produced from
steam engines or waterpower. The electrical energy input can be measured by a suitable
wattmeter, and the power used in the drive estimated. There are always losses from the motors
due to heating, friction and windage; the motor efficiency, which can normally be obtained from
the motor manufacturer, expresses the proportion (usually as a percentage) of the electrical
input energy, which emerges usefully at the motor shaft and so is available.
When considering movement, whether of fluids in pumping, of solids in solids handling, or
of foodstuffs in mixers. the energy input is largely mechanical. The flow situations can be
analysed by recognising the conservation of total energy whether as energy of motion, or poten-
tial energy such as pressure energy, or energy lost in friction. Similarly, chemical energy
released in combustion can be calculated from the heats of combustion of the fuels and their
rates of consumption. Eventually energy emerges in the form of heat and its quantity can be
estimated by summing the various sources.
EXAMPLE Refrigeration load

It is desired to freeze 10,000 loaves of bread each weighing 0.75 kg from an initial room tem-
perature of 18°C to a final temperature of -18°C. The bread-freezing operation is to be carried
out in an air-blast freezing tunnel. It is found that the fan motors are rated at a total of 80 horse-
power and measurements suggest that they are operating at around 90% of their rating, under
which conditions their manufacturer's data claims a motor efficiency of 86%. If 1 ton of refrig-
eration is 3.52 kW, estimate the maximum refrigeration load imposed by this freezing installa-
tion assuming (a) that fans and motors are all within the freezing tunnel insulation and (b) the
fans but not their motors are in the tunnel. The heat-loss rate from the tunnel to the ambient air
has been found to be 6.3 kW.
Extraction rate from freezing bread (maximum) = 104 kW
Fan rated horsepower = 80
Now 0.746 kW = 1 horsepower and the motor is operating at 90% of rating,
And so (fan + motor) power = (80 x 0.9) x 0.746 = 53.7 kW
(a) With motors + fans in tunnel

Heat load from fans + motors = 53.7 kW

Heat load from ambient = 6.3 kW
Total heat load = (104 + 53.7 + 6.3) kW = 164 kW
= 46 tons of refrigeration
(b) With motors outside, the motor inefficiency = (1- 0.86) does not impose a load on the
refrigeration
Total heat load = (104 + [0.86 x 53.7] + 6.3)
= 156 kW
= 44.5 tons of refrigeration
In practice, material and energy balances are often combined as the same stoichiometric infor-
mation is needed for both.
Summary
1. Material and energy balances can be worked out quantitatively knowing the amounts of
materials entering into a process, and the nature of the process.
2. Material and energy balances take the basic form
Content of inputs = content of products + wastes/losses + changes in stored materials.
3. In continuous processes, a time balance must be established.
4. Energy includes heat energy (enthalpy), potential energy (energy of pressure or position),
kinetic energy, work energy, chemical energy. It is the sum over all of these that is con-
served.
5. Enthalpy balances, considering only heat are useful in many processing situations.
The objective of M&E balance is to assess the input, conversion efficiency, output and
losses. A M&E balance, used in conjunction with diagnosis, is a powerful tool for establish-
ing the basis for improvements and potential savings.
4.5 Method for Preparing Process Flow Chart

The identification and drawing up a unit
operation/process is prerequisite for ener-
gy and material balance. The procedure
for drawing up the process flow diagrams
is explained below.
Flow charts are schematic representa-
tion of the production process, involving
various input resources, conversion steps
and output and recycle streams. The
process flow may be constructed stepwise
i.e. by identifying the inputs / output / Figure 4.4: Process Flow Chart
wastes at each stage of the process, as
shown in the Figure 4.4.

Inputs of the process could include raw materials, water, steam, energy (electricity, etc);
Process Steps should be sequentially drawn from raw material to finished product.
Intermediates and any other byproduct should also be represented. The operating process para-
meters such as temperature, pressure, % concentration, etc. should be represented. The flow rate
of various streams should also be represented in appropriate units like m3/h or kg/h. In case of
batch process the total cycle time should be included.
Wastes / by products could include solids, water, chemicals, energy etc. For each process steps
(unit operation) as well as for an entire plant, energy and mass balance diagram should be
drawn.
Output of the process is the final product produced in the plant.
Example: -Process flow diagram - raw material to finished product: Papermaking is a high
energy consuming process. A typical process flow with electrical & thermal energy flow for an
integrated waste paper based mill is given in Figure 4.5
4.6 Facility as an Energy System

There are various energy systems/utility services provides the required type of secondary ener-
gy such as steam, compressed air, chilled water etc to the production facility in the manufac-
turing plant. A typical plant energy system is shown in Figure 4.6. Although various forms of

Figure 4.6: Plant Energy System
energy such as coal, oil, electricity etc enters the facility and does its work or heating, the out-
going energy is usually in the form of low temperature heat.
The energy usage in the overall plant can be split up into various forms such as:
• Electrical energy, which is usually purchased as HT and converted into LT supply for end
use.
• Some plants generate their own electricity using DG sets or captive power plants.
• Fuels such as furnace oil, coal are purchased and then converted into steam or electrici-
ty.
• Boiler generates steam for heating and drying demand
• Cooling tower and cooling water supply system for cooling demand
• Air compressors and compressed air supply system for compressed air needs
All energy/utility system can be classified into three areas like generation, distribution and
utilisation for the system approach and energy analysis.
A few examples for energy generation, distribution and utilization are shown below for boil-
er, cooling tower and compressed air energy system.
Boiler System: Boiler and its auxiliaries should be considered as a system for energy analyses.
Energy manager can draw up a diagram as given in Figure 4.7 for energy and material balance
and analysis. This diagram includes many subsystems such as fuel supply system, combustion
air system, boiler feed water supply system, steam supply and flue gas exhaust system.

Figure 4.7 Boiler Plant System Energy Flow Diagram
Cooling Tower & Cooling Water Supply System: Cooling water is one of the common util-
ity demands in industry. A complete diagram can be drawn showing cooling tower, pumps, fans,
process heat exchangers and return line as given in Figure 4.8 for energy audit and analysis. All
Figure 4.8 Cooling Tower Water System

the end use of cooling water with flow quantities should be indicated in the diagram.
Compressed air System
Compressed air is a versatile and safe media for energy use in the plants. A typical compressed
air generation, distribution and utilization diagram is given in Figure 4.9. Energy analysis and
best practices measures should be listed in all the three areas.
Figure 4.9 Instrument Air System
4.7 How to Carryout Material and Energy (M&E) Balance?
Material and Energy balances are important, since they make it possible to identify and quanti-
fy previously unknown losses and emissions. These balances are also useful for monitoring the
improvements made in an ongoing project, while evaluating cost benefits. Raw materials and
energy in any manufacturing activity are not only major cost components but also major sources
of environmental pollution. Inefficient use of raw materials and energy in production process-
es are reflected as wastes.
Guidelines for M&E Balance
• For a complex production stream, it is better to first draft the overall material and energy
balance.
• While splitting up the total system, choose, simple discrete sub-systems. The process flow
diagram could be useful here.
• Choose the material and energy balance envelope such that, the number of streams enter-
ing and leaving, is the smallest possible.

• Always choose recycle streams (material and energy) within the envelope.
• The measurement units may include, time factor or production linkages.
• Consider a full batch as the reference in case of batch operations.
• It is important to include start-up and cleaning operation consumptions (of material and
energy resources (M&E).
• Calculate the gas volumes at standard conditions.
• In case of shutdown losses, averaging over long periods may be necessary.
• Highlight losses and emissions (M&E) at part load operations if prevalent.
• For each stream, where applicable, indicate energy quality (pressure, temperature,
enthalpy, kCal/hr, kW, Amps, Volts etc.).
• While preparing M&E balances, precision of analytical data, flow and energy measure-
ments have to be accurate especially in case of short time span references.
The material and energy (M&E) balances along the above guidelines, are required to be devel-
oped at the various levels.
1. Overall M&E balance: This involves the input and output streams for complete plant.
2. Section wise M&E balances: In the sequence of process flow, material and energy bal-
ances are required to be made for each section/department/cost centres. This would help
to prioritize focus areas for efficiency improvement.
3. Equipment-wise M&E balances: M&E balances, for key equipment would help assess
performance of equipment, which would in turn help identify and quantify energy and
material avoidable losses.
Energy and Mass Balance Calculation Procedure:
The Energy and Mass balance is a calculation procedure that basically checks if directly or indi-
rectly measured energy and mass flows are in agreement with the energy and mass conserva-
tion principles.
This balance is of the utmost importance and is an indispensable tool for a clear under-
standing of the energy and mass situation achieved in practice.
In order to use it correctly, the following procedure should be used:
• Clearly identify the problem to be studied.
• Define a boundary that encloses the entire system or sub-system to be analysed. Entering
and leaving mass and energy flows must be measured at the boundary.
• The boundary must be chosen in such a way that:
a) All relevant flows must cross it, all non-relevant flows being within the boundary.

b) Measurements at the boundary must be possible in an easy and accurate manner.

• Select an appropriate test period depending on the type of process and product.
• Carry out the measurements.
• Calculate the energy and mass flow.
• Verify an energy and mass balance. If the balances are outside acceptable limits, then
repeat the measurements.
• The energy release or use in endothermic and exothermic processes should be taken
into consideration in the energy balance.
Example/ Formula
i) Energy Supplied by Combustion: Q =Fuel consumed x Gross Calorific value

ii) Energy Supplied by Electricity: Q = kWh x 860 kCals
Where, Q = thermal energy flow rate produced by electricity (kCals/hr)
iii) Continuity Equation
A1V1 = A2V2
v1 v2
Where, V1 and V2 are the velocity in m/s , 'v1' and 'v2' the specific volume in m3/kg and 'A' is
the cross sectional area of the pipe in m2.
iv) Heat addition/rejection of a fluid = mCp∆T
where, m is the mass in kg, Cp is the specific heat in kCal/kg°C, ∆T is the difference in tem-
perature in k.
Example-1: Heat Balance in a Boiler
A heat balance is an attempt to balance the total energy entering a system (e.g boiler) against
that leaving the system in different forms. The Figure 4.10 illustrates the heat balance and dif-
ferent losses occurring while generating steam.
Figure 4.10

Example-2: Mass Balance in a Cement Plant

The cement process involves gas, liquid and solid flows with heat and mass transfer, combus-
tion of fuel, reactions of clinker compounds and undesired chemical reactions that include sul-
phur, chlorine, and Alkalies.
A typical balance is shown in the figure 4.11 (Source: Based on figure from Austrian BAT
proposal 1996, Cembureau for Mass balance for production of 1 Kg cement)
Figure 4.11
Example-3: Mass Balance Calculation

This problem illustrates how a mass balance calculation can be used to check the results of
an air pollution monitoring study. A fabric filter (bag filter) is used to remove the dust from the
inlet gas stream so that outlet gas stream meets the required emission standards in cement, fer-
tilizer and other chemical industries.
During an air pollution monitoring study, the inlet gas stream to a bag filter is 1,69,920
m /hr and the dust loading is 4577 mg/m3. The outlet gas stream from the bag filter is 1,85,040
3
m3/hr and the dust loading is 57 mg/m3.

What is the maximum quantity of ash that will have to be removed per hour from the bag filter
hopper based on these test results?
Figure 4.12 Conservation of Matter

Solution:
Based on dust balance,
Mass (in) = Mass (out)
Inlet gas stream dust = outlet gas stream dust + Hopper Ash
1. Calculate the inlet and outlet dust quantities in kg per hour
Inlet dust quantity = 169920 (m3/hr) x 4577 (mg/m3) x 1/1000000 (kg/mg)
= 777.7 kg/hr
Outlet dust quantity = 185040 (m3/hr) x 57 (mg/m3) x 1/1000000 (kg/mg)
= 10.6 kg/hr
2. Calculate the quantity of ash that will have to removed from the hopper per hour
Hopper ash = Inlet gas dust quantity - Outlet gas dust quantity
= 777.7 kg/hr - 10.6 kg/hr
= 767.1 kg/hr
Example-4: Material Requirement for Process Operations

A scrubber is used to remove the fine material or dust from the inlet gas stream with a spray of
liquid (typically water) so that outlet gas stream meets the required process or emission stan-
dards.
How much water must be continually added to wet scrubber shown in Figure below in order
to keep the unit running? Each of the streams is identified by a number located in a diamond
symbol. Stream 1 is the recirculation liquid flow stream back to the scrubber and it is 4.54
m3/hr. The liquid being withdraw for treatment and disposal (stream 4) is 0.454 kg m3/hr.
Figure 4.13 Example of Material Balance

Assume that inlet gas stream (number 2) is completely dry and the outlet stream (number
6) has 272.16 kg/hr of moisture evaporated in the scrubber. The water being added to the scrub-
ber is stream number 5.
Solution:
Step 1. Conduct a material balance around the scrubber.
1. For Stream 6, convert from kg/hr to m3/hr to keep units consistent. The conver
sion factor below applies only to pure water.
Stream 6 = 272.16 kg/hr x m3/1000 kg
= 0.272 m3/hr
2. Set up the material balance equation and solve for Stream 3.
Input Scrubber = Output Scrubber
Stream 1 + Stream 2 = Stream 3 + Stream 6
4.54 m3/hr + 0 = y m3/hr + 0.272 m3/hr
Stream 3 = y m3/hr = 4.27 m3/hr
Step 2. Conduct a material balance around the recirculation tank. Solve for Stream 5.
Input Tank = Output Tank
Stream 3 + Stream 5 = Stream 1 + Stream 4
4.25 m3/hr + x m3/hr = 4.54 m3/hr + 0.454 m3/hr
Stream 5 = x m3/hr = 5 m3/hr - 4.27 m3/hr
= 0.73 m3/hr
If it is to calculate only the makeup water at 5,
Stream 5 = Stream 4 + Stream 6
= 0.454 + 0.272
= 0.73 m3/hr
One of the key steps in solving Example 4 was drawing a simple sketch of the system. This is
absolutely necessary so that it is possible to conduct the material balances. Drawings are a valu-
able first step when solving a wide variety of problems, even ones that appears simple.
The drawing is a very useful way to summarize what we know and what we need to know.
It helps visualize the solution. If the problem involves dimensional quantities (such as stream
flow quantities), the dimensions should be included on the sketch. They serve as reminders of
the need to convert the data into consistent units.

QUESTIONS
1. Draw a typical input output diagram for a process and indicate the various energy
inputs.
2. What is the purpose of material and energy balance?
3. How Sankey diagram is useful for energy analysis ?
4. Draw a process flow chart for any product manufacture.
5. List down the various guidelines required for material and energy balance.
6. A material balance is based on
(a) Mass (b) Volume (c) Concentration (d) Temperature
7. Biscuits are to be baked in a continuous oven. The inlet moisture content is 25%. The
outlet moisture is 1%. The production is 2 tonnes /hour on a dry basis. Make a mate-
rial balance and find out how much quantity of moisture is removed per hour.
8. A furnace is loaded with materials at 5 T/hr. The scale losses are 2%. Find out the
material output?
9. In a heat exchanger, inlet and outlet temperatures of cooling water are 28 oC & 33
°C. The cooling water circulation is 200 litres/hr. The process fluid enters the heat
exchangers at 60 oC and leaves at 45 oC. Find out the flow rate of the process fluid?
(Cp of process fluid = 0.95)
10. Steam output of boiler is measured by measuring feed water. The tank level reading
from 8.00 a.m. to 8.00 p.m. was 600 m3. Continuous blow down was given at 1% of
the boiler feed rate during the above period. Find out the average actual steam deliv-
ered per hour?
11. The following are the cooling water requirements for a process industry:
Heat exchanger 1: 300 m3 /hr. at 3 kg/cm2
Heat exchanger 2: 150 m3 /hr. at 2.5 kg/cm2
Heat exchanger 3: 200 m3 /hr. at 1 kg/cm2
Find out the total cooling water requirement per hour for the plant?
(all heat exchangers are in parallel)
12. In a dryer, the condensate was measured to be 80 kg/hr. The flash steam was calcu-
lated to be 12 kg/hr. Find out the actual steam consumption of the dryer?
REFERENCES
1. Energy audit reports of National Productivity Council

2. Energy Management Handbook, John Wiley and Sons - Wayne C. Turner
3. Unit Operations in Food Processing, R.L. Earle, NZIFST

5. ENERGY ACTION PLANNING
Syllabus
Energy Action Planning: Key elements, Force field analysis, Energy policy purpose, per-
spective, Contents, Formulation, Ratification, Organizing - location of energy manage-
ment, Top management support, Managerial function, Roles and responsibilities of energy
manager, Accountability. Motivating-motivation of employees: Information system-
designing barriers, Strategies; Marketing and communicating-training and planning.
5.1 Introduction
Energy efficiency is extremely
important to all organisations, espe-
cially those that are energy intensive.
The four vital requirements for a suc-
cessful energy management is shown
in Figure 5.1. Any successful energy
management programme within an
organisation needs the total support
of top management. Hence, top man-
agement support is the key require-
ment for success. Top management
should give energy efficiency equal Figure 5.1 The 4 Pillars of Successful Energy Management
importance in their corporate objec-
tives as manpower, raw materials, production and sales. The other important requirements are
a well charted strategy plan, an effective monitoring system and adequate technical ability for
analysing and implementing energy saving options.
5.2 Energy Management System

Organizations seeking financial returns from superior energy management continuously strive
to improve their energy performance. Their success is based on regularly assessing energy per-
formance, planning and implementing action plans to improve energy efficiency. Hence a sound
energy management system is a prerequisite for identifying and implementing energy conser-
vation measures, sustaining the momentum and for effecting improvements on a continuous
basis. The various steps for energy action planning are shown in Figure 5.2.

5. Energy Action Planning
Figure 5.2 Steps in Energy Action Planning
5.2.1 Top Management Commitment and Support

Top management shall make a commitment to allocate manpower and funds to achieve contin-
uous improvement. To establish the energy management programme, leading organizations
appoint energy manager, form a dedicated energy team and institute an energy policy.
Appoint an Energy Manager

The tasks of energy manger are setting goals, tracking progress, and promoting the ener-
gy management program. An Energy Manager helps an organization achieve its goals by
establishing energy performance as a core value.
The Energy Manager is not always an expert in energy and technical systems. Successful
Energy Manager understands how energy management helps the organization achieve its finan-
cial and environmental goals and objectives. Depending on the size of the organization, the
Energy Manager role can be a full-time position or an addition to other responsibilities.
Location of Energy Manager

The energy management function, whether vested in one "energy manager or coordinator" or
distributed among a number of middle managers, usually resides somewhere in the organiza-
tion between senior management and those who control the end-use of energy. Exactly how
and where that function is placed is a decision that needs to be made in view of the existing
organisational structure.

Energy Manager: Responsibilities and Duties to be Assigned Under The Energy

Conservation Act, 2001.
Responsibilities
• Prepare an annual activity plan and present to management concerning financially attrac-
tive investments to reduce energy costs
• Establish an energy conservation cell within the firm with management's consent about
the mandate and task of the cell.
• Initiate activities to improve monitoring and process control to reduce energy costs.
• Analyze equipment performance with respect to energy efficiency
• Ensure proper functioning and calibration of instrumentation required to assess level of
energy consumption directly or indirectly.
• Prepare information material and conduct internal workshops about the topic for other
staff.
• Improve disaggregating of energy consumption data down to shop level or profit center
of a firm.
• Establish a methodology how to accurately calculate the specific energy consumption of
various products/services or activity of the firm.
• Develop and manage training programme for energy efficiency at operating levels.
• Co-ordinate nomination of management personnel to external programs.
• Create knowledge bank on sectoral, national and inter-national development on energy
efficiency technology and management system and information denomination
• Develop integrated system of energy efficiency and environmental up gradation.
• Co-ordinate implementation of energy audit/efficiency improvement projects through
external agencies.
• Establish and/or participate in information exchange with other energy managers of the
same sector through association
Duties
• Report to BEE and State level Designated Agency once a year the information with
regard to the energy consumed and action taken on the recommendation of the accredit-
ed energy auditor, as per BEE Format.
• Establish an improved data recording, collection and analysis system to keep track of
energy consumption.
• Provide support to Accredited Energy Audit Firm retained by the company for the con-
duct of energy audit
• Provide information to BEE as demanded in the Act, and with respect to the tasks given
by a mandate, and the job description.
• Prepare a scheme for efficient use of energy and its conservation and implement such
scheme keeping in view of the economic stability of the investment in such form and
manner as may be provided in the regulations of the Energy Conservation Act.
Form A Dedicated Energy Team

The tasks of energy team are executing energy management activities across different
parts of the organization and ensuring integration of best practices.

Decisions affecting energy use are made every day by employees at all levels in an organiza-
tion. Creating an energy team helps to integrate energy management activities in an organiza-
tion.
In addition to planning and implementing specific improvements, the energy team measures
and tracks energy performance and communicates with management, employees and other
stakeholders.
The size of the energy team will vary depending on the size of the organization. In addition
to the Energy Manager who leads the team and dedicated energy staff, the team can include a
representative from each operational area that significantly affects energy use, such as:
• Engineering
• Purchasing
• Operations and Maintenance
• Building/Facilities Management
• Environmental Health and Safety
• Contractors and Suppliers
• Utilities
Energy team can encourage communications and the sharing of ideas between various
departments in an organization. It can serve to obtain agreements on energy conservation pro-
jects, which affect more than one department. It can provide a stronger voice to the top man-
agement than a single energy manager normally could. The composition of the energy team will
vary from one organization to another, depending on the existing management structure, the
type and quantity of energy used and other company-specific factors. A typical example of orga-
Figure 5.3

nizational structure of an energy management and location of an energy manager are shown in
Figure 5.3. The location of energy management function in a typical corporate sector and larg-
er organization is shown in Figure 5.4.
Figure 5.4
The frequency of team meetings depend on the importance of energy costs in the overall cost
structure of the company and what projects are in progress at any time. Normally a monthly
meeting is usual, so that monthly production and energy consumptions may be reviewed togeth-
er by the committee. This review would include a comparison of actual performance against
previously set targets and budget figures, as well as against previous months. Other items for
the agenda should be a review of the status of energy conservation investments in progress or
planned.
Institute an Energy Policy

Energy policy provides the foundation for setting performance goals and integrating ener-
gy management into an organization's culture and operations.
Energy Policy provides the foundation for successful energy management. It formalizes top
management's support and articulates the organization's commitment to energy efficiency for
employees, shareholders, the community and other stakeholders.
A formal written energy policy acts both as:
• A public expression of the organization's commitment to energy conservation and envi-
ronmental protection
• A working document to guide the energy management practices and provides continuity.

It is in the company's best interest that support for energy management is expressed in a formal
written declaration of commitment accompanied by a set of stated objectives, an action plan for
achieving them, and a clear specification of responsibilities.
Typical Format of an Energy Policy

• Declaration of top management's commitment to, and senior and middle management's
involvement in, energy management.
• Statement of policy.
• Statement of objectives, separated into short and long-term goals.
Actions
• Have the CEO or head of the organization officially issue the policy
• Involve key people in policy development to ensure cooperation
• Tailor the policy to the organization's culture
• Make it understandable to employees and public alike
• Consider the skills and abilities of management and employees
• Include detail that covers day-to-day operations
• Communicate the policy to all employees, and encourage them to get involved
Sample energy policies of various organizations are given at the end of this chapter.
5.2.2 Assess Energy Performances

Understanding current and past energy use helps an organization identify opportunities to
improve energy performance and gain financial benefits. Assessing energy performance is the
periodic process of evaluating energy use for all major facilities and functions in the organiza-
tion and establishing a baseline for measuring future results of energy efficiency efforts.
Key aspects include data collection and management, establishing baseline, benchmarking,
analysis and evaluation and conducting technical assessment and audit.
Data Collection and Management

Collect and track data -Collect energy use information and document data over time.
Evaluating energy performance requires good information on how, when, and where energy is
being used. Collecting and tracking this information is necessary for establishing baselines and
managing energy use.
The following steps are to be considered
a) Collect data
The data must be complete and accurate because it will be used for analysis and goal setting.
Consider the following when collecting energy use data:
Determine appropriate level of detail -The level and scope of data collection will vary from
organization to organization. Some may choose to collect data from submeters on individual
processes while others may only look at a utility bill.
Account for all energy sources - Make inventory of all energy purchased and generated on-
site (electricity, gas, steam, waste fuels) in physical units (kWh, kg of steam, etc.) and on a cost
basis.
Document all energy uses -For the sources identified above, assemble energy bills, meter read-
ings, and other use data. Energy data may reside in the accounting department, be held central-
ly or at each facility, or can be acquired by contacting the appropriate utilities or energy service
providers. Gather at least two years of monthly data or a more frequent interval if available. Use
the most recent data available.
Collect facility and operational data -To be able to normalize and benchmark, it may be nec-
essary to collect non-energy related data for all facilities and operations, such as building size,
production, operating hours, etc.
b) Track Data
A system for tracking performance can range from a simple spreadsheet to detailed databases
and IT systems. In developing an appropriate tracking system for the organization, consider the
following:
Scope -The design of the tracking system will be shaped, in large part, by the level and scope
of information that will be tracked and the frequency of data collection.
Maintenance -Tracking systems must be easy to use, update, and maintain.
Reporting and communicating -Use tracking systems to communicate energy performance to
other parts of the organization and motivate change. Consider developing formats that express
energy performance information in ways that are easily understandable across the organization.
A good tracking system should make such reporting easy.
Actions
• Collect data by fuel type at an individual building or facility level
• Collect data from submeters, if possible
• Use data that is current and timely
• Use tracking systems to develop quarterly and annual reports that profile energy perfor-
mance
• Use tracking systems to allow facilities to compare their performance to their peers
c) Normalize Data
The energy use of facilities varies greatly, partly due to factors beyond the energy efficiency of
the equipment and operations. These factors may include weather or certain operating charac-
teristics. Normalizing is the process of removing the impact of various factors on energy use so
that energy performance of facilities and operations can be compared.
In order to normalize:
Determine normalization factors -Determine key factors that need to be addressed to effec-
tively compare facilities. Relevant factors are frequently organization-specific.
For industrial facilities common normalization factors include:
• Inputs

• Product type
• Output
• Production processes
For commercial and institutional buildings, common normalization factors include:
• Climate zone
• Facility size
• Fuel choice
• Price/cost of energy
• Actual weather history
• Hours of operation
• Occupancy levels
• Special features
Establishing Baseline
Establish baselines -Determine the starting point from which to measure progress.
Measuring energy performance at a specific time establishes a baseline and provides the start-
ing point for setting goals and evaluating future efforts and overall performance. Baselines
should be established for all levels appropriate to your organization.
The main steps involve using the data collected so far to:
Establish base year -Establish a base year or an average of several historical years. Use the
most complete and relevant sets of data available.
Identify metrics -Select units of measurements that effectively and appropriately express ener-
gy performance for the organization. (e.g. kCal/ton, kCal/kWh, total energy cost/ton).
Publish results -Announce performance baselines to facilities, managers, and other key stake-
holders in your organization.
Benchmark
Compare the energy performance of facilities to each other, peers and competitors, and
over time to prioritize which facilities to focus on for improvements
Benchmarking allows us to compare the energy performance of similar facilities or an
established level of performance. It is a useful activity in energy management because it can be
used to develop relative measures of energy performance, track change over time, and identify
best energy management practices. Benchmarking can be done in variety of ways. Facility or
organizational performance may be benchmarked to:
Past performance -A comparison of current versus historical performance.
Industry average -Based on an established performance metric, such as the recognized aver-
age performance of a similar group.
Best in class -Benchmarking against the best in the industry and not the average.
Best Practices -A qualitative comparison against certain, established practices considered to be
the best in the industry.

The key steps in benchmarking include:

• Determine the level of benchmarking (for example -equipment, process line, facility or
organizational).
• Develop metrics.
• Conduct comparisons.
• Track performance over time.
Analysis and Evaluation

Analyse Data -Understand your energy use patterns and trends.
Analysing data to determine energy use trends can help an organization gain a better under-
standing of the factors that affect energy performance and identify steps for reducing energy
consumption.
Assessing your energy performance helps you to:

• Categorize current energy use by fuel type, operating division, facility, product line, etc.
• Identify high performing facilities for recognition and reuse of best practices.
• Prioritize poor performing facilities for immediate improvement.
• Understand the contribution of energy expenditures to operating costs.
• Develop a historical perspective and context for future actions and decisions.
• Establish reference points for measuring and rewarding good performance.
There are a variety of ways by which data can be analyzed depending upon the needs of the
organization. The following analyses provide a guideline:
a) Quantitative Reviews
• Develop use profiles -Identify energy consumption peaks and valleys, and determine
how they relate to operations or key events.
• Compare performance -Compare the use and performance data of similar facilities in
your industry.
• Assess the financial impacts -Identify areas of high-cost energy use.
• Identify data gaps -Determine areas where more information is needed.
b) Qualitative Reviews
• Conduct interviews -Seek informed opinions from colleagues, lessons learned, sys-
tems-specific information (e.g., HVAC, lighting, refrigeration), and in-house audits or
surveys.
• Review policies and procedures -Review organizational policies and operating proce-
dures to determine their impact on energy use.
Conduct Technical Assessments & Audits

Evaluate the operating performance of facility systems and equipment to determine
improvement potential.

Knowing the organization's baseline energy use and the relative performance of entire portfo-
lio is only part of the information needed. Periodic assessment of the performance of equip-
ment, processes, and systems will help to identify opportunities for improvement.
Energy audits are comprehensive reviews conducted by energy auditors and/or engineers
that evaluate the actual performance of a facility's systems and equipment against its designed
performance level or against best available technology. The difference between these is the
potential for energy savings.
The main steps for conducting technical assessments and audits are:
Assemble audit team -Expertise should cover all energy-using systems, processes, and equip-
ment. Include facility engineers, system specialists, and other support. Outside support may be
helpful and provide an objective perspective or specific expertise.
Plan and develop an audit strategy -Identify and prioritize systems for evaluation, assign
team members to tasks, and schedule completion dates for the activities. Use benchmarking
results to identify poor-performing facilities whose equipment and systems should be targeted
for evaluation.
Create audit report -Based on the audit results, produce a detailed summary of actual steps
that can be taken to reduce energy use. The report should recommend actions ranging from sim-
ple adjustments in operation to equipment replacement. Estimates of resource requirements for
completing actions should also be included.
5.2.3 Set Goals

Performance goals drive energy management activities and promote continuous improvement.
Setting clear and measurable goals is critical for understanding intended results, developing
effective strategies, and reaping financial gains.
Well-stated goals guide daily decision-making and are the basis for tracking and measuring
progress. Communicating and posting goals can motivate staff to support energy management
efforts throughout the organization. The Energy Manager in association with the energy team
typically develops goals.
Setting goals helps the Energy Manager:

• Set the tone for improvement throughout the organization
• Measure the success of the energy management program
• Help the Energy Team to identify progress and setbacks at a facility level
• Foster ownership of energy management, create a sense of purpose, and motivate staff.
• Demonstrate commitment to reducing environmental impacts
• Create schedules for upgrade activities and identify milestones
• Tool called force field analysis can be used to clarify the goals to be achieved.
To develop effective performance goals, determine scope, estimate potential for improvement
and finally establish goals.
Determine Scope
Identify organizational and time parameters for goals.

The scope of performance goals can include multiple levels of the organization as well as var-
ious time periods for completion of specific goals.
a) Organizational level
The level at which performance goals will be set depends on the nature of the organization and
how it uses energy. Common organizational levels for setting goals include:
Organization wide -Setting goals at this level provides a big picture of how the entire organi-
zation wants to improve. Organization-wide goals provide a framework for communicating the
success of energy management both internal and external audiences.
b) Facility -At this level, goals may vary to take into account the performance of specific facil-
ities based on benchmarking results or an energy audit. Facility level goals are designed to help
the broader organization to meet its goals.
c) Process or equipment -Some organizations may find it useful to establish goals for specif-
ic process lines and equipment when energy use is concentrated in specific areas.
Time Periods
Establishing appropriate and realistic target dates for goals ensures that they are meaningful and
promote change. A combination of short and long term goals can be effective.
a) Short-term goals -Annual goals provide the necessary markers for tracking and reporting
progress on a regular and on going basis.
b) Long-term goals -Long-term goals are usually organization-specific and may be shaped by:
• Internal rates of return
• Internal planning horizons and guidelines
• Organizational strategic plans
• Commitments to voluntary environmental initiatives
Estimate Potential for Improvement

Review baselines, benchmark to determine the potential and order of upgrades, and con-
duct technical assessments and audits.
To set goals, it is important to have a good estimate of what level of performance is achievable
and the amount of resources needed.
There are a variety ways to determine potential. The method we choose will depend on a
number of factors, such as: available resources, time, the nature of energy use at your facilities,
and how the energy program is organized.
Methods used by leading energy programs include:
Reviewing performance data -Assessing performance and setting baselines should help to
identify differences in energy use between similar facilities, giving a limited, point-in-time view
of your potential improvement. Performance data covering a longer period of time will be more
useful for understanding improvement potential.
Benchmarking -Benchmarking provides a yardstick for evaluating improvement opportunity
when enough data is available to show trends in energy use.

Evaluating past projects and best practices -Evaluate past projects and best practices at high-
er-performing facilities to determine the feasibility of transferring these practices to other parts
of the organization.
Reviewing technical assessments and audits -Identify opportunities to reduce energy use
identified during technical assessments and audits of poorer performing facilities to serve as a
strong basis for quantifying the potential for improvement.
Comparing goals of similar organizations -Reviewing performance goals of other organiza-
tions can help to guide and inform you of the potential for your own organization.
Linking to organization-wide strategic goals -Strategic as well as operational goals, such as
cost reductions, can also help inform the goal setting process
Establish Goals
Create and express clear, measurable goals, with target dates, for the entire organization,
facilities, and other units.
Once the potential for improvement has been estimated, goals can be established at the appro-
priate organizational levels. Energy performance goals should be formally established and rec-
ognized by senior management as a mission for the whole organization.
Estimating potential for improvement should provide us with a starting point for what is
possible. However, some organizations set their final energy performance goals based on orga-
nizational factors other than what is technically feasible. Such factors will affect how energy
performance goals are expressed.
Common ways for establishing goals include:
Defined reduction -Goals are presented in terms of a specific quantity or percentage decrease
in energy use, such as decrease of 300 tons of furnace oil or10 percent reduction of furnace oil.
Best-in-class -This goal aims for a certain level of performance compared to an established
benchmark.
Efficiency improvement -Goals are expressed as a function of reducing the energy intensity of
a specific performance indicator, such as 5 kWh per unit of product.
Environmental Improvement -
This goal translates energy sav-
ings into pollution prevention or
reduction goals.
Actions
When setting goals, be sure to use
the Energy Team's wide range of
knowledge to help set aggressive,
yet realistic goals.
Have management review
your goals to enlist their feedback
and support.

Force Field Analysis

Before creating the action plan, it can be a useful exercise to clarify the goal to be achieved, and
to assess what barriers must be overcome and what influences exist in the organization that
work towards the achievement of the goal. These barriers and influences can be thought of as
negative and positive forces respectively. Force field analysis is a simple tool that can be used
to gain additional insight about the change process to be pursued. The steps involved in force
field analysis are:
State the organizational goal and indicate the direction (say, left to right) that signifies mov-
ing towards that goal: for example, the goal might be "improve energy efficiency in the assem-
bly plant" or "reduce energy consumption in the facility for current occupancy levels".
Identify barriers that tend to work against the achievement of the goal: these may be internal
to the organization (for example, a lack of expertise related to energy management) or external
(for example, energy rate structures or government regulation).
Identify positive influences or forces that tend to work towards achievement of the goal; these
may also be internal or external.
Estimate the relative strength of the negative and positive forces (for simplicity, we may want
to identify them as low, medium and high strength).
Prioritize those forces that can be strengthened or weakened through your action plan with the
greatest effect on achieving the goal (Tip: It is usually more effective to attempt to minimize
negative forces than to try to strengthen forces that are already positive). A typical force field
analysis chart is shown in Figure 5.5.
Figure 5.5 Force Field Analysis

5.2.4 Create Action Plan

With goals in place, the organization is now ready to develop a roadmap to improve energy per-
formance.
Successful organizations use a detailed action plan to ensure a systematic process to imple-
ment energy performance measures. Unlike the energy policy, the action plan is regularly
updated, most often on an annual basis, to reflect recent achievements, changes in performance,
and shifting priorities.
While the scope and scale of the action plan is often dependent on the organization, the steps
below outline a basic starting point for creating a plan.
Define Technical Steps and Targets

Evaluate technical assessments and audit results -Identify gaps between current performance
and goals, by reviewing the results of the technical assessments and audits or progress evalua-
tions.
Determine technical steps -Identify the steps necessary for upgrading and moving facilities
from current performance to the desired level of performance as defined by the goals.
Create performance targets for each facility, department, and operation of the organization to
track progress towards achieving goals.
Set timelines for actions, including regular meetings among key personnel to evaluate progress,
completion dates, milestones and expected outcomes.
Establish a tracking system to track and monitor the progress of action items. This system
should track and measure energy use and project/program activities.
Determine Roles and Resources

Get agreement from management and all organizational areas affected by the action plan
before finalizing it. Work with the Energy Team to communicate the action plan to all
areas of the organization.
Determine Roles
Identify internal roles -Determine who should be involved and what their responsibilities will
be. Depending on your organization and action plan, this might include departments such as:
• Facility and operations management
• Financial management -capital investments, budget planning
• Human resources -staffing, training, and performance standards
• Maintenance
• Supply management -procurement procedures, energy purchasing and equipment and
materials
• Building and plant design
• Engineering
• New product/process development teams
• Communications Marketing
• Environment, Health and Safety

Identify external roles -Determine the degree to which consultants, service providers, vendors,
and other product providers will be used. Some organizations may choose to outsource entire
aspects of their action plan while others may only want to contract with specific vendors for
limited projects.
Establish performance metrics for contractors -If contractors will be used, determine what
standards will be used to evaluate bids and incorporate these metrics into agreements with con-
tractors.
Determine Resources
Define resources needs -For each project or program in the action plan, estimate the cost for
each item in terms of both human resources and capital/expense outlay.
Secure resources -Develop the business case for justifying and gaining funding approval for
action plan projects and resources need.
Actions
Creating an inclusive strategy that establishes roles and actions throughout the organization can
help to integrate good energy management practices. When developing an action plan, consid-
er:
• Brainstorming with various departments to identify ways they can contribute.

• Holding a competition to seek ideas for energy efficiency from across the organization.
• Gathering recommendations from the Energy Team and other key personnel.
5.2.5 Implement Action Plan

People can make or break an energy program. Gaining the support and cooperation of key peo-
ple at different levels within the organization is an important factor for successful implementa-
tion of the action plan in many organizations.
Reaching your goals frequently depends on the awareness, commitment, and capability of the
people who will implement the projects defined in the action plan.
In addition to implementing the technical aspects of the action plan, consider the following:
• Create communication plan -Develop targeted information for key audiences about your
energy management program.
• Raise awareness -Build support at all levels of your organization for energy management
initiatives and goals.
• Build capacity -Through training, access to information, and transfer of successful prac-
tices, procedures, and technologies, you can expand the capacity of your staff.
• Motivate -Create incentives that encourage staff to improve energy performance to
achieve goals.

• Track and monitor -Using the tracking system developed as part of the action plan to
track and monitor progress regularly.
Create a Communication Plan

Good communication does not just happen. It requires careful planning and implementa-
tion.
To communicate strategically, you will need to identify key audiences, determine the informa-
tion that they need, and adapt your messages appropriately for each one.
Raise Awareness
Everyone has a role in energy management. Effective programs make employees, man-
agers, and other key stakeholders aware of energy performance goals and initiatives, as
well as their responsibility in carrying out the program.
Communications strategies and materials for raising awareness of energy use, goals and
impacts should be tailored to the needs of the intended audience. To raise awareness, consider
doing the following:
a) Increase general energy awareness
Most people are unaware of how their everyday actions and activities at home and work affect
energy use and impact the environment. Increasing overall awareness can be an effective way
to gain greater support for energy initiatives.
Increasing general awareness of energy use can be accomplished through:
New employee orientation programs -Provide basic information on organizational and indi-
vidual energy use to new employees.
Poster campaigns -Develop attractive and informative posters for change rooms, bulletin
boards, etc, that discusses energy use.
b) Improve facility energy awareness
Individuals working in or even managing a facility may have little understanding of the energy
performance of the facility or its impact on the organization and environment. Targeted efforts
designed to increase awareness of facility energy use can help build support for energy man-
agement programs. Like general awareness efforts, facility-oriented energy awareness can take
many forms. In developing facility energy awareness programs, consider using the following
types of information:
Energy data statistics -Use general facility energy facts and Figures, such as overall energy
costs, costs to operate equipment, environmental information related to energy use, and so on.
Energy use of equipment -Provide information on the energy performance of equipment or
processes that employees regularly use as part of their jobs.
c) Gain management support
Frequently, managers who are not directly involved in energy management are not aware of
how energy use effects the organization. Increasing the awareness of managers can help to build
support for energy management initiatives.

Build Capacity
Investing in training and systems to share successful practices helps ensure the success of the
action plan by building the overall organizational capacity. Many organizations have found that
informed employees are more likely to contribute ideas, operate equipment properly, and fol-
low procedures, helping to guarantee that capital investments in energy improvements will real-
ize their potential.
Training
Using training to help staff understand the importance of energy performance provides the
information necessary to make informed decisions. Training also provides an excellent oppor-
tunity for gathering employee feedback and evaluations. The type and nature of training will
vary by organization and your specific action plan. Common training programs include:
Operational and procedural training -Provides instruction on new operating methods or pro-
cedures designed to reduce energy use. Such training is typically targeted towards specific audi-
ences, such as facility managers, operations, and maintenance staff.
Administrative training -Includes reporting, monitoring, data collection, and other adminis-
trative efforts that support energy management.
Specialized training -Gives specific instructions on using and maintaining equipment or tools
to ensure more efficient operation.
Knowledge and Management Information Systems

Computer-based information systems provide a robust means for sharing information on best
practices, technologies, and operational guidance. While these systems can range from complex
databases to a simple intranet site, they are a centralized and accessible place to store and trans-
fer energy management information within an organization.
Motivate
Offering incentives for energy management is one way many organizations create interest in
energy initiatives and foster a sense of ownership among employees.
Examples of how organizations motivate staff and employees include:
Internal competition: Use tracking sheets, scorecards, etc. to compare performance of similar
facilities and foster a sense of competition.
Recognition: Highlight and reward accomplishments of individuals, departments, and facili-
ties.
Financial bonus and prizes: Offer cash bonuses and other rewards if goals are met.
Environmental responsibility: Use environmental messages to promote a sense of environmen-
tal and social responsibility.
Financial responsibility: Use financial messages to promote a sense of fiduciary responsibili-
ty.
Performance standards: Tie employee performance standards to energy goals.

Track & Monitor

A tracking system is the means by which an energy program's activities are monitored. The sys-
tem should be centralized and available for all to use in gauging progress toward established
targets, milestones, and deadlines.
Maintaining a tracking system enables you to assess necessary steps, corrective actions, and
identify successes. Periodic review of the activities outlined in the action plan is critical to meet
energy performance goals.
Perform regular updates -A system is only effective if the information it contains is current
and comprehensive. Data needs to be collected and incorporated into the system at an interval
of time effective to the program. Many organizations perform weekly and monthly updates to
their tracking systems.
Conduct periodic reviews -Periodic reviews of your progress in meeting interim goals and
milestones should be conducted with the management team, the energy team, and selected
groups of employees. The frequency of these reviews will vary depending upon the audience.
Such reviews should focus on progress made, problems encountered, and potential rewards.
Identify necessary corrective actions -A tracking system is a good way to determine whether
a program is performing well. It will help identify when a specific activity is not meeting its
expected performance and is in need of review.
5.2.6 Evaluate Progress

Evaluating progress includes formal review of both energy use data and the activities carried
out as part of the action plan as compared to your performance goals.
Key aspects are measuring results and reviewing action plans.
Measure results
Compare current performance to established goals. Gather energy use data and compare results
to goals to determine accomplishments.
Key steps in measuring results include:
Gather tracking data
• Review energy use and cost data (capital and operating expenses)
• Organize reports and data from tracking and monitoring efforts
• Analyze energy efficiency achievements based on your established performance metrics.
Benchmark
• Compare energy performance to baselines
• Compare performance against established goals for:
• environmental performance
• financial savings
Compare energy performance to peers and competitors to establish a relative understanding of
where your performance ranks

Review action plan

Understand what worked well and what didn't in order to identify best practices.
After reviewing performance data, the next steps are to understand the factors affecting the
results as well as the additional benefits of the improved energy performance.
Regular evaluation of energy performance and the effectiveness of energy management initia-
tives also allow energy managers to:
• Measure the effectiveness of projects and programs implemented
• Make informed decisions about future energy projects
• Reward individuals and teams for accomplishments
• Document additional savings opportunities as well as non-quantifiable benefits that can
be leveraged for future initiatives.
This review should look at the effectiveness of your action plan. Where activities and projects
were successful, document best practices to share throughout the organization.
Where goals were not met, many organizations determine the cause and decide what cor-
rective or preventive actions should be taken.
Key steps in reviewing the action plan include:
Get feedback -Get feedback and ideas on the plan from the energy team, implementation staff,
and other departments.
Assess awareness -Assess changes in employee and organizational awareness of energy issues.
Identify critical factors -Identify factors that contributed to surpassing or missing targets.
Quantify side benefits -Identify and quantify, if possible, side benefits arising from energy
management activities such as employee comfort, productivity improvement, impact on sales,
reduced operation and maintenance expenses, or better public/community relations.
Action plan review involves a commitment of resources, but also has many advantages:
• Creates insight for new actions (technologies/practices/programs)

• Avoids repeating failures by identifying activities that were not as effective as expected
• Assesses the usefulness of the tracking system and other administrative tools to ensure
better management and evaluation
• Provides staff the opportunity to contribute to and understand the process of energy
management
• Provides specific success stories and financial results to communicate to stakeholders
inside and outside the organization.
5.2.7 Recognize Achievements
Providing and seeking recognition for energy management achievements is a proven step
for sustaining momentum and support for your program.
Providing recognition to those who helped the organization achieve these results motivates staff

and employees and brings positive exposure to the energy management program.
Receiving recognition from outside sources validates the importance of the energy man-
agement program to both internal and external stakeholders, and provides positive exposure for
the organization as a whole.
a) Internal Recognition
Recognizing the accomplishments of individuals and teams is key to sustaining support and
momentum for energy management initiatives. Rewarding particular efforts sets the example
for what constitutes success and helps motivate employees through increased job satisfaction.
Recognition can strengthen the morale of everyone involved in energy management.
Key steps are:
Determine recognition levels -The decision about who should receive recognition in your
organization will likely be shaped by the purpose for providing recognition and your organiza-
tional culture. Common recognition levels include:
Individual -Acknowledges the contributions and accomplishments of specific people.
Teams -Recognizes the achievements of teams, departments, and other distinct groups within
the organization.
Facility -Rewards the accomplishments or performance of an entire facility.
Establish recognition criteria -Create criteria for recognition and communicate these criteria
and any process eligibility requirements. Recognition criteria might include thresholds of
achievement such as:
• Offered the best energy savings ideas
• Achieved the greatest energy use reduction
• Increased savings by quantified amount
Determine recognition type
There are a variety of ways to provide recognition and rewards. Depending on the purpose of
the recognition program and your organizational culture, forms of recognition can range from
formal acknowledgements and certificates, to salary increases and cash bonuses, to simple
forms of appreciation such as shields or energy program shirts.
Actions
• Ask senior management to provide the recognition.
• Use a formal means for providing recognition, such as an award ceremony.
• Use progress evaluations to inform the recognition process.
b) External Recognition
Good work deserves to be acknowledged. Recognition from a third party can provide valida-
tion for an organization's energy management program. Not only does it provide satisfaction to
those involved in earning the recognition, but it can also enhance an organization's public
image. A solid reputation contributes to your competitive advantage by making your organiza-
tion more attractive to customers, students, current and potential employees, lenders, business
partners and other stakeholders.






Rashtriya Ispat Nigam Limited

Visakhapatnam Steel Plant
ENERGY POLICY
We, at Visakhapatnam Steel Plant, are committed to optimally utilise various forms of ener-
gy in a cost effective manner to effect conservation of energy resources. To accomplish this
we will :
• Monitor closely and control the consumption of various forms of energy through an
effective Energy Management System.
• Adopt appropriate energy conservation technologies.
• Maximise the use of cheaper and easily available forms of energy.
• Make energy conservation a mass movement with the involvement of all employees.
• Maximise recovery of waste energy.
• Reduce Specific Energy Consumption by 1% per year by 2010.
Date Dr. B.N. Singh

14-06-2002 Chairman-cum-Managing Director
KESORAM RAYON
(Division of Kesoram Industries Ltd.)
ENERGY POLICY
We shall strive for continuous energy economy through -
Formulation of overall energy strategy and targets.

All round participation of all employees through Small Group Activities
Improved capacity utilization
Upgradation of process, technology and equipment
Better plant layout
As a part of our energy conservation and environment protection, we are committed to

reduce specific energy consumption by 1% every year till 2010.
J.D. PALOD
President

NRC LIMITED
ENERGY CONSERVATION POLICY
NRC Limited is committed to energy conservation for all its products & related operations.
Efforts will be made to reduce energy consumption in every possible ways as under:
• Replacing old & outdated machinery, equipment by new energy efficient equipment
• Benchmarking all products/services for energy consumption by comparison at
regional as well as national level
• Conducting energy conservation studies including audits with a view to minimise
waste.
• Creating awareness among employees &nearby population through campaigns,
publicity about need for energy conservation
• We are committed to reduce our energy consumption by minimum 1% every year
till 2010.
P.S. Sharma
Managing Director
Maral Overseas Limited

P.O.Maral Sarovar, A.B.Road
Khalbujurg - 451660
District Khargone (M.P.)
ENERGY CONSERVATION POLICY
We are committed to conserve the energy which is a scarce resource with the requisite con-
sistency in the efficiency, effectiveness in the cost involved in the operations and ensuring
that production quality and quantity, environment, safety, health of people are maintained.
We are also committed to monitoring continuously the saving achieved and reduce its
specific energy consumption by minimum of 1% every year.
M S. ANJANE
PRESIDENT

QUESTIONS
1. What are the prerequisites of the successful energy management programme?
2. Why is the top management support essential for success of energy management?
3. Explain the steps involved in the force field analysis. Taking your own industry as an
example, list down the positive and negative forces?
4. Should an industry have energy policy? If yes or no, explain the reason.
5. Discuss briefly as to where the energy manager should be located in the organization
structure?
6. What is the role of top management in energy management?
7. List down the responsibilities and duties of an energy manager in an industry?
8. Explain how accountability can be established at various levels in an energy manage-
ment system?
9. List from your experience/thinking how employees can be motivated?
10. What are the requirements of good energy action planning?
11. Discuss the importance of training for effective energy management.
12. Explain the key features of energy information system. Taking your own industry as
an example, list down the important data you would like to collect and monitor for
effective energy management.
13. What is the barrier to the use of energy information systems?
14. How is communication important for energy manager?
REFERENCES
1. Energy Management Hand Book, Chapter 2, Milton A. Williams
2. Energy Conservation in Industries, Center of Plant Engineering Services, Hyderabad.
3. Productivity Vol.31 Jan-March,1991 No.4,Energy Policy Perspectives in India, Stephen
Paulus.
4. Manual on Industrial Energy Audit, Energy Management Centre

6. FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT
Syllabus
Financial Management: Investment-need, Appraisal and criteria, Financial analysis tech-
niques-Simple pay back period, Return on investment, Net present value, Internal rate of
return, Cash flows, Risk and sensitivity analysis; Financing options, Energy performance
contracts and role of ESCOs.
6.1 Introduction
In the process of energy management, at some stage, investment would be required for reduc-
ing the energy consumption of a process or utility. Investment would be required for modifica-
tions/retrofitting and for incorporating new technology. It would be prudent to adopt a system-
atic approach for merit rating of the different investment options vis-à-vis the anticipated sav-
ings. It is essential to identify the benefits of the proposed measure with reference to not only
energy savings but also other associated benefits such as increased productivity, improved prod-
uct quality etc.
The cost involved in the proposed measure should be captured in totality viz.
• Direct project cost
• Additional operations and maintenance cost
• Training of personnel on new technology etc.
Based on the above, the investment analysis can be carried out by the techniques explained
in the later section of the chapter.
6.2 Investment Need, Appraisal and Criteria

To persuade your organization to commit itself to a program of investment in energy efficien-
cy, you need to demonstrate:
• The size of the energy problem it currently faces
• The technical and good housekeeping measure available to reduce waste
• The predicted return on any investment
• The real returns achieved on particular measures over time.
The need for investments in energy conservation can arise under following circumstances
• For new equipment, process improvements etc.
• To provide staff training
• To implement or upgrade the energy information system
Criteria
Any investment has to be seen as an addition and not as a substitute for having effective man-
agement practices for controlling energy consumption throughout your organization.
Spending money on technical improvements for energy management cannot compensate for
inadequate attention to gaining control over energy consumption. Therefore, before you make
any investments, it is important to ensure that

6. Financial Management
• You are getting the best performance from existing plant and equipment
• Your energy charges are set at the lowest possible tariffs
• You are consuming the best energy forms - fuels or electricity - as efficiently as possi-
ble
• Good housekeeping practices are being regularly practiced.
When listing investment opportunities, the following criteria need to be considered:
• The energy consumption per unit of production of a plant or process
• The current state of repair and energy efficiency of the building design, plant and ser-
vices, including controls
• The quality of the indoor environment - not just room temperatures but indoor air qual-
ity and air change rates, drafts, under and overheating including glare, etc.
• The effect of any proposed measure on staff attitudes and behaviour.
Energy Proposals Vs Other Competitive Proposals

One of the most difficult problems which many energy managers face is justifying why their
organization should invest money in increasing its energy efficiency, especially when there are
other, seemingly more important priorities for the use of its capital.
• Organization typically give priority to investing in what they see as their core or profit-
making activities in preference to energy efficiency
• Even when they do invest in saving energy, they tend to demand faster rates of return
than they require from other kinds of investment.
Investment Appraisal
Energy manager has to identify how cost savings arising from energy management could be
redeployed within his organization to the maximum effect. To do this, he has to work out how
benefits of increased energy efficiency can be best sold to top management as,
• Reducing operating /production costs
• Increasing employee comfort and well-being
• Improving cost-effectiveness and/or profits
• Protecting under-funded core activities
• Enhancing the quality of service or customer care delivered
• Protecting the environment
6.3 Financial Analysis

In most respects, investment in energy efficiency is no different from any other area of finan-
cial management. So when your organization first decides to invest in increasing its energy effi-
ciency it should apply exactly the same criteria to reducing its energy consumption as it applies
to all its other investments. It should not require a faster or slower rate of return on investment
in energy efficiency than it demands elsewhere.
The basic criteria for financial investment appraisal include:
• Simple Payback - a measure of how long it will be before the investment makes money,
and how long the financing term needs to be
• Return on Investment (ROI) and Internal Rate of Return (IRR) - measure that allow

comparison with other investment options

• Net Present Value (NPV) and Cash Flow - measures that allow financial planning of
the project and provide the company with all the information needed to incorporate
energy efficiency projects into the corporate financial system.
Initially, when you can identify no or low cost investment opportunities, this principle
should not be difficult to maintain. However, if your organization decides to fund a rolling pro-
gram of such investments, then over time it will become increasingly difficult for you to iden-
tify opportunities, which conform to the principle. Before you'll reach this position, you need
to renegotiate the basis on which investment decisions are made.
It may require particular thoroughness to ensure that all the costs and benefits arising are
taken into account. As an approximate appraisal, simple payback (the total cost of the measure
divided by the annual savings arising from it expressed as years required for the original invest-
ment to be returned) is a useful tool.
As the process becomes more sophisticated, financial criteria such as Discounted Cash
Flow, Internal Rate of Return and Net Present Value may be used. If you do not possess suffi-
cient financial expertise to calculate these yourself, you will need to ensure that you have
access, either within your own staff or elsewhere within the organization, to people who can
employ them on your behalf.
There are two quite separate grounds for arguing that, at least long after their payback peri-
ods. Such measure does not need to be written off using fast discounting rates but can be regard-
ed as adding to the long term value of the assets. For this reason, short term payback can be an
inadequate yardstick for assessin long after their payback periods. Such measure does not need
to be written off using fast discounting rates but can be regarded as adding to the long term
value of the assets. For this reason, short term payback can be an inadequate yardstick for
assessing longer term benefits. To assess the real gains from investing in saving energy, you
should use investment appraisal techniques, which accurately reflect the longevity of the returns
on particular types of technical measures.
Protecting Energy Investment
It is essential to keep a careful watch on your organization's maintenance policy and practices
in order to protect any investment already made in reducing your organization's energy con-
sumption. There is a clear dependence relationship between energy efficiency and maintenance.
This operates at two levels:
• Initially, improving energy efficiency is most cost-effectively done in existing facilities

through normal maintenance procedures
• Subsequently, unless maintenance is regularly undertaken, savings from installed tech-
nical measure, whether in new-build or existing facilities, may not be realized.
6.4 Financial Analysis Techniques
In this chapter, investment analysis tools relevant to energy management projects will be
discussed.
6.4.1 Simple Pay Back Period:

Simple Payback Period (SPP) represents, as a first approximation; the time (number of years)
required to recover the initial investment (First Cost), considering only the Net Annual Saving:

The simple payback period is usually calculated as follows:
Examples
First cos t
Simple payback period =
Yearly benefits − Yearly cos ts
Simple payback period for a continuous Deodorizer that costs Rs.60 lakhs to purchase and
install, Rs.1.5 lakhs per year on an average to operate and maintain and is expected to save Rs.
20 lakhs by reducing steam consumption (as compared to batch deodorizers), may be calculat-
ed as follows:
According to the payback criterion, the shorter the payback period, the more desirable the pro-
60
Simple payback period = = 3 years 3 months
20 − 1.5
ject.
Advantages
A widely used investment criterion, the payback period seems to offer the following advantages:
• It is simple, both in concept and application. Obviously a shorter payback generally indi-
cates a more attractive investment. It does not use tedious calculations.
• It favours projects, which generate substantial cash inflows in earlier years, and dis-
criminates against projects, which bring substantial cash inflows in later years but not in
earlier years.
Limitations
• It fails to consider the time value of money. Cash inflows, in the payback calculation, are
simply added without suitable discounting. This violates the most basic principle of
financial analysis, which stipulates that cash flows occurring at different points of time
can be added or subtracted only after suitable compounding/discounting.
• It ignores cash flows beyond the payback period. This leads to discrimination against
projects that generate substantial cash inflows in later years.
To illustrate, consider the cash flows of two projects, A and B:
The payback criterion prefers A, which has a payback period of 3 years, in comparison to B,
which has a payback period of 4 years, even though B has very substantial cash inflows in years

5 and 6.
• It is a measure of a project's capital recovery, not profitability.
• Despite its limitations, the simple payback period has advantages in that it may be use-
ful for evaluating an investment.
Time Value of Money

A project usually entails an investment for the initial cost of installation, called the capital cost,
and a series of annual costs and/or cost savings (i.e. operating, energy, maintenance, etc.)
throughout the life of the project. To assess project feasibility, all these present and future cash
flows must be equated to a common basis. The problem with equating cash flows which occur
at different times is that the value of money changes with time. The method by which these var-
ious cash flows are related is called discounting, or the present value concept.
For example, if money can be deposited in the bank at 10% interest, then a Rs.100 deposit
will be worth Rs.110 in one year's time. Thus the Rs.110 in one year is a future value equiva-
lent to the Rs.100 present value.
In the same manner, Rs.100 received one year from now is only worth Rs.90.91 in today's
money (i.e. Rs.90.91 plus 10% interest equals Rs.100). Thus Rs.90.91 represents the present
value of Rs.100 cash flow occurring one year in the future. If the interest rate were something
different than 10%, then the equivalent present value would also change. The relationship
between present and future value is determined as follows:
Future Value (FV) = NPV (1 + i)n or NPV = FV / (1+i)n
Where
FV = Future value of the cash flow
NPV= Net Present Value of the cash flow
i = Interest or discount rate
n = Number of years in the future
6.4.2 Return on Investment (ROI)

ROI expresses the "annual return" from the project as a percentage of capital cost. The annual
return takes into account the cash flows over the project life and the discount rate by convert-
ing the total present value of ongoing cash flows to an equivalent annual amount over the life
of the project, which can then be compared to the capital cost. ROI does not require similar pro-
ject life or capital cost for comparison.
This is a broad indicator of the annual return expected from initial capital investment,
expressed as a percentage:
Annual Net Cash Flow

ROI = --------------------------------- x 100
Capital Cost
ROI must always be higher than cost of money (interest rate); the greater the return on invest-
ment better is the investment.

Limitations
• It does not take into account the time value of money.
• It does not account for the variable nature of annual net cash inflows.
6.4.3 Net Present Value

The net present value (NPV) of a project is equal to the sum of the present values of all the cash
flows associated with it. Symbolically,
Where NPV = Net Present Value

CFt = Cash flow occurring at the end of year 't' (t=0,1,….n)
n = life of the project
k = Discount rate
The discount rate (k) employed for evaluating the present value of the expected future cash
flows should reflect the risk of the project.
Example
To illustrate the calculation of net present value, consider a project, which has the following
cash flow stream:
The cost of capital, κ, for the firm is 10 per cent. The net present value of the proposal is:
The net present value represents the net benefit over and above the compensation for time and
risk.
Hence the decision rule associated with the net present value criterion is: "Accept the project
if the net present value is positive and reject the project if the net present value is negative".

Advantages
The net present value criterion has considerable merits.
• It takes into account the time value of money.
• It considers the cash flow stream in its project life.
6.4.4 Internal Rate of Return

This method calculates the rate of return that the investment is expected to yield. The internal
rate of return (IRR) method expresses each investment alternative in terms of a rate of return (a
compound interest rate). The expected rate of return is the interest rate for which total dis-
counted benefits become just equal to total discounted costs (i.e net present benefits or net annu-
al benefits are equal to zero, or for which the benefit / cost ratio equals one). The criterion for
selection among alternatives is to choose the investment with the highest rate of return.
The rate of return is usually calculated by a process of trial and error, whereby the net cash
flow is computed for various discount rates until its value is reduced to zero.
The internal rate of return (IRR) of a project is the discount rate, which makes its net pre-
sent value (NPV) equal to zero. It is the discount rate in the equation:
where CFt = cash flow at the end of year "t"

k = discount rate
n = life of the project.
CFt value will be negative if it is expenditure and positive if it is savings.

In the net present value calculation we assume that the discount rate (cost of capital) is known
and determine the net present value of the project. In the internal rate of return calculation, we
set the net present value equal to zero and determine the discount rate (internal rate of return),
which satisfies this condition.
To illustrate the calculation of internal rate of return, consider the cash flows of a project:
The internal rate of return is the value of " κ " which satisfies the following equation:
The calculation of "k" involves a process of trial and error. We try different values of "k" till
we find that the right-hand side of the above equation is equal to 100,000. Let us, to begin with,
try k = 15 per cent. This makes the right-hand side equal to:

30,000 30,000 40,000 45,000

------------ + ------------- + --------------- + --------------- = 100, 802
(1.15) (1.15)2 (1.15)3 (1.15)4
This value is slightly higher than our target value, 100,000. So we increase the value of k from
15 per cent to 16 per cent. (In general, a higher k lowers and a smaller k increases the right-
hand side value). The right-hand side becomes:
30,000 30,000 40,000 45,000
------------ + ------------- + --------------- + --------------- = 98, 641
(1.16) (1.16)2 (1.16)3 (1.16)4
Since this value is now less than 100,000, we conclude that the value of k lies between 15
per cent and 16 per cent. For most of the purposes this indication suffices.
Advantages
A popular discounted cash flow method, the internal rate of return criterion has several advan-
tages:
• It takes into account the time value of money.
• It considers the cash flow stream in its entirety.
• It makes sense to businessmen who prefer to think in terms of rate of return and find an
absolute quantity, like net present value, somewhat difficult to work with.
Limitations
• The internal rate of return figure cannot distinguish between lending and borrowing and
hence a high internal rate of return need not necessarily be a desirable feature.
Example
Calculate the internal rate of return for an economizer that will cost Rs.500,000, will last 10
years, and will result in fuel savings of Rs.150,000 each year.
Find the i that will equate the following:
Rs.500,000 = 150,000 x PV (A = 10 years, i = ?)
To do this, calculate the net present value (NPV) for various i values, selected by visual inspec-
tion;
NPV 25% = Rs.150,000 x 3.571 - Rs.500,000
= Rs.35,650
NPV 30% = Rs.150,000 x 3.092 - Rs. 500,000

= -Rs. 36,200
For i = 25 per cent, net present value is positive; i = 30 per cent, net present value is negative.
Thus, for some discount rate between 25 and 30 per cent, present value benefits are equated to
present value costs. To find the rate more exactly, one can interpolate between the two rates as
follows:
i = 0.25 + (0.30-0.25) x 35650 / (35650 + 36200)
= 0.275, or 27.5 percent

Cash Flows
Generally there are two kinds of cash flow; the initial investment as one or more installments,
and the savings arising from the investment. This over simplifies the reality of energy manage-
ment investment.
There are usually other cash flows related to a project. These include the following:
• Capital costs are the costs associated with the design, planning, installation and com-
missioning of the project; these are usually one-time costs unaffected by inflation or dis-
count rate factors, although, as in the example, installments paid over a period of time
will have time costs associated with them.
• Annual cash flows, such as annual savings accruing from a project, occur each year over
the life of the project; these include taxes, insurance, equipment leases, energy costs, ser-
vicing, maintenance, operating labour, and so on. Increases in any of these costs repre-
sent negative cash flows, whereas decreases in the cost represent positive cash flows.
Factors that need to be considered in calculating annual cash flows are:-
• Taxes, using the marginal tax rate applied to positive (i.e. increasing taxes) or negative
(i.e. decreasing taxes) cash flows.
• Asset depreciation, the depreciation of plant assets over their life; depreciation is a
"paper expense allocation" rather than a real cash flow, and therefore is not included
directly in the life cycle cost. However, depreciation is "real expense" in terms of tax
calculations, and therefore does have an impact on the tax calculation noted above. For
example, if a Rs.10,00,000 asset is depreciated at 20% and the marginal tax rate is 40%,
the depreciation would be Rs.200,000 and the tax cash flow would be Rs.80,000 and it
is this later amount that would show up in the costing calculation.
• Intermittent cash flows occur sporadically rather than annually during the life of the pro-
ject, relining a boiler once every five years would be an example.
6.5 Sensitivity and Risk Analysis

Many of the cash flows in the project are based on assumptions that have an element of uncer-
tainty. The present day cash flows, such as capital cost, energy cost savings, maintenance costs,
etc can usually be estimated fairly accurately. Even though these costs can be predicted with
some certainty, it should always be remembered that they are only estimates. Cash flows in
future years normally contain inflation components which are often "guess-timates" at best. The
project life itself is an estimate that can vary significantly.
Sensitivity analysis is an assessment of risk. Because of the uncertainty in assigning values
to the analysis, it is recommended that a sensitivity analysis be carried out - particularly on pro-
jects where the feasibility is marginal. How sensitive is the project's feasibility to changes in the
input parameters? What if one or more of the factors in the analysis is not as favourable as pre-
dicted? How much would it have to vary before the project becomes unviable? What is the prob-
ability of this happening?
Suppose, for example, that a feasible project is based on an energy cost saving that escalates
at 10% per year, but a sensitivity analysis shows the break-even is at 9% (i.e. the project
becomes unviable if the inflation of energy cost falls below 9%). There is a high degree of risk
associated with this project - much greater than if the break-even value was at 2%.

Many of the computer spreadsheet programs have built-in "what if" functions that make sensi-
tivity analysis easy. If carried out manually, the sensitivity analysis can become laborious -
reworking the analysis many times with various changes in the parameters.
Sensitivity analysis is undertaken to identify those parameters that are both uncertain and
for which the project decision, taken through the NPV or IRR, is sensitive. Switching values
showing the change in a variable required for the project decision to change from acceptance to
rejection are presented for key variables and can be compared with post evaluation results for
similar projects. For large projects and those close to the cut-off rate, a quantitative risk analy-
sis incorporating different ranges for key variables and the likelihood of their occurring simul-
taneously is recommended. Sensitivity and risk analysis should lead to improved project design,
with actions mitigating against major sources of uncertainty being outlined
The various micro and macro factors that are considered for the sensitivity analysis are list-
ed below.
Micro factors
• Operating expenses (various expenses items)
• Capital structure
• Costs of debt, equity
• Changing of the forms of finance e.g. leasing
• Changing the project duration
Macro factors
Macro economic variables are the variable that affects the operation of the industry of which the
firm operates. They cannot be changed by the firm's management.
Macro economic variables, which affect projects, include among others:
• Changes in interest rates
• Changes in the tax rates
• Changes in the accounting standards e.g. methods of calculating depreciation
• Changes in depreciation rates
• Extension of various government subsidized projects e.g. rural electrification
• General employment trends e.g. if the government changes the salary scales
• Imposition of regulations on environmental and safety issues in the industry
• Energy Price change
• Technology changes
The sensitivity analysis will bring changes in various items in the analysis of financial state-
ments or the projects, which in turn might lead to different conclusions regarding the imple-
mentation of projects.
6.6 Financing Options

There are various options for financing in-house energy management
1. From a central budget
2. From a specific departmental or section budget such as engineering
3. By obtaining a bank loan
4. By raising money from stock market

5. By awarding the project to Energy Service Company (ESCO)

6. By retaining a proportion of the savings achieved.
Self-Financing Energy Management

One way to make energy management self-financing is to split savings to provide identifiable
returns to each interested party. This has the following benefits:
• Assigning a proportion of energy savings to your energy management budget means you
have a direct financial incentive to identify and quantify savings arising from your own
activities.
• Separately identified returns will help the constituent parts of your organization under-
standing whether they are each getting good value for money through their support for
energy management.
• If operated successfully, splitting the savings will improve motivation and commitment
to energy management throughout the organization since staff at all levels will see a
financial return for their effort or support.
• But the main benefit is on the independence and longevity of the energy management
function.
Ensuring Continuity
After implementation of energy savings, your organization ought to be able to make consider-
able savings at little cost (except for the funding needed for energy management staff). The
important question is what should happen to these savings?
If part of these easily achieved savings is not returned to your budget as energy manager,
then your access to self-generated investments funds to support future activities will be lost.
And later in the program, it is likely to be much harder for you to make savings.
However, if, an energy manager, has access to a proportion of the revenue savings arising
from staff's activities, then these can be reinvested in:
• Further energy efficiency measures
• Activities necessary to create the right climate for successful energy management which
do not, of themselves, directly generate savings
• Maintaining or up-grading the management information system.
Energy Performance Contracting and Role of ESCOS

If the project is to be financed externally, one of the attractive options for many organizations
is the use of energy performance contracts delivered by energy service companies, or ESCOs.
ESCOs are usually companies that provide a complete energy project service, from assess-
ment to design to construction or installation, along with engineering and project management
services, and financing. In one way or another, the contract involves the capitalization of all of
the services and goods purchased, and repayment out of the energy savings that result from the
project.
In performance contracting, an end-user (such as an industry, institution, or utility), seeking
to improve its energy efficiency, contracts with ESCO for energy efficiency services and financ-
ing.
In some contracts, the ESCOs provide a guarantee for the savings that will be realized, and
absorbs the cost if real savings fall short of this level. Typically, there will be a risk manage-

ment cost involved in the contract in these situations. Insurance is sometimes attached, at a cost,
to protect the ESCO in the event of a savings shortfall.
Energy efficiency projects generate incremental cost savings as opposed to incremental rev-
enues from the sale of outputs. The energy
cost savings can be turned into incremental
cash flows to the lender or ESCO based on
the commitment of the energy user (and in
some cases, a utility) to pay for the savings.
What are performance contracts?

Performance contracting represents one of
the ways to address several of the most fre-
quently mentioned barriers to investment.
Performance contracting through an ESCO
transfers the technology and management
risks away from the end-user to the ESCO.
For energy users reluctant to invest in
energy efficiency, a performance contract
can be a powerful incentive to implement a
project. Performance contracting also mini-
mizes or eliminates the up-front cash outlay
required by the end-user. Payments are
made over time as the energy savings are
realized.
Figure 6.1 ESCO Role

QUESTIONS
1. Why fresh investments are needed for energy conservation in industry?
2. Name at least three selling points to top management for investing in energy efficien-
cy over other competitive projects.
3. Cost of an heat exchanger is Rs.1.00 lakhs .Calculate simple pay back period consid-
ering annual saving potential of Rs.60,000/- and annual operating cost of
Rs.15,000/- .
4. What is the main draw back of simple pay back method?
5. Calculate simple pay back period for a boiler that cost Rs.75.00 lakhs to purchase
and Rs.5 lakhs per year on an average to operate and maintain and is expected to
annually save Rs.30 lakhs.
6. What are the advantages of simple pay back method?
7. A project entails an investment for initial cost of installation and series of annual
costs and/or cost savings through out the life of project.. Recommend a suitable
financial analysis techniques and explain.
8. What do you understand by the term " present value of money"?
9. What do you understand by the term " discounting"?
10. ROI stands for
(a) return on investment (b) rotating on investment (c) realization on investment (d)
reality only investment?
11. Define ROI .
12. Investment for an energy proposal is Rs.10.00 lakhs. Annual savings for the first
three years is 150,000, 200,000 & 300,000. Considering cost of capital as 10%, what
is the net present value of the proposal?
13. What are the advantages of net present value?
14. Internal rate of return of a project is the discount rate which makes its net present
value equal to zero. Explain
15. What are the advantages of discounted cash flow method?
16. What is the main limitation of discounted cash flow method?
17. What is the objective of carrying out sensitivity analysis?
18. Name at least three financing options for energy management.
19. What is role of an ESCO?
20. What is performance contracting?
REFERENCES
1. Financial Management, Tata Mc-Graw Hill - Prasanna Chandra.

7. PROJECT MANAGEMENT
Syllabus
Definition and scope of project, Technical design, Financing, Contracting, Implementation
and performance monitoring. Implementation plan for top management, Planning Budget,
Procurement Procedures, Construction, Measurement & Verification.
7.1 Introduction
Project management is concerned with the overall planning and co-ordination of a project from
conception to completion aimed at meeting the stated requirements and ensuring completion on
time, within cost and to required quality standards.
Project management is normally reserved for focused, non-repetitive, time-limited activities
with some degree of risk and that are beyond the usual scope of operational activities for which
the organization is responsible.
7.2 Steps in Project Management

The various steps in a project management are:
1. Project Definition and Scope
2. Technical Design
3. Financing
4. Contracting
5. Implementation
6. Performance Monitoring
7.2.1 Project Definition and Scope
What is a Project?
"A project is a one-shot, time-limited, goal-directed, major undertaking, requiring the

commitment of varied skills and resources".
A project is a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product or service. A pro-
ject is temporary in that there is a defined start (the decision to proceed) and a defined end (the
achievement of the goals and objectives). Ongoing business or maintenance operations are not
projects. Energy conservation projects and process improvement efforts that result in better
business processes or more efficient operations can be defined as projects. Projects usually
include constraints and risks regarding cost, schedule or performance outcome.
Four Basic Elements of Project Management

A successful Project Manager must simultaneously manage the four basic elements of a project:

7. Project Management
resources, time, cost, and scope. Each element must be managed effectively. All these elements
are interrelated and must be managed together if the project, and the project manager, is to be
a success.
Managing Resources
A successful Project Manager must effectively manage the resources assigned to the project.
This includes the labor hours of the project team. It also includes managing labor subcontracts
and vendors. Managing the people resources means having the right people, with the right skills
and the proper tools, in the right quantity at the right time.
However, managing project resources frequently involves more than people management.
The project manager must also manage the equipment (cranes, trucks and other heavy equip-
ment) used for the project and the material (pipe, insulation, computers, manuals) assigned to
the project.
Managing Time and Schedule

Time management is a critical skill for any successful project manager. The most common
cause of bloated project budgets is lack of schedule management. Fortunately there is a lot of
software on the market today to help you manage your project schedule or timeline.
Any project can be broken down into a number of tasks that have to be performed. To pre-
pare the project schedule, the project manager has to figure out what the tasks are, how long
they will take, what resources they require, and in what order they should be done.
Managing Costs
Often a Project Manager is evaluated on his or her ability to complete a project within budget.
The costs include estimated cost, actual cost and variability. Contingency cost takes into
account influence of weather, suppliers and design allowances.
How the 80/20 Rule can help a project manager?

The 80/20 Rule means that in anything a few (20 percent) are vital and many (80 percent) are
trivial. Successful Project Managers know that 20 percent of the work (the first 10 percent and
the last 10 percent) consumes 80 percent of your time and resources.
Project Management Life Cycle

The process flow of Project management processes is shown in Figure 7.1. The various ele-
ments of project management life cycle are
a) Need identification
b) Initiation
c) Planning
d) Executing
e) Controlling
f) Closing out

Figure 7.1 Process Flow of a Project Management Process
a) Need Identification
The first step in the project development cycle is to identify components of the project. Projects
may be identified both internally and externally:
• Internal identification takes place when the energy manager identifies a package of
energy saving opportunities during the day-to-day energy management activities, or
from facility audits.
• External identification of energy savings can occur through systematic energy audits
undertaken by a reputable energy auditor or energy service company.
In screening projects, the following criteria should be used to rank-order project
opportunities.
• Cost-effectiveness of energy savings of complete package of measures (Internal rate
of return, net present value, cash flow, average payback)
• Sustainability of the savings over the life of the equipment.
• Ease of quantifying, monitoring, and verifying electricity and fuel savings.
• Availability of technology, and ease of adaptability of the technology to Indian
conditions.
• Other environmental and social cost benefits (such as reduction in local pollutants,
e.g. SOx)
b) Initiation
Initiating is the basic processes that should be performed to get the project started. This start-
ing point is critical because those who will deliver the project, those who will use the project,
and those who will have a stake in the project need to reach an agreement on its initiation.
Involving all stakeholders in the project phases generally improves the probability of satisfying
customer requirements by shared ownership of the project by the stakeholders. The success of
the project team depends upon starting with complete and accurate information, management
support, and the authorization necessary to manage the project.

c) Planning
The planning phase is considered the most important phase in project management. Project
planning defines project activities that will be performed; the products that will be produced,
and describes how these activities will be accomplished and managed. Project planning defines
each major task, estimates the time, resources and cost required, and provides a framework for
management review and control. Planning involves identifying and documenting scope, tasks,
schedules, cost, risk, quality, and staffing needs.
The result of the project planning, the project plan, will be an approved, comprehensive doc-
ument that allows a project team to begin and complete the work necessary to achieve the pro-
ject goals and objectives. The project plan will address how the project team will manage the
project elements. It will provide a high level of confidence in the organization's ability to meet
the scope, timing, cost, and quality requirements by addressing all aspects of the project.
d) Executing
Once a project moves into the execution phase, the project team and all necessary resources to
carry out the project should be in place and ready to perform project activities. The project plan
is completed and base lined by this time as well. The project team and the project manager's
focus now shifts from planning the project efforts to participating, observing, and analyzing the
work being done.
The execution phase is when the work activities of the project plan are executed, resulting
in the completion of the project deliverables and achievement of the project objective(s). This
phase brings together all of the project management disciplines, resulting in a product or ser-
vice that will meet the project deliverable requirements and the customers need. During this
phase, elements completed in the planning phase are implemented, time is expended, and
money is spent.
In short, it means coordinating and managing the project resources while executing the pro-
ject plan, performing the planned project activities, and ensuring they are completed efficient-
ly.
e) Controlling
Project Control function that involves comparing actual performance with planned performance
and taking corrective action to get the desired outcome when there are significant differences.
By monitoring and measuring progress regularly, identifying variances from plan, and taking
corrective action if required, project control ensures that project objectives are met.
f) Closing out
Project closeout is performed after all defined project objectives have been met and the cus-
tomer has formally accepted the project's deliverables and end product or, in some instances,
when a project has been cancelled or terminated early. Although, project closeout is a routine
process, it is an important one. By properly completing the project closeout, organizations can
benefit from lessons learned and information compiled. The project closeout phase is comprised
of contract closeout and administrative closure.
7.2.2 Technical Design

For a project to be taken up for investment, its proponent must present a sound technical feasi-

bility study that identifies the following components:
# The proposed new technologies, process modifications, equipment replacements and

other measures included in the project.
# Product/technology/material supply chain (e.g., locally available, imported, reliability of
supply)
# Commercial viability of the complete package of measures (internal rate of return, net
present value, cash flow, average payback).
# Any special technical complexities (installation, maintenance, repair), associated skills
required.
# Preliminary designs, including schematics, for all major equipment needed, along with
design requirements, manufacturer's name and contact details, and capital cost estimate.
# Organizational and management plan for implementation, including timetable, person-
nel requirements, staff training, project engineering, and other logistical issues.
7.2.3 Financing
When considering a new project, it should be remembered that other departments in the orga-
nization would be competing for capital for their projects. However, it is also important to real-
ize that energy efficiency is a major consideration in all types of projects, whether they are:
• Projects designed to improve energy efficiency
• Projects where energy efficiency is not the main objective, but still plays a vital role.
The funding for project is often outside the control of the project manager. However, it is impor-
tant that you understand the principles behind the provision of scarce funds.
Project funds can be obtained from either internal or external sources.
Internal sources include:
• Direct cash provision from company reserves
• From revenue budget (if payback is less than one year)
• New share capital
Funding can become an issue when energy efficiency projects have previously been given a
lower priority than other projects. It is worth remembering that while the prioritization of pro-
jects may not be under our control, the quality of the project submission is.
External sources of funds include:
• Bank loans
• Leasing arrangement
• Payment by savings i.e. A deal arranged with equipment supplier
• Energy services contract
• Private finance initiative
The availability of external funds depends on the nature of your organization. The finance
charges on the money you borrow will have a bearing on the validity of your project.
Before applying for money, discuss all the options for funding the project with your finance
managers.
It is reiterated that energy savings often add substantially to the viability of other
non-energy projects.
7.2.4 Contracting
Since a substantial portion of a project is typically executed through contracts, the proper man-
agement of contracts is critical to the successful implementation of the project. In this context,
the following should be done.
• The competence and capability of all the contractors must be ensured. One weak link can
affect the timely performance of the contract.
• Proper discipline must be enforced among contractors and suppliers by insisting that
they should develop realistic and detailed resource and time plans that are matching with
the project plan.
• Penalties may be imposed for failure to meet contractual obligations. Likewise, incen-
tives may be offered for good performance.
• Help should be extended to contractors and suppliers when they have genuine problems.
• Project authorities must retain independence to off-load contracts (partially or wholly)
to other parties where delays are anticipated.
If the project is to implemented by an outside contractor, several types of contract may be used
to undertake the installation and commissioning:
• Traditional Contract: All project specifications are provided to a contractor who pur-
chases and installs equipment at cost plus a mark-up or fixed price.
• Extended Technical Guarantee/Service: The contractor offers extended guarantees on
the performance of selected equipment and / or service/maintenance agreements.
• Extended Financing Terms: The contractor provides the option of an extended lease or
other financing vehicle in which the payment schedule can be based on the expected sav-
ings.
• Guaranteed Saving Performance Contract: All or part of savings is guaranteed by the
contractor, and all or part of the costs of equipment and/or services is paid down out of
savings as they are achieved.
• Shared Savings Performance Contract: The contractor provides the financing and is
paid an agreed fraction of actual savings as they are achieved. This payment is used to
pay down the debt costs of equipment and/or services.
7.2.5 Implementation
The main problems faced by project manager during implementation are poor monitoring of
progress, not handling risks and poor cost management.
a) Poor monitoring of progress: Project managers some times tend to spend most of their
time in planning activity and surprisingly very less time in following up whether the
implementation is following the plan. A proactive report generated by project planner
software can really help the project manager to know whether the tasks are progressing
as per the plan.
b) Not handling risks: Risks have an uncanny habit of appearing at the least expected
time. In spite of the best efforts of a project manager they are bound to happen. Risks
need immediate and focused attention. Delay in dealing with risks cause the problem to
aggravate and has negative consequences for the project.
c) Poor cost management: A project manager's success is measured by the amount of cost
optimization done for a project. Managers frequently do all the cost optimization during
the planning stages but fail to follow through during the rest of the stages of the project.
The cost graphs in the Project planner software can help a manager to get a update on
project cost overflow. The cost variance (The difference between approved cost and the
projected cost should be always in the minds of the project managers).
Project Planning Techniques

The three basic project planning techniques are Gantt chart, CPM and PERT. All monitor
progress and costs against resource budgets.
Gantt Chart
Gantt charts are also called Bar charts. The use of Gantt charts started during the industrial rev-
olution of the late 1800's. An early industrial engineer named Henry Gantt developed these
charts to improve factory efficiency.
Gantt chart is now commonly used for scheduling the tasks and tracking the progress of
energy management projects. Gantt charts are developed using bars to represent each task. The
length of the bar shows how long the task is expected to take to complete. Duration is easily
shown on Gantt charts. Sequence is not well shown on Gantt Charts (Refer Figure 7.2).
Figure 7.2 Gantt Chart
If, for example, the start of Task C depends on both Activity B and Activity E, then any delay
to Task E will also delay Task C. We just don't have enough information on the Gantt chart to
know this information.
CPM - Critical Path Method

DuPont developed a Critical Path Method (CPM) designed to address the challenge of shut-
ting down chemical plants for maintenance and then restarting the plants once the maintenance
had been completed.
Complex project, like the above example, require a series of activities, some of which must
be performed sequentially and others that can be performed in parallel with other activities. This
collection of series and parallel tasks can be modeled as a network.
CPM models the activities and events of a project as a network. Activities are shown as nodes
on the network and events that signify the beginning or ending of activities are shown as arcs
or lines between the nodes. The Figure 7.3 shows an example of a CPM network diagram:

Figure 7.3 CPM Diagram
Steps in CPM Project Planning

1. Specify the individual activities.
2. Determine the sequence of those activities.
3. Draw a network diagram.
4. Estimate the completion time for each activity.
5. Identify the critical path (longest path through the network)
6. Update the CPM diagram as the project progresses.
1. Specify the individual activities

All the activities in the project are listed. This list can be used as the basis for adding sequence
and duration information in later steps.
2. Determine the sequence of the activities

Some activities are dependent on the completion of other activities. A list of the immediate pre-
decessors of each activity is useful for constructing the CPM network diagram.
3. Draw the Network Diagram

Once the activities and their sequences have been defined, the CPM diagram can be drawn.
CPM originally was developed as an activity on node network.
4. Estimate activity completion time

The time required to complete each activity can be estimated using past experience. CPM does
not take into account variation in the completion time.
5. Identify the Critical Path

The critical path is the longest-duration path through the network. The significance of the crit-
ical path is that the activities that lie on it cannot be delayed without delaying the project.
Because of its impact on the entire project, critical path analysis is an important aspect of pro-
ject planning.
The critical path can be identified by determining the following four parameters for each activ-
ity:
• ES - earliest start time: the earliest time at which the activity can start given that its
precedent activities must be completed first.
• EF - earliest finish time, equal to the earliest start time for the activity plus the time
required to complete the activity.

• LF - latest finish time: the latest time at which the activity can be completed without
delaying the project.
• LS - latest start time, equal to the latest finish time minus the time required to complete
the activity.
The slack time for an activity is the time between its earliest and latest start time, or between its
earliest and latest finish time. Slack is the amount of time that an activity can be delayed past
its earliest start or earliest finish without delaying the project.
The critical path is the path through the project network in which none of the activities have
slack, that is, the path for which ES=LS and EF=LF for all activities in the path. A delay in the
critical path delays the project. Similarly, to accelerate the project it is necessary to reduce the
total time required for the activities in the critical path.
6. Update CPM diagram

As the project progresses, the actual task completion times will be known and the network dia-
gram can be updated to include this information. A new critical path may emerge, and structur-
al changes may be made in the network if project requirements change.
CPM Benefits
• Provides a graphical view of the project.
• Predicts the time required to complete the project.
• Shows which activities are critical to maintaining the schedule and which are not.
CPM Limitations
While CPM is easy to understand and use, it does not consider the time variations that can have
a great impact on the completion time of a complex project. CPM was developed for complex
but fairly routine projects with minimum uncertainty in the project completion times. For less
routine projects there is more uncertainty in the completion times, and this uncertainty limits its
usefulness.
PERT
The Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) is a network model that allows for ran-
domness in activity completion times. PERT was developed in the late 1950's for the U.S.
Navy's Polaris project having thousands of contractors. It has the potential to reduce both the
time and cost required to complete a project.
The Network Diagram

In a project, an activity is a task that must be performed and an event is a milestone marking the
completion of one or more activities. Before an activity can begin, all of its predecessor activi-
ties must be completed. Project network models represent activities and milestones by arcs and
nodes.
PERT is typically represented as an activity on arc network, in which the activities are rep-
resented on the lines and milestones on the nodes. The Figure 7.4 shows a simple example of a
PERT diagram.

Figure 7.4 PERT Diagram
The milestones generally are numbered so that the ending node of an activity has a higher num-
ber than the beginning node. Incrementing the numbers by 10 allows for new ones to be insert-
ed without modifying the numbering of the entire diagram. The activities in the above diagram
are labeled with letters along with the expected time required to complete the activity.
Steps in the PERT Planning Process
PERT planning involves the following steps:
1. Identify the specific activities and milestones.
2. Determine the proper sequence of the activities.
3. Construct a network diagram.
4. Estimate the time required for each activity.
5. Determine the critical path.
6. Update the PERT chart as the project progresses.
1. Identify activities and milestones

The activities are the tasks required to complete the project. The milestones are the events mark-
ing the beginning and end of one or more activities.
2. Determine activity sequence

This step may be combined with the activity identification step since the activity sequence is
known for some tasks. Other tasks may require more analysis to determine the exact order in
which they must be performed.
3. Construct the Network Diagram

Using the activity sequence information, a network diagram can be drawn showing the sequence
of the serial and parallel activities.
4. Estimate activity times

Weeks are a commonly used unit of time for activity completion, but any consistent unit of time
can be used.
A distinguishing feature of PERT is its ability to deal with uncertainty in activity comple-
tion times. For each activity, the model usually includes three time estimates:

• Optimistic time (OT) - generally the shortest time in which the activity can be complet-
ed. (This is what an inexperienced manager believes!)
• Most likely time (MT) - the completion time having the highest probability. This is dif-
ferent from expected time. Seasoned managers have an amazing way of estimating very
close to actual data from prior estimation errors.
• Pessimistic time (PT) - the longest time that an activity might require.
The expected time for each activity can be approximated using the following weighted average:
Expected time = (OT + 4 x MT+ PT) / 6
This expected time might be displayed on the network diagram.
Variance for each activity is given by:
[(PT - OT) / 6]2
5. Determine the Critical Path

The critical path is determined by adding the times for the activities in each sequence and deter-
mining the longest path in the project. The critical path determines the total time required for
the project.
If activities outside the critical path speed up or slow down (within limits), the total project
time does not change. The amount of time that a non-critical path activity can be delayed with-
out delaying the project is referred to as slack time.
If the critical path is not immediately obvious, it may be helpful to determine the following
four quantities for each activity:
• ES - Earliest Start time
• EF - Earliest Finish time
• LS - Latest Start time
• LF - Latest Finish time
These times are calculated using the expected time for the relevant activities. The ES and
EF of each activity are determined by working forward through the network and determining
the earliest time at which an activity can start and finish considering its predecessor activities.
The latest start and finish times are the latest times that an activity can start and finish with-
out delaying the project. LS and LF are found by working backward through the network. The
difference in the latest and earliest finish of each activity is that activity's slack. The critical path
then is the path through the network in which none of the activities have slack.
The variance in the project completion time can be calculated by summing the variances in
the completion times of the activities in the critical path. Given this variance, one can calculate
the probability that the project will be completed by a certain date.
Since the critical path determines the completion date of the project, the project can be
accelerated by adding the resources required to decrease the time for the activities in the criti-
cal path. Such a shortening of the project sometimes is referred to as project crashing.

6. Update as project progresses

Make adjustments in the PERT chart as the project progresses. As the project unfolds, the esti-
mated times can be replaced with actual times. In cases where there are delays, additional
resources may be needed to stay on schedule and the PERT chart may be modified to reflect the
new situation.
Benefits of PERT
PERT is useful because it provides the following information:
• Expected project completion time.
• Probability of completion before a specified date.
• The critical path activities that directly impact the completion time.
• The activities that have slack time and that can lend resources to critical path activities.
• Activities start and end dates.
Limitations of PERT
The following are some of PERT's limitations:
• The activity time estimates are somewhat subjective and depend on judgment. In cases
where there is little experience in performing an activity, the numbers may be only a
guess. In other cases, if the person or group performing the activity estimates the time
there may be bias in the estimate.
• The underestimation of the project completion time due to alternate paths becoming crit-
ical is perhaps the most serious.
7.2.6 Performance Monitoring

Once the project is completed, performance review should be done periodically to compare
actual performance with projected performance. Feedback on project is useful in several ways:
a) It helps us to know how realistic were the assumptions underlying the project
b) It provides a documented log of experience that is highly valuable in decision making in
future projects
c) It suggests corrective action to be taken in the light of actual performance
d) It helps in uncovering judgmental biases
e) It includes a desired caution among project sponsors.
Performance Indicators (PIs) are an effective way of communicating a project's benefits,
usually as part of a performance measuring and reporting process. Performance Indicators are
available for a wide range of industries and allow a measure of energy performance to be
assigned to a process against which others can be judged.
Depending on the nature of the project, savings are determined using engineering calcula-
tions, or through metering and monitoring, utility meter billing analysis, or computer simula-
tions.
Implementation Plan for Top Management

As a result of energy audit, many energy saving opportunities would emerge. These could be
classified broadly as measures with and without investment. House keeping measures and mod-
erate cost measures need no intervention from top management. However, top management
need to be appraised of these measures.

In case of projects where considerable investment are required, project manager has to rank
the list of projects based on the technical feasibility and financial analysis indicated in the pre-
vious chapter (Simple payback, IRR, ROI etc.) and submit the same to the top management for
appraisal and approval. This will help top management in allocating resources and other facili-
ties.
Planning Budget
Budget requirement varies depending upon the duration and size of the project. For projects
involving long duration with multiple tasks and procurements, resources have to be allocated
judiciously as and when required. Top management should ensure that this is done to ensure
successful completion of project.
Procurement Procedures
Having identified the material and equipment required for the project, the next step is to iden-
tify the various vendors, provide specifications, invite quotations, and carryout discussions with
select vendors. For medium to high value items, tendering process can be adopted. Tenders have
to be evaluated for technical and financial aspects. It would be desirable to have purchase man-
ager as part of energy efficiency team to facilitate smooth procurement process.
Construction
During the construction phase, plant may need to be shutdown. Careful planning is required, so
that the task is carried out without affecting the production. Project manager has to be aware of
the annual maintenance schedule, holidays, annual maintenance or any major breakdown peri-
od during which anyway plant will be shutdown. Construction activity should be carefully
supervised by energy and project manager so as to ensure quality and safety.
Measurement & Verification (M&V)

Facility energy savings are determined by comparing the energy use before and after the instal-
lation of energy conservation measures. The "before" case is called the baseline; the "after" case
is referred to as the post-installation or performance period. Proper determination of savings
includes adjusting for changes that affect energy use but that are not caused by the conservation
measures. Such adjustments may account for differences in capacity utilization, raw material
quality, product mix and other parameters, between the baseline and performance periods.
In general,
Savings = (Baseline Energy Use)adjusted - Post-Installation Energy Use
For example in a paper mill a variety of products depending on thickness (Grams per Square
meter) are made. If energy consumption is evaluated as kCals or kWh per tonne of paper the
figures could be misleading. Under these circumstances the measurement and verification sys-
tem is to be designed accounting for these variations.
Case Example
Replacing an existing boiler with an energy efficient boiler.

A. Gantt Chart
The Figure 7.5 shows a Gantt chart for a simple energy management project, i.e. Replacing an
existing boiler with an energy efficient boiler.
As already mentioned, Gantt chart is the simplest and quickest method for formal planning.
Gantt charts can be very useful in planning projects with a limited number of tasks and with few
inter-relationships. This chart typically depicts activities as horizontal lines whose length
depends on the time needed to complete the activities. These lines can be progressively over-
printed to show how much of activity has been completed.
Drawing a Gantt chart requires information on:

• The logic of the tasks;
• The duration of the tasks;
• The resources available to complete the tasks.
Figure 7.5 A Simple Gantt Chart for Boiler Replacement

B. PERT / CPM Technique:
A PERT/CPM network for Boiler Replacement (Refer Figure 7.6)

Activity on Arrow: Activity and duration of the activity are shown in arrow.
Figure 7.6
10/10: In this Numerator denotes the Earliest Event Occurrence Time and Denominator
is the Latest Event Occurrence Time.
The Critical Path for this network is:
The events on the critical path have zero slack.
Dummy activity has no duration
The total duration for the completion of the project is 110 days based on the critical path.

QUESTIONS
1. List down various steps in project management.
2. Describe briefly any of the projects you have undertaken and how was the project
managed?
3. What are the criteria for screening of projects?
4. What are the aspects you would look for in the technical design of the project?
5. What are the ways in which financing can be enabled for an energy efficiency invest-
ment?
6. What are the aspects to be considered in the management of contract?
7. Briefly explain the different types of contracts.
8. What are the hurdles faced in the implementation of a project?
9. Make a Gantt chart for your preparation of energy manager/energy auditor examina-
tion. Split into to as many components as possible.
10. In project management PERT refers to
(a) Project Energy Rating Time (b) Projected Energy Rating Terms (c) Petroleum
Energy Revolutionary Technology (d) Program Evaluation and Review Technique.
11. Explain the importance of performance monitoring.
12. Explain the need for measurement and verification.
REFERENCES
1. Principles of Project Management, NPC publication
2. Project Management, Tata M cGraw Hill – S.Choudhury
3. Projects: Planning, Analysis, Selection, Implementation and Review, Tata McGraw Hill
– S.Choudhury

8. ENERGY MONITORING AND TARGETING
Syllabus
Energy Monitoring and Targeting: Defining monitoring & targeting, Elements of mon-
itoring & targeting, Data and information-analysis, Techniques -energy consumption,
Production, Cumulative sum of differences (CUSUM).
8.1 Definition
Energy monitoring and targeting is primarily a management technique that uses energy infor-
mation as a basis to eliminate waste, reduce and control current level of energy use and improve
the existing operating procedures. It builds on the principle "you can't manage what you
don't measure". It essentially combines the principles of energy use and statistics.
While, monitoring is essentially aimed at establishing the existing pattern of energy con-
sumption, targeting is the identification of energy consumption level which is desirable as a
management goal to work towards energy conservation.
Monitoring and Targeting is a management technique in which all plant and building utili-
ties such as fuel, steam, refrigeration, compressed air, water, effluent, and electricity are man-
aged as controllable resources in the same way that raw materials, finished product inventory,
building occupancy, personnel and capital are managed. It involves a systematic, disciplined
division of the facility into Energy Cost Centers. The utilities used in each centre are closely
monitored, and the energy used is compared with production volume or any other suitable mea-
sure of operation. Once this information is available on a regular basis, targets can be set, vari-
ances can be spotted and interpreted, and remedial actions can be taken and implemented.
The Monitoring and Targeting programs have been so effective that they show typical
reductions in annual energy costs in various industrial sectors between 5 and 20%.
8.2 Elements of Monitoring & Targeting System

The essential elements of M&T system are:
• Recording -Measuring and recording energy consumption
• Analysing -Correlating energy consumption to a measured output, such as production
quantity
• Comparing -Comparing energy consumption to an appropriate standard or benchmark
• Setting Targets -Setting targets to reduce or control energy consumption
• Monitoring -Comparing energy consumption to the set target on a regular basis
• Reporting -Reporting the results including any variances from the targets which have
been set
• Controlling -Implementing management measures to correct any variances, which may
have occurred.
Particularly M&T system will involve the following:
• Checking the accuracy of energy invoices
• Allocating energy costs to specific departments (Energy Accounting Centres)

8. Energy Monitoring and Targeting
• Determining energy performance/efficiency

• Recording energy use, so that projects intended to improve energy efficiency can be
checked
• Highlighting performance problems in equipment or systems
8.3 A Rationale for Monitoring, Targeting and Reporting

The energy used by any business varies with production processes, volumes and input.
Determining the relationship of energy use to key performance indicators will allow you to
determine:
• Whether your current energy is better or worse than before
• Trends in energy consumption that reflects seasonal, weekly, and other operational para-
meters
• How much your future energy use is likely to vary if you change aspects of your busi-
ness
• Specific areas of wasted energy
• Comparison with other business with similar characteristics - This "benchmarking"
process will provide valuable indications of effectiveness of your operations as well as
energy use
• How much your business has reacted to changes in the past
• How to develop performance targets for an energy management program
Information related to energy use may be obtained from following sources:
• Plant level information can be derived from financial accounting systems-utilities cost
centre
• Plant department level information can be found in comparative energy consumption
data for a group of similar facilities, service entrance meter readings etc.
• System level (for example, boiler plant) performance data can be determined from sub-
metering data
• Equipment level information can be obtained from nameplate data, run-time and sched-
ule information, sub-metered data on specific energy consuming equipment.
The important point to be made here is that all of these data are useful and can be processed to
yield information about facility performance.
8.4 Data and Information Analysis

Electricity bills and other fuel bills should be collected periodically and analysed as below. A
typical format for monitoring plant level information is given below in the Table 8.1.

TABLE 8.1 ANNUAL ENERGY COST SHEET
Thermal Energy Bill Electricity Bill Total

Energy Bill
Month Fuel 1 Fuel 2 Fuel 3 Total Day Night Maximum Total Rs.Lakh
Rs. Lakh kWh kWh Demand Rs. Lakh
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Sub-Total
%
After obtaining the respective annual energy cost, a pie chart (see Figure 8.1) can be drawn as
shown below:
Figure 8.1 % Share of Fuels Based on Energy Bill
Pie Chart on Energy Consumption

All the fuels purchased by the plant should be converted into common units such as kCal. The
following Table 8.2 below is for that purpose.

TABLE 8.2 FUEL CONVERSION DATA
Energy source Supply unit Conversion Factor to Kcal

Electricity kWh 860
HSD kg 10,500
Furnace Oil kg 10,200
LPG kg 12,000
After conversion to a common unit, a pie chart can be drawn showing the percentage dis-
tribution of energy consumption as shown in Figure 8.2.
Figure 8.2 %Share of Fuels Based on Consumption in kCals
8.5 Relating Energy Consumption and Production.
Graphing the Data

A critical feature of M&T is to understand what drives energy consumption. Is it production,
hours of operation or weather? Knowing this, we can then start to analyse the data to see how
good our energy management is.
After collection of energy consumption, energy cost and production data, the next stage of
the monitoring process is to study and analyse the data to understand what is happening in the
plant. It is strongly recommended that the data be presented graphically. A better appreciation
of variations is almost always obtained from a visual presentation, rather than from a table of
numbers. Graphs generally provide an effective means of developing the energy-production
relationships, which explain what is going on in the plant.
Use of Bar Chart

The energy data is then entered into a spreadsheet. It is hard to envisage what is happening from
plain data, so we need to present the data using bar chart. The starting point is to collect and
collate 24/12 months of energy bills. The most common bar chart application used in energy

management is one showing the energy per month for this year and last year (see Figure 8.3) -
however, it does not tell us the full story about what is happening. We will also need produc-
tion data for the same 24/12-month period.
Having more than twelve months of production and energy data, we can plot a moving
Figure 8.3 Energy Consumption :Current Year(2000) Vs. Previous year(1999)
annual total. For this chart, each point represents the sum of the previous twelve months of
data. In this way, each point covers a full range of the seasons, holidays, etc. The Figure 8.4
shows a moving annual total for energy and production data.
Production
Energy
Figure 8.4 Moving Annual Total - Energy and Production
This technique also smoothens out errors in the timing of meter readings. If we just plot
energy we are only seeing part of the story - so we plot both energy and production on the same
chart - most likely using two y-axes. Looking at these charts, both energy and productions seem
to be "tracking" each other - this suggests there is no major cause for concern. But we will need
to watch for a deviation of the energy line to pick up early warning of waste or to confirm

whether energy efficiency measures are making an impact.

For any company, we also know that energy should directly relate to production. Knowing
this, we can calculate Specific Energy Consumption (SEC), which is energy consumption per
unit of production. So we now plot a chart of SEC (see Figure 8.5).
SEC
Figure 8.5: Monthly Specific Energy Consumption
At this point it is worth noting that the quality of your M&T system will only be as good as the
quality of your data - both energy and production. The chart shows some variation - an all time
low in December 99 followed by a rising trend in SEC.
We also know that the level of production may have an effect on the specific consumption.
If we add the production data to the SEC chart, it helps to explain some of the features. For
example, the very low SEC occurred when there was a record level of production. This indi-
cates that there might be fixed energy consumption - i.e. consumption that occurs regardless of
production levels. Refer Figure 8.6.
P
R
O
S D
E U
C
C
T
I
O
N
Figure 8.6 SEC With Production

The next step is to gain more understanding of the relationship of energy and production, and
to provide us with some basis for performance measurement. To do this we plot energy against
production - In Microsoft Excel Worksheet, this is an XY chart option. We then add a trend line
to the data set on the chart. (In practice what we have done is carried out a single variable
regression analysis!). The Figure 8.7 shown is based on the data for 1999.
Figure 8.7: Energy vs Production
We can use it to derive a "standard" for the up-coming year's consumption. This chart shows a
low degree of scatter indicative of a good fit. We need not worry if our data fit is not good. If
data fit is poor, but we know there should be a relationship, it indicates a poor level of control
and hence a potential for energy savings.
In producing the production/energy relationship chart we have also obtained a relationship
relating production and energy consumption.
Energy consumed for the period = C + M x Production for same period

Where M is the energy consumption directly related to production (variable) and C is the
"fixed" energy consumption (i.e. energy consumed for lighting, heating/cooling and general
ancillary services that are not affected by production levels). Using this, we can calculate the
expected or "standard" energy consumption for any level of production within the range of the
data set.
We now have the basis for implementing a factory level M&T system. We can predict stan-
dard consumption, and also set targets - for example, standard less 5%. A more sophisticated
approach might be applying different reductions to the fixed and variable energy consumption.
Although, the above approach is at factory level, the same can be extended to individual
processes as well with sub metering.
At a simplistic level we could use the chart above and plot each new month's point to see
where it lies. Above the line is the regime of poor energy efficiency, and below the line is the
regime of an improved one.

8.6 CUSUM
Cumulative Sum (CUSUM) represents the difference between the base line (expected or stan-
dard consumption) and the actual consumption points over the base line period of time.
This useful technique not only provides a trend line, it also calculates savings/losses to date and
shows when the performance changes.
A typical CUSUM graph follows a trend and shows the random fluctuation of energy con-
sumption and should oscillate around zero (standard or expected consumption). This trend will
continue until something happens to alter the pattern of consumption such as the effect of an
energy saving measure or, conversely, a worsening in energy efficiency (poor control, house-
keeping or maintenance).
Figure 8.8 CUSUM Chart
CUSUM chart (see Figure 8.8) for a generic company is shown. The CUSUM chart shows what
is really happening to the energy performance. The formula derived from the 1999 data was
used to calculate the expected or standard energy consumption.
From the chart, it can be seen that starting from year 2000, performance is better than stan-
dard. Performance then declined (line going up) until April, and then it started to improve until
July. However, from July onwards, there is a marked, ongoing decline in performance - line
going up.
When looking at CUSUM chart, the changes in direction of the line indicate events that
have relevance to the energy consumption pattern. Clearly, site knowledge is needed to inter-
pret better what they are. For this sample company since we know that there were no planned
changes in the energy system, the change in performance can be attributed to poor control,
housekeeping or maintenance.

8.7 Case Study
The CUSUM Technique

Energy consumption and production data were collected for a plant over a period of 18 months.
During month 9, a heat recovery system was installed. Using the plant monthly data, estimate
the savings made with the heat recovery system. The plant data is given in Table 8.3:
TABLE 8.3 MONTH WISE PRODUCTION WITH ENERGY CONSUMPTION
Month Eact - Monthly Energy Use P - Monthly Production

( toe * / month) ( tonnes / month)
1 340 380
2 340 440
3 380 460
4 380 520
5 300 320
6 400 520
7 280 240
8 424 620
9 420 600
10 400 560
11 360 440
12 320 360
13 340 420
14 372 480
15 380 540
16 280 280
17 280 260
18 380 500
* toe = tonnes of oil equivalent.
Steps for CUSUM analysis

1. Plot the Energy - Production graph for the first 9 months
2. Draw the best fit straight line
3. Derive the equation of the line
The above steps are completed in Figure 8.9, the equation derived is E = 0.4 P + 180

4. Calculate the expected energy consumption based on the equation

5. Calculate the difference between actual and calculated energy use
6. Compute CUSUM
TABLE 8.4 CUSUM
Month Eact P Ecalc Eact – Ecalc CUSUM

(0.4 P + 180) (Cumulative Sum)
1 340 380 332 +8 +8
2 340 440 356 -16 -8
3 380 460 364 +16 +8
4 380 520 388 -8 0
5 300 320 308 -8 -8
6 400 520 388 +2 -6
7 280 240 276 +4 -2
8 424 620 428 -4 -6
9 420 600 420 0 -6
10 400 560 404 4 -10
11 360 440 356 +4 -6
12 320 360 324 -4 -10
13 340 420 348 -8 -18
14 372 480 372 0 -18
15 380 540 396 -16 -34
16 280 280 292 -12 -46
17 280 260 284 -4 -50
18 380 500 380 0 -50
Eact- Actual Energy consumption Ecalc - Calculated energy consumption

These steps are shown in the Table 8.4.
7. Plot the CUSUM graph
8. Estimate the savings accumulated from use of the heat recovery system.
From the Figure 8.10, it can be seen that the CUSUM graph oscillates around the zero line for
several months and then drops sharply after month 11. This suggests that the heat recovery sys-
tem took almost two months to commission and reach proper operating conditions, after which
steady savings have been achieved. Based on the graph 8.10 (see Table 8.4), savings of 44 toe
(50-6) have been accumulated in the last 7 months. This represents savings of almost 2% of
energy consumption.
44
· 100 = 1.8%
2352#

Figure 8.9 Energy Production Graph
#Eact for the last 7 months (from month 12 to month 18 in Table 8.4)
Figure 8.10 Example CUSUM Graph
CUSUM chart for last 18 months is shown in Figure 8.10.

The CUSUM technique is a simple but remarkably powerful statistical method, which high-
lights small differences in energy efficiency performances. Regular use of the procedure allows
the Energy Manager to follow plant performance and spot any trends early.

QUESTIONS
1. What is the difference between monitoring and targeting?
2. Explain briefly the essential elements of a monitoring and targeting system.
3. What are the benefits of a monitoring and targeting system?
4. What do you understand by the term "benchmarking" and list few benefits?
5. Explain the difference between internal and external benchmarking.
6. Explain how a CUSUM chart is drawn with an example.
7. Narrate the type of energy monitoring and targeting systems in your industry.
REFERENCES
1. Energy conservation – The Indian experience, Department of Power & NPC Publication
2. Energy Audit Reports of National Productivity Council
3. Cleaner Production – Energy Efficiency Manual prepared for GERIAP, UNEP,
BANGKOK by National Productivity Council

9. GLOBAL ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
Syllabus
Global Environmental Concerns: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCC), Kyoto Protocol, Conference of Parties (COP), Clean Development
Mechanism (CDM), Prototype Carbon Fund (PCF), Sustainable Development,
9.1 Global Environmental Issues

As early as 1896, the Swedish scientist Svante Arrhenius had predicted that human activities
would interfere with the way the sun interacts with the earth, resulting in global warming and
climate change. His prediction has become true and climate change is now disrupting global
environmental stability. The last few decades have seen many treaties, conventions, and proto-
cols for the cause of global environmental protection.
Few examples of environmental issues of global significance are:
• Ozone layer depletion
• Global warming
• Loss of biodiversity
One of the most important characteris-
tics of this environmental degradation is that
it affects all mankind on a global scale with-
out regard to any particular country, region,
or race. The whole world is a stakeholder
and this raises issues on who should do what
to combat environmental degradation.
9.2 Ozone Layer Depletion

Earth's atmosphere is divided into three
regions, namely troposphere, stratosphere
and mesosphere (see Figure 9.1). The
stratosphere extends from 10 to 50 kms from
the Earth's surface. This region is concen-
trated with slightly pungent smelling, light
bluish ozone gas. The ozone gas is made up
of molecules each containing three atoms of
oxygen; its chemical formula is O3. The
ozone layer, in the stratosphere acts as an
efficient filter for harmful solar Ultraviolet B
(UV-B) rays
Ozone is produced and destroyed natu-
rally in the atmosphere and until recently, Figure 9.1: Ozone Layer
this resulted in a well-balanced equilibrium
9. Global Environmental Concerns
(see Figure 9.2). Ozone is formed

when oxygen molecules absorb ultra-
violet radiation with wavelengths less
than 240 nanometres and is destroyed
when it absorbs ultraviolet radiation
with wavelengths greater than 290
nanometres. In recent years, scientists
have measured a seasonal thinning of
the ozone layer primarily at the South
Figure 9.2 Ozone Production and Destruction Process Pole. This phenomenon is being called
the ozone hole.
9.2.1 Ozone Depletion Process

Ozone is highly reactive and easily broken down by man-made chlorine and bromine com-
pounds. These compounds are found to be most responsible for most of ozone layer depletion.
The ozone depletion process begins when CFCs (used in refrigerator and air conditioners)
and other ozone-depleting substances (ODS) are emitted into the atmosphere. Winds efficient-
ly mix and evenly distribute the ODS in the troposphere. These ODS compounds do not dis-
solve in rain, are extremely stable, and have a long life span. After several years, they reach the
stratosphere by diffusion.
Strong UV light breaks apart the ODS molecules. CFCs, HCFCs, carbon tetrachloride,
methyl chloroform release chlorine atoms, and halons and methyl bromide release bromine
atoms. It is the chlorine and bromine atom that actually destroys ozone, not the intact ODS mol-
ecule. It is estimated that one chlorine atom can destroy from 10,000 to 100,000 ozone mole-
cules before it is finally removed from the stratosphere.
Chemistry of Ozone Depletion

When ultraviolet light waves (UV) strike CFC* (CFCl3) molecules in the upper atmosphere, a
carbon-chlorine bond breaks, producing a chlorine (Cl) atom. The chlorine atom then reacts
with an ozone (O3) molecule breaking it apart and so destroying the ozone. This forms an ordi-
nary oxygen molecule (O2) and a chlorine monoxide (ClO) molecule. Then a free oxygen**
atom breaks up the chlorine monoxide. The chlorine is free to repeat the process of destroying
more ozone molecules. A single CFC molecule can destroy 100,000 ozone molecules. The
chemistry of ozone depletion process is shown in Figure 9.3.
* CFC - chlorofluorocarbon: it contains chlorine, fluorine and carbon atoms.
** UV radiation breaks oxygen molecules (O2) into single oxygen atoms.

Figure 9.3 Chemistry of Ozone Depletion Process
Chemical equation is
CFCl3 + UV Light ==> CFCl2 + Cl
Cl + O3 ==> ClO + O2
ClO + O ==> Cl + O2
The free chlorine atom is then free to attack another ozone molecule
Cl + O3 ==> ClO + O2
ClO + O ==> Cl + O2
and again ...
Cl + O3 ==> ClO + O2
ClO + O ==> Cl + O2
and again... for thousands of times.
Scientist measure ozone layer thickness by measuring how much ultraviolet radiation reach-
es the ground, using a Dobson ozone spectrophotometer. Ozone layer thickness is measured in
Dobson units. The higher the number, the thicker the ozone layer. Since the 1970s, gases pro-
duced for commercial purposes have been destroying the ozone layer, upsetting the natural
equilibrium that existed. It is planned that by 2005 in developed countries and by 2015 in devel-
oping countries, the use of ozone depleting gases, such as CFCs, will be phased out.
9.2.2 Effects of Ozone Layer Depletion

Effects on Human and Animal Health: Increased penetration of solar UV-B radiation is like-
ly to have high impact on human health with potential risks of eye diseases, skin cancer and
infectious diseases.
Effects on Terrestrial Plants: In forests and grasslands, increased radiation is likely to change
species composition thus altering the bio-diversity in different ecosystems. It could also affect
the plant community indirectly resulting in changes in plant form, secondary metabolism, etc.
Effects on Aquatic Ecosystems: High levels of radiation exposure in tropics and subtropics

may affect the distribution of phytoplanktons, which form the foundation of aquatic food webs.
It can also cause damage to early development stages of fish, shrimp, crab, amphibians and
other animals, the most severe effects being decreased reproductive capacity and impaired lar-
val development.
Effects on Bio-geo-chemical Cycles: Increased solar UV radiation could affect terrestrial and
aquatic bio-geo-chemical cycles thus altering both sources and sinks of greenhouse and impor-
tant trace gases, e.g. carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), carbonyl sulfide (COS), etc.
These changes would contribute to biosphere-atmosphere feedbacks responsible for the atmos-
phere build-up of these greenhouse gases.
Effects on Air Quality: Reduction of stratospheric ozone and increased penetration of UV-B
radiation result in higher photo dissociation rates of key trace gases that control the chemical
reactivity of the troposphere. This can increase both production and destruction of ozone and
related oxidants such as hydrogen peroxide, which are known to have adverse effects on human
health, terrestrial plants and outdoor materials.
The ozone layer, therefore, is highly beneficial to plant and animal life on earth filtering out the
dangerous part of sun's radiation and allowing only the beneficial part to reach earth. Any dis-
turbance or depletion of this layer would result in an increase of harmful radiation reaching the
earth's surface leading to dangerous consequences.
9.2.3 Ozone Depletion Counter Measures

- International cooperation, agreement (Montreal Protocol) to phase out ozone depleting
chemicals since 1974
- Tax imposed for ozone depleting substances
- Ozone friendly substitutes- HCFC (less ozone depleting potential and shorter life)
- Recycle of CFCs and Halons
9.3 Global Warming

Before the Industrial Revolution, human activities released very few gases into the atmosphere
and all climate changes happened naturally. After the Industrial Revolution, through fossil fuel
combustion, changing agricultural practices and deforestation, the natural composition of gases
in the atmosphere is getting affected and climate and environment began to alter significantly.
Over the last 100 years, it was found out that the earth is getting warmer and warmer, unlike
previous 8000 years when temperatures have been relatively constant. The present temperature
is 0.3 - 0.6 °C warmer than it was 100 years ago.
The key greenhouse gases (GHG) causing global warming is carbon dioxide. CFC's, even
though they exist in very small quantities, are significant contributors to global warming.
Carbon dioxide, one of the most prevalent greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, has two major
anthropogenic (human-caused) sources: the combustion of fossil fuels and changes in land use.
Net releases of carbon dioxide from these two sources are believed to be contributing to the
rapid rise in atmospheric concentrations since Industrial Revolution. Because estimates indicate
that approximately 80 percent of all anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions currently come
from fossil fuel combustion, world energy use has emerged at the center of the climate change
debate.

9.3.1 Sources of Greenhouse Gases

Some greenhouse gases occur naturally in the atmos-
phere, while others result from human activities.
Naturally occurring greenhouse gases include water
vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and
ozone (refer Figure 9.4). Certain human activities, how-
ever, add to the levels of most of these naturally occur-
ring gases.
Carbon dioxide is released to the atmosphere when
solid waste, fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, and coal), and
wood and wood products are burned. Figure 9.4 %Share of Greenhouse Gases
Methane is emitted during the production and transport of coal, natural gas, and oil.
Methane emissions also result from the decomposition of organic wastes in municipal solid
waste landfills, and the raising of livestock. Nitrous oxide is emitted during agricultural and
industrial activities, as well as during combustion of solid waste and fossil fuels.
Very powerful greenhouse gases that are not naturally occurring include hydrofluorocarbons
(HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), which are generated in a vari-
ety of industrial processes.
Often, estimates of greenhouse gas emissions are presented in units of millions of metric
tons of carbon equivalents (MMTCE), which weights each gas by its Global Warming Potential
or GWP value.
9.3.2 Global Warming Potentials

Although there are a number of ways of measuring the strength of different greenhouse gases
in the atmosphere, the Global Warming Potential (GWP) is perhaps the most useful.
GWPs measure the influence greenhouse gases have on the natural greenhouse effect,
including the ability of greenhouse gas molecules to absorb or trap heat and the length of time,
greenhouse gas molecules remain in the atmosphere before being removed or broken down. In
this way, the contribution that each greenhouse gas has towards global warming can be
assessed.
Each greenhouse gas differs in its ability to absorb heat in the atmosphere. HFCs and PFCs
are the most heat-absorbent. Methane traps over 21 times more heat per molecule than carbon
dioxide, and nitrous oxide absorbs 270 times more heat per molecule than carbon dioxide.
Conventionally, the GWP of carbon dioxide, measured across all time horizons, is 1. The GWPs
of other greenhouse gases are then measured relative to the GWP of carbon dioxide. Thus GWP
of methane is 21 while GWP of nitrous oxide is 270.
Other greenhouse gases have much higher GWPs than carbon dioxide, but because their
concentration in the atmosphere is much lower, carbon dioxide is still the most important green-
house gas, contributing about 60% to the enhancement of the greenhouse effect.
9.3.3 Global Warming (Climate Change) Implications

Rise in global temperature
Observations show that global temperatures have risen by about 0.6 °C over the 20th century.
There is strong evidence now that most of the observed warming over the last 50 years is caused
by human activities. Climate models predict that the global temperature will rise by about 6 °C

by the year 2100.
Rise in sea level

In general, the faster the climate change, the greater will be the risk of damage. The mean sea
level is expected to rise 9 - 88 cm by the year 2100, causing flooding of low lying areas and
other damages.
Food shortages and hunger

Water resources will be affected as precipitation and evaporation patterns change around the
world. This will affect agricultural output. Food security is likely to be threatened and some
regions are likely to experience food shortages and hunger.
India could be more at risks than many other countries

Models predict an average increase in temperature in India of 2.3 to 4.8°C for the benchmark
doubling of Carbon-dioxide scenario. Temperature would rise more in Northern India than in
Southern India. It is estimated that 7 million people would be displaced, 5700 km2 of land and
4200 km of road would be lost, and wheat yields could decrease significantly.
9.4 Loss of Biodiversity

Biodiversity refers to the variety of life on earth, and its biological diversity. The number of
species of plants, animals, micro organisms, the enormous diversity of genes in these species,
the different ecosystems on the planet, such as deserts, rainforests and coral reefs are all a part
of a biologically diverse earth. Biodiversity actually boosts ecosystem productivity where each
species, no matter how small, all have an important role to play and that it is in this combina-
tion that enables the ecosystem to possess the ability to prevent and recover from a variety of
disasters.
It is now believed that human activity is changing biodiversity and causing massive extinc-
tions. The World Resource Institute reports that there is a link between biodiversity and climate
change. Rapid global warming can affect ecosystems chances to adapt naturally. Over the past
150 years, deforestation has contributed an estimated 30 percent of the atmospheric build-up of
CO2. It is also a significant driving force behind the loss of genes, species, and critical ecosys-
tem services.
Link between Biodiversity and Climate change

• Climate change is affecting species already threatened by multiple threats across the
globe. Habitat fragmentation due to colonization, logging, agriculture and mining etc.
are all contributing to further destruction of terrestrial habitats.
• Individual species may not be able to adapt. Species most threatened by climate change
have small ranges, low population densities, restricted habitat requirements and patchy
distribution.
• Ecosystems will generally shift northward or upward in altitude, but in some cases they
will run out of space - as 1°C change in temperature correspond to a 100 Km change in
latitude, hence, average shift in habitat conditions by the year 2100 will be on the order
of 140 to 580 Km.

• Coral reef mortality may increase and erosion may be accelerated. Increase level of car-
bon dioxide adversely impact the coral building process (calcification).
• Sea level may rise, engulfing low-lying areas causing disappearance of many islands,
and extinctions of endemic island species.
• Invasive species may be aided by climate change. Exotic species can out-compete native
wildlife for space, food, water and other resources, and may also prey on native wildlife.
• Droughts and wildfires may increase. An increased risk of wildfires due to warming and
drying out of vegetation is likely.
• Sustained climate change may change the competitive balance among species and might
lead to forests destruction
9.5 Climatic Change Problem and Response
9.5.1 The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, UNFCCC

In June 1992, the "United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change" (UNFCCC) was
signed in Rio de Janeiro by over 150 nations. The climate convention is the base for interna-
tional co-operation within the climate change area. In the convention the climate problem's seri-
ousness is stressed. There is a concern that human activities are enhancing the natural green-
house effect, which can have serious consequences on human settlements and ecosystems.
The convention's overall objective is the stabilisation of greenhouse gas concentrations in
the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the cli-
mate system."
The principle commitment applying to parties of the convention is the adoption of policies
and measures on the mitigation of climate change, by limiting anthropogenic emissions of
greenhouse gases and protecting and enhancing greenhouse gas sinks and reservoirs. The com-
mitment includes the preparation and communication of national inventories of greenhouse
gases. The Climate convention does not have any quantitative targets or timetables for individ-
ual nations. However, the overall objective can be interpreted as stabilization of emissions of
greenhouse gases by year 2000 at 1990 levels.
The deciding body of the climate convention is the Conference of Parties (COP). At the
COP meetings, obligations made by the parties are examined and the objectives and imple-
mentation of the climate convention are further defined and developed. The first COP was held
in Berlin, Germany in 1995 and the latest (COP 10) was held in December 2004, Buenos Aires,
Argentina.
9.5.2 The Kyoto Protocol

There is a scientific consensus that human activities are causing global warming that could
result in significant impacts such as sea level rise, changes in weather patterns and adverse
health effects. As it became apparent that major nations such as the United States and Japan
would not meet the voluntary stabilization target by 2000, Parties to the Convention decided in
1995 to enter into negotiations on a protocol to establish legally binding limitations or reduc-
tions in greenhouse gas emissions. It was decided by the Parties that this round of negotiations
would establish limitations only for the developed countries, including the former Communist
countries (called annex A countries).

Negotiations on the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC) were completed December 11, 1997, committing the industrialized nations
to specify, legally binding reductions in emissions of six greenhouse gases. The 6 major green-
house gases covered by the protocol are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide
(N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6).
Emissions Reductions
The United States would be obligated under the Protocol to a cumulative reduction in its green-
house gas emissions of 7% below 1990 levels for three greenhouse gases (including carbon
dioxide), and below 1995 levels for the three man-made gases, averaged over the commitment
period 2008 to 2012.
The Protocol states that developed countries are committed, individually or jointly, to ensur-
ing that their aggregate anthropogenic carbon dioxide equivalent emissions of greenhouse gases
do not exceed amounts assigned to each country with a view to reducing their overall emissions
of such gases by at least 5% below 1990 levels in the commitment period 2008 to 2012.
The amounts for each country are listed as percentages of the base year, 1990 and range from
92% (a reduction of 8%) for most European countries--to 110% (an increase of 10%) for
Iceland.
Developing Country Responsibilities

Another problematic area is that the treaty is ambiguous regarding the extent to which devel-
oping nations will participate in the effort to limit global emissions. The original 1992 climate
treaty made it clear that, while the developed nations most responsible for the current buildup
of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere should take the lead in combating climate change, devel-
oping nations also have a role to play in protecting the global climate. Per Capita CO2 emissions
are small in developing countries and developed nations have altered the atmosphere the most
as shown in the Figure 9.5 & Figure 9.6.
Figure 9.5 Per Capita CO2 Emissions for the 15 Figure 9.6 Cumulative Carbon-Dioxide Emissions,
Countries With the Highest Total Industrial 1950-95
Emissions, 1995

Developing countries, including India and China, do not have to commit to reductions in this
first time period because their per-capita emissions are much lower than those of developed
countries, and their economies are less able to absorb the initial costs of changing to cleaner
fuels. They have not contributed significantly to today's levels of pollution that has been the
product of the developed world's Industrial Revolution. The idea is that developing countries
will be brought more actively into the agreement as new energy technologies develops and as
they industrialize further.
Annex I and Annex II Parties

Annex I parties are countries which have commitments according to the Kyoto protocol. The
entire Annex I parties are listed in the Table 9.1 below. Further Annex I parties shown in bold
are also called Annex II parties. These Annex II parties have a special obligation to provide
"new and additional financial sources" to developing countries (non Annex I) to help them tack-
le climate change, as well as to facilitate the transfer of climate friendly technologies to both
developing countries and to economies in transition. Commitments are presented as percentage
of base year emission levels to be achieved during between 2008 - 2012.

Base year is 1990 for all countries except those economies in transition, who may chose an
alternative base year or multi-year period.
Actions required from developed and developing Nations

The Kyoto Protocol does call on all Parties (developed and developing) to take a number of
steps to formulate national and regional programs to improve "local emission factors," activity
data, models, and national inventories of greenhouse gas emissions and sinks that remove these
gases from the atmosphere. All Parties are also committed to formulate, publish, and update cli-
mate change mitigation and adaptation measures, and to cooperate in promotion and transfer of
environmentally sound technologies and in scientific and technical research on the climate sys-
tem.
Who is bound by the Kyoto Protocol?

The Kyoto Protocol has to be signed and ratified by 55 countries (including those responsible
for at least 55% of the developed world's 1990 carbon dioxide emissions) before it can enter
into force. Now that Russia has ratified, this been achieved and the Protocol will enter into force
on 16 February 2005.
9.5.3 India's Greenhouse Gas Emissions

India has experienced a dramatic growth in fossil fuel CO2 emissions, and the data compiled by
various agencies shows an increase of nearly 5.9 % since 1950. At present India is rated as the
6th largest contributor of CO2 emissions behind China, the 2nd largest contributor. However, our
per capita CO2 of 0.93 tons per annum is well below the world average of 3.87 tons per annum.
Fossil fuel emissions in India continue to result largely from coal burning. India is highly vul-
nerable to climate change as its economy is heavily reliant on climate sensitive sectors like agri-
culture and forestry. The vast low-lying and densely populated coastline is susceptible to rise in
sea level.
The energy sector is the largest contributor of carbon dioxide emissions in India. The
national inventory of greenhouse gases indicates that 55% of the total national emissions come
from energy sector. These include emissions from road transport, burning of traditional bio-
mass fuels, coal mining, and fugitive emissions from oil and natural gas.
Agriculture sector constitutes the next major contributor, accounting for nearly 34%. The
emissions under this sector include those from enteric fermentation in domestic animals,
manure management, rice cultivation, and burning of agriculture residues. Emissions from
Industrial sector mainly came from cement production.
Indian Response to Climatic Change

Under the UNFCCC, developing countries such as India do not have binding GHG mitigation
commitments in recognition of their small contribution to the greenhouse problem as well as
low financial and technical capacities. The Ministry of Environment and Forests is the nodal
agency for climate change issues in India. It has constituted Working Groups on the UNFCCC
and Kyoto Protocol. Work is currently in progress on India's initial National Communication
(NATCOM) to the UNFCCC. India ratified the Kyoto Protocol in 2002

9.6 The Conference of the Parties (COP)

The Conference of the Parties is the supreme body of the Climate Change Convention. The vast
majority of the world's countries are members (185 as of July 2001). The Convention enters into
force for a country 90 days after that country ratifies it. The COP held its first session in 1995
and will continue to meet annually unless decided otherwise. However, various subsidiary bod-
ies that advise and support the COP meet more frequently.
The Convention states that the COP must periodically examine the obligations of the Parties
and the institutional arrangements under the Convention. It should do this in light of the
Convention's objective, the experience gained in its implementation, and the current state of sci-
entific knowledge.
Exchange of Information
The COP assesses information about policies and emissions that the Parties share with each
other through their national communications. It also promotes and guides the development and
periodic refinement of comparable methodologies, which are needed for quantifying net green-
house gas emissions and evaluating the effectiveness of measures to limit them. Based on the
information available, the COP assesses the Parties efforts to meet their treaty commitments and
adopts and publishes regular reports on the Convention's implementation.
Support for Developing countries

Developing countries need support so that they can submit their national communications, adapt
to the adverse effects of climate change, and obtain environmentally sound technologies. The
COP therefore oversees the provision of new and additional resources by developed countries.
The third session of the Conference of the Parties adopted the Kyoto Protocol.
9.6.1 The Flexible Mechanisms

The Kyoto protocol gives the Annex I countries the option to fulfill a part of their commitments
through three "flexible mechanisms". Through these mechanisms, a country can fulfill a part of
their emissions reductions in another country or buy emission allowances from another coun-
try. There are three flexible mechanisms:
i. Emissions trading
ii. Joint implementation
iii. Clean development mechanism
i) Emissions trading
Article 17 of the Kyoto protocol opens up for emissions trading between countries that have
made commitments to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The countries have the option to del-
egate this right of emissions trading to companies or other organisations.
In a system for emissions trading, the total amount of emissions permitted is pre-defined.
The corresponding emissions allowances are then issued to the emitting installations through
auction or issued freely. Through trading, installations with low costs for reductions are stimu-
lated to make reductions and sell their surplus of emissions allowances to organisations where
reductions are more expensive. Both the selling and buying company wins on this flexibility
that trade offers with positive effects on economy, resource efficiency and climate. The envi-

ronmental advantage is that one knows, in advance, the amount of greenhouse gases that will
be emitted. The economical advantage is that the reductions are done where the reduction costs
are the lowest. The system allows for a cost effective way to reach a pre-defined target and stim-
ulates environmental technology development.
ii) Joint Implementation, JI

Under article 6 of the Kyoto protocol an Annex I country that has made a commitment for
reducing greenhouse gases, can offer to, or obtain from another Annex I country greenhouse gas
emissions reductions. These emissions reductions shall come from projects with the objectives
to reduce anthropogenic emissions from sources or increase the anthropogenic uptake in sinks.
In order to be accepted as JI-projects, the projects have to be accepted by both parties in
advance. It also has to be proven that the projects will lead to emissions reductions that are high-
er than what otherwise would have been obtained. JI-projects are an instrument for one indus-
trial country to invest in another industrial country and in return obtain emissions reductions.
These reductions can be used to help fulfill their own reduction commitments at a lower cost
than if they had to do the reductions in their own country.
iii) Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)

Article 12 of the Kyoto protocol defines the Clean Development Mechanism, CDM. The pur-
pose of CDM is to:
a) contribute to sustainable development in developing countries;
b) help Annex I-countries under the Kyoto Protocol to meet their target.
With the help of CDM, countries which have set themselves an emission reduction target
under the Kyoto Protocol (Annex I countries) can contribute to the financing of projects in
developing countries (non-Annex I countries) which do not have a reduction target. These pro-
jects should reduce the emission of greenhouse gases while contributing to the sustainable
development of the host country involved. The achieved emission reductions can be purchased
by the Annex I country in order to meet its reduction target.
In order to be accepted as CDM-projects, the projects have to be accepted by both parties
in advance. It also has to be proven that the projects will lead to emissions reductions that are
higher than what otherwise would have been obtained. The difference between JI-projects and
CDM-projects is that JI-projects are done between countries that both have commitments, while
the CDM-projects is between one country that has commitments and another country that does
not have commitments. Emissions reductions that have been done through CDM-projects dur-
ing the period 2000 to 2007, can be used for fulfilling commitments in Annex I countries for
the period 2008-2012.
How CDM works?

An investor from a developed country, can invest in, or provide finance for a project in a devel-
oping country that reduces greenhouse gas emissions so that they are lower than they would
have been without the extra investment - i.e. compared to what would have happened without
the CDM under a business as usual outcome. The investor then gets credits - carbon credits -
for the reductions and can use those credits to meet their Kyoto target. If the CDM works per-
fectly it will not result in more or less emission reductions being achieved than were agreed
under the Kyoto Protocol, it will simply change the location in which some of the reductions

will happen.
For example, a French company needs to reduce its emissions as part of its contribution to
meeting France's emission reduction target under the Kyoto Protocol. Instead of reducing emis-
sions from its own activities in France, the company provides funding for the construction of a
new biomass plant in India that would not have been able to go ahead without this investment.
This, they argue, prevents the construction of new fossil-fueled plants in India, or displaces con-
sumption of electricity from existing ones, leading to a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions
in India. The French investor gets credit for those reductions and can use them to help meet their
reduction target in France.
Requirements for Participating in CDM
Project cycle for CDM

The project cycle for CDM is shown in Figure 9.7. There are seven basic stages; the first four
stages are performed prior to the implementation of the project, while the last three stages are
performed during the lifetime of the project.
Fig 9.7 Project Cycle for CDM

While investors profit from CDM projects by obtaining reductions at costs lower than in their
own countries, the gains to the developing country host parties are in the form of finance, tech-
nology, and sustainable development benefits.
Projects starting in the year 2000 are eligible to earn Certified Emission Reductions (CERs)
if they lead to "real, measurable, and long-term" GHG reductions, which are additional to any
that would occur in the absence of the CDM project. This includes afforestation and reforesta-
tion projects, which lead to the sequestration of carbon dioxide.
At COP-7, it was decided that the following types of projects would qualify for fast-track
approval procedures:
- Renewable energy projects with output capacity up to 15 MW
- Energy efficiency improvement projects which reduce energy consumption on the sup-
ply and/or demand side by up to 15 GWh annually
- Other project activities that both reduce emissions by sources and directly emit less than
15 kilotons CO2 equivalent annually.
The CDM will be supervised by an executive board, and a share of the proceeds from pro-
ject activities will be used to assist developing countries in meeting the costs of adaptation to
climate change.
Indian Initiatives on CDM
Government of India has been willing to fulfill its responsibility under the CDM. It has devel-
oped an interim criterion for approval of CDM project activities, which is now available to
stakeholders. It has undertaken various capacity building activities like holding of workshops,
initiation of various studies, and briefing meeting with the stakeholders. India has been active-
ly participating in the CDM regime and has already approved projects for further development.
Under CDM, projects such as energy efficient hydrocarbon refrigerators, modernization of
small scale foundry units and renovation, modernization of thermal power stations etc. are being
taken up.
Case Example
In a power plant renovation and modernization programme by replacing plant equipment which
are prone to wear and tear over a period of time, such as boilers and auxiliaries, turbine blades,
HP governor valves and station auxiliaries which include material handling equipment, water
treatment, pulverisers, ash handling plant, ESP etc resulted in CO2 emission reduction from
1.20 kg/kWh to 1.11 kg/kWh. The details are shown in the Table 9.2:
TABLE 9.2 EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT AND EMISSION REDUCTION

IN A POWER PLANT MODERNISATION PROGRAMME.
Parameters Before the programme After the programme

Gross heat rate (kcal/KWh) 2700 2500
Net efficiency (%) 28 30
Specific coal consumption 0.77 0.71
Total CO2 emissions (tones/year) 1435336 1329015
CO2 emissions (kg/ kWh) 1.20 1.11

9.7 Prototype Carbon Fund (PCF)

Recognizing that global warming will have the most impact on its borrowing client countries,
the World Bank approved the establishment of the Prototype Carbon Fund (PCF). The PCF is
intended to invest in projects that will produce high quality greenhouse gas emission reductions
that could be registered with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) for the purposes of the Kyoto Protocol. To increase the likelihood that the reduc-
tions will be recognized by the Parties to the UNFCCC, independent experts will follow vali-
dation, verification and certification procedures that respond to UNFCCC rules as they develop.
The PCF will pilot production of emission reductions within the framework of Joint
Implementation (JI) and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). The PCF will invest con-
tributions made by companies and governments in projects designed to produce emission reduc-
tions fully consistent with the Kyoto Protocol and the emerging framework for JI and the CDM.
Contributors, or "Participants" in the PCF, will receive a pro rata share of the emission reduc-
tions, verified and certified in accordance with agreements reached with the respective countries
"hosting" the projects.
9.7.1 Size of Market for Emissions Reductions

• All estimates of market volume are speculative at this early stage in the market's devel-
opment.
• One way of looking at the potential size of the market is to assume that about one bil-
lion tonnes of carbon emissions must be reduced per year during the commitment peri-
od of 2008-2012 in order for the industrialized countries to meet their obligations of a
5% reduction in their 1990 levels of emissions.
Under Prototype carbon fund programme of the World Bank. Government of India has
approved a municipal solid waste energy project for implementation in Chennai, which pro-
poses to use the state of art technology for extracting energy from any solid waste irrespective
of the energy content. Many industrial organisations in the private sector have also sought assis-
tance under this fund.
9.8 Sustainable Development
9.8.1 What is Sustainable Development?

Sustainable development is often defined as 'development that meets the needs of the present,
without compromising the ability of future gener-
ations to meet their own needs'.
Sustainable development encompasses three basic
and inter-related objectives:
• Economic security and prosperity
• Social development and advancement
• Environmental sustainability
Sustainable development demands that we seek
ways of living, working and being that enable all
people of the world to lead healthy, fulfilling, and
Figure 9.8 Sustainable Development

economically secure lives without destroying the environment and without endangering the
future welfare of people and the planet.
Sustainable development as applied to energy and environment should consider the following:
• inputs - such as fuels and energy sources, land and raw materials - are non-renewable
they should be used up only as far as they can be substituted in future
• where they are renewable they should be used up at a rate within which they can be
renewed,
• outputs - in production and consumption - should not overstrain ecosystems or the
assimilation capacity of the ecosphere.

QUESTIONS
1 Name and explain three effects of ozone layer depletion.
2 Explain ozone layer depletion problem?
3 Ozone is formed by combination of a) three oxygen atoms b) one oxygen atom
c) four ozone atom d) five ozone atom.
4 Name at least three chemicals responsible for ozone depletion?
5 Name at least three greenhouse gases responsible for global warming?
6 Explain impacts of climatic change on earth?
7 What is the main role of UNFCCC?
8 What do you understand by term "COP" and explain its role?
9 What is Kyoto protocol, and what are its implications for developed and developing
countries?
10 Explain CDM and its objectives.
11 What are the uses of prototype carbon fund?
12 Explain the concept of sustainable development.
REFERENCES
2. Training material on 'Environmental concerns' prepared by National Productivity
Council
3. Parivesh, October 2002 – Central Pollution Control Board
www.epa.org
www.uneptie.org
www.cpcb.nic.in
www.wri.org
www.safeclimate.net
www.globalwarming.org

Ch-01.qxd 2/23/2005 11:18 AM Page 1
1. FUELS AND COMBUSTION
Syllabus
Introduction to Fuels, Properties of Fuel oil, Coal and Gas, Storage, handling and
preparation of fuels, Principles of Combustion, Combustion of Oil, Coal, and Gas
This chapter is a prelude to boilers and furnaces
1.1 Introduction to Fuels

The various types of fuels like liquid, solid and gaseous fuels are available for firing in
boilers, furnaces and other combustion equipments. The selection of right type of fuel depends
on various factors such as availability, storage, handling, pollution and landed cost of fuel.
The knowledge of the fuel properties helps in selecting the right fuel for the right purpose
and efficient use of the fuel. The following characteristics, determined by laboratory tests, are
generally used for assessing the nature and quality of fuels.
1.2 Properties of Liquid Fuels

Liquid fuels like furnace oil and LSHS are predominantly used in industrial application.
The various properties of liquid fuels are given below.
Density
This is defined as the ratio of the mass of the fuel to the volume of the fuel at a reference tem-
perature of 15°C. Density is measured by an instrument called hydrometer. The knowledge of
density is useful for quantity calculations and assessing ignition quality. The unit of density is
kg/m3.
Specific gravity
This is defined as the ratio of the weight of a given volume of oil to the weight of the same
volume of water at a given temperature. The density of fuel, relative to water, is called
specific gravity. The specific gravity of water is defined as 1. Since specific gravity is a ratio,
it has no units. The measurement of specific gravity is generally made by a hydrometer.
Specific gravity is used in calculations involving weights and volumes. The specific
gravity of various fuel oils are given in Table 1.1
TABLE 1.1 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF VARIOUS FUEL OILS
Fuel Oil L.D.O Furnace oil L.S.H.S

Light Diesel Oil Low Sulphur
Heavy Stock
Specific Gravity 0.85-0.87 0.89-0.95 0.88-0.98

Ch-01.qxd 2/23/2005 11:18 AM Page 2
1. Fuels and Combustion
Viscosity
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its internal resistance to flow. Viscosity depends on
temperature and decreases as the temperature increases. Any numerical value for viscosity has
no meaning unless the temperature is also specified. Viscosity is measured in Stokes /
Centistokes. Sometimes viscosity is also quoted in Engler, Saybolt or Redwood. Each type of
oil has its own temperature - viscosity relationship. The measurement of viscosity is made with
an instrument called Viscometer.
Viscosity is the most important characteristic in the storage and use of fuel oil. It influences
the degree of pre-heat required for handling, storage and satisfactory atomization. If the oil is
too viscous, it may become difficult to pump, hard to light the burner, and tough to operate.
Poor atomization may result in the formation of carbon deposits on the burner tips or on the
walls. Therefore pre-heating is necessary for proper atomization.
Flash Point
The flash point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which the fuel can be heated so that the
vapour gives off flashes momentarily when an open flame is passed over it. Flash point for
furnace oil is 66°C.
Pour Point
The pour point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which it will pour or flow when cooled
under prescribed conditions. It is a very rough indication of the lowest temperature at which
fuel oil is readily pumpable.
Specific Heat
Specific heat is the amount of kCals needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of oil by 1°C.
The unit of specific heat is kCal/kg°C. It varies from 0.22 to 0.28 depending on the oil specif-
ic gravity. The specific heat determines how much steam or electrical energy it takes to heat oil
to a desired temperature. Light oils have a low specific heat, whereas heavier oils have a high-
er specific heat.
Calorific Value
The calorific value is the measurement of heat or energy produced, and is measured either as
gross calorific value or net calorific value. The difference being the latent heat of condensation
of the water vapour produced during the combustion process. Gross calorific value (GCV)
assumes all vapour produced during the combustion process is fully condensed. Net calorific
value (NCV) assumes the water leaves with the combustion products without fully being
condensed. Fuels should be compared based on the net calorific value.
The calorific value of coal varies considerably depending on the ash, moisture content and
the type of coal while calorific value of fuel oils are much more consistent. The typical Gross
Calorific Values of some of the commonly used liquid fuels are given below:

Ch-01.qxd 2/23/2005 11:18 AM Page 3
Fuel Oil Gross Calorific Value (kCal/kg)

Kerosene - 11,100
Diesel Oil - 10,800
L.D.O - 10,700
Furnace Oil - 10,500
LSHS - 10,600
Sulphur
The amount of sulphur in the fuel oil depends mainly on the source of the crude oil and to a
lesser extent on the refining process. The normal sulfur content for the residual fuel oil (furnace
oil) is in the order of 2-4 %.
Typical figures are:
Fuel oil Percentage of Sulphur
Kerosene 0.05 – 0.2
Diesel Oil 0.05 – 0.25
L.D.O 0.5 – 1.8
Furnace Oil 2.0 – 4.0
LSHS < 0.5
The main disadvantage of sulphur is the risk of corrosion by sulphuric acid formed during and
after combustion, and condensing in cool parts of the chimney or stack, air pre heater and
economiser.
Ash Content
The ash value is related to the inorganic material in the fuel oil. The ash levels of distillate fuels
are negligible. Residual fuels have more of the ash-forming constituents. These salts may be
compounds of sodium, vanadium, calcium, magnesium, silicon, iron, aluminum, nickel, etc.
Typically, the ash value is in the range 0.03–0.07%. Excessive ash in liquid fuels can cause
fouling deposits in the combustion equipment. Ash has erosive effect on the burner tips,
causes damage to the refractories at high temperatures and gives rise to high temperature
corrosion and fouling of equipments.
Carbon Residue
Carbon residue indicates the tendency of oil to deposit a carbonaceous solid residue on a hot
surface, such as a burner or injection nozzle, when its vaporisable constituents evaporate.
Residual oil contain carbon residue ranging from 1 percent or more.
Water Content
Water content of furnace oil when supplied is normally very low as the product at refinery site
is handled hot and maximum limit of 1% is specified in the standard.
Water may be present in free or emulsified form and can cause damage to the inside furnace
surfaces during combustion especially if it contains dissolved salts. It can also cause splutter-
ing of the flame at the burner tip, possibly extinguishing the flame and reducing the flame
temperature or lengthening the flame.

Ch-01.qxd 2/23/2005 11:18 AM Page 4
Typical specification of fuel oil is summarised in the Table 1.2.
TABLE 1.2 TYPICAL SPECIFICATION OF FUEL OILS
Properties Fuel Oils

Furnace Oil LS.H.S. L.D.O.
Density (Approx. g/cc at 15°C) 0.89–0.95 0.88–0.98 0.85–0.87
Flash Point (°C) 66 93 66
Pour Point (°C) 20 72 18
G.C.V. (kCal/kg) 10,500 10,600 10,700
Sediment, % Wt. Max. 0.25 0.25 0.1
Sulphur Total, % Wt. Max. Upto 4.0 Upto 0.5 Upto 1.8
Water Content, % Vol. Max. 1.0 1.0 0.25
Ash % Wt. Max. 0.1 0.1 0.02
Storage of Fuel oil

It can be potentially hazardous to store furnace oil in barrels. A better practice is to store it in
cylindrical tanks, either above or below the ground. Furnace oil, that is delivered, may contain
dust, water and other contaminants.
The sizing of storage tank facility is very important. A recommended storage estimate is to
provide for at least 10 days of normal consumption. Industrial heating fuel storage tanks are
generally vertical mild steel tanks mounted above ground. It is prudent for safety and environ-
mental reasons to build bund walls around tanks to contain accidental spillages.
As a certain amount of settlement of solids and sludge will occur in tanks over time, cleaning
should be carried out at regular intervals-annually for heavy fuels and every two years for light
fuels. A little care should be taken when oil is decanted from the tanker to storage tank. All leaks
from joints, flanges and pipelines must be attended at the earliest. Fuel oil should be free from
possible contaminants such as dirt, sludge and water before it is fed to the combustion system.
LOSS OF EVEN ONE DROP OF OIL EVERY SECOND CAN

COST YOU OVER 4000 LITRES A YEAR
Removal of Contaminants
Furnace oil arrives at the factory site either in tank lorries by road or by rail. Oil is then decanted
into the main storage tank. To prevent contaminants such as rags, cotton waste, loose nuts or
bolts or screws entering the system and damaging the pump, coarse strainer of 10 mesh size (not
more than 3 holes per linear inch) is positioned on the entry pipe to the storage tanks.
Progressively finer strainers should be provided at various points in the oil supply system
to filter away finer contaminants such as external dust and dirt, sludge or free carbon. It is advis-
able to provide these filters in duplicate to enable one filter to be cleaned while oil supply is
maintained through the other.

Ch-01.qxd 2/23/2005 11:18 AM Page 5
The Figure 1.1 gives an illus-

tration of the duplex system of
arrangement of strainers.
Figure. 1.1 Duplex Arrangement of Strainers in a Pipeline
The Table 1.3 gives sizing of strainers at various locations.
TABLE 1.3 SIZING OF STRAINERS
Location Strainer Sizes

Mesh Holes/Linear inch
Between rail/tank lorry decanting point
and main storage tank 10 3
Between service tank and pre-heater 40 6
Between pre-heater and burner 100 10
Pumping
Heavy fuel oils are best pumped using positive displacement pumps, as they are able to get fuel
moving when it is cold. A circulation gear pump running on LDO should give between 7000-
10000 hours of service. Diaphragm pumps have a shorter service life, but are easier and less
expensive to repair. A centrifugal pump is not recommended, because as the oil viscosity
increases, the efficiency of the pump drops sharply and the horsepower required increases.
Light fuels are best pumped with centrifugal or turbine pumps. When higher pressures are
required, piston or diaphragm pumps should be used.
Storage Temperature and Pumping Temperature

The viscosity of furnace oil and LSHS increases with decrease in temperature, which makes it
difficult to pump the oil. At low ambient temperatures (below 25°C), furnace oil is not easily
pumpable. To circumvent this, preheating of oil is accomplished in two ways: (a) the entire tank
may be preheated. In this form of bulk heating, steam coils are placed at the bottom of the tank,
which is fully insulated; (b) the oil can be heated as it flows out with an outflow heater.
To reduce steam requirements, it is advisable to insulate tanks where bulk heating is used.
Bulk heating may be necessary if flow rates are high enough to make outflow heaters of
adequate capacity impractical, or when a fuel such as Low Sulphur Heavy Stock (LSHS) is
used. In the case of outflow heating, only the oil, which leaves the tank, is heated to the pump-
ing temperature. The outflow heater is essentially a heat exchanger with steam or electricity as
the heating medium.

Ch-01.qxd 2/23/2005 11:18 AM Page 6
Temperature Control
Thermostatic temperature control of the oil is necessary to prevent overheating, especially
when oil flow is reduced or stopped. This is particularly important for electric heaters,
since oil may get carbonized when there is no flow and the heater is on. Thermostats should
be provided at a region where the oil flows freely into the suction pipe. The temperature at
which oil can readily be pumped depends on the grade of oil being handled. Oil should
never be stored at a temperature above that necessary for pumping as this leads to higher
energy consumption.
1.3 Properties of Coal

Coal Classification
Coal is classified into three major types namely anthracite, bituminous, and lignite. However
there is no clear demarcation between them and coal is also further classified as semi-
anthracite, semi-bituminous, and sub-bituminous. Anthracite is the oldest coal from geological
perspective. It is a hard coal composed mainly of carbon with little volatile content and practi-
cally no moisture. Lignite is the youngest coal from geological perspective. It is a soft coal
composed mainly of volatile matter and moisture content with low fixed carbon. Fixed carbon
refers to carbon in its free state, not combined with other elements. Volatile matter refers to
those combustible constituents of coal that vaporize when coal is heated.
The common coals used in Indian industry are bituminous and sub-bituminous coal.
The gradation of Indian coal based on its calorific value is as follows:
Grade Calorific Value Range

( in kCal/Kg)
A Exceeding 6200
B 5600 – 6200
C 4940 – 5600
D 4200 – 4940
E 3360 – 4200
F 2400 – 3360
G 1300 – 2400
Normally D, E and F coal grades are available to Indian Industry.
The chemical composition of coal has a strong influence on its combustibility. The properties
of coal are broadly classified as
1. Physical properties
2. Chemical properties

Ch-01.qxd 2/23/2005 11:18 AM Page 7
Physical Properties
Heating Value:
The heating value of coal varies from coal field to coal field. The typical GCVs for various
coals are given in the Table 1.4.
TABLE 1.4 GCV FOR VARIOUS COALS
Parameter Lignite Indian Coal Indonesian Coal South African Coal

(Dry Basis)
GCV (kCal/kg) 4,500* 4,000 5,500 6,000
*
GCV of lignite on ‘as received basis’ is 2500 – 3000
Analysis of Coal
There are two methods: ultimate analysis and proximate analysis. The ultimate analysis
determines all coal component elements, solid or gaseous and the proximate analysis deter-
mines only the fixed carbon, volatile matter, moisture and ash percentages. The ultimate
analysis is determined in a properly equipped laboratory by a skilled chemist, while proxi-
mate analysis can be determined with a simple apparatus. It may be noted that proximate has
no connection with the word “approximate”.
Measurement of Moisture
Determination of moisture is carried out by placing a sample of powdered raw coal of size 200-
micron size in an uncovered crucible and it is placed in the oven kept at 108±2°C along with
the lid. Then the sample is cooled to room temperature and weighed again. The loss in weight
represents moisture.
Measurement of Volatile Matter

Fresh sample of crushed coal is weighed, placed in a covered crucible, and heated in a furnace
at 900 ± 15°C. For the methodologies including that for carbon and ash, refer to IS 1350 part
I:1984, part III, IV. The sample is cooled and weighed. Loss of weight represents moisture and
volatile matter. The remainder is coke (fixed carbon and ash).
Measurement of Carbon and Ash

The cover from the crucible used in the last test is removed and the crucible is heated over the
Bunsen burner until all the carbon is burned. The residue is weighed, which is the incombustible
ash. The difference in weight from the previous weighing is the fixed carbon. In actual prac-
tice Fixed Carbon or FC derived by subtracting from 100 the value of moisture, volatile matter
and ash.
Proximate Analysis
Proximate analysis indicates the percentage by weight of the Fixed Carbon, Volatiles, Ash, and
Moisture Content in coal. The amounts of fixed carbon and volatile combustible matter directly

Ch-01.qxd 2/23/2005 11:18 AM Page 8
contribute to the heating value of coal. Fixed carbon acts as a main heat generator during burning.
High volatile matter content indicates easy ignition of fuel. The ash content is important in the
design of the furnace grate, combustion volume, pollution control equipment and ash handling
systems of a furnace. A typical proximate analysis of various coal is given in the Table 1.5.
TABLE 1.5 TYPICAL PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF VARIOUS COALS
(IN PERCENTAGE)
Parameter Indian Coal Indonesian Coal South African Coal

Moisture 5.98 9.43 8.5
Ash 38.63 13.99 17
Volatile matter 20.70 29.79 23.28
Fixed Carbon 34.69 46.79 51.22
Significance of Various Parameters in Proximate Analysis

(a) Fixed carbon:
Fixed carbon is the solid fuel left in the furnace after volatile matter is distilled off. It consists
mostly of carbon but also contains some hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur and nitrogen not driven off
with the gases. Fixed carbon gives a rough estimate of heating value of coal.
(b) Volatile Matter:
Volatile matters are the methane, hydrocarbons, hydrogen and carbon monoxide, and incom-
bustible gases like carbon dioxide and nitrogen found in coal. Thus the volatile matter is an
index of the gaseous fuels present. Typical range of volatile matter is 20 to 35%.
Volatile Matter
• Proportionately increases flame length, and helps in easier ignition of coal.
• Sets minimum limit on the furnace height and volume.
• Influences secondary air requirement and distribution aspects.
• Influences secondary oil support
(c) Ash Content:
Ash is an impurity that will not burn. Typical range is 5 to 40%
Ash
• Reduces handling and burning capacity.
• Increases handling costs.
• Affects combustion efficiency and boiler efficiency
• Causes clinkering and slagging.
(d) Moisture Content:
Moisture in coal must be transported, handled and stored. Since it replaces combustible matter,
it decreases the heat content per kg of coal. Typical range is 0.5 to 10%

Ch-01.qxd 2/23/2005 11:18 AM Page 9
Moisture
• Increases heat loss, due to evaporation and superheating of vapour
• Helps, to a limit, in binding fines.
• Aids radiation heat transfer.
(e) Sulphur Content:
Typical range is 0.5 to 0.8% normally.
Sulphur
• Affects clinkering and slagging tendencies
• Corrodes chimney and other equipment such as air heaters and economisers
• Limits exit flue gas temperature.
Chemical Properties
Ultimate Analysis:
The ultimate analysis indicates the various elemental chemical constituents such as Carbon,
Hydrogen, Oxygen, Sulphur, etc. It is useful in determining the quantity of air required for com-
bustion and the volume and composition of the combustion gases. This information is required
for the calculation of flame temperature and the flue duct design etc. Typical ultimate analyses
of various coals are given in the Table 1.6.
TABLE 1.6 TYPICAL ULTIMATE ANALYSIS OF COALS
Parameter Indian Coal, % Indonesian Coal, %

Moisture 5.98 9.43
Mineral Matter (1.1 × Ash) 38.63 13.99
Carbon 41.11 58.96
Hydrogen 2.76 4.16
Nitrogen 1.22 1.02
Sulphur 0.41 0.56
Oxygen 9.89 11.88
TABLE 1.7 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ULTIMATE

ANALYSIS AND PROXIMATE ANALYSIS
%C = 0.97C+ 0.7(VM - 0.1A) – M(0.6–0.01M)

%H = 0.036C + 0.086 (VM–0.1xA) - 0.0035M2 (1–0.02M)
%N2 = 2.10 – 0.020 VM
where C = % of fixed carbon
A = % of ash
VM = % of volatile matter
M = % of moisture
Note: The above equation is valid for coal containing greater than 15% Moisture content.

Ch-01.qxd 2/23/2005 11:18 AM Page 10
Storage, Handling and Preparation of Coal

Uncertainty in the availability and transportation of fuel necessitates storage and subsequent
handling. Stocking of coal has its own disadvantages like build-up of inventory, space
constraints, deterioration in quality and potential fire hazards. Other minor losses associated
with the storage of coal include oxidation, wind and carpet loss. A 1% oxidation of coal has the
same effect as 1% ash in coal, wind losses may account for nearly 0.5 – 1.0% of the total loss.
The main goal of good coal storage is to minimise carpet loss and the loss due to sponta-
neous combustion. Formation of a soft carpet, comprising of coal, dust, and soil causes carpet
loss. On the other hand, gradual temperature builds up in a coal heap, on account of oxidation
may lead to spontaneous combustion of coal in storage.
The measures that would help in reducing the carpet losses are as follows:
1. Preparing a hard ground for coal to be stacked upon.
2. Preparing standard storage bays out of concrete and brick.
In process Industry, modes of coal handling range from manual to conveyor systems.
It would be advisable to minimise the handling of coal so that further generation of fines and
segregation effects are reduced.
Preparation of Coal
Preparation of coal prior to feeding into the boiler is an important step for achieving good
combustion. Large and irregular lumps of coal may cause the following problems:
1. Poor combustion conditions and inadequate furnace temperature.
2. Higher excess air resulting in higher stack loss.
3. Increase of unburnts in the ash.
4. Low thermal efficiency.
(a) Sizing of Coal
Proper coal sizing is one of the key measures to ensure efficient combustion. Proper coal
sizing, with specific relevance to the type of firing system, helps towards even burning, reduced
ash losses and better combustion efficiency.
Coal is reduced in size by crushing and pulverizing. Pre-crushed coal can be economical for
smaller units, especially those which are stoker fired. In a coal handling system, crushing is
limited to a top size of 6 or 4 mm. The devices most commonly used for crushing are the rotary
breaker, the roll crusher and the hammer mill.
It is necessary to screen the coal before crushing, so that only oversized coal is fed to the crusher.
This helps to reduce power consumption in the crusher. Recommended practices in coal crushing are:
1. Incorporation of a screen to separate fines and small particles to avoid extra fine generation
in crushing.
2. Incorporation of a magnetic separator to separate iron pieces in coal, which may damage the
crusher.

Ch-01.qxd 2/23/2005 11:18 AM Page 11
The Table 1.8 gives the proper size of coal for various types of firing systems
TABLE 1.8 PROPER SIZE OF COAL FOR VARIOUS TYPES

OF FIRING SYSTEM
S. No. Types of Firing System Size (in mm)

1. Hand Firing
(a) Natural draft 25–75
(b) Forced draft 25–40
2. Stoker Firing
(a) Chain grate
i) Natural draft 25–40
ii) Forced draft 15–25
(b) Spreader Stoker 15–25
3. Pulverized Fuel Fired 75% below 75 micron*
4. Fluidized bed boiler < 10 mm
*1 Micron = 1/1000 mm
(b) Conditioning of Coal

The fines in coal present problems in combustion on account of segregation effects.
Segregation of fines from larger coal pieces can be reduced to a great extent by conditioning
coal with water. Water helps fine particles to stick to the bigger lumps due to surface tension
of the moisture, thus stopping fines from falling through grate bars or being carried away by the
furnace draft. While tempering the coal, care should be taken to ensure that moisture addition
is uniform and preferably done in a moving or falling stream of coal.
If the percentage of fines in the coal is very high, wetting of coal can decrease the percentage
of unburnt carbon and the excess air level required to be supplied for combustion.
Table 1.9 shows the extent of wetting, depending on the percentage of fines in coal.
TABLE 1.9 EXTENT OF WETTING: FINES VS SURFACE

MOISTURE IN COAL
Fines (%) Surface Moisture (%)

10 – 15 4–5
15 – 20 5–6
20 – 25 6–7
25 – 30 7–8
(c) Blending of Coal

In case of coal lots having excessive fines, it is advisable to blend the predominantly lumped
coal with lots containing excessive fines. Coal blending may thus help to limit the extent of
fines in coal being fired to not more than 25%. Blending of different qualities of coal may also
help to supply a uniform coal feed to the boiler.

Ch-01.qxd 2/23/2005 11:18 AM Page 12
The proximate and ultimate analysis of various coals are given in Table 1.10 and 1.11.
TABLE 1.10 PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF TYPICAL COAL
Lignite Bituminous Bituminous Coal Indonesian Coal

coal (Sample I) (Sample II)
Moisture (%) 50 5.98 4.39 9.43
Ash (%) 10.41* 38.65 47.86 13.99
Volatile matter (%) 47.76* 20.70 17.97 29.79
Fixed carbon (%) 41.83* 34.69 29.78 46.79
*Dry Basis
TABLE 1.11 ULTIMATE ANALYSIS OF VARIOUS COALS
Bituminous Bituminous Indonesian Coal

Coal (Sample I) Coal (Sample II)
Moisture (%) 5.98 4.39 9.43
Mineral matter (%) 38.63 47.86 13.99
Carbon (%) 42.11 36.22 58.96
Hydrogen (%) 2.76 2.64 4.16
Nitrogen (%) 1.22 1.09 1.02
Sulphur (%) 0.41 0.55 0.56
Oxygen (%) 9.89 7.25 11.88
GCV (kCal/kg) 4000 3500 5500
1.4 Properties of Gaseous Fuels

Gaseous fuels in common use are liquefied petroleum gases (LPG), Natural gas, producer gas,
blast furnace gas, coke oven gas etc. The calorific value of gaseous fuel is expressed in
Kilocalories per normal cubic meter (kCal/Nm3) i.e. at normal temperature (20°C) and pressure
(760 mm Hg).
Calorific Value
Since most gas combustion appliances cannot utlilize the heat content of the water vapour, gross
calorific value is of little interest. Fuel should be compared based on the net calorific value. This
is especially true for natural gas, since increased hydrogen content results in high water forma-
tion during combustion.

Ch-01.qxd 2/23/2005 11:18 AM Page 13
Typical physical and chemical properties of various gaseous fuels are given in Table 1.12.
TABLE 1.12 TYPICAL PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF

VARIOUS GASEOUS FUELS.
Fuel Gas Relative Higher Heating Air/Fuel ratio- Flame Temp. Flame
Density Value kCal/Nm3 m3 of air to °C Speed m/s
m3 of Fuel
Natural Gas 0.6 9350 10 1954 0.290
Propane 1.52 22200 25 1967 0.460
Butane 1.96 28500 32 1973 0.870
LPG
LPG is a predominant mixture of propane and Butane with a small percentage of unsaturates
(Propylene and Butylene) and some lighter C2 as well as heavier C5 fractions. Included in the LPG
range are propane (C3H8), Propylene(C3H6), normal and iso-butane (C4H10) and Butylene(C4H8).
LPG may be defined as those hydrocarbons, which are gaseous at normal atmospheric
pressure, but may be condensed to the liquid state at normal temperature, by the application of
moderate pressures. Although they are normally used as gases, they are stored and transported
as liquids under pressure for convenience and ease of handling. Liquid LPG evaporates to
produce about 250 times volume of gas.
LPG vapour is denser than air: butane is about twice as heavy as air and propane about one
and a half times as heavy as air. Consequently, the vapour may flow along the ground and into
drains sinking to the lowest level of the surroundings and be ignited at a considerable distance
from the source of leakage. In still air vapour will disperse slowly. Escape of even small quan-
tities of the liquefied gas can give rise to large volumes of vapour / air mixture and thus cause
considerable hazard. To aid in the detection of atmospheric leaks, all LPG’s are required to be
odorized. There should be adequate ground level ventilation where LPG is stored. For this very
reason LPG cylinders should not be stored in cellars or basements, which have no ventilation
at ground level.
Natural Gas
Methane is the main constituent of Natural gas and accounting for about 95% of the total vol-
ume. Other components are: Ethane, Propane, Butane, Pentane, Nitrogen, Carbon Dioxide, and
traces of other gases. Very small amounts of sulphur compounds are also present. Since
methane is the largest component of natural gas, generally properties of methane are used when
comparing the properties of natural gas to other fuels.
Natural gas is a high calorific value fuel requiring no storage facilities. It mixes with air
readily and does not produce smoke or soot. It has no sulphur content. It is lighter than air and
disperses into air easily in case of leak. A typical comparison of carbon contents in oil, coal and
gas is given in the table 1.13.

Ch-01.qxd 2/23/2005 11:18 AM Page 14
TABLE 1.13 COMPARISON OF CHEMICAL

COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS FUELS
Fuel Oil Coal Natural Gas

Carbon 84 41.11 74
Hydrogen 12 2.76 25
Sulphur 3 0.41 -
Oxygen 1 9.89 Trace
Nitrogen Trace 1.22 0.75
Ash Trace 38.63 -
Water Trace 5.98 -
1.5 Properties of Agro Residues

The use of locally available agro residues is on the rise. This includes rice husk, coconut shells,
groundnut shells, Coffee husk, Wheat stalk etc. The properties of a few of them are given in the
table 1.14 and 1.15.
TABLE 1.14 PROXIMATE ANALYSIS OF TYPICAL AGRO RESIDUES
Deoiled Bran Paddy Husk Saw Dust Coconut Shell

Moisture 7.11 10.79 37.98 13.95
Ash 18.46 16.73 1.63 3.52
Volatile Matter 59.81 56.46 81.22 61.91
Fixed Carbon 14.62 16.02 17.15 20.62
TABLE 1.15 ULTIMATE ANALYSIS OF TYPICAL AGRO RESIDUES
Deoiled Bran Paddy Husk Saw Dust Coconut Shell

Moisture 7.11 10.79 37.98 13.95
Mineral Matter 19.77 16.73 1.63 3.52
Carbon 36.59 33.95 48.55 44.95
Hydrogen 4.15 5.01 6.99 4.99
Nitrogen 0.82 0.91 0.80 0.56
Sulphur 0.54 0.09 0.10 0.08
Oxygen 31.02 32.52 41.93 31.94
GCV (kCal/kg) 3151 3568 4801 4565

Ch-01.qxd 2/23/2005 11:18 AM Page 15
1.6 Combustion
Principle of Combustion
Combustion refers to the rapid oxidation of fuel accompanied by the production of heat, or heat
and light. Complete combustion of a fuel is possible only in the presence of an adequate
supply of oxygen.
Oxygen (O2) is one of the most common elements on earth making up 20.9% of our air.
Rapid fuel oxidation results in large amounts of heat. Solid or liquid fuels must be changed to
a gas before they will burn. Usually heat is required to change liquids or solids into gases. Fuel
gases will burn in their normal state if enough air is present.
Most of the 79% of air (that is not oxygen) is nitrogen, with traces of other elements.
Nitrogen is considered to be a temperature reducing dilutant that must be present to obtain the
oxygen required for combustion.
Nitrogen reduces combustion efficiency by absorbing heat from the combustion of fuels and
diluting the flue gases. This reduces the heat available for transfer through the heat exchange
surfaces. It also increases the volume of combustion by-products, which then have to travel
through the heat exchanger and up the stack faster to allow the introduction of additional fuel
air mixture.
This nitrogen also can combine with oxygen (particularly at high flame temperatures) to
produce oxides of nitrogen (NOx), which are toxic pollutants.
Carbon, hydrogen and sulphur in the fuel combine with oxygen in the air to form carbon
dioxide, water vapour and sulphur dioxide, releasing 8084 kCals, 28922 kCals & 2224 kCals of
heat respectively. Under certain conditions, Carbon may also combine with Oxygen to form
Carbon Monoxide, which results in the release of a smaller quantity of heat (2430 kCals/kg of
carbon) Carbon burned to CO2 will produce more heat per pound of fuel than when CO or
smoke are produced.
C + O2 → CO2 + 8084 kCals/kg of Carbon

2C + O2 → 2 CO + 2430 kCals/kg of Carbon
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O + 28,922 kCals/kg of Hydrogen
S + O2 → SO2 + 2,224 kCals/kg of Sulphur
Each kilogram of CO formed means a loss of 5654 kCal of heat.(8084-2430).
3 T’s of Combustion
The objective of good combustion is to release all of the heat in the fuel. This is accomplished
by controlling the “three T’s” of combustion which are (1) Temperature high enough to ignite
and maintain ignition of the fuel, (2) Turbulence or intimate mixing of the fuel and oxygen, and
(3) Time sufficient for complete combustion.
Commonly used fuels like natural gas and propane generally consist of carbon and hydrogen.
Water vapor is a by-product of burning hydrogen. This robs heat from the flue gases, which
would otherwise be available for more heat transfer.
Natural gas contains more hydrogen and less carbon per kg than fuel oils and as such
produces more water vapor. Consequently, more heat will be carried away by exhaust while
firing natural gas.

Ch-01.qxd 2/23/2005 11:18 AM Page 16
Too much, or too little fuel with the available combustion air may potentially result in
unburned fuel and carbon monoxide generation. A very specific amount of O2 is needed for
perfect combustion and some additional (excess) air is required for ensuring complete combus-
tion. However, too much excess air will result in heat and efficiency losses.
Not all of the heat in the fuel are converted to heat and absorbed by the steam generation equip-
ment. Usually all of the hydrogen in the fuel is burned and most boiler fuels, allowable with
today’s air pollution standards, contain little or no sulfur. So the main challenge in combustion
efficiency is directed toward unburned carbon (in the ash or incompletely burned gas), which
forms CO instead of CO2.
1.7 Combustion of Oil

Heating Oil to Correct Viscosity
When atomizing oil, it is necessary to heat it enough to get the desired viscosity. This temper-
ature varies slightly for each grade of oil. The lighter oils do not usually require pre-heating.
Typical viscosity at the burner tip ( for LAP, MAP & HAP burners) for furnace oil should be
100 Redwood seconds-1 which would require heating the oil to about 105°C.
Stoichiometric Combustion
Rules for combustion of oil
The efficiency of a boiler or furnace depends on efficiency of the
combustion system. The amount of air required for complete 1. Atomize the oil completely
to produce a fine uniform
combustion of the fuel depends on the elemental constituents of
spray
the fuel that is Carbon, Hydrogen, and Sulphur etc. This amount
2. Mix the air and fuel
of air is called stoichiometric air. For ideal combustion process thoroughly
for burning one kg of a typical fuel oil containing 86% Carbon, 3. Introduce enough air for
12% Hydrogen, 2% Sulphur, theoretically required quantity of air combustion, but limit the
is 14.1 kg. This is the minimum air that would be required if mix- excess air to a maximum of
ing of fuel and air by the burner and combustion is perfect. The 15%
combustion products are primarily Carbon Dioxide (CO2), water 4. Keep the burners in good
vapor (H2O) and Sulphur Dioxide (SO2), which pass through the condition
chimney along with the Nitrogen (N2) in the air,.
After surrendering useful heat in the heat absorption area of a furnace or boiler, the
combustion products or fuel gases leave the system through the chimney, carrying away a
significant quantity of heat with them.

Ch-01.qxd 2/23/2005 11:18 AM Page 17
Calculation of Stoichiometric Air

The specifications of furnace oil from lab analysis is given below:
Constituents % By weight
Carbon 85.9
Hydrogen 12
Oxygen 0.7
Nitrogen 0.5
Sulphur 0.5
H2O` 0.35
Ash 0.05
GCV of fuel: 10880 kCal/kg
Calculation for Requirement of Theoretical Amount of Air
Considering a sample of 100 kg of furnace oil. The chemical reactions are:
Element Molecular
Weight
kg / kg mole
C 12
O2 32
H2 2
S 32
N2 28
CO2 44
SO2 64
H2O 18
C + O2 CO2
H2 + 1/2O2 H2O
S + O2 SO2
Constituents of fuel
C + O2 CO2
12 + 32 44
12 kg of carbon requires 32 kg of oxygen to form 44 kg of carbon dioxide therefore 1 kg

of carbon requires 32/12 kg i.e 2.67 kg of oxygen
(85.9) C + (85.9 × 2.67) O2 315.25 CO2
2H2 + O2 2H2O
4 + 32 36

Ch-01.qxd 2/23/2005 11:18 AM Page 18
4 kg of hydrogen requires 32 kg of oxygen to form 36 kg of water, therefore 1 kg of hydro-

gen requires 32/4 kg i.e 8 kg of oxygen
(12) H2 + (12 × 8) O2 (12 x 9 ) H2O
S + O2 SO2
32 + 32 64
32 kg of sulphur requires 32 kg of oxygen to form 64 kg of sulphur dioxide, therefore 1 kg of

sulphur requires 32/32 kg i.e 1 kg of oxygen
(0.5) S + (0.5 × 1) O2 1.0 SO2
Total Oxygen required = 325.57 kg

(229.07+96+0.5)
Oxygen already present in
100 kg fuel (given) = 0.7 kg
Additional Oxygen Required = 325.57 – 0.7
= 324.87 kg
Therefore quantity of dry air reqd. = (324.87) / 0.23
(air contains 23% oxygen by wt.)
= 1412.45 kg of air
Theoretical Air required = (1412.45) / 100
= 14.12 kg of air / kg of fuel
Calculation of theoretical CO2 content in flue gases
Nitrogen in flue gas = 1412.45 - 324.87

= 1087.58 kg
Theoretical CO2% in dry flue gas by volume is calculated as below :
Moles of CO2 in flue gas = (314.97) / 44 = 7.16

Moles of N2 in flue gas = (1087.58) / 28 = 38.84
Moles of SO2 in flue gas = 1/64 = 0.016
Moles of CO2
Theoritical CO2 % by volume = × 100
Total moles (dry )
7.16
= × 100
7.16 + 38.84 + 0.016
= 15.5 %

Ch-01.qxd 2/23/2005 11:18 AM Page 19
Calculation of constituents of flue gas with excess air
% CO2 measured in flue gas = 10% (measured)

 Theoritical CO2 % 
% Excess air =  − 1  × 100
 Actual CO2 % 
 15.5 
% Excess air =  − 1 × 100 = 55%
 10 
Theoretical air required for

100 kg of fuel burnt = 1412.45 kg
Total quantity. of air
supply required with
55% excess air = 1412.45 X 1.55
= 2189.30 kg
Excess air quantity = 2189.30 – 1412.45
= 776.85 kg.
O2 = 776.85 X 0.23
= 178.68
N2 = 776.85 – 178.68
= 598.17 kg
The final constitution of flue gas with 55% excess air for every 100 kg fuel.
CO2 = 314.97 kg
H2O = 108.00 kg
SO2 = 1 kg
O2 = 178.68 kg
N2 = 1087.58 + 598.17
= 1685.75 kg
Calculation of Theoretical CO2% in Dry Flue Gas By Volume

Moles of CO2 in flue gas = 314.97/44 = 7.16
Moles of SO2 in flue gas = 1/64 = 0.016
Moles of O2 in flue gas = 178.68 / 32 = 5.58
Moles of N2 in flue gas = 1685.75 / 28 = 60.20
Moles of CO2
Theoritical CO2 % by volume = × 100
Total moles (dry )
7.16
= × 100
7.16 + 0.016 + 5.58 + 60.20

Ch-01.qxd 2/23/2005 11:18 AM Page 20
7.16
= × 100 = 10%
72.956
5.58 x100
Theoretical O2% by volume = × 100 = 7.5%
72.956
Optimizing Excess Air and Combustion

For complete combustion of every one kg of fuel oil 14.1 kg of air is needed. In practice,
mixing is never perfect, a certain amount of excess air is needed to complete combustion and
ensure that release of the entire heat contained in fuel oil. If too much air than what is required
for completing combustion were allowed to enter, additional heat would be lost in heating the
surplus air to the chimney temperature. This would result in increased stack losses. Less air
would lead to the incomplete combustion and smoke. Hence, there is an optimum excess air
level for each type of fuel.
Control of Air and Analysis of Flue Gas

Thus in actual practice, the amount of combustion air required will be much higher than
optimally needed. Therefore some of the air gets heated in the furnace boiler and leaves through
the stack without participating in the combustion
Chemical analysis of the gases is an objective method that helps in achieving finer air control.
By measuring carbon dioxide (CO2) or oxygen (O2) in flue gases by continuous recording
instruments or Orsat apparatus or portable fyrite, the excess air level as well as stack losses can
be estimated with the graph as shown in Figure 1.2 and Figure 1.3. The excess air to be
supplied depends on the type of fuel and the firing system. For optimum combustion of fuel oil,
the CO2 or O2 in flue gases should be maintained at 14 -15% in case of CO2 and 2-3% in case
of O2.
Figure 1.2 Relation Between CO2 and Excess Air for Fuel Oil

Ch-01.qxd 2/23/2005 11:18 AM Page 21
Figure 1.3: Relation Between Residual Oxygen and Excess Air
Oil Firing Burners

The burner is the principal device for the firing of fuel. The primary function of burner is to
atomise fuel to millions of small droplets so that the surface area of the fuel is increased
enabling intimate contact with oxygen in air. The finer the fuel droplets are atomised, more
readily will the particles come in contact with the oxygen in the air and burn.
Normally, atomisation is carried out by primary air and completion of combustion is
ensured by secondary air. Burners for fuel oil can be classified on the basis of the technique to
prepare the fuel for burning i.e. atomisation.
Figure 1.4 shows a simplified burner head. The air is brought into the head by means of a
forced draft blower or fan. The fuel is metered into the head through a series of valves. In order
to get proper combustion, the air molecules must be thoroughly mixed with the fuel molecules
before they actually burn. The air in the center is the primary air used for atomization and the
one surrounding is the secondary air which ensures complete combustion.
AIR
AIR
AIR
FUEL
Figure 1.4 Burner Head
The mixing is achieved by burner parts designed to create high turbulence. If insufficient tur-
bulence is produced by the burner, the combustion will be incomplete and samples taken at the
stack will reveal carbon monoxide as evidence.
Since the velocity of air affects the turbulence, it becomes harder and harder to get good fuel
and air mixing at higher turndown ratios since the air amount is reduced. Towards the highest
turndown ratios of any burner, it becomes necessary to increase the excess air amounts to obtain

Ch-01.qxd 2/23/2005 11:18 AM Page 22
enough turbulence to get proper mixing. The better burner design will be one that is able to
properly mix the air and fuel at the lowest possible air flow or excess air.
An important aspect to be considered in selection of burner is turndown ratio. Turndown
ratio is the relationship between the maximum and minimum fuel input without affecting the
excess air level. For example, a burner whose maximum input is 250,000 kCals and minimum
rate is 50,000 kCals, has a ‘Turn-Down Ratio’ of 5 to 1.
1.8 Combustion of Coal

Features of coal combustion
1 kg of coal will typically require 7–8 kg of air
depending upon the carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen,
oxygen and sulphur content for complete combus-
tion. This air is also known as theoretical or stoi-
chiometric air.
If for any reason the air supplied is inadequate,
the combustion will be incomplete. The result is
poor generation of heat with some portions of car-
bon remaining unburnt (black smoke) and forming
carbon monoxide instead of carbon dioxides.
As in the case of oil, coal cannot be burnt with Figure 1.5 Coal Combustion
stoichiometric quantity of air. Complete combustion is not achieved unless an excess of air is
supplied.
The excess air required for coal combustion depends on the type of coal firing equipment.
Hand fired boilers use large lumps of coal and hence need very high excess air. Stoker fired
boilers as shown in the Figure 1.5 use sized coal and hence require less excess air. Also in these
systems primary air is supplied below the grate and secondary air is supplied over the grate to
ensure complete combustion.
Fluidised bed combustion in which turbulence is created leads to intimate mixing of air and
fuel resulting in further reduction of excess air. The pulverized fuel firing in which powdered
coal is fired has the minimum excess air due to high surface area of coal ensuring complete
combustion.
Clinker formation
Clinker is a mass of rough, hard, slag-like material formed during combustion of coal due
to low fusion temperature of ash present in coal. Presence of silica, calcium oxide, magnesium
oxides etc. in ash lead to a low fusion temperature. Typically Indian coals contain ash fusion
temperature as low as 1100°C. Once clinker is formed, it has a tendency to grow. Clinker will
stick to a hot surface rather than a cold one and to a rough surface rather than a smooth one.
1.9 Combustion of Gas

Combustion Characteristics of Natural Gas
The stoichiometric ratio for natural gas (and most gaseous fuels) is normally indicated by vol-
ume. The air to natural gas (stoichiometric) ratio by volume for complete combustion vary
between 9.5:1 to 10:1
Ch-01.qxd 2/23/2005 11:18 AM Page 23
Natural gas is essentially pure methane, CH4. Its combustion can be represented as follows:
CH4 +2O2 = CO2 + 2H2O
So for every 16 kgs of methane that are consumed, 44 kgs of carbon dioxide are produced.
(Remember that the atomic weights of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen are 12, 16 and 1,
respectively.)
Methane burns, when mixed with the proper amount of air and heated to the combustion
temperature. Figure 1.6 shows the process with the amount of air and fuel required for perfect
combustion.
Figure 1.6 Combustion of Natural Gas
Low-And High-Pressure Gas Burners.

The important thing in all gas-burning devices
is a correct air-and-gas mixture at the burner
tip. Low-pressure burners (figure 1.7), using
gas at a pressure less than 0.15 kg/cm2 (2 psi),
are usually of the multi-jet type, in which gas
from a manifold is supplied to a number of
small single jets, or circular rows of small jets,
centered in or discharging around the inner cir-
cumference of circular air openings in a block
Figure 1.7 Low Pressure Gas Burner
of some heat-resisting material. The whole is
encased in a rectangular cast-iron box, built into the boiler setting and having louver doors
front to regulate the air supply. Draft may be natural, induced, or forced.

Ch-01.qxd 2/23/2005 11:18 AM Page 24
In a high-pressure gas mixer (figure 1.8),

the energy of the gas jet draws air into the
mixing chamber and delivers a correctly
proportioned mixture to the burner. When the
regulating valve is opened, gas flows through
a small nozzle into a venturi tube (a tube with
a contracted section). Entrainment of air with
high-velocity gas in the narrow venturi
section draws air in through large openings in
the end. The gas-air mixture is piped to a
burner. The gas-burner tip may be in a
variety of forms. In a sealed-in tip type, the Figure 1.8 High Pressure Gas Mixer
proper gas-air mixture is piped to the burner,
and no additional air is drawn in around the burner tip. Size of the air openings in the venturi
tube end is increased or decreased by turning a revolving shutter, which can be locked in any
desired position. Excess air levels in natural gas burner is in the order of 5%.
1.10 Draft System

The function of draft in a combustion system is to exhaust the products of combustion into the
atmosphere. The draft can be classified into two types namely Natural and Mechanical Draft.
Natural Draft
It is the draft produced by a chimney alone. It is caused by the difference in weight between the
column of hot gas inside the chimney and column of outside air of the same height and cross
section. Being much lighter than outside air, chimney flue gas tends to rise, and the heavier out-
side air flows in through the ash pit to take its place. It is usually controlled by hand-operated
dampers in the chimney and breeching connecting the boiler to the chimney. Here no fans or
blowers are used. The products of combustion are discharged at such a height that it will not be
a nuisance to the surrounding community.
Mechanical Draft
It is draft artificially produced by fans. Three basic types of drafts that are applied are :
Balanced Draft: Forced-draft (F-D) fan (blower) pushes air into the furnace and an induced-
draft (I-D) fan draws gases into the chimney thereby providing draft to remove the gases from
the boiler. Here the pressure is maintained between 0.05 to 0.10 in. of water gauge below atmos-
pheric pressure in the case of boilers and slightly positive for reheating and heat treatment fur-
naces.
Induced Draft: An induced-draft fan draws enough draft for flow into the furnace, causing the
products of combustion to discharge to atmosphere. Here the furnace is kept at a slight nega-
tive pressure below the atmospheric pressure so that combustion air flows through the system.
Forced Draft: The Forced draft system uses a fan to deliver the air to the furnace, forcing com-
bustion products to flow through the unit and up the stack.

Ch-01.qxd 2/23/2005 11:18 AM Page 25
1.11 Combustion Controls

Combustion controls assist the burner in regulation of fuel supply, air supply, (fuel to air ratio),
and removal of gases of combustion to achieve optimum boiler efficiency. The amount of fuel
supplied to the burner must be in proportion to the steam pressure and the quantity of steam
required. The combustion controls are also necessary as safety device to ensure that the boiler
operates safely.
Various types of combustion controls in use are:
On/Off Control
The simplest control, ON/OFF control means that either the burner is firing at full rate or it is
OFF. This type of control is limited to small boilers.
High/Low/Off Control
Slightly more complex is HIGH/LOW/OFF system where the burner has two firing rates.
The burner operates at slower firing rate and then switches to full firing as needed. Burner can
also revert to low firing position at reduced load. This control is fitted to medium sized boilers.
Modulating Control
The modulating control operates on the principle of matching the steam pressure demand by
altering the firing rate over the entire operating range of the boiler. Modulating motors use
conventional mechanical linkage or electric valves to regulate the primary air, secondary air,
and fuel supplied to the burner. Full modulation means that boiler keeps firing, and fuel and air
are carefully matched over the whole firing range to maximize thermal efficiency.

Ch-01.qxd 2/23/2005 11:18 AM Page 26
QUESTIONS
1) Name two liquid fuels, solid fuels and gaseous fuels used in boilers.
2) Which parameter influences the Viscosity of liquid fuel?
3) Which element in fuel oil influences corrosion?
4) What is the significance of pre-heating furnace oil before burning?
5) What are the effects of contaminants in liquid fuels?
6) Explain the difference between gross calorific value and net calorific value.
7) What is the difference between proximate analysis and ultimate analysis of coal?
8) What are the uses of proximate and ultimate analysis?
9) Explain why natural gas requires least amount of excess air?
10) What is the effect of fines on coal combustion and how to overcome them?
11) What are the major constituent of LPG and Natural gas?
12) Why excess air is required for complete combustion?
13) What is the typical stoichiometric air fuel ratio for furnace oil?
14) The measured CO2 is 8% in an oil fired boiler flue gas. Theoretical CO2 content for
the fuel fired is 16%. Estimate the % excess air level?
REFERENCES
1. Combustion Engineering and Fuel Technology, Oxford & IBH Publishing Company
A.K.Shaha
W.W.W. pcra.org.

Ch-02.qxd 2/23/2005 11:21 AM Page 27
2. BOILERS
Syllabus
Boilers: Types, Combustion in boilers, Performances evaluation, Analysis of losses, Feed
water treatment, Blow down, Energy conservation opportunities.
2.1 Introduction
A boiler is an enclosed vessel that provides a means for combustion heat to be transferred into
water until it becomes heated water or steam. The hot water or steam under pressure is then
usable for transferring the heat to a process. Water is a useful and cheap medium for
transferring heat to a process. When water is boiled into steam its volume increases about 1,600
times, producing a force that is almost as explosive as gunpowder. This causes the boiler to be
extremely dangerous equipment that must be treated with utmost care.
The process of heating a liquid until it reaches its gaseous state is called evaporation. Heat
is transferred from one body to another by means of (1) radiation, which is the transfer of heat
from a hot body to a cold body without a conveying medium, (2) convection, the transfer of
heat by a conveying medium, such as air or water and (3) conduction, transfer of heat by actual
physical contact, molecule to molecule.
Boiler Specification
The heating surface is any Typical Boiler Specification
part of the boiler metal
that has hot gases of com- Boiler Make & Year : XYZ & 2003
bustion on one side and MCR(Maximum Continuous Rating) : 10TPH (F & A 100°C)
water on the other. Any
Rated Working Pressure : 10.54 kg/cm2(g)
part of the boiler metal
that actually contributes Type of Boiler : 3 Pass Fire tube
to making steam is heat- Fuel Fired : Fuel Oil
ing surface. The amount
of heating surface of a
boiler is expressed in square meters. The larger the heating surface a boiler has, the more
efficient it becomes. The quantity of the steam produced is indicated in tons of water evap-
orated to steam per hour. Maximum continuous rating is the hourly evaporation that can be
maintained for 24 hours. F & A means the amount of steam generated from water at 100 °C
to saturated steam at 100 °C.
Indian Boiler Regulation

The Indian Boilers Act was enacted to consolidate and amend the law relating to steam boilers.
Indian Boilers Regulation (IBR) was created in exercise of the powers conferred by section 28
& 29 of the Indian Boilers Act.

Ch-02.qxd 2/23/2005 11:21 AM Page 28
2. Boilers
IBR Steam Boilers means any closed vessel exceeding 22.75 liters in capacity and which is
used expressively for generating steam under pressure and includes any mounting or other
fitting attached to such vessel, which is wholly, or partly under pressure when the steam is shut
off.
IBR Steam Pipe means any pipe through which steam passes from a boiler to a prime mover
or other user or both, if pressure at which steam passes through such pipes exceeds 3.5 kg/cm2
above atmospheric pressure or such pipe exceeds 254 mm in internal diameter and includes in
either case any connected fitting of a steam pipe.
2.2 Boiler Systems

The boiler system comprises of: feed water system, steam system and fuel system. The feed
water system provides water to the boiler and regulates it automatically to meet the steam
demand. Various valves provide access for maintenance and repair. The steam system collects
and controls the steam produced in the boiler. Steam is directed through a piping system to the
point of use. Throughout the system, steam pressure is regulated using valves and checked with
steam pressure gauges. The fuel system includes all equipment used to provide fuel to gener-
ate the necessary heat. The equipment required in the fuel system depends on the type of fuel
used in the system. A typical boiler room schematic is shown in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1 Boiler Room Schematic
The water supplied to the boiler that is converted into steam is called feed water. The two
sources of feed water are: (1) Condensate or condensed steam returned from the processes and
(2) Makeup water (treated raw water) which must come from outside the boiler room and plant
processes. For higher boiler efficiencies, the feed water is preheated by economizer, using the
waste heat in the flue gas.

Ch-02.qxd 2/23/2005 11:21 AM Page 29
2. Boilers
2.3 Boiler Types and Classifications

There are virtually infinite numbers of boiler designs but generally they fit into one of two cat-
egories:
Fire tube or “fire in tube” boilers;
contain long steel tubes through
which the hot gasses from a
furnace pass and around which the
water to be converted to steam cir-
culates. (Refer Figure 2.2). Fire
tube boilers, typically have a lower
initial cost, are more fuel efficient
and easier to operate, but they are
limited generally to capacities of
25 tons/hr and pressures of
17.5 kg/cm2. Figure 2.2 Fire Tube Boiler
Water tube or “water in tube” boilers in which

the conditions are reversed with the water passing
through the tubes and the hot gasses passing outside
the tubes (see figure 2.3). These boilers can be of
single- or multiple-drum type. These boilers can be
built to any steam capacities and pressures, and have
higher efficiencies than fire tube boilers.
Figure 2.3 Water Tube Boiler
Packaged Boiler: The packaged boiler is so

called because it comes as a complete package.
Once delivered to site, it requires only the steam,
water pipe work, fuel supply and electrical
connections to be made for it to become
operational. Package boilers are generally of
shell type with fire tube design so as to achieve
high heat transfer rates by both radiation and
convection (Refer Figure 2.4).
Figure 2.4 Packaged Boiler

Ch-02.qxd 2/23/2005 11:21 AM Page 30
2. Boilers
The features of package boilers are:

Small combustion space and high heat release rate resulting in faster evaporation.
Large number of small diameter tubes leading to good convective heat transfer.
Forced or induced draft systems resulting in good combustion efficiency.
Number of passes resulting in better overall heat transfer.
Higher thermal efficiency levels compared with other boilers.
These boilers are classified based on the number of passes – the number of times the hot
combustion gases pass through the boiler. The combustion chamber is taken, as the first pass
after which there may be one, two or three sets of fire-tubes. The most common boiler of this
class is a three-pass unit with two sets of fire-tubes and with the exhaust gases exiting through
the rear of the boiler.
Stoker Fired Boiler:

Stokers are classified according to the method of feeding fuel to the furnace and by the type of
grate. The main classifications are:
1. Chain-grate or traveling-grate stoker
2. Spreader stoker
Chain-Grate or Traveling-Grate Stoker Boiler

Coal is fed onto one end of a moving steel chain grate. As grate moves along the length of the
furnace, the coal burns before dropping off at the end as ash. Some degree of skill is required,
particularly when setting up the grate, air dampers and baffles, to ensure clean combustion
leaving minimum of unburnt carbon in the ash.
Figure 2.5 Chain Grate Stoker

Ch-02.qxd 2/23/2005 11:21 AM Page 31
2. Boilers
The coal-feed hopper runs along the entire coal-feed end of the furnace. A coal grate is used
to control the rate at which coal is fed into the furnace, and to control the thickness of the coal
bed and speed of the grate. Coal must be uniform in size, as large lumps will not burn out com-
pletely by the time they reach the end of the grate. As the bed thickness decreases from coal-
feed end to rear end, different amounts of air are required- more quantity at coal-feed end and
less at rear end (see Figure 2.5).
Spreader Stoker Boiler

Spreader stokers (see figure 2.6) utilize a combination of suspension burning and grate burning.
The coal is continually fed into the furnace above a burning bed of coal. The coal fines are
burned in suspension; the larger particles fall to the grate, where they are burned in a thin, fast-
burning coal bed. This method of firing provides good flexibility to meet load fluctuations,
since ignition is almost instantaneous when firing rate is increased. Hence, the spreader stoker
is favored over other types of stokers in many industrial applications.
Figure 2.6 Spreader Stoker

Pulverized Fuel Boiler
Most coal-fired power station boilers use pulverized coal, and many of the larger industrial
water-tube boilers also use this pulverized fuel. This technology is well developed, and there
are thousands of units around the world, accounting for well over 90% of coal-fired capacity.
The coal is ground (pulverised) to a fine powder, so that less than 2% is +300 micro metre
(µm) and 70-75% is below 75 microns, for a bituminous coal. It should be noted that too fine
a powder is wasteful of grinding mill power. On the other hand, too coarse a powder does not
burn completely in the combustion chamber and results in higher unburnt losses.
The pulverised coal is blown with part of the combustion air into the boiler plant through a
series of burner nozzles. Secondary and tertiary air may also be added. Combustion takes place

Ch-02.qxd 2/23/2005 11:21 AM Page 32
2. Boilers
at temperatures from 1300-1700°C,

depending largely on coal grade.
Particle residence time in the boiler is
typically 2 to 5 seconds, and the
particles must be small enough for
complete combustion to have taken
place during this time.
This system has many advantages
such as ability to fire varying quality
of coal, quick responses to changes in
load, use of high pre-heat air tempera-
tures etc.
One of the most popular systems
for firing pulverized coal is the tangen-
tial firing using four burners corner to
corner to create a fireball at the center
Figure 2.7 Tangential Firing
of the furnace (see Figure 2.7).
FBC Boiler
When an evenly distributed air
or gas is passed upward
through a finely divided bed of
solid particles such as sand
supported on a fine mesh, the
particles are undisturbed at low
velocity. As air velocity is
gradually increased, a stage is
reached when the individual
particles are suspended in the
air stream. Further, increase in
velocity gives rise to bubble
formation, vigorous turbulence
and rapid mixing and the bed is
said to be fluidized.
If the sand in a fluidized
state is heated to the ignition
temperature of the coal and the
coal is injected continuously in
to the bed, the coal will burn
rapidly, and the bed attains a
uniform temperature due to
Figure 2.8 Fluidised Bed Combustion
effective mixing. Proper air dis-
tribution is vital for maintaining uniform fluidisation across the bed.). Ash is disposed by dry
and wet ash disposal systems.

Ch-02.qxd 2/23/2005 11:21 AM Page 33
2. Boilers
Fluidised bed combustion has significant advantages over conventional firing systems and
offers multiple benefits namely fuel flexibility, reduced emission of noxious pollutants such as
SOx and NOx, compact boiler design and higher combustion efficiency. More details about
FBC boilers are given in Chapter 6 on Fluidized Bed Boiler.
2.4 Performance Evaluation of Boilers

The performance parameters of boiler, like efficiency and evaporation ratio reduces with time
due to poor combustion, heat transfer surface fouling and poor operation and maintenance.
Even for a new boiler, reasons such as deteriorating fuel quality, water quality etc. can result in
poor boiler performance. Boiler efficiency tests help us to find out the deviation of boiler
efficiency from the best efficiency and target problem area for corrective action.
Boiler Efficiency
Thermal efficiency of boiler is defined as the percentage of heat input that is effectively utilised
to generate steam. There are two methods of assessing boiler efficiency.
1) The Direct Method: Where the energy gain of the working fluid (water and steam) is
compared with the energy content of the boiler fuel.
2) The Indirect Method: Where the efficiency is the difference between the losses and the
energy input.
Boiler Efficiency Evaluation
Direct Method Indirect Method
a. Direct Method
This is also known as ‘input-output method’ due to the fact that it needs only the useful output
(steam) and the heat input (i.e. fuel) for evaluating the efficiency. This efficiency can be evalu-
ated using the formula
Heat Output
Boiler Efficiency = × 100
Heat Input
Parameters to be monitored for the calculation of boiler efficiency by direct method are :
• Quantity of steam generated per hour (Q) in kg/hr.
• Quantity of fuel used per hour (q) in kg/hr.
• The working pressure (in kg/cm2(g)) and superheat temperature (°C), if any
• The temperature of feed water (°C)
• Type of fuel and gross calorific value of the fuel (GCV) in kCal/kg of fuel

Ch-02.qxd 2/23/2005 11:21 AM Page 34
2. Boilers
Q x (h g − h f )
Boiler Efficiency ( η) = × 100
q × GCV
Where, hg – Enthalpy of saturated steam in kCal/kg of steam

hf – Enthalpy of feed water in kCal/kg of water
Example
Find out the efficiency of the boiler by direct method with the data given below:
– Type of boiler : Coal fired
– Quantity of steam (dry) generated : 8 TPH
– Steam pressure (gauge) / temp : 10 kg/cm2(g)/ 180°C
– Quantity of coal consumed : 1.8 TPH
– Feed water temperature : 85°C
– GCV of coal : 3200 kCal/kg
2
– Enthalpy of steam at 10 kg/cm pressure : 665 kCal/kg (saturated)
– Enthalpy of feed water : 85 kCal/kg
8 × (665 − 85) ×1000

Boiler Efficiency ( η) = × 100 =80%
1.8 × 3200 ×1000
It should be noted that boiler may not generate 100% saturated dry steam, and there may be
some amount of wetness in the steam.
Advantages of direct method:
Plant people can evaluate quickly the efficiency of boilers

Requires few parameters for computation
Needs few instruments for monitoring
Disadvantages of direct method:
Does not give clues to the operator as to why efficiency of system is lower
Does not calculate various losses accountable for various efficiency levels
b. Indirect Method
There are reference standards for Boiler Testing at Site using indirect method namely British
Standard, BS 845: 1987 and USA Standard is ASME PTC-4-1 Power Test Code Steam
Generating Units’.
Indirect method is also called as heat loss method. The efficiency can be arrived at, by
subtracting the heat loss fractions from 100. The standards do not include blow down loss in the
efficiency determination process. A detailed procedure for calculating boiler efficiency by indi-

Ch-02.qxd 2/23/2005 11:21 AM Page 35
2. Boilers
rect method is given below. However, it may be noted that the practicing energy mangers in
industries prefer simpler calculation procedures.
The principle losses that occur in a boiler are:
• Loss of heat due to dry fluegas
• Loss of heat due to moisture in fuel and combustion air
• Loss of heat due to combustion of hydrogen
• Loss of heat due to radiation
• Loss of heat due to unburnt
In the above, loss due to moisture in fuel and the loss due to combustion of hydrogen are
dependent on the fuel, and cannot be controlled by design.
The data required for calculation of boiler efficiency using indirect method are:
• Ultimate analysis of fuel (H2, O2, S, C, moisture content, ash content)
• Percentage of Oxygen or CO2 in the flue gas
• Flue gas temperature in °C (Tf)
• Ambient temperature in °C (Ta) & humidity of air in kg/kg of dry air
• GCV of fuel in kCal/kg
• Percentage combustible in ash (in case of solid fuels)
• GCV of ash in kCal/kg (in case of solid fuels)
Solution :
Theoretical air requirement

=[(11.6 × C) + {34.8 × (H2 – O2/8)} + (4.35 × S)]/100 kg/kg of fuel
O2 %
Excess Air supplied (EA) = × 100
21 − O 2 %
Actual mass of air supplied/ kg of fuel (AAS) = {1 + EA/100} × theoretical air

m × Cp × (Tf – Ta ) × 100
i. Percentage heat loss due to dry flue gas =
GCV of fuel
m = mass of dry flue gas in kg/kg of fuel
m = Combustion products from fuel: CO2 + SO2 + Nitrogen in fuel + Nitrogen in the actual
mass of air supplied + O2 in flue gas. (H2O/Water vapour in the flue gas should not be
considered)
Cp = Specific heat of flue gas (0.23 kCal/kg °C)
ii. Percentage heat loss due to evaporation of water formed due to H2 in fuel
9 × H 2 × {584 + C p (T f -T a )}
= × 100
GCV of fuel

Ch-02.qxd 2/23/2005 11:21 AM Page 36
2. Boilers
Where, H2 - kg of H2 in 1 kg of fuel
Cp - Specific heat of superheated steam (0.45 kCal/kg °C)
iii. Percentage heat loss due to evaporation of moisture present in fuel

M x {584 + C p (T f -T a )}
= x 100
GCV of fuel
Where, M – kg of moisture in 1kg of fuel

Cp – Specific heat of superheated steam (0.45 kCal/kg)°C
584 is the latent heat corresponding to the partial pressure of water vapour.
iv. Percentage heat loss due to moisture present in air

AAS × humidity factor × C p x (T f -T a )
= × 100
GCV of fuel
Cp – Specific heat of superheated steam (0.45 kCal/kg °C)
v. Percentage heat loss due to unburnt in fly ash

Total ash collected / kg of fuel burnt × G.C.V of fly ash
= × 100
GCV of fuel
vi. Percentage heat loss due to unburnt in bottom ash
Total ash collected / kg of fuel burnt × G.C.V of bottom ash

= × 100
GCV of fuel
vii. Percentage heat loss due to radiation and other unaccounted loss
The actual radiation and convection losses are difficult to assess because of particular
emissivity of various surfaces, its inclination, air flow pattern etc. In a relatively small boiler,
with a capacity of 10 MW, the radiation and unaccounted losses could amount to between 1%
and 2% of the gross calorific value of the fuel, while in a 500 MW boiler, values between 0.2%
to 1% are typical. The loss may be assumed appropriately depending on the surface condition.
Efficiency of boiler (η) = 100 - (i + ii + iii + iv + v + vi + vii)
Example: The following are the data collected for a typical oil fired boiler. Find out the effi-
ciency of the boiler by indirect method and Boiler Evaporation ratio.
• Type of boiler : Oil fired

Ch-02.qxd 2/23/2005 11:21 AM Page 37
2. Boilers
• Ultimate analysis of Oil

C : 84.0 % H2 : 12.0 %
S : 3.0 % O2 : 1.0 %
• GCV of Oil : 10200 kCal/kg
• Steam Generation Pressure : 7kg/cm2(g)-saturated
• Enthalpy of steam : 660 kCal/kg
• Feed water temperature : 60 °C
• Percentage of Oxygen in flue gas :7
• Percentage of CO2 in flue gas : 11
• Flue gas temperature (Tf) : 220 °C
• Ambient temperature (Ta) : 27 °C
• Humidity of air : 0.018 kg/kg of dry air
Solution
Step-1: Find the theoretical air requirement
= [(11.6 × C) + {34.8 × ( H 2 − O2 / 8)} +(4.35 × S)] /100 kg/kg of oil
=[(11.6 × 84) + [{34.8 × (12 – 1/8)} + (4.35 × 3)]/100 kg/kg of oil
=14 kg of air/kg of oil

Step-2: Find the %Excess air supplied
Excess air supplied (EA) = (O2 × 100)/(21-O2)
= (7 × 100)/(21-7)
= 50%
Step-3: Find the Actual mass of air supplied
Actual mass of air supplied /kg of fuel = [ 1 + EA/100] x Theoritical Air
(AAS)
= [1 + 50/100] x 14
= 1.5 x 14
= 21 kg of air/kg of oil
Step-4: Estimation of all losses
i. Dry flue gas loss
m × Cp × (Tf – Ta ) × 100
Percentage heat loss due to dry flue gas =
GCV of fuel
m= mass of CO2 + mass of SO2 + mass of N2 + mass of O2

Ch-02.qxd 2/23/2005 11:21 AM Page 38
2. Boilers
0.84 × 44 0.03 ×64 21 ×77  23 

m= + + +  (21 −14) × 
12 32 100  100 
m= 21 kg / kg of oil
21 x 0.23 x (220 − 27)
Percentage heat loss due to dry flue gas = x 100 = 9.14 %
10200
Alternatively a simple method can be used for determining the dry flue gas loss as
given below.
m × Cp × (Tf – Ta ) × 100
a) Percentage heat loss due to dry flue gas =
GCV of fuel
Total mass of flue gas (m) = mass of actual air supplied + mass of fuel supplied
= 21 + 1 = 22
22 x 0.23 x (220 − 27)
%Dry flue gas loss = x 100 = 9.57%
10200
ii. Heat loss due to evaporation of water formed due to H2 in fuel
9 × H2 {584 + Cp (Tf – Ta)}× 100

=
GCV of fuel
Where, H2 - percentage of H2 in fuel
9 × 12 {584 + 0.45 (220 – 27)}× 100
=
10200
= 7.10%
iii. Heat loss due to moisture present in air
AAS × humidity × Cp × (Tf – Ta) × 100
=
GCV of fuel
21 x 0.018 x 0.45 x(220 − 27)
= x 100 = 0.322%
10200
iv. Heat loss due to radiation and other unaccounted losses

For a small boiler it is estimated to be 2%
Boiler Efficiency
i. Heat loss due to dry flue gas : 9.14%
ii. Heat loss due to evaporation of water formed due to H2 in fuel : 7.10 %
iii. Heat loss due to moisture present in air : 0.322 %
Ch-02.qxd 2/23/2005 11:21 AM Page 39
2. Boilers
iv. Heat loss due to radiation and other unaccounted loss : 2%

Boiler Efficiency
= 100- [9.14 + 7.10 + 0.322 + 2]
= 100 – 18.56 = 81 %(app)
Evaporation Ratio = Heat utilised for steam generation/Heat addition to the steam
= 10200 × 0.83/ (660-60)
= 14.11
Boiler Evaporation Ratio

Evaporation ratio means kilogram of steam generated per kilogram of fuel consumed.
Typical Examples: Coal fired boiler: 6
Oil fired boiler: 13
i.e 1 kg of coal can generate 6 kg of steam
1 kg of oil can generate 13 kg of steam
However, this figure will depend upon type of boiler, calorific value of the fuel and
associated efficiencies.
2.5 Boiler Blowdown

When water is boiled and steam is generated, any dissolved solids contained in the water remain
in the boiler. If more solids are put in with the feed water, they will concentrate and may even-
tually reach a level where their solubility in the water is exceeded and they deposit from the
solution. Above a certain level of concentration, these solids encourage foaming and cause car-
ryover of water into the steam. The deposits also lead to scale formation inside the boiler, result-
ing in localized overheating and finally causing boiler tube failure.
It is, therefore, necessary to control the level of concentration of the solids and this is
achieved by the process of ‘blowing down’, where a certain volume of water is blown off and
is automatically replaced by feed water – thus maintaining the optimum level of total dissolved
solids (TDS) in the boiler water. Blow down is necessary to protect the surfaces of the heat
exchanger in the boiler. However, blow down can be a significant source of heat loss,
if improperly carried out. The maximum amount of total dissolved solids (TDS) concentration
permissible in various types of boilers is given in Table 2.1.
TABLE 2.1 RECOMMENDED TDS LEVELS FOR VARIOUS BOILERS
Boiler Type Maximum TDS (ppm)*

1. Lancashire 10,000 ppm
2. Smoke and water tube boilers (12 kg/cm2) 5,000 ppm
3. Low pressure Water tube boiler 2000–3000
4. High Pressure Water tube boiler with superheater etc. 3,000–3,500 ppm
5. Package and economic boilers 3,000 ppm
6. Coil boilers and steam generators 2000 (in the feed water
Note: Refer guidelines specified by manufacturer for more details
*parts per million

Ch-02.qxd 2/23/2005 11:21 AM Page 40
2. Boilers
Conductivity as Indicator of Boiler Water Quality

Since it is tedious and time consuming to measure total dissolved solids (TDS) in boiler water
system, conductivity measurement is used for monitoring the overall TDS present in the boiler.
A rise in conductivity indicates a rise in the “contamination” of the boiler water.
Conventional methods for blowing down the boiler depend on two kinds of blowdown –
intermittent and continuous
Intermittent Blowdown
The intermittent blown down is given by manually operating a valve fitted to discharge pipe at
the lowest point of boiler shell to reduce parameters (TDS or conductivity, pH, Silica and
Phosphates concentration) within prescribed limits so that steam quality is not likely to be
affected. In intermittent blowdown, a large diameter line is opened for a short period of time,
the time being based on a thumb rule such as “once in a shift for 2 minutes”.
Intermittent blowdown requires large short-term increases in the amount of feed water put
into the boiler, and hence may necessitate larger feed water pumps than if continuous blow
down is used. Also, TDS level will be varying, thereby causing fluctuations of the water level
in the boiler due to changes in steam bubble size and distribution which accompany changes in
concentration of solids. Also substantial amount of heat energy is lost with intermittent
blowdown.
Continuous Blowdown
There is a steady and constant dispatch of small stream of concentrated boiler water, and
replacement by steady and constant inflow of feed water. This ensures constant TDS and steam
Figure 2.9 Blowdown Heat Recovery System
purity at given steam load. Once blow down valve is set for a given conditions, there is no need
for regular operator intervention.

Ch-02.qxd 2/23/2005 11:21 AM Page 41
2. Boilers
Even though large quantities of heat are wasted, opportunity exists for recovering this heat
by blowing into a flash tank and generating flash steam. This flash steam can be used for pre-
heating boiler feed water or for any other purpose (see Figure 2.9 for blow down heat recovery
system). This type of blow down is common in high-pressure boilers.
Blowdown calculations
The quantity of blowdown required to control boiler water solids concentration is calculated by
using the following formula:
Blow down (%) = Feed water TDS × % Make up water
Maximum Permissible TDS in Boiler water
If maximum permissible limit of TDS as in a package boiler is 3000 ppm, percentage make
up water is 10% and TDS in feed water is 300 ppm, then the percentage blow down is given as:
= 300 x 10/ 3000
= 1%
If boiler evaporation rate is 3000 kg/hr then required blow down rate is:
3000 x 1
100
= 30 kg/hr
Benefits of Blowdown
Good boiler blow down control can significantly reduce treatment and operational costs that
include:
– Lower pretreatment costs
– Less make-up water consumption
– Reduced maintenance downtime
– Increased boiler life
– Lower consumption of treatment chemicals
2.6 Boiler Water Treatment

Producing quality steam on demand depends on properly managed water treatment to control
steam purity, deposits and corrosion. A boiler is the sump of the boiler system. It ultimately
receives all of the pre-boiler contaminants. Boiler performance, efficiency, and service life are
direct products of selecting and controlling feed water used in the boiler.
When feed water enters the boiler, the elevated temperatures and pressures cause the
components of water to behave differently. Most of the components in the feed water are
soluble. However, under heat and pressure most of the soluble components come out of

Ch-02.qxd 2/23/2005 11:21 AM Page 42
2. Boilers
solution as particulate solids, sometimes in crystallized forms and other times as amorphous
particles. When solubility of a specific component in water is exceeded, scale or deposits
develop. The boiler water must be sufficiently free of deposit forming solids to allow rapid and
efficient heat transfer and it must not be corrosive to the boiler metal.
Deposit Control
Deposits in boilers may result from hardness contamination of feed water and corrosion
products from the condensate and feed water system. Hardness contamination of the feed water
may arise due to deficient softener system.
Deposits and corrosion result in efficiency losses and may result in boiler tube failures and
inability to produce steam. Deposits act as insulators and slows heat transfer. Large amounts of
deposits throughout the boiler could reduce the heat transfer enough to reduce the boiler effi-
ciency significantly. Different type of deposits affects the boiler efficiency differently. Thus it
may be useful to analyse the deposits for its characteristics. The insulating effect of deposits
causes the boiler metal temperature to rise and may lead to tube-failure by overheating.
Impurities Causing Deposits
The most important chemicals contained in water that influences the formation of deposits in
the boilers are the salts of calcium and magnesium, which are known as hardness salts.
Calcium and magnesium bicarbonate dissolve in water to form an alkaline solution and
these salts are known as alkaline hardness. They decompose upon heating, releasing carbon
dioxide and forming a soft sludge, which settles out. These are called temporary hardness-hard-
ness that can be removed by boiling.
Calcium and magnesium sulphates, chlorides and nitrates, etc. when dissolved in water are
chemically neutral and are known as non-alkaline hardness. These are called permanent hard-
ness and form hard scales on boiler surfaces, which are difficult to remove. Non-alkalinity hard-
ness chemicals fall out the solution due to reduction in solubility as the temperature rises, by
concentration due to evaporation which takes place within the boiler, or by chemical change to
a less soluble compound.
Silica
The presence of silica in boiler water can rise to formation of hard silicate scales. It can also
associate with calcium and magnesium salts, forming calcium and magnesium silicates of very
low thermal conductivity. Silica can give rise to deposits on steam turbine blades, after been
carried over either in droplets of water in steam, or in volatile form in steam at higher pressures.
Two major types of boiler water treatment are: Internal water treatment and External water
treatment.
Internal Water Treatment
Internal treatment is carried out by adding chemicals to boiler to prevent the formation of scale
by converting the scale-forming compounds to free-flowing sludges, which can be removed by
blowdown. This method is limited to boilers, where feed water is low in hardness salts, to low
pressures- high TDS content in boiler water is tolerated, and when only small quantity of water
is required to be treated. If these conditions are not applied, then high rates of blowdown are

Ch-02.qxd 2/23/2005 11:21 AM Page 43
2. Boilers
required to dispose off the sludge. They become uneconomical from heat and water loss con-
sideration.
Different waters require different chemicals. Sodium carbonate, sodium aluminate, sodium
phosphate, sodium sulphite and compounds of vegetable or inorganic origin are all used for this
purpose. Proprietary chemicals are available to suit various water conditions. The specialist
must be consulted to determine the most suitable chemicals to use in each case. Internal treat-
ment alone is not recommended.
External Water Treatment
External treatment is used to remove suspended solids, dissolved solids (particularly the
calcium and magnesium ions which are a major cause of scale formation) and dissolved gases
(oxygen and carbon dioxide).
The external treatment processes available are: ion exchange; demineralization; reverse
osmosis and de-aeration. Before any of these are used, it is necessary to remove suspended
solids and colour from the raw water, because these may foul the resins used in the subsequent
treatment sections.
Methods of pre-treatment include simple sedimentation in settling tanks or settling in
clarifiers with aid of coagulants and flocculants. Pressure sand filters, with spray aeration to
remove carbon dioxide and iron, may be used to remove metal salts from bore well water.
The first stage of treatment is to remove hardness salt and possibly non-hardness salts.
Removal of only hardness salts is called softening, while total removal of salts from solution is
called demineralization.
The processes are:
Ion-exchange process (Softener Plant)

In ion-exchange process, the hardness is
Softening reaction:
removed as the water passes through bed of
natural zeolite or synthetic resin and without Na2R + Ca(HCO3)2 « CaR + 2 Na(HCO3)
the formation of any precipitate. The simplest
type is ‘base exchange’ in which calcium and Regeneration reaction
magnesium ions are exchanged for sodium CaR + 2 NaCl « Na2R + CaCl2
ions. After saturation regeneration is done with
sodium chloride. The sodium salts being soluble, do not form scales in boilers. Since base
exchanger only replaces the calcium and magnesium with sodium, it does not reduce the TDS
content, and blowdown quantity. It also does not reduce the alkalinity.
Demineralization is the complete removal of all salts. This is achieved by using a “cation”
resin, which exchanges the cations in the raw water with hydrogen ions, producing
hydrochloric, sulphuric and carbonic acid. Carbonic acid is removed in degassing tower in
which air is blown through the acid water. Following this, the water passes through an “anion”
resin which exchanges anions with the mineral acid (e.g. sulphuric acid) and forms water.
Regeneration of cations and anions is necessary at intervals using, typically, mineral acid and
caustic soda respectively. The complete removal of silica can be achieved by correct choice of
anion resin.

Ch-02.qxd 2/23/2005 11:21 AM Page 44
2. Boilers
Ion exchange processes can be used for almost total demineralization if required, as is the
case in large electric power plant boilers
De-aeration
In de-aeration, dissolved gases, such as oxygen
and carbon dioxide, are expelled by preheating
the feed water before it enters the boiler.
All natural waters contain dissolved gases in
solution. Certain gases, such as carbon dioxide
and oxygen, greatly increase corrosion. When
heated in boiler systems, carbon dioxide (CO2)
and oxygen (O2) are released as gases and com-
bine with water (H2O) to form carbonic acid,
(H2CO3).
Removal of oxygen, carbon dioxide and
other non-condensable gases from boiler feed-
water is vital to boiler equipment longevity as
well as safety of operation. Carbonic acid cor-
rodes metal reducing the life of equipment and Figure 2.10 Deaerator
piping. It also dissolves iron (Fe) which when returned to the boiler precipitates and causes
scaling on the boiler and tubes. This scale not only contributes to reducing the life of the equip-
ment but also increases the amount of energy needed to achieve heat transfer.
De-aeration can be done by mechanical de-aeration, by chemical de-deration or by both
together.
Mechanical de-aeration
Mechanical de-aeration for the removal of these dissolved gases is typically utilized prior to the
addition of chemical oxygen scavengers. Mechanical de-aeration is based on Charles’ and
Henry’s laws of physics. Simplified, these laws state that removal of oxygen and carbon dioxide
can be accomplished by heating the boiler feed water, which reduces the concentration of oxy-
gen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere surrounding the feed water. Mechanical de-aeration
can be the most economical. They operate at the boiling point of water at the pressure in the de-
aerator. They can be of vacuum or pressure type.
The vacuum type of de-aerator operates below atmospheric pressure, at about 82 °C, can
reduce the oxygen content in water to less than 0.02 mg/litre. Vacuum pumps or steam ejectors
are required to maintain the vacuum.
The pressure-type de-aerators operates by allowing steam into the feed water through a
pressure control valve to maintain the desired operating pressure, and hence temperature at a
minimum of
105 °C. The steam raises the water temperature causing the release of O2 and CO2 gases that
are then vented from the system. This type can reduce the oxygen content to 0.005 mg/litre.
Where excess low-pressure steam is available, the operating pressure can be selected to
make use of this steam and hence improve fuel economy. In boiler systems, steam is preferred

Ch-02.qxd 2/23/2005 11:21 AM Page 45
2. Boilers
for de-aeration because:

– Steam is essentially free from O2 and CO2,
– Steam is readily available
– Steam adds the heat required to complete the reaction.
Chemical de-Aeration
While the most efficient mechanical deaerators reduce oxygen to very low levels
(0.005 mg/litre), even trace amounts of oxygen may cause corrosion damage to a system.
Consequently, good operating practice requires removal of that trace oxygen with a chemical
oxygen scavenger such as sodium sulfite or hydrazine. Sodium sulphite reacts with oxygen to
form sodium sulphate, which increases the TDS in the boiler water and hence increases the
blowdown requirements and make-up water quality. Hydrazine reacts with oxygen to form
nitrogen and water. It is invariably used in high pressures boilers when low boiler water solids
are necessary, as it does not increase the TDS of the boiler water.
Reverse Osmosis
Reverse osmosis uses the fact that when solutions of differing concentrations are separated by a
semi-permeable membrane, water from less concentrated solution passes through the membrane
to dilute the liquid of high concentration. If the solution of high concentration is pressurized, the
process is reversed and the water from the solution of high concentration flows to the weaker solu-
tion. This is known as reverse osmosis. The quality of water produced depends upon the concen-
tration of the solution on the high-pressure side and pressure differential ascross the membrane.
This process is suitable for waters with very high TDS, such as sea water.
The semipermeable nature

of the membrane allows the
water to pass much more readi-
ly than the dissolved minerals.
Since the water in the less con-
centrated solution seeks to
dilute the more concentrated
solution, the water passage
through the membrane
generates a noticeable head
difference between the two
solutions. This head difference
is a measure of the concentra-
tion difference of the two solu-
tions and is referred to as the
osmotic pressure difference.

Ch-02.qxd 2/23/2005 11:21 AM Page 46
2. Boilers
When a pressure is applied to

the concentrated solution
which is great that the osmotic
pressure difference, the
direction of water passage
through the membrane is
reversed and the process that
we refer to as reverse osmosis
is established. That is, the
membrane's ability to
selectively pass water is
unchanged, only the direction
of the water flow is changed.
The feed water and concentrate

(reject stream) ports illustrates
a continuously operating RO
system.
Figure 2.11 Reverse Osmosis
Recommended boiler and feed water quality

The impurities found in boiler water depend on the untreated feed water quality, the treatment
process used and the boiler operating procedures. As a general rule, the higher the boiler oper-
ating pressure, the greater will be the sensitivity to impurities. Recommended feed water and
boiler water limits are shown in Table 2.2 and Table 2.3.

Ch-02.qxd 2/23/2005 11:21 AM Page 47
2. Boilers
TABLE 2.2 RECOMMENDED FEED WATER LIMITS
Factor Upto 20 kg/cm2 21 – 39 kg/cm2 41 – 59 kg/cm2

Total iron (max) ppm 0.05 0.02 0.01
Total copper (max) ppm 0.01 0.01 0.01
Total silica (max) ppm 1.0 0.3 0.1
Oxygen (max) ppm 0.02 0.02 0.01
Hydrazine residual ppm – – -0.02-0.04
pH at 25°C 8.8-9.2 8.8-9.2 8.2-9.2
Hardness, ppm 1.0 0.5 –
TABLE 2.3 RECOMMENDED BOILER WATER LIMITS

(IS 10392, YEAR 1982)
Factor Upto 20 kg/cm2 21 – 39 kg/cm2 40 – 59 kg/cm2

TDS, ppm 3000–3500 1500–2500 500–1500
Total iron dissolved solids ppm 500 200 150
Specific electrical conductivity 1000 400 300
at 25°C (mho)
Phosphate residual ppm 20-40 20-40 15-25
pH at 25°C 10–10.5 10–10.5 9.8–10.2
Silica (max) ppm 25 15 10
2.7 Energy Conservation Opportunities

The various energy efficiency opportunities in boiler system can be related to combustion, heat
transfer, avoidable losses, high auxiliary power consumption, water quality and blowdown.
Examining the following factors can indicate if a boiler is being run to maximize its
efficiency:
1. Stack Temperature
The stack temperature should be as low as possible. However, it should not be so low that water
vapor in the exhaust condenses on the stack walls. This is important in fuels containing signfi-
cant sulphur as low temperature can lead to sulphur dew point corrosion. Stack temperatures
greater than 200°C indicates potential for recovery of waste heat. It also indicate the scaling of
heat transfer/recovery equipment and hence the urgency of taking an early shut down for water
/ flue side cleaning.
2. Feed Water Preheating using Economiser

Typically, the flue gases leaving a modern 3-pass shell boiler are at temperatures of 200 to
300 °C. Thus, there is a potential to recover heat from these gases. The flue gas exit tempera-

Ch-02.qxd 2/23/2005 11:21 AM Page 48
2. Boilers
ture from a boiler is usually maintained at a minimum of 200 °C, so that the sulphur oxides in
the flue gas do not condense and cause corrosion in heat transfer surfaces. When a clean fuel
such as natural gas, LPG or gas oil is used, the economy of heat recovery must be worked out,
as the flue gas temperature may be well below 200 °C.
The potential for energy saving depends on the type of boiler installed and the fuel used.
For a typically older model shell boiler, with a flue gas exit temperature of 260 °C, an
economizer could be used to reduce it to 200 °C, increasing the feed water temperature by
15 °C. Increase in overall thermal efficiency would be in the order of 3%. For a modern 3-pass
shell boiler firing natural gas with a flue gas exit temperature of 140 °C a condensing
economizer would reduce the exit temperature to 65 °C increasing thermal efficiency by 5%.
3. Combustion Air Preheat

Combustion air preheating is an alternative to feedwater heating. In order to improve thermal
efficiency by 1%, the combustion air temperature must be raised by 20 °C. Most gas and oil
burners used in a boiler plant are not designed for high air preheat temperatures.
Modern burners can withstand much higher combustion air preheat, so it is possible to con-
sider such units as heat exchangers in the exit flue as an alternative to an economizer, when
either space or a high feed water return temperature make it viable.
4. Incomplete Combustion
Incomplete combustion can arise from a shortage of air or surplus of fuel or poor
distribution of fuel. It is usually obvious from the colour or smoke, and must be corrected
immediately.
In the case of oil and gas fired systems, CO or smoke (for oil fired systems only) with
normal or high excess air indicates burner system problems. A more frequent cause of incom-
plete combustion is the poor mixing of fuel and air at the burner. Poor oil fires can result from
improper viscosity, worn tips, carbonization on tips and deterioration of diffusers or spinner
plates.
With coal firing, unburned carbon can comprise a big loss. It occurs as grit carry-over or
carbon-in-ash and may amount to more than 2% of the heat supplied to the boiler. Non uniform
fuel size could be one of the reasons for incomplete combustion. In chain grate stokers, large
lumps will not burn out completely, while small pieces and fines may block the air passage, thus
causing poor air distribution. In sprinkler stokers, stoker grate condition, fuel distributors, wind
box air regulation and over-fire systems can affect carbon loss. Increase in the fines in
pulverized coal also increases carbon loss.
5. Excess Air Control

The Table 2.4 gives the theoretical amount of air required for combustion of various types of fuel.
Excess air is required in all practical cases to ensure complete combustion, to allow for the
normal variations in combustion and to ensure satisfactory stack conditions for some fuels.
The optimum excess air level for maximum boiler efficiency occurs when the sum of the loss-
es due to incomplete combustion and loss due to heat in flue gases is minimum. This level
varies with furnace design, type of burner, fuel and process variables. It can be determined by
conducting tests with different air fuel ratios.

Ch-02.qxd 2/23/2005 11:21 AM Page 49
2. Boilers
TABLE 2.4 THEORETICAL COMBUSTION DATA – COMMON BOILER FUELS
Fuel kg of air kg of flue m3 of Theoretical CO2% in flue

req./kg of gas/kg flue/kg CO2% in gas achieved
fuel of fuel of fuel dry flue gas in practice
Solid Fuels
Bagasse 3.2 3.43 2.61 20.65 10–12
Coal (bituminous) 10.8 11.7 9.40 18.70 10–13
Lignite 8.4 9.10 6.97 19.40 9–13
Paddy Husk 4.6 5.63 4.58 19.8 14–15
Wood 5.8 6.4 4.79 20.3 11.13
Liquid Fuels
Furnace Oil 13.90 14.30 11.50 15.0 9–14
LSHS 14.04 14.63 10.79 15.5 9–14
Typical values of excess air supplied for various fuels are given in Table – 2.5.
TABLE 2.5 EXCESS AIR LEVELS FOR DIFFERENT FUELS
Fuel Type of Furnace or Burners Excess Air (% by wt)

Pulverised coal Completely water-cooled furnace for slag-tap or dry-ash removal 15–20
Partially water-cooled furnace for dry-ash removal 15–40
Coal Spreader stoker 30–60
Water-cooler vibrating-grate stokers 30–60
Chain-grate and traveling-gate stokers 15–50
Underfeed stoker 20–50
Fuel oil Oil burners, register type 15–20
Multi-fuel burners and flat-flame 20–30
Natural gas High pressure burner 5–7
Wood Dutch over (10–23% through grates) and Hofft type 20–25
Bagasse All furnaces 25–35
Black liquor Recovery furnaces for draft and soda-pulping processes 30–40
Controlling excess air to an optimum level always results in reduction in flue gas losses; for
every 1% reduction in excess air there is approximately 0.6% rise in efficiency.
Various methods are available to control the excess air:
• Portable oxygen analysers and draft gauges can be used to make periodic readings to guide
the operator to manually adjust the flow of air for optimum operation. Excess air reduction
up to 20% is feasible.

Ch-02.qxd 2/23/2005 11:21 AM Page 50
2. Boilers
• The most common method is the continuous oxygen analyzer with a local readout mounted
draft gauge, by which the operator can adjust air flow. A further reduction of 10–15% can
be achieved over the previous system.
• The same continuous oxygen analyzer can have a remote controlled pneumatic damper
positioner, by which the readouts are available in a control room. This enables an operator
to remotely control a number of firing systems simultaneously.
The most sophisticated system is the automatic stack damper control, whose cost is really
justified only for large systems.
6. Radiation and Convection Heat Loss
The external surfaces of a shell boiler are hotter than the surroundings. The surfaces thus lose
heat to the surroundings depending on the surface area and the difference in temperature
between the surface and the surroundings.
The heat loss from the boiler shell is normally a fixed energy loss, irrespective of the boil-
er output. With modern boiler designs, this may represent only 1.5% on the gross calorific
value at full rating, but will increase to around 6%, if the boiler operates at only 25 percent
output.
Repairing or augmenting insulation can reduce heat loss through boiler walls and piping.
7. Automatic Blowdown Control
Uncontrolled continuous blowdown is very wasteful. Automatic blowdown controls can be
installed that sense and respond to boiler water conductivity and pH. A 10% blow down in a 15
kg/cm2 boiler results in 3% efficiency loss.
8. Reduction of Scaling and Soot Losses
In oil and coal-fired boilers, soot buildup on tubes acts as an insulator against heat transfer. Any
such deposits should be removed on a regular basis. Elevated stack temperatures may indicate
excessive soot buildup. Also same result will occur due to scaling on the water side.
High exit gas temperatures at normal excess air indicate poor heat transfer performance.
This condition can result from a gradual build-up of gas-side or waterside deposits. Waterside
deposits require a review of water treatment procedures and tube cleaning to remove deposits.
An estimated 1% efficiency loss occurs with every 22 °C increase in stack temperature.
Stack temperature should be checked and recorded regularly as an indicator of soot
deposits. When the flue gas temperature rises about 20 °C above the temperature for a newly
cleaned boiler, it is time to remove the soot deposits. It is, therefore, recommended to install a
dial type thermometer at the base of the stack to monitor the exhaust flue gas temperature.
It is estimated that 3 mm of soot can cause an increase in fuel consumption by 2.5% due to
increased flue gas temperatures. Periodic off-line cleaning of radiant furnace surfaces, boiler
tube banks, economizers and air heaters may be necessary to remove stubborn deposits.
9. Reduction of Boiler Steam Pressure
This is an effective means of reducing fuel consumption, if permissible, by as much as 1 to 2%.
Lower steam pressure gives a lower saturated steam temperature and without stack heat
recovery, a similar reduction in the temperature of the flue gas temperature results.

Ch-02.qxd 2/23/2005 11:21 AM Page 51
2. Boilers
Steam is generated at pressures normally dictated by the highest pressure / temperature

requirements for a particular process. In some cases, the process does not operate all the time, and
there are periods when the boiler pressure could be reduced. The energy manager should consider
pressure reduction carefully, before recommending it. Adverse effects, such as an increase in water
carryover from the boiler owing to pressure reduction, may negate any potential saving. Pressure
should be reduced in stages, and no more than a 20 percent reduction should be considered.
10. Variable Speed Control for Fans, Blowers and Pumps
Variable speed control is an important means of achieving energy savings. Generally, combus-
tion air control is effected by throttling dampers fitted at forced and induced draft fans. Though
dampers are simple means of control, they lack accuracy, giving poor control characteristics at
the top and bottom of the operating range. In general, if the load characteristic of the boiler is
variable, the possibility of replacing the dampers by a VSD should be evaluated.
11. Effect of Boiler Loading on Efficiency
The maximum efficiency of the boiler does not occur at full load, but at about two-thirds of the
full load. If the load on the boiler decreases further, efficiency also tends to decrease. At zero
output, the efficiency of the boiler is zero, and any fuel fired is used only to supply the losses.
The factors affecting boiler efficiency are:
• As the load falls, so does the value of the mass flow rate of the flue gases through the tubes.
This reduction in flow rate for the same heat transfer area, reduced the exit flue gas tem-
peratures by a small extent, reducing the sensible heat loss.
• Below half load, most combustion appliances need more excess air to burn the fuel
completely. This increases the sensible heat loss
In general, efficiency of the boiler reduces significantly below 25% of the rated load and as
far as possible, operation of boilers below this level should be avoided
12. Proper Boiler Scheduling
Since, the optimum efficiency of boilers occurs at 65–85% of full load, it is usually more
efficient, on the whole, to operate a fewer number of boilers at higher loads, than to operate a
large number at low loads.
13. Boiler Replacement
The potential savings from replacing a boiler depend on the anticipated change in overall
efficiency. A change in a boiler can be financially attractive if the existing boiler is :
old and inefficient
not capable of firing cheaper substitution fuel
over or under-sized for present requirements
not designed for ideal loading conditions
The feasibility study should examine all implications of long-term fuel availability and
company growth plans. All financial and engineering factors should be considered. Since boiler
plants traditionally have a useful life of well over 25 years, replacement must be carefully studied.

Ch-02.qxd 2/23/2005 11:21 AM Page 52
2. Boilers
2.8 Case Study

Installing Boiler Economiser
A paper mill retrofitted an economiser to existing boiler. The general specification of the boiler
is given below:
Boiler Capacity (T/h) Feed Water Temp (°C) Steam Pressure (bar) Fuel oil
8 110 18 Furnace oil
The thermal efficiency of the boiler was measured and calculated by the indirect method
using flue gases analyser and data logger. The result is summarised below:
Thermal efficiency : 81%
Flue gas temperature : 315°C
CO2% : 13
CO (ppm) : 167
The temperature in the flue gas is in the range of 315 to 320 °C. The waste heat in the flue gas
is recovered by installing an economizer, which transfers waste heat from the flue gases to the
boiler feed water. This resulted in a rise in feed water temperature by about 26 °C.
Basic Data
• Average quantity of steam generated ..... : 5 T/hr

• Average flue gas temperature ................ : 315 °C
• Average steam generation / kg of fuel oil : 14 kg
• Feed water inlet temperature ................. : 110 °C
• Fuel oil supply rate................................ : 314 kg/hr
• Flue gas quantity ................................... : 17.4 kg/kg of fuel
Cost Economics
• Quantity of flue gases ............................. : 314 × 17.4 = 5463.6 kg/h

• Quantity of heat available in the : 5463.6 × 0.23 × (315-200) = 144512 kCal/h
flue gases
• Rise in the feed water temperature ........... : 26 °C.
• Heat required for pre-heating the : 5000 × 1 × 26 = 130000 kCal/h
feed water
• Saving in terms of furnace oil .....................: 130000/10000 = 13 kg/h
• Annual operating hours ........................... : 8600
• Annual savings of fuel oil ......................... : 8600 × 13 = 111800 kg

Ch-02.qxd 2/23/2005 11:21 AM Page 53
2. Boilers
Conclusion
Through recovery of waste heat by installation of an economizer, the paper mill was able to
save 13 kg/hr. of furnace oil, which amounts to about 1,11,800 kg of furnace oil per annum.
QUESTIONS
1. What is the importance of draft in boilers?
2. What is a balanced draft system?
3. Which is the single major heat loss in boiler?
4. Explain the principle of modulating control in a boiler?
5. Explain the principle of fire tube and water tube boilers?
6. Explain the principles of fluidized bed combustion and pulverized fuel combustion?
7. Name three factors affecting the boiler efficiency and explain briefly?
8. Discuss the various types of draft in boiler system?
9. What do you understand by terminology fire tube and water tube in boiler?
10. Discuss the various types of heat losses in a boiler?
11. How do you measure boiler efficiency using direct method?
12. What do you understand by term evaporation ratio? What are the typical values for
coal and oil-fired boiler?
13. What do you understand by the term ‘Turn Down Ratio’ ?
14. What are the methods available for assessing the boiler efficiency and explain
briefly?
15. How do you assess boiler blow down requirement?
16. Discuss automatic blow down control system?
17. Why blow down is given in boiler?
18. What is the function of de-aerator in boiler?
19. What is the difference between an economizer and an air pre heater?
20. List the 5 energy conservation measures in improving the boiler efficiency without
investment.
21. What is intermittent and continuous blow down?
22. Why is sulphur in coal undesirable?
23. Is moisture in coal wasteful?
24. What is atomisation of fuel oil in combustion?
25. What are the causes for heavy black smoke in a boiler?

Ch-02.qxd 2/23/2005 11:21 AM Page 54
2. Boilers
26. 1 kg of water at 25°C is converted in to steam at atmospheric condition. What is the

value of sensible heat and latent heat added to the steam?
27. For boiler at 8 kg/cm2 (g) steam pressure. The following details are given
Saturation temperature of steam = 170°C
Sensible heat of water = 171 kCal/kg
Latent heat of evaporation = 490 kCal/kg
Moisture content in the steam = 4%
What is the total heat content of the steam?
28. The following are the ultimate analysis for coal: Calculate the stoichiometric air
requirement.
Carbon-38%, Ash-35%, Hydrogen-5% , Sulphur-2%.
For the same data, calculate the theoretical CO2.
If the actual measured CO2 is 8%, find out the excess air levels?
29. A packaged boiler is operating at 5% O2. Find out the excess air level?
30. In a furnace oil fired boiler, the evaporation ratio (kg of steam generated / kg of fur-
nace oil) was found to be 20 against a best possible limit of 13. (a) in your opinion
what could be the reasons for the same? (b) would you like to recommend the user
to maintain the same practice and conditions as the evaporation ratio is more than the
feasible limit?
REFERENCES
1. Steam Boiler Room Questions & Answers, Third Edition by Stephen M.Elonka and
Alex Higgins
2. Steam Boiler Operation by James J.Jackson, Prentice-Hall Inc, New Jersey, 1980.
3. Boilers by Carl D. Shields, McGraw Hill Book Company, U.S, 1961.
4. Industrial Heat Generation and Distribution -NIFES Training Manual Issued For CEC –
India Energy Bus Project
5. Practical Boiler Water Treatment by Leo.I.Pincus, McGraw Hill Inc, New York, 1962.
6. Technical Papers, Boiler Congress-2000 Seminar, 11 & 12 January 2000
7. Industrial Boilers by David Gunn and Robert Horton, Longman Scientific & Technical,
New York
8. Steam Generation, Distribution and Utilisation by TERI, GTZ and EMC
9. Efficient Operation of Boilers by National Productivity Council
www.eren.doe.gov
www.oit.doe.gov/bestpractices
www.pcra.org
www.energy-efficiency.gov.uk
www.actionenergy.org.uk
www.cia.org.uk
www.altenergy.com

Ch-03.qxd 2/23/2005 11:22 AM Page 55
3. STEAM SYSTEM
Syllabus
Steam System: Properties of steam, Assessment of steam distribution losses, Steam leak-
ages, Steam trapping, Condensate and flash steam recovery system, Identifying opportu-
nities for energy savings.
3.1 Introduction
Steam has been a popular mode of conveying energy since the industrial revolution. Steam is
used for generating power and also used in process industries such as sugar, paper, fertilizer,
refineries, petrochemicals, chemical, food, synthetic fibre and textiles The following character-
istics of steam make it so popular and useful to the industry:
• Highest specific heat and latent heat
• Highest heat transfer coefficient
• Easy to control and distribute
• Cheap and inert
3.2 Properties of Steam

Water can exist in the form of solid, liquid and gas as ice, water and steam respectively. If heat
energy is added to water, its temperature rises until a value is reached at which the water can no
longer exist as a liquid. We call this the "saturation" point and with any further addition of
energy, some of the water will boil off as steam. This evaporation requires relatively large
amounts of energy, and while it is being added, the water and the steam released are both at the
same temperature. Equally, if steam is made to release the energy that was added to evaporate
it, then the steam will condense and water at same temperature will be formed.
Liquid Enthalpy The heat required to change the tempera-

ture of a substance is called its
Liquid enthalpy is the "Enthalpy" (heat energy) in the sensible heat.
water when it has been raised to its boiling point to If 1 kg of water in a vessel at 25oC i.e.
produce steam, and is measured in kCal/kg, its containing heat value of 25 kCals is heated
symbol is hf. (also known as "Sensible Heat") by adding 75 kCals, the water is brought to
boiling point of 100oC.
Enthalpy of Evaporation (Heat Content of Steam)
The Enthalpy of evaporation is the heat energy to be To change the water to steam an
added to the water (when it has been raised to its additional 540 kCal would be required.
This quantity of heat required to change a
boiling point) in order to change it into steam. There chemical from the liquid to the gaseous state
is no change in temperature, the steam produced is at is called latent heat.
the same temperature as the water from which it is
produced, but the heat energy added to the water changes its state from water into steam at the
same temperature.

Ch-03.qxd 2/23/2005 11:22 AM Page 56
3. Steam System
When the steam condenses back into water, it For a boiler is operating at a pressure
gives up its enthalpy of evaporation, which it had of 8 kg/cm2, steam saturation temperature is
acquired on changing from water to steam. The 170 oC, and steam enthalpy or total heat of
enthalpy of evaporation is measured in kCal/kg. Its dry saturated steam is given by:
hf +hfg = 171.35 +489.46 = 660.81 kCal/kg.
symbol is hfg. Enthalpy of evaporation is also known
as latent heat. If the same steam contains 4% moisture, the
The temperature at which water boils, also total heat of steam is given by:
called as boiling point or saturation tempera- 171.35+ 0.96 x 489.46 = 641.23 kCal/kg
ture increases as the pressure increases.
When water under pressure is heated its saturation temperature rises above 100 °C. From
this it is evident that as the steam pressure increases, the usable heat energy in the steam
(enthalpy of evaporation), which is given up when the steam condenses, actually decreas-
es. The total heat of dry saturated steam or enthalpy of saturated steam is given by sum
of the two enthalpies hf +hfg (Refer Table 3.1 and figure 3.1). When the steam contains
moisture the total heat of steam will be hg = hf + χ hfg where χ is the dryness fraction.
The temperature of saturated steam is the same as the water from which it is generated,
and corresponds to a fixed and known pressure. Superheat is the addition of heat to dry
saturated steam without increase in pressure. The temperature of superheated steam,
expressed as degrees above saturation corresponding to the pressure, is referred to as the
degrees of superheat.
The Steam Phase Diagram

The data provided in the steam tables can also be expressed in a graphical form. Figure 3.1
illustrates the relationship between the enthalpy and the temperature at various different
pressures, and is known as a phase diagram.
Figure 3.1 Steam Phase Diagram

Ch-03.qxd 2/23/2005 11:22 AM Page 57
3. Steam System
As water is heated from 0°C to its saturation temperature, its condition follows the saturated
liquid line until it has received all of its liquid enthalpy, hf, (A - B).
If further heat continues to be added, it then changes phase to saturated steam and continues to
increase in enthalpy while remaining at saturation temperature ,hfg, (B - C).
As the steam/water mixture increases in dryness, its condition moves from the saturated
liquid line to the saturated vapour line. Therefore at a point exactly halfway between these two
states, the dryness fraction (χ) is 0.5. Similarly, on the saturated vapour line the steam is 100%
dry.
Once it has received all of its enthalpy of evaporation, it reaches the saturated vapour line.
If it continues to be heated after this point, the temperature of the steam will begin to rise as
superheat is imparted (C - D).
The saturated liquid and saturated vapour lines enclose a region in which a steam/water
mixture exists - wet steam. In the region to the left of the saturated liquid line only water exists,
and in the region to the right of the saturated vapour line only superheated steam exists.
The point at which the saturated liquid and saturated vapour lines meet is known as the
critical point. As the pressure increases towards the critical point the enthalpy of evaporation
decreases, until it becomes zero at the critical point. This suggests that water changes directly
into saturated steam at the critical point.
Above the critical point only gas may exist. The gaseous state is the most diffuse state in
which the molecules have an almost unrestricted motion, and the volume increases without
limit as the pressure is reduced.
The critical point is the highest temperature at which liquid can exist. Any compression at
constant temperature above the critical point will not produce a phase change.
Compression at constant temperature below the critical point however, will result in
liquefaction of the vapour as it passes from the superheated region into the wet steam region.
The critical point occurs at 374.15°C and 221.2 bar (a) for steam. Above this pressure the
steam is termed supercritical and no well-defined boiling point applies.
TABLE 3.1 EXTRACT FROM THE STEAM TABLES
Enthalpy in kCal/kg Specific Volume

Pressure Temperature
(m3/kg)
(kg/cm2) °C
Water (hf ) Evaporation (hfg) Steam (hg)
1 100 100.09 539.06 639.15 1.673
2 120 119.92 526.26 646.18 0.901
3 133 133.42 517.15 650.57 0.616
4 143 143.70 509.96 653.66 0.470
5 151 152.13 503.90 656.03 0.381
6 158 159.33 498.59 657.92 0.321
7 164 165.67 493.82 659.49 0.277
8 170 171.35 489.46 660.81 0.244

Ch-03.qxd 2/23/2005 11:22 AM Page 58
3. Steam System
3.3 Steam Distribution

The steam distribution system is the essential link between the steam generator and the steam
user. Whatever the source, an efficient steam distribution system is essential if steam of the right
quality and pressure is to be supplied, in the right quantity, to the steam using equipment.
Installation and maintenance of the steam system are important issues, and must be considered
at the design stage.
Figure 3.2 Steam Distribution System
As steam condenses in a process, flow is induced in the supply pipe. Condensate has a very
small volume compared to the steam, and this causes a pressure drop, which causes the steam
to flow through the pipes. The steam generated in the boiler must be conveyed through
pipework to the point where its heat energy is required. Initially there will be one or more main
pipes, or 'steam mains', which carry steam from the boiler in the general direction of the steam
using plant. Smaller branch pipes can then carry the steam to the individual pieces of equip-
ment. A typical steam distribution system is shown in Figure 3.2.
The working pressure

The distribution pressure of steam is influenced by a number of factors, but is limited by:
• The maximum safe working pressure of the boiler
• The minimum pressure required at the plant
As steam passes through the distribution pipework, it will inevitably lose pressure due to:
• Frictional resistance within the pipework
• Condensation within the pipework as heat is transferred to the environment.
Therefore allowance should be made for this pressure loss when deciding upon the initial
distribution pressure.

Ch-03.qxd 2/23/2005 11:22 AM Page 59
3. Steam System
Features of Steam Piping

General layout and location of steam consuming equipment is of great importance in efficient
distribution of steam. Steam pipes should be laid by the shortest possible distance rather than
to follow a building layout or road etc. However, this may come in the way of aesthetic design
and architect's plans and a compromise may be necessary while laying new pipes.
Apart from proper sizing of pipe lines, provision must be made for proper draining of
condensate which is bound to form as steam travels along the pipe.
Figure 3.3 Draining Condensate from Mains
For example, a 100 mm well lagged pipe of 30-meter length carrying steam at 7 kg/cm2
pressure can condense nearly 10 kg. of water in the pipe in one hour unless it is removed from
the pipe through traps.
The pipes should run with a fall of not less than 12.5 mm in 3 meter in the direction of flow.
There should also be large pockets in the pipes to enable water to collect otherwise water will
be carried along with steam. These drain pockets should be provided at every 30 to 50 meters
and at any low point in the pipe network. The pocket should be fitted with a trap to discharge
the condensate. Necessary expansion loops are required to take care of the expansion of pipes
when they get heated up. Automatic air vents should be fixed at the dead end of steam mains,
which will allow removal of air which will tend to accumulate.
3.4 Steam Pipe Sizing and Design

Any modification and alteration in the existing steam piping, for supplying higher quality steam
at right pressure and quantity must consider the following points:
Pipe Sizing
The objective of the steam distribution system is to supply steam at the correct pressure to the
point of use. It follows, therefore, that pressure drop through the distribution system is an
important feature.
Proper sizing of steam pipelines help in minimizing pressure drop. The velocities for
various types of steam are:
Superheated 50–70 m/sec
Saturated 30–40 m/sec
Wet or Exhaust 20–30 m/sec

Ch-03.qxd 2/23/2005 11:22 AM Page 60
3. Steam System
For fluid flow to occur, there must be more energy at Point 1 than Point 2 (see Figure 3.4 ). The
difference in energy is used to overcome frictional resistance between the pipe and the flowing
fluid.
Figure 3.4 Pressure Drop in Steam Pipes
This is illustrated by the equation
Where:
hf = Head loss to friction (m)

f = Friction factor (dimensionless)
L = Length (m)
u = Flow velocity (m/s)
g = Gravitational constant (9.81 m/s²)
D = Pipe diameter (m)
It is useful to remember that:
• Head loss to friction (hf) is proportional to the velocity squared (u²).

• The friction factor (f) is an experimental coefficient which is affected by factors
including:
• The Reynolds Number (which is affected by velocity).
• The reciprocal of velocity².

Ch-03.qxd 2/23/2005 11:22 AM Page 61
3. Steam System
Because the values for 'f' are quite complex, they are usually obtained from charts.
Example - Water pipe

Determine the difference in pressure between two points 1 km apart in a 150 mm bore hori-
zontal pipework system. The water flowrate is 45 m³/h at 15°C and the friction factor for this
pipe is taken as 0.005.
Volume flowrate ( m 3 s )
Velocity ( m s ) =
Cross sectional area (m 2)
45 m 3 h × 4
Velocity =
3600s h × π × 0.152
Velocity = 0.71m s
4f Lu 2
hf =
2gD
4 × 0.005 ×1000m × 0.712
hf =
2 × 9.81× 0.15
hf = 3.43m ≈ 0.34 bar
Guide for proper drainage and layout of steam lines:
1. The steam mains should be run with a falling slope of not less that 125 mm for every 30
metres length in the direction of the steam flow.
2. Drain points should be provided at intervals of 30–45 metres along the main.
3. Drain points should also be provided at low points in the mains and where the steam
main rises. Ideal locations are the bottom of expansion joints and before reduction and
stop valves.
4. Drain points in the main lines should be through an equal tee connection only.
5. It is preferable to choose open bucket or TD traps on account of their resilience.
6. The branch lines from the mains should always be connected at the top. Otherwise,
the branch line itself will act as a drain for the condensate.
7. Insecure supports as well as an alteration in level can lead to formation of water
pockets in steam, leading to wet steam delivery. Providing proper vertical and support
hangers helps overcome such eventualities.
8. Expansion loops are required to accommodate the expansion of steam lines while
starting from cold.
9. To ensure dry steam in the process equipment and in branch lines, steam separators can
be installed as required.

Ch-03.qxd 2/23/2005 11:22 AM Page 62
3. Steam System
In practice whether for water pipes or steam pipes, a balance is drawn between pipe size and
pressure loss. The steam piping should be sized, based on permissible velocity and the
available pressure drop in the line. Selecting a higher pipe size will reduce the pressure drop
and thus the energy cost. However, higher pipe size will increase the initial installation cost. By
use of smaller pipe size, even though the installation cost can be reduced, the energy cost will
increase due to higher-pressure drop. It is to be noted that the pressure drop change will be
inversely proportional to the 5th power of diameter change. Hence, care should be taken in
selecting the optimum pipe size.
Pipe Redundancy
All redundant (piping which are no longer needed) pipelines must be eliminated, which could
be, at times, upto 10–15 % of total length. This could reduce steam distribution losses
significantly. The pipe routing shall be made for transmission of steam in the shortest possible
way, so as to reduce the pressure drop in the system, thus saving the energy. However, care
should be taken that, the pipe routing shall be flexible enough to take thermal expansion and to
keep the terminal point loads, within the allowable limit.
3.5 Proper Selection, Operation and Maintenance of Steam Traps

The purpose of installing the steam traps is to obtain fast heating of the product and equipment
by keeping the steam lines and equipment free of condensate, air and non-condensable gases.
A steam trap is a valve device that discharges condensate and air from the line or piece of equip-
ment without discharging the steam.
Functions of Steam Traps

The three important functions of steam traps are:
• To discharge condensate as soon as it is formed.
• Not to allow steam to escape.
• To be capable of discharging air and other incondensible gases.
Types of Steam Traps

There are three basic types of steam trap into which all variations fall, all three are classified by
International Standard ISO 6704:1982.
Thermostatic (operated by changes in fluid temperature) - The temperature of saturated
steam is determined by its pressure. In the steam space, steam gives up its enthalpy of
evaporation (heat), producing condensate at steam temperature. As a result of any further heat
loss, the temperature of the condensate will fall. A thermostatic trap will pass condensate when
this lower temperature is sensed. As steam reaches the trap, the temperature increases and the
trap closes.
Mechanical (operated by changes in fluid density) - This range of steam traps operates by
sensing the difference in density between steam and condensate. These steam traps include 'ball
float traps' and 'inverted bucket traps'. In the 'ball float trap', the ball rises in the presence of
condensate, opening a valve which passes the denser condensate. With the 'inverted bucket

Ch-03.qxd 2/23/2005 11:22 AM Page 63
3. Steam System
trap', the inverted bucket floats when steam reaches the trap and rises to shut the valve. Both
are essentially 'mechanical' in their method of operation.
Thermodynamic (operated by changes in fluid dynamics) - Thermodynamic steam traps rely
partly on the formation of flash steam from condensate. This group includes 'thermodynamic',
'disc', 'impulse' and 'labyrinth' steam traps.
Some of the important traps in industrial use are explained as follows:
Inverted Bucket
The inverted bucket steam trap is shown in Figure 3.5. As its name implies, the mechanism
consists of an inverted bucket which is attached by a lever to a valve. An essential part of the
trap is the small air vent hole in the top of the bucket. Figure 3.5 shows the method of
operation. In (i) the bucket hangs down, pulling the valve off its seat. Condensate flows under
the bottom of the bucket filling the body and flowing away through the outlet. In (ii) the arrival
of steam causes the bucket to become buoyant, it then rises and shuts the outlet. In (iii) the trap
remains shut until the steam in the bucket has condensed or bubbled through the vent hole to
the top of the trap body. It will then sink, pulling the main valve off its seat. Accumulated
condensate is released and the cycle is repeated.
Figure 3.5 Inverted Bucket Trap

Ch-03.qxd 2/23/2005 11:22 AM Page 64
3. Steam System
In (ii), air reaching the trap at start-up will also give the bucket buoyancy and close the
valve. The bucket vent hole is essential to allow air to escape into the top of the trap for
eventual discharge through the main valve seat. The hole, and the pressure differential, are
small so the trap is relatively slow at venting air. At the same time it must pass (and
therefore waste) a certain amount of steam for the trap to operate once the air has cleared.
A parallel air vent fitted outside the trap will reduce start-up times.
Advantages of the inverted bucket steam trap

• The inverted bucket steam trap can be made to withstand high pressures.
• Like a float-thermostatic steam trap, it has a good tolerance to waterhammer
conditions.
• Can be used on superheated steam lines with the addition of a check valve on
the inlet.
• Failure mode is usually open, so it's safer on those applications that require this
feature, for example turbine drains.
Disadvantages of the inverted bucket steam trap
• The small size of the hole in the top of the bucket means that this type of trap can
only discharge air very slowly. The hole cannot be enlarged, as steam would pass
through too quickly during normal operation.
• There should always be enough water in the trap body to act as a seal around the lip
of the bucket. If the trap loses this water seal, steam can be wasted through the out-
let valve. This can often happen on applications where there is a sudden drop in
steam pressure, causing some of the condensate in the trap body to 'flash' into steam.
The bucket loses its buoyancy and sinks, allowing live steam to pass through the trap
orifice. Only if sufficient condensate reaches the trap will the water seal form again,
and prevent steam wastage.
Float and Thermostatic

The ball float type trap operates by sensing the difference in density between steam and con-
densate. In the case of the trap shown in Figure 3.6A, condensate reaching the trap will cause
the ball float to rise, lifting the valve off its seat and releasing condensate. As can be seen, the
valve is always flooded and neither steam nor air will pass through it, so early traps of this kind
were vented using a manually operated cock at the top of the body. Modern traps use a ther-
mostatic air vent, as shown in Figure 3.6B. This allows the initial air to pass whilst the trap is
also handling condensate.
The automatic air vent uses the same balanced pressure capsule element as a thermostatic steam
trap, and is located in the steam space above the condensate level. After releasing the initial air,
it remains closed until air or other non-condensable gases accumulate during normal
running and cause it to open by reducing the temperature of the air/steam mixture. The
thermostatic air vent offers the added benefit of significantly increasing condensate capacity on
cold start-up.

Ch-03.qxd 2/23/2005 11:22 AM Page 65
3. Steam System
Figure 3.6A Float Trap with Air Cock Figure 3.6B Float Trap with Thermostatic Air Vent
In the past, the thermostatic air vent was a point of weakness if waterhammer was present
in the system. Even the ball could be damaged if the waterhammer was severe. However, in
modern float traps the air vent is a compact, very robust, all stainless steel capsule, and the
modern welding techniques used on the ball makes the complete float-thermostatic steam trap
very robust and reliable in waterhammer situations.
In many ways the float-thermostatic trap is the closest to an ideal steam trap. It will
discharge condensate as soon as it is formed, regardless of changes in steam pressure.
Advantages of the float-thermostatic steam trap
• The trap continuously discharges condensate at steam temperature. This makes it the
first choice for applications where the rate of heat transfer is high for the area of
heating surface available.
• It is able to handle heavy or light condensate loads equally well and is not affected by
wide and sudden fluctuations of pressure or flowrate.
• As long as an automatic air vent is fitted, the trap is able to discharge air freely.
• It has a large capacity for its size.
• The versions which have a steam lock release valve are the only type of trap entirely
suitable for use where steam locking can occur.
• It is resistant to waterhammer.
Disadvantages of the float-thermostatic steam trap
• Although less susceptible than the inverted bucket trap, the float type trap can be
damaged by severe freezing and the body should be well lagged, and / or complemented
with a small supplementary thermostatic drain trap, if it is to be fitted in an exposed
position.
• As with all mechanical type traps, different internals are required to allow operation
over varying pressure ranges. Traps operating on higher differential pressures have
smaller orifices to balance the bouyancy of the float.

Ch-03.qxd 2/23/2005 11:22 AM Page 66
3. Steam System
Thermodynamic
The thermodynamic trap is an extremely robust steam trap with a simple mode of operation.
Figure 3.7 Thermodynamic Trap
The trap operates by means of the dynamic effect of flash steam as it passes through the trap,
as depicted in Figure 3.7. The only moving part is the disc above the flat face inside the control
chamber or cap.
On start-up, incoming pressure raises the disc, and cool condensate plus air is immediately
discharged from the inner ring, under the disc, and out through three peripheral outlets
(only 2 shown, Figure 3.7, i)
Hot condensate flowing through the inlet passage into the chamber under the disc drops in
pressure and releases flash steam moving at high velocity. This high velocity creates a low
pressure area under the disc, drawing it towards its seat (Figure 3.7, ii).
At the same time, the flash steam pressure builds up inside the chamber above the disc,
forcing it down against the incoming condensate until it seats on the inner and outer rings. At
this point, the flash steam is trapped in the upper chamber, and the pressure above the disc
equals the pressure being applied to the underside of the disc from the inner ring. However, the
top of the disc is subject to a greater force than the underside, as it has a greater surface area.
Eventually the trapped pressure in the upper chamber falls as the flash steam condenses. The
disc is raised by the now higher condensate pressure and the cycle repeats (Figure 3.7, iv).
Thermostatic
Thermal-element thermostatic traps are temperature actuated. On startup the thermal element is
in a contracted position with the valve wide-open, purging condensate, air, and other
noncondensable gases. As the system warms up, heat generates pressure in the thermal element,
causing it to expand and throttle the flow of hot condensate through the discharge valve.

Ch-03.qxd 2/23/2005 11:22 AM Page 67
3. Steam System
Figure 3.8 Thermostatic Trap
When steam follows the hot condensate into the trap, the thermal element fully expands,
closing the trap. If condensate enters the trap during system operation, it cools the element, con-
tracting it off the seat, and quickly discharging condensate (Figure 3.8).
Thermostatic traps are small, lightweight, and compact. One trap operates over extremely broad
pressure and capacity ranges. Thermal elements can be selected to operate within a range of
steam temperatures. In steam tracing applications it may be desirable to actually back up hot
condensate in the lines to extract its thermal value.
Bimetallic Type
Bimetallic steam traps operate on the same principle as a heating thermostat. A bimetallic strip
or wafer connected to a valve bends or distorts when subjected to a change in temperature.
When properly calibrated, the valve closes off against a seat when steam is present, and opens
when condensate, air, and other noncondensable gases are present (Figure 3.9).
Figure 3.9 Bimetallic Type
Advantages of the bimetallic steam trap

• relatively small size for the condensate loads they handle
• resistance to damage from water hammer

Ch-03.qxd 2/23/2005 11:22 AM Page 68
3. Steam System
A disadvantage is that they must be set, generally at the plant, for a particular steam operating
pressure. If the trap is used for a lower pressure, it may discharge live steam. If used at a
higher steam pressure, it can back up condensate into the system.
Thermostatic traps are often considered a universal steam trap; however, they are normally not
recommended for extremely high condensate requirements (over 7000 kg/hr). For
light-to-moderately high condensate loads, thermostatic steam traps offer advantages in terms of
initial cost, long-term energy conservation, reduced inventory, and ease in application and
maintenance.
Installation of Steam Traps

In most cases, trapping problems are caused by bad installation rather than by the choice of the
wrong type or faulty manufacture. To ensure a trouble-free installation, careful consideration
should be given to the drain point, pipe sizing, air venting, steam locking, group trapping vs.
individual trapping, dirt, water hammer, lifting of the condensate, etc.
1) Drain Point
The drain point should be so arranged that the condensate can easily flow into the trap. This is
not always appreciated. For example, it is useless to provide a 15 mm drain hole in the bottom
of a 150 mm steam main, because most of the condensate will be carried away by the steam
velocity. A proper pocket at the lowest part of the pipe line into which the condensate can drop
of at least 100 mm diameter is needed in such cases.
Figures 3.10A and 3.10B show the wrong and the correct practices in providing the drain points
on the steam lines.
Figure 3.10A Wrong ways of Draining Pipes Figure 3.10B Right ways of Draining Pipes
2) Pipe Sizing
The pipes leading to and from steam traps should be of adequate size. This is particularly impor-
tant in the case of thermodynamic traps, because their correct operation can be disturbed by
excessive resistance to flow in the condensate pipe work. Pipe fittings such as valves, bends and
tees close to the trap will also set up excessive backpressures in certain circumstances.

Ch-03.qxd 2/23/2005 11:22 AM Page 69
3. Steam System
3) Air Binding
When air is pumped into the trap space by the steam, the trap function ceases. Unless adequate
provision is made for removing air either by way of the steam trap or a separate air vent, the
plant may take a long time in warming up and may never give its full output.
4) Steam Locking
This is similar to air binding except that the trap is locked shut by steam instead of air. The typ-
ical example is a drying cylinder. It is always advisable to use a float trap provided with a steam
lock release arrangement.
5) Group Trapping vs. Individual Trapping
It is tempting to try and save money by connecting several units to a common steam trap as
shown in Figure 3.11A. This is known as group trapping. However, it is rarely successful, since
it normally causes water-logging and loss of output.
The steam consumption of a number of units is never the same at a moment of time and
therefore, the pressure in the various steam spaces will also be different. It follows that the pres-
sure at the drain outlet of a heavily loaded unit will be less than in the case of one that is light-
ly or properly loaded. Now, if all these units are connected to a common steam trap, the con-
densate from the heavily loaded and therefore lower pressure steam space finds it difficult to
reach the trap as against the higher pressure condensate produced by lightly or partly loaded
unit. The only satisfactory arrangement, thus would be to drain each steam space with own trap
and then connect the outlets of the various traps to the common condensate return main as
shown in above Figure 3.11B.
Figure 3.11A Group Trapping Figure 3.11B Individual Trapping
6) Dirt
Dirt is the common enemy of steam traps and the causes of many failures. New steam sys-
tems contain scale, castings, weld metal, piece of packing and jointing materials, etc. When
the system has been in use for a while, the inside of the pipe work and fittings, which is
exposed to corrosive condensate can get rusted. Thus, rust in the form of a fine brown
powder is also likely to be present. All this dirt will be carried through the system by the
steam and condensate until it reaches the steam trap. Some of it may pass through the trap
into the condensate system without doing any harm, but some dirt will eventually jam the trap
mechanism. It is advisable to use a strainer positioned before the steam trap to prevent dirt
from passing into the system.

Ch-03.qxd 2/23/2005 11:22 AM Page 70
3. Steam System
7) Water Hammer
A water hammer (Figure 3.12) in a steam system is caused by condensate collection in the plant
or pipe work picked up by the fast moving steam and carried along with it. When this
collection hits obstructions such as bends, valves, steam traps or some other pipe fittings, it is
likely to cause severe damage to fittings and equipment and result in leaking pipe joints.
Figure 3.12 Water Hammer
The problem of water hammer can be eliminated by positioning the pipes so that there is a
continuous slope in the direction of flow. A slope of at least 12 mm in every 3 metres is
necessary, as also an adequate number of drain points every 30 to 50 metres.
8) Lifting the Condensate

It is sometimes necessary to lift condensate from a steam trap to a higher level condensate
return line (Figure 3.13). The condensate will rise up the lifting pipework when the steam
pressure upstream of the trap is higher than the pressure downstream of the trap.
The pressure downstream of the trap is generally called backpressure, and is made up of any
pressure existing in the condensate line plus the static lift caused by condensate in the rising
pipework. The upstream pressure will vary between start-up conditions, when it is at its lowest,
and running conditions, when it is at its highest.
Backpressure is related to lift by using the following approximate conversion: 1 metre lift
in pipework = 1m head static pressure or 0.1 bar backpressure.
If a head of 5 m produces a backpressure of 0.5 bar, then this reduces the differential
pressure available to push condensate through the trap; although under running conditions
the reduction in trap capacity is likely to be significant only where low upstream pressures
are used.
In steam mains at start-up, the steam pressure is likely to be very low, and it is common for
water to back-up before the trap, which can lead to waterhammer in the space being drained.
To alleviate this problem at start-up, a liquid expansion trap, fitted as shown in Figure 3.13, will
discharge any cold condensate formed at this time to waste.
As the steam main is warmed, the condensate temperature rises, causing the liquid
expansion trap to close. At the same time, the steam pressure rises, forcing the hot condensate

Ch-03.qxd 2/23/2005 11:22 AM Page 71
3. Steam System
Figure 3.13 Use of a liquid Expansion Trap
through the 'working' drain trap to the return line.

The discharge line from the trap to the overhead return line, preferably discharges into the top
of the main rather than simply feed to the underside, as shown in Figure 3.13. This assists
operation, because although the riser is probably full of water at start-up, it sometimes contains
little more than flash steam once hot condensate under pressure passes through. If the discharge
line were fitted to the bottom of the return line, it would fill with condensate after each
discharge and increase the tendency for waterhammer and noise.
It is also recommended that a check valve be fitted after any steam trap from where
condensate is lifted, preventing condensate from falling back towards the trap.
The above general recommendations apply not just to traps lifting condensate from steam
mains, but also to traps draining any type of process running at a constant steam pressure.
Temperature controlled processes will often run with low steam pressures. Rising condensate
discharge lines should be avoided at all costs, unless automatic pump-traps are used.
Maintenance of Steam Traps

Dirt is one of the most common causes of steam traps blowing steam. Dirt and scale are
normally found in all steam pipes. Bits of jointing material are also quite common. Since steam
traps are connected to the lowest parts of the system, sooner or later this foreign matter finds its
way to the trap. Once some of the dirt gets logged in the valve seat, it prevents the valve from
shutting down tightly thus allowing steam to escape. The valve seal should therefore be
quickly cleaned, to remove this obstruction and thus prevent steam loss.
In order to ensure proper working, steam traps should be kept free of pipe-scale and dirt.
The best way to prevent the scale and dirt from getting into the trap is to fit a strainer. Strainer
(Figure 3.14) is a detachable, perforated or meshed screen enclosed in a metal body. It should
be borne in mind that the strainer collects dirt in the course of time and will therefore need
Ch-03.qxd 2/23/2005 11:22 AM Page 72
3. Steam System
Figure 3.14 Strainers
periodic cleaning. It is of course, much easier to clean a strainer than to overhaul a steam trap.
At this point, we might mention the usefulness of a sight glass fitted just after a steam trap.
Sight glasses are useful in ascertaining the proper functioning of traps and in detecting leaking
steam traps. In particular, they are of considerable advantage when a number of steam traps are
discharging into a common return line. If it is suspected that one of the traps is blowing steam,
it can be quickly identified by looking through the sight glass.
In most industries, maintenance of steam traps is not a routine job and is neglected unless it
leads to some definite trouble in the plant. In view of their importance as steam savers and to
monitor plant efficiency, the steam traps require considerably more care than is given.
One may consider a periodic maintenance schedule to repair and replace defective traps in the
shortest possible time, preferable during regular maintenance shut downs in preference to break
down repairs.
Guide to Steam Trap Selection

Actual energy efficiency can be achieved only when
a. Selection
b. Installation and
c. Maintenance of steam traps meet the requirements for the purpose it is installed.

Ch-03.qxd 2/23/2005 11:22 AM Page 73
3. Steam System
The following Table 3.2 gives installation of suitable traps for different process applications.
TABLE 3.2 SELECTION OF STEAM TRAP
Application Feature Suitable trap

Steam mains – Open to atmosphere, small capacity Thermodynamic type
– Frequent change in pressure
– Low pressure - high pressure
Equipment – Large capacity Mechanical trap, Bucket,,
• Reboiler – Variation in pressure and temperature is undesirable Inverted bucket, float
• Heater – Efficiency of the equipment is a problem
• Dryer
• Heat exchanger etc.
• Tracer line – Reliability with no over heating Thermodynamic & Bimetallic
• Instrumentation
3.6 Performance Assessment Methods for Steam Traps

Steam trap performance assessment is basically concerned with answering the following two
questions:
• Is the trap working correctly or not?
• If not, has the trap failed in the open or closed position?
Traps that fail 'open' result in a loss of steam and its energy. Where condensate is not returned,
the water is lost as well. The result is significant economic loss, directly via increased boiler
plant costs, and potentially indirectly, via decreased steam heating capacity.
Traps that fail 'closed' do not result in energy or water losses, but can result in significantly
reduced heating capacity and/or damage to steam heating equipment.
Visual Testing
Visual testing includes traps with open discharge, sight glasses (Figure 3.15), sight checks, test
tees and three way test valves. In every case, the flow or variation of flow is visually observed.
This method works well with traps that cycle on/off, or dribble on light load. On high flow or
Figure 3.15 Sight Glass

Ch-03.qxd 2/23/2005 11:22 AM Page 74
3. Steam System
process, due to the volume of water and flash steam, this method becomes less viable. If con-
densate can be diverted ahead of the trap or a secondary flow can be turned off, the load on the
trap will drop to zero or a very minimal amount so the visual test will allow in determining the
leakage.
Sound Testing
Sound testing includes ultrasonic leak detectors (Figure 3.16), mechanics stethoscopes,
screwdriver or metal rod with a human ear against it. All these use the sound created by flow
to determine the trap function like the visual method. This method works best with traps that
cycle on/off or dribble on light load. Traps which have modulating type discharge patterns are
hard to check on high flows. (examples are processes , heat exchangers, air handling coils, etc).
Again by diverting condensate flow ahead of the trap or shutting off a secondary flow as
mentioned under visual testing, the noise level will drop to zero or a very low level if the trap
is operating correctly. If the trap continues to flow heavily after diversion it would be leaking
or blowing through.
Figure 3.16 Ultrasonic Testing
Temperature Testing
Temperature testing includes infrared guns (Figure 3.17), surface pyrometers, temperature
tapes, and temperature crayons. Typically they are used to gauge the discharge temperature on
Figure 3.17 Infra Red Testing

Ch-03.qxd 2/23/2005 11:22 AM Page 75
3. Steam System
the outlet side of the trap. In the case of temperature tapes or crayon, they are set for a
predetermined temperature and they indicate when temperature exceeds that level. Infrared
guns and surface pyrometer can detect temperatures on both sides of the trap. Both the infrared
and surface pyrometers require bare pipe and a clean surface to achieve a reasonable reading.
The temperature reading will typically be lower than actual internal pipe temperature due to the
fact that steel does have some heat flow resistance. Scale on the inside of the pipe can also effect
the heat transfer. Some of the more expensive infrared guns can compensate for wall thickness
and material differences. Blocked or turned off traps can easily be detected by infrared guns and
surface pyrometers, as they will show low or cold temperatures. They could also pick up traps
which may be undersized or backing up large amounts of condensate by detecting low temper-
ature readings.
3.7 Energy Saving Opportunities

1. Monitoring Steam Traps
For testing a steam trap, there should be an isolating valve provided in the downstream of the
trap and a test valve shall be provided in the trap discharge. When the test valve is opened, the
following points have to be observed:
Condensate discharge––Inverted bucket and thermodynamic disc traps should have
intermittent condensate discharge. Float and thermostatic traps should have a continuous
condensate discharge. Thermostatic traps can have either continuous or intermittent discharge
depending upon the load. If inverted bucket traps are used for extremely small load, it will have
a continuous condensate discharge.
Flash steam––This shall not be mistaken for a steam leak through the trap. The users
sometimes get confused between a flash steam and leaking steam. The flash steam and the
leaking steam can be approximately identified as follows:
• If steam blows out continuously in a blue stream, it is a leaking steam.
• If a steam floats out intermittently in a whitish cloud, it is a flash steam.
2. Continuous steam blow and no flow indicate, there is a problem in the trap
Whenever a trap fails to operate and the reasons are not readily apparent, the discharge from
the trap should be observed. A step-by-step analysis has to be carried out mainly with
reference to lack of discharge from the trap, steam loss, continuous flow, sluggish heating,
to find out whether it is a system problem or the mechanical problem in the steam trap.
3. Avoiding Steam Leakages

Steam leakage is a visible indicator of waste and must be avoided. It has been estimated that a
3 mm diameter hole on a pipeline carrying 7 kg/cm2 steam would waste 33 KL of fuel oil per
year. Steam leaks on high-pressure mains are prohibitively costlier than on low pressure mains.
Any steam leakage must be quickly attended to. In fact, the plant should consider a regular
surveillance programme for identifying leaks at pipelines, valves, flanges and joints. Indeed, by
plugging all leakages, one may be surprised at the extent of fuel savings, which may reach up

Ch-03.qxd 2/23/2005 11:22 AM Page 76
3. Steam System
to 5% of the steam consumption in a small or medium scale industry or even higher in

installations having several process departments.
Figure 3.18 Steam Loss vs. Plume Length
To avoid leaks it may be worthwhile considering replacement of the flanged joints which are
rarely opened in old plants by welded joints. Figure 3.18 provides a quick estimate for steam
leakage based on plume length.
Example
• Plume Length = 700 mm
• Steam loss = 10 kg/h
4. Providing Dry Steam for Process
The best steam for industrial process heating is the dry saturated steam. Wet steam reduces total
heat in the steam. Also water forms a wet film on heat transfer and overloads traps and
condensate equipment. Super heated steam is not desirable for process heating because it gives
up heat at a rate slower than the condensation heat transfer of saturated steam.
It must be remembered that a boiler without a superheater cannot deliver perfectly dry
saturated steam. At best, it can deliver only 95% dry steam. The dryness fraction of steam
depends on various factors, such as the level of water to be a part of the steam. Indeed, even as
simple a thing as improper boiler water treatment can become a cause for wet steam.
As steam flows through the pipelines, it undergoes progressive condensation due to
the loss of heat to the colder surroundings, The extent of the condensation depends on the
effectiveness of the lagging. For example, with poor lagging, the steam can become
excessively wet.
Since dry saturated steam is required for process equipment, due attention must be paid to
the boiler operation and lagging of the pipelines.
Wet steam can reduce plant productivity and product quality, and can cause damage to most
items of plant and equipment. Whilst careful drainage and trapping can remove most of the
water, it will not deal with the water droplets suspended in the steam. To remove these
suspended water droplets, separators are installed in steam pipelines.

Ch-03.qxd 2/23/2005 11:22 AM Page 77
3. Steam System
The steam produced in a boiler designed to generate saturated steam is inherently

wet. Although the dryness fraction will vary according to the type of boiler, most shell
type steam boilers will produce steam with a dryness fraction of between 95 and 98%.
The water content of the steam produced by the boiler is further increased if priming and
carryover occur.
A steam separator (Refer Figure 3.19) may be installed on the steam main as well as on the
branch lines to reduce wetness in steam and improve the quality of the steam going to the units.
By change of direction of steam, steam seperators causes the entrained water particles to be
separated out and delivered to a point where they can be drained away as condensate through a
conventional steam trap. A few types of separators are illustrated in the Figure below.
A cyclonic type separator A coalescence type separator
Figure 3.19 Steam Seperators
5. Utilising Steam at the Lowest Acceptable Pressure for the Process

A study of the steam tables would indicate that the latent heat in steam reduces as the steam
pressure increases.It is only the latent heat of steam, which takes part in the heating process
when applied to an indirect heating system. Thus, it is important that its value be kept as high
as possible. This can only be achieved if we go in for lower steam pressures. As a guide, the
steam should always be generated and distributed at the highest possible pressure, but utilized
at as low a pressure as possible since it then has higher latent heat.
However, it may also be seen from the steam tables that the lower the steam pressure, the lower
will be its temperature. Since temperature is the driving force for the transfer of heat at lower
steam pressures, the rate of heat transfer will be slower and the processing time greater.
In equipment where fixed losses are high (e.g. big drying cylinders), there may even be an
increase in steam consumption at lower pressures due to increased processing time. There are,
however, several equipment in certain industries where one can profitably go in for lower
pressures and realize economy in steam consumption without materially affecting
production time.

Ch-03.qxd 2/23/2005 11:22 AM Page 78
3. Steam System
Therefore, there is a limit to the reduction of steam pressure. Depending on the equipment
design, the lowest possible steam pressure with which the equipment can work should be
selected without sacrificing either on production time or on steam consumption.
6. Proper Utilization of Directly Injected Steam

The heating of a liquid by direct injection of steam is often desirable. The equipment required
is relatively simple, cheap and easy to maintain. No condensate recovery system is necessary.
The heating is quick, and the sensible heat of the steam is also used up along with the latent
heat, making the process thermally efficient. In processes where dilution is not a problem,
heating is done by blowing steam into the liquid (i.e.) direct steam injection is applied. If the
dilution of the tank contents and agitation are not acceptable in the process (i.e.)direct steam
agitation are not acceptable, indirect steam heating is the only answer.
Ideally, the injected steam should be condensed completely as the bubbles rise through
the liquid. This is possible only if the inlet steam pressures are kept very low-around 0.5 kg/cm2
-and certainly not exceeding 1kg/cm2. If pressures are high, the velocity of the steam
bubbles will also be high and they will not get sufficient time to condense before they reach the
surface. Figure 3.20 shows a recommended arrangement for direct injection of steam.
Figure 3.20 Recommended Arrangement for Directly Injected Steam
A large number of small diameter holes (2 to 5 mm), facing downwards, should be drilled on
the separate pipe. This will help in dissipating the velocity of bubbles in the liquid. A thermo-
static control of steam admitted is highly desirable.
7. Minimising Heat Transfer Barriers

The metal wall may not be the only barrier in a heat transfer process. There is likely to be a film
of air, condensate and scale on the steam side. On the product side there may also be baked-on
product or scale, and a stagnant film of product.
Agitation of the product may eliminate the effect of the stagnant film, whilst regular cleaning
on the product side should reduce the scale.

Ch-03.qxd 2/23/2005 11:22 AM Page 79
3. Steam System
Regular cleaning of the surface on the steam side may also increase the rate of heat
transfer by reducing the thickness of any layer of scale, however, this may not always be
possible. This layer may also be reduced by careful attention to the correct operation of the
boiler, and the removal of water droplets carrying impurities from the boiler.
Figure 3.21
Filmwise Condensation
The elimination of the condensate film, is not quite as simple. As the steam condenses to give
up its enthalpy of evaporation, droplets of water may form on the heat transfer surface. These
may then merge together to form a continuous film of condensate. The condensate film may be
between 100 and 150 times more resistant to heat transfer than a steel heating surface, and 500
to 600 times more resistant than copper.
Dropwise Condensation
If the droplets of water on the heat transfer surface do not merge immediately and no
continuous condensate film is formed, 'dropwise' condensation occurs. The heat transfer rates
which can be achieved during dropwise condensation, are generally much higher than those
achieved during filmwise condensation.
As a larger proportion of the heat transfer surface is exposed during dropwise condensation,
heat transfer coefficients may be up to ten times greater than those for filmwise condensation.
In the design of heat exchangers where dropwise condensation is promoted, the thermal
resistance it produces is often negligible in comparison to other heat transfer barriers. However,
maintaining the appropriate conditions for dropwise condensation have proved to be very
difficult to achieve.
If the surface is coated with a substance that inhibits wetting, it may be possible to maintain
dropwise condensation for a period of time. For this purpose, a range of surface coatings such
as Silicones, PTFE and an assortment of waxes and fatty acids are sometimes applied to
surfaces in a heat exchanger on which condensation is to be promoted. However, these coatings
will gradually lose their effectiveness due to processes such as oxidation or fouling, and film
condensation will eventually predominate.

Ch-03.qxd 2/23/2005 11:22 AM Page 80
3. Steam System
As air is such a good insulator, it provides even more resistance to heat transfer. Air may be
between 1500 and 3000 times more resistant to heat flow than steel, and 8000 to 16000 more
resistant than copper. This means that a film of air only 0.025 mm thick may resist as much heat
transfer as a wall of copper 400 mm thick! Of course all of these comparative relationships
depend on the temperature profiles across each layer.
Figure 3.21 illustrates the effect this combination of layers has on the heat transfer process.
These barriers to heat transfer not only increase the thickness of the entire conductive layer, but
also greatly reduce the mean thermal conductivity of the layer.
The more resistant the layer to heat flow, the larger the temperature gradient is likely to be.
This means that to achieve the same desired product temperature, the steam pressure may need
to be significantly higher.
The presence of air and water films on the heat transfer surfaces of either process or
space heating applications is not unusual. It occurs in all steam heated process units to some
degree.
To achieve the desired product output and minimise the cost of process steam operations,
a high heating performance may be maintained by reducing the thickness of the films
on the condensing surface. In practice, air will usually have the most significant effect on
heat transfer efficiency, and its removal from the supply steam will increase heating
performance.
8. Proper Air Venting

When steam is first admitted to a pipe after a period of shutdown, the pipe is full of air. Further
amounts of air and other non-condensable gases will enter with the steam, although the
proportions of these gases are normally very small compared with the steam. When the steam
condenses, these gases will accumulate in pipes and heat exchangers. Precautions should be
taken to discharge them. The consequence of not removing air is a lengthy warming up period,
and a reduction in plant efficiency and process performance.
Air in a steam system will also affect the system temperature. Air will exert its own
pressure within the system, and will be added to the pressure of the steam to give a total pres-
sure. Therefore, the actual steam pressure and temperature of the steam/air mixture will be
lower than that suggested by a pressure gauge.
Of more importance is the effect air has upon heat transfer. A layer of air only 1 mm thick
can offer the same resistance to heat as a layer of water 25 µm thick, a layer of iron 2 mm thick
or a layer of copper 15 mm thick. It is very important therefore to remove air from any steam
system.
Automatic air vents for steam systems (which operate on the same principle as thermostatic
steam traps) should be fitted above the condensate level so that only air or steam/air mixtures can
reach them. The best location for them is at the end of the steam mains as shown in Figure 3.22.
The discharge from an air vent must be piped to a safe place. In practice, a condensate line
falling towards a vented receiver can accept the discharge from an air vent.
In addition to air venting at the end of a main, air vents should also be fitted:
• In parallel with an inverted bucket trap or, in some instances, a thermodynamic trap.
These traps are sometimes slow to vent air on start-up.

Ch-03.qxd 2/23/2005 11:22 AM Page 81
3. Steam System
Figure 3.22 Draining and Venting at the End of a Steam Main
• In awkward steam spaces (such as at the opposite side to where steam enters a
jacketed pan).
• Where there is a large steam space (such as an autoclave), and a steam/air mixture
could affect the process quality.
9. Condensate Recovery
The steam condenses after giving off its latent heat in the heating coil or the jacket of the
process equipment. A sizable portion (about 25%) of the total heat in the steam leaves the
process equipment as hot water. Figure 3.23 compares the amount of energy in a kilogram of
steam and condensate at the same pressure. The percentage of energy in condensate to that in
Figure 3.23 Heat Content of Steam and Condensate at the Same Pressure

Ch-03.qxd 2/23/2005 11:22 AM Page 82
3. Steam System
steam can vary from 18% at 1 bar g to 30% at 14 bar g; clearly the liquid condensate is worth
reclaiming.
If this water is returned to the boiler house, it will reduce the fuel requirements of the boiler.
For every 60°C rise in the feed water temperature, there will be approximately 1% saving of
fuel in the boiler.
Benefits of Condensate Recovery
Financial reasons
Condensate is a valuable resource and even the recovery of small quantities is often economi-
cally justifiable. The discharge from a single steam trap is often worth recovering.
Un-recovered condensate must be replaced in the boiler house by cold make-up water with
additional costs of water treatment and fuel to heat the water from a lower temperature.
Water charges
Any condensate not returned needs to be replaced by make-up water, incurring further water
charges from the local water supplier.
Effluent restrictions
High temperature of effluent is detrimental to the environment and may damage to pipes.
Condensate above this temperature must be cooled before it is discharged, which may incur
extra energy costs.
Maximising boiler output

Colder boiler feedwater will reduce the steaming rate of the boiler. The lower the feedwater
temperature, the more heat, and thus fuel needed to heat the water.
Boiler feedwater quality

Condensate is distilled water, which contains almost no total dissolved solids (TDS). Boilers
need to be blown down to reduce their concentration of dissolved solids in the boiler water.
Returning more condensate to the feedtank reduces the need for blowdown and thus reduces the
energy lost from the boiler.
Summary of reasons for condensate recovery:
• Water charges are reduced.

• Effluent charges and possible cooling costs are reduced.
• Fuel costs are reduced.
• More steam can be produced from the boiler.
• Boiler blowdown is reduced - less energy is lost from the boiler.
• Chemical treatment of raw make-up water is reduced.

Ch-03.qxd 2/23/2005 11:22 AM Page 83
3. Steam System
10. Insulation of Steam Pipelines and Hot Process Equipments

Heat can be lost due to radiation from steam pipes. As an example while lagging steam pipes,
it is common to see leaving flanges uncovered. An uncovered flange is equivalent to leaving 0.6
metre of pipe line unlagged. If a 0.15 m steam pipe diameter has 5 uncovered flanges, there
would be a loss of heat equivalent to wasting 5 tons of coal or 3000 litres of oil a year. This is
usually done to facilitate checking the condition of flange but at the cost of considerable heat
loss. The remedy is to provide easily detachable insulation covers, which can be easily removed
when necessary. The various insulating materials used are cork, Glass wool, Rock wool and
Asbestos.
The following table 3.3 indicates the heat loss from a hot uninsulated surface to the
environment:
TABLE 3.3 QUANTITY OF HEAT LOST AT

DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES
Difference in temperature Heat loss

between ambient & surface
(oC) (kCal/m2 /h)
50 500
100 1350
200 3790
400 13640
This is based on 35°C ambient temperature, 0.9 emissivity factor and still wind conditions.
The effective insulation of a steam system can bring down the heat losses to less than 75
kCal/m2/h
Note: Calculation procedure to find out the economic thickness of insulation is given in
chapter-5: Insulation and Refractories.
Case Study to elaborate the effect of insulation of flanges: 100 ft of 6 Inch pipe 12 Flanges of
6 Inch = 5 ft of pipe length Heat loss in following 2 cases:
Case (I) - Bare pipe
Case (II) - Pipe with 2 inch insulation aluminum cladding
Parameter Unit Case (I) Case (II)

Heat Loss kCal/year 36,300 4,100
Steam Loss kg/Year/100ft 68 3.2
Fuel Loss kg/Year/100ft 55 0.26
Energy Saving Potential Rs. Per Year/100 ft 60 2.8

Ch-03.qxd 2/23/2005 11:22 AM Page 84
3. Steam System
11. Flash Steam Recovery

Flash steam is produced when condensate at a high pressure is released to a lower pressure and
can be used for low pressure heating.
The higher the steam pressure and lower the flash steam pressure the greater the quantity of
flash steam that can be generated. In many cases, flash steam from high pressure equipments is
made use of directly on the low pressure equipments to reduce use of steam through pressure
reducing valves.
The flash steam quantity can be calculated by the following formula with the help of a
steam table:
S1 –S 2
Flash steam available % =
L2
Where: S1 is the sensible heat of higher pressure condensate.

S2 is the sensible heat of the steam at lower pressure (at which it has been flashed).
L2 is the latent heat of flash steam (at lower pressure).
Example: Calculating the amount of flash steam from condensate

Hot condensate at 7 bar g has a heat content of about 721 kJ/kg. When it is released to
atmospheric pressure (0 bar g), each kilogram of water can only retain about 419 kJ of heat. The
excess energy in each kilogram of the condensate is therefore 721 – 419 = 302 kJ. This excess
energy is available to evaporate some of the condensate into steam, the amount evaporated
being determined by the proportion of excess heat to the amount of heat required to evaporate
water at the lower pressure, which in this example, is the enthalpy of evaporation at atmospheric
pressure, 2258 kJ/kg.
Example: Proportion of flash steam using Figure 3.24:
Pressure on the trap = 4 bar g

Flash steam pressure = 0 bar g
% Flash steam = 10%
The amount of flash steam in the pipe is the most important factor when sizing trap discharge
lines.

Ch-03.qxd 2/23/2005 11:22 AM Page 85
3. Steam System
Figure 3.24 Quantity of Flash Steam Graph
Flash steam can be used on low pressure applications like direct injection and can replace an
equal quantity of live steam that would be otherwise required. The demand for flash steam
should exceed its supply, so that there is no build up of pressure in the flash vessel and the
consequent loss of steam through the safety valve. Generally, the simplest method of using flash
steam is to flash from a machine/equipment at a higher pressure to a machine/equipment at a
lower pressure, thereby augmenting steam supply to the low pressure equipment.
In general, a flash system should run at the lowest possible pressure so that the maximum
amount of flash is available and the backpressure on the high pressure systems is kept as low
as possible.
Flash steam from the condensate can be separated in an equipment called the 'flash vessel'.
This is a vertical vessel as shown in the Figure 3.25. The diameter of the vessel is such that a
considerable drop in velocity allows the condensate to fall to the bottom of the vessel from
where it is drained out by a steam trap preferably a float trap. Flash steam itself rises to leave
Figure 3.25 Flash Steam Recovery

Ch-03.qxd 2/23/2005 11:22 AM Page 86
3. Steam System
the vessel at the top. The height of the vessel should be sufficient enough to avoid water being
carried over in the flash steam.
The condensate from the traps (A) along with some flash steam generated passes through
vessel (B). The flash steam is let out through (C) and the residual condensate from (B) goes out
through the steam trap (D). The flash vessel is usually fitted with a 'pressure gauge' to know the
quality of flash steam leaving the vessel. A 'safety valve' is also provided to vent out the steam
in case of high pressure build up in the vessel.
12. Reducing the Work to be done by Steam

The equipments should be supplied with steam as dry as possible. The plant should be made
efficient. For example, if any product is to be dried such as in a laundry, a press could be used
to squeeze as much water as possible before being heated up in a dryer using steam.
Therefore, to take care of the above factors, automatic draining is essential and can be
achieved by steam traps. The trap must drain condensate, to avoid water hammer, thermal shock
and reduction in heat transfer area. The trap should also evacuate air and other non-condensable
gases, as they reduce the heat transfer efficiency and also corrode the equipment. Thus, a steam
trap is an automatic valve that permits passage of condensate, air and other non-condensable
gases from steam mains and steam using equipment, while preventing the loss of steam in the
distribution system or equipment.
The energy saving is affected by following measures:
• Reduction in operating hours
• Reduction in steam quantity required per hour
• Use of more efficient technology
• Minimizing wastage.
When the steam reaches the place where its heat is required, it must be ensured that the steam
has no more work to do than is absolutely necessary. Air-heater batteries, for example, which
provide hot air for drying, will use the same amount of steam whether the plant is fully or
partly loaded. So, if the plant is running only at 50 percent load, it is wasting twice as much
steam (or twice as much fuel) than necessary.
Figure 3.26 Steam Wastage Due to Insufficient Mechanical Drying

Ch-03.qxd 2/23/2005 11:22 AM Page 87
3. Steam System
Always use the most economical way to removing the bulk of water from the wet material.
Steam can then be used to complete the process. For this reason, hydro-extractors, spin dryers,
squeeze or calendar rolls, presses, etc. are initially used in many drying processes to remove the
mass of water. The efficiency with which this operation is carried out is most important. For
example, in a laundry for finishing sheets (100 kg/hr. dry weight), the normal moisture content
of the sheets as they leave the hydroextractor, is 48% by weight.
Thus, the steam heated iron has to evaporate nearly 48 kg of water. This requires 62 kg of
steam. If, due to inefficient drying in the hydro-extractor, the steam arrive at the iron with 52%
moisture content i.e. 52 kg of water has to be evaporated, requiring about 67 kg of steam. So,
for the same quantity of finished product, the steam consumption increases by 8 per cent. This
is illustrated in Figure 3.26.
QUESTIONS
1. Latent heat of steam at lower pressure is lower - True / False?
2. Name two reasons why steam is used as a heat transfer medium?
3. The heat which is required to change the phase from water at 100°C to saturated
steam is called
a) Latent Heat b) Sensible Heat c) Super Heat d) Specific Heat
4. The slope for steam piping should be
a) 12mm in 3 metres b) 12 inches in 3 feet c) 12m in 3 km d) 3m in 12km
5. The normal velocities encountered in pipes for superheated steam is
a) 50–70 m/s b) 30–40 m/s c) 20–25 m/s d) 15–20 m/s
6. Name two functions of a steam trap?
7. The major cause for steam trap blowing steam is
a) dirt b) too much condensate c) too much steam d) too much air
8. Ideal trap for steam mains is
a) thermodynamic b) float c) inverted bucket d) bimetallic
9. Name two cases when steam trap can fail?
10. Name a few methods for testing of steam traps?
11. How do you distinguish between flash steam and live steam?
12. The best quality of steam for industrial process heating is
a) Dry saturated b) Super heated c) Wet Steam d) High pressure steam
13. Explain why low-pressure steam is more efficient?
14. What are the precautions to be taken while steam pressure is reduced for a process?
15. Discuss the advantages of direct injection versus indirect injection using steam?
16. List a few barriers to heat transfer in heat exchangers using steam?
17. 1% fuel can be saved in the boiler fuel consumption, if feed water temperature is
increased by a) 6°C b) 10°C c)12°C d) 22°C

Ch-03.qxd 2/23/2005 11:22 AM Page 88
3. Steam System
18. Lagging of steam pipes is done to preventa) Heat loss b) Steam leaks c) High
pressures d) Pipe damages
19. Give an example of: Energy savings by reducing the work done by steam
REFERENCES
1. Efficient Utilisation of Steam – Energy Efficiency Office, U.K.
2. Efficient Use of Steam – Spirax Sarco
3. Fundamentals of Steam Boilers & Pressure Vessel Inspection Techniques by Homi P.
Seervai, Macmillan Company of India Ltd, New Delhi, 1974.
4. Industrial Energy Conservation by Melvin H.Chiogioji, Marcel Dekker Inc, 1979, New
York.
5. Industrial Heat Generation and Distribution -NIFES Training Manual Issued For
CEC - India Energy Bus Project
6. The Efficient Use of Steam by Oliver Lyle, Her Majesty Stationery Office, London, 1947.
7. Steam Generation by J.N.Williams, George Allen And Unwin Ltd, London, 1969.
8. Improving Steam System Performance a source book for industry by Office of Industrial
Technologies, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, US Department of Energy
www.iclei.org
www.pcra.org
www.armstrong-intl.com
www.energy-efficiency.gov.uk
www.actionenergy.org.uk
www.engineeringtoolbox.com

Ch-04.qxd 2/23/2005 5:22 PM Page 89
4 FURNACES
Syllabus
Furnaces: Classification, General fuel economy measures in furnaces, Excess air, Heat
distribution, Temperature control, Draft control, Waste heat recovery.
A furnace is an equipment to melt metals for casting or heat materials for change of shape
(rolling, forging etc) or change of properties (heat treatment).
4.1 Types and Classification of Different Furnaces

Based on the method of generating heat, furnaces are broadly classified into two types namely
combustion type (using fuels) and electric type. In case of combustion type furnace, depending
upon the kind of combustion, it can be broadly classified as oil fired, coal fired or gas fired.
• Based on the mode of charging of material furnaces can be classified as (i) Intermittent or
Batch type furnace or Periodical furnace and (ii) Continuous furnace.
• Based on mode of waste heat recovery as recuperative and regenerative furnaces.
• Another type of furnace classification is made based on mode of heat transfer, mode of
charging and mode of heat recovery as shown in the Figure 4.1 below.
According to Open fire place furnace

mode of heat
transfer
Heated through Medium
Forging
Furnace Re-rolling (Batch /
classification According to Batch continuous pusher)
mode of
charging
Continuous Pot
According to Glass tank

mode of heat Recuperative
melting
recovery (regenerative /
Regenerative recuperative)
Figure 4.1: Furnace Classification
Characteristics of an Efficient Furnace

Furnace should be designed so that in a given time, as much of material as possible can be
heated to an uniform temperature as possible with the least possible fuel and labour. To achieve

Ch-04.qxd 2/23/2005 5:22 PM Page 90
4. Furnaces
this end, the following parameters can be considered.

• Determination of the quantity of heat to be imparted to the material or charge.
• Liberation of sufficient heat within the furnace to heat the stock and overcome all heat
losses.
• Transfer of available part of that heat from the furnace gases to the surface of the heating
stock.
• Equalisation of the temperature within the stock.
• Reduction of heat losses from the furnace to the minimum possible extent.
Furnace Energy Supply

Since the products of flue gases directly contact the stock, type of fuel chosen is of importance.
For example, some materials will not tolerate sulphur in the fuel. Also use of solid fuels will
generate particulate matter, which will interfere the stock place inside the furnace. Hence, vast
majority of the furnaces use liquid fuel, gaseous fuel or electricity as energy input.
Melting furnaces for steel, cast iron use electricity in induction and arc furnaces.
Non-ferrous melting utilizes oil as fuel.
Oil Fired Furnace

Furnace oil is the major fuel used in oil fired furnaces, especially for reheating and heat
treatment of materials. LDO is used in furnaces where presence of sulphur is undesirable. The
key to efficient furnace operation lies in complete combustion of fuel with minimum excess air.
Furnaces operate with efficiencies as low as 7% as against upto 90% achievable in other
combustion equipment such as boiler. This is because of the high temperature at which the furnaces
have to operate to meet the required demand. For example, a furnace heating the stock to 1200°C
will have its exhaust gases leaving atleast at 1200°C resulting in a huge heat loss through the stack.
However, improvements in efficiencies have been brought about by methods such as preheating of
stock, preheating of combustion air and other waste heat recovery systems.
Typical Furnace System
i) Forging Furnaces
The forging furnace is used for preheating billets and ingots to attain a ‘forge’ temperature.
The furnace temperature is maintained at around 1200 to 1250°C. Forging furnaces, use an open
fireplace system and most of the heat is transmitted by radiation. The typical loading in a
forging furnace is 5 to 6 tonnes with the furnace operating for 16 to 18 hours daily. The total
operating cycle can be divided into (i) heat-up time (ii) soaking time and (iii) forging time.
Specific fuel consumption depends upon the type of material and number of ‘reheats’ required.
Rerolling Mill Furnace

a) Batch type
A box type furnace is employed for batch type rerolling mill. The furnace is basically used for
heating up scrap, small ingots and billets weighing 2 to 20 kg. for rerolling. The charging and
discharging of the ‘material’ is done manually and the final product is in the form of rods, strips
etc. The operating temperature is about 1200 oC. The total cycle time can be further
categorized into heat-up time and rerolling time. During heat-up time the material gets heated

Ch-04.qxd 2/23/2005 5:22 PM Page 91
4. Furnaces
upto the required temperature and is removed manually for rerolling. The average output from
these furnaces varies from 10 to 15 tonnes / day and the specific fuel consumption varies from
180 to 280 kg. of coal / tonne of heated material.
b) Continuous Pusher Type:

The process flow and operating cycles of a continuous pusher type is the same as that of the batch
furnace. The operating temperature is about 1250 °C. Generally, these furnaces operate 8 to 10
hours with an output of 20 to 25 tonnes per day. The material or stock recovers a part of the heat in
flue gases as it moves down the length of the furnace. Heat absorption by the material in the
furnace is slow, steady and uniform throughout the cross-section compared with batch type.
iii) Continuous Steel Reheating Furnaces

The main function of a reheating furnace is to raise the temperature of a piece of steel, typically to
between 900°C and 1250oC, until it is plastic enough to be pressed or rolled to the desired section,
size or shape. The furnace must also meet specific requirements and objectives in terms of stock
heating rates for metallurgical and productivity reasons. In continuous reheating, the steel stock
forms a continuous flow of material and is heated to the desired temperature as it travels through
the furnace.
All furnaces possess the features shown in Figure 4.2
Figure 4.2: Furnace Feature
• A refractory chamber constructed of insulating materials for retaining heat at the high
operating temperatures.
• A hearth to support or carry the steel. This can consist of refractory materials or an arrange-
ment of metallic supports that may be water-cooled.
• Burners that use liquid or gaseous fuels to raise and maintain the temperature in the cham-
ber. Coal or electricity can be used for reheating. A method of removing the combustion
exhaust gases from the chamber
Bureau of Energy Efficiency

Ch-04.qxd 2/23/2005 5:22 PM Page 92
4. Furnaces
• A method of introducing and removing the steel from the chamber.

• These facilities depend on the size and type of furnace, the shape and size of the steel being
processed, and the general layout of the rolling mill.
• Common systems include roller tables, conveyors, charging machines and furnace
pushers.
Heat Transfer in Furnaces

The main ways in which heat is transferred to the steel in a reheating furnace are shown in
Figure 4.3. In simple terms, heat is transferred to the stock by:
• Radiation from the flame, hot combustion products and the furnace walls and roof.
• Convection due to the movement of hot gases over the stock surface
At the high temperatures employed in reheating furnaces, the dominant mode of heat t
ransfer is wall radiation. Heat transfer by gas radiation is dependent on the gas composition
(mainly the carbon dioxide and water vapour concentrations), the temperature and the
geometry of the furnace.
Figure 4.3 Heat Transfer in Furnace
Types of Continuous Reheating Furnace

Continuous reheating furnaces are primarily categorised by the method by which stock is
transported through the furnace. There are two basic methods:
· Stock is butted together to form a stream of material that is pushed through the furnace. Such
furnaces are called pusher type furnaces.
· Stock is placed on a moving hearth or supporting structure which transports the steel through the
furnace. Such types include walking beam, walking hearth, rotary hearth and continuous
recirculating bogie furnaces.
Ch-04.qxd 2/23/2005 5:22 PM Page 93
4. Furnaces
The major consideration with respect to furnace energy use is that the inlet and outlet apertures
should be minimal in size and designed to avoid air infiltration.
i) Pusher Type Furnaces
The pusher type furnace is popular in steel industry. It has relatively low installation and
maintenance costs compared to moving hearth furnaces. The furnace may have a solid hearth,
but it is also possible to push the stock along skids with water-cooled supports that allow both
the top and bottom faces of the stock to he heated. The design of a typical pusher furnace design
is shown schematically in Figure 4.4.
Figure 4.4 Pusher Type Furnaces

Pusher type furnaces, however, do have some disadvantages, including:
• Frequent damage of refractory hearth and skid marks on material
• Water cooling energy losses from the skids and stock supporting structure in top and
• bottom fired furnaces have a detrimental effect on energy use;
• Discharge must be accompanied by charge:
• Stock sizes and weights and furnace length are limited by friction and the possibility of
stock pile-ups.
• All round heating of the stock is not possible.
ii) Walking Hearth Furnaces
The walking hearth furnace (Figure.4.5) allows the stock to be transported through the
furnace in discrete steps. Such furnaces have several attractive features, including: simplicity of
design, ease of construction, ability to cater for different stock sizes (within limits), negligible
water cooling energy losses and minimal physical marking of the stock.
The main disadvantage of walking hearth furnaces is that the bottom face of the stock
cannot be heated. This can he alleviated to some extent by maintaining large spaces between
pieces of stock. Small spaces between the individual stock pieces limits the heating of the side

Ch-04.qxd 2/23/2005 5:22 PM Page 94
4. Furnaces
Figure 4.5 Walking Hearth Type Furnace
faces and increases the potential for unacceptable temperature differences within the stock at
discharge. Consequently, the stock residence time may be long, possibly several hours; this may
have an adverse effect on furnace flexibility and the yield may be affected by scaling.
iii) Rotary Hearth Furnace

The rotary hearth furnace (Figure 4.6) has tended to supersede the recirculating bogie type.
The heating and cooling effects introduced by the bogies are eliminated, so heat storage losses are
Figure 4.6 Rotary Hearth Type Furnace

Ch-04.qxd 2/23/2005 5:22 PM Page 95
4. Furnaces
less. The rotary hearth has, however a more complex design with an annular shape and revolving
hearth.
iv) Continuous Recirculating Bogie type Furnaces

These types of moving hearth type furnaces tend to be used for compact stock of variable size
and geometry. In bogie furnaces (Figure 4.7), the stock is placed on a bogie with a refractory
hearth, which travels through the furnace with others in the form of a train. The entire furnace
length is always occupied by bogies. Bogie furnaces tend to be long and narrow and to suffer
from problems arising from inadequate sealing of the gap between the bogies and furnace shell,
difficulties in removing scale, and difficulties in firing across a narrow hearth width.
Figure 4.7 Continuous circulating bogie type furnace
v) Walking Beam Furnaces:

The walking beam furnace (Figure 4.8 overcomes many of the problems of pusher furnaces and
permits heating of the bottom face of the stock. This allows shorter stock heating times and
furnace lengths and thus better control of heating rates, uniform stock discharge temperatures
and operational flexibility. In common with top and bottom fired pusher furnaces, however,
much of the furnace is below the level of the mill; this may be a constraint in some applications.

Ch-04.qxd 2/23/2005 5:22 PM Page 96
4. Furnaces
Figure 4.8 Walking Beam Type Furnace
4.2 Performance Evaluation of a Typical Furnace

Thermal efficiency of process heating equipment, such as furnaces, ovens, heaters, and kilns is
the ratio of heat delivered to a material and heat supplied to the heating equipment.
The purpose of a heating process is to introduce a certain amount of thermal energy into a
product, raising it to a certain temperature to prepare it for additional processing or change its
properties. To carry this out, the product is heated in a furnace. This results in energy losses in
different areas and forms as shown in sankey diagram figure 4.9. For most heating equipment,
a large amount of the heat supplied is wasted in the form of exhaust gases.
Figure 4.9 Heat Losses in Industrial Heating Furnaces

Ch-04.qxd 2/23/2005 5:22 PM Page 97
4. Furnaces
These furnace losses include:

• Heat storage in the furnace structure
• Losses from the furnace outside walls or structure
• Heat transported out of the furnace by the load conveyors, fixtures, trays, etc.
• Radiation losses from openings, hot exposed parts, etc.
• Heat carried by the cold air infiltration into the furnace
• Heat carried by the excess air used in the burners.
Stored Heat Loss:
First, the metal structure and insulation of the furnace must be heated so their interior surfaces
are about the same temperature as the product they contain. This stored heat is held in the
structure until the furnace shuts down, then it leaks out into the surrounding area. The more
frequently the furnace is cycled from cold to hot and back to cold again, the more frequently
this stored heat must be replaced. Fuel is consumed with no useful output.
Wall losses:
Additional heat losses take place while the furnace is in
production. Wall or transmission losses are caused by the
conduction of heat through the walls, roof, and floor of the
heating device, as shown in Figure 4.10. Once that heat
reaches the outer skin of the furnace and radiates to the
surrounding area or is carried away by air currents, it must
be replaced by an equal amount taken from the combus-
tion gases. This process continues as long as the furnace is
at an elevated temperature.
Material Handling Losses

Many furnaces use equipment to convey the work into and
out of the heating chamber, and this can also lead to heat
losses. Conveyor belts or product hangers that enter the Figure 4.10 Wall Losses
heating chamber cold and leave it at higher temperatures
drain energy from the combustion gases. In car bottom furnaces, the hot car structure gives off
heat to the room each time it rolls out of the furnace to load or remove work. This lost energy
must be replaced when the car is returned to the furnace.
Cooling Media Losses
Water or air cooling protects rolls, bearings, and doors in hot furnace environments, but at the
cost of lost energy. These components and their cooling media (water, air, etc.) become the con-
duit for additional heat losses from the furnace. Maintaining an adequate flow of cooling media
is essential, but it might be possible to insulate the furnace and load from some of these losses.

Ch-04.qxd 2/23/2005 5:22 PM Page 98
4. Furnaces
Radiation (Opening) Losses
Furnaces and ovens operating at temperatures

above 540°C might have significant radiation
losses, as shown in Figure 4.11 Hot surfaces
radiate energy to nearby colder surfaces, and the
rate of heat transfer increases with the fourth
power of the surface's absolute temperature.
Anywhere or anytime there is an opening in the
furnace enclosure, heat is lost by radiation, often
at a rapid rate.
Waste-gas Losses Figure 4.11 Radiation Loss
Waste-gas loss, also known as flue gas or stack loss, is made up of the heat that cannot be
removed from the combustion gases inside the furnace. The reason is heat flows from the
higher temperature source to the lower temperature heat receiver.
Air Infiltration
Excess air does not necessarily enter the
furnace as part of the combustion air supply.
It can also infiltrate from the surrounding room if
there is a negative pressure in the furnace.
Because of the draft effect of hot furnace stacks,
negative pressures are fairly common, and cold air
slips past leaky door seals, cracks and other open-
ings in the furnace. Figure 4.12 illustrates air infil-
tration from outside the furnace. Every time the
door is opened, considerable amount of heat is
lost. Economy in fuel can be achieved if the total
heat that can be passed on to the stock is as large
as possible. Figure 4.12 Air Infiltration from Furnace
Direct method
The efficiency of furnace can be judged by measuring the amount of fuel needed per unit weight
of material.
Heat in the stock
Thermal efficiency of the furnace =
Heat in the fuel consumed for heating th e stock
The quantity of heat to be imparted (Q) to the stock can be found from
Q = m × Cp (t1 – t2)
Where
Q = Quantity of heat of stock in kCal
m = Weight of the stock in kg

Ch-04.qxd 2/23/2005 5:22 PM Page 99
4. Furnaces
Cp = Mean specific heat of stock in kCal/kg°C

t1 = Final temperature of stock desired, °C
t2 = Initial temperature of the stock before it enters the furnace, °C
Indirect Method
Similar to the method of evaluating boiler efficiency by direct method, furnace efficiency can also be
calculated by indirect methods. Furnace efficiency is calculated after subtracting sensible heat loss in
flue gas, loss due to moisture in flue gas, heat loss due to openings in furnace, heat loss through
furnace skin and other unaccounted losses.
In order to find out furnace efficiency using indirect method, various parameters that are required
are hourly furnace oil consumption, material output, excess air quantity, temperature of flue gas,
temperature of furnace at various zones, skin temperature and hot combustion air temperature.
Instruments like infrared thermometer, fuel efficiency monitor, surface thermocouple and other
measuring devices are required to measure the above parameters.
Typical thermal efficiencies for common industrial furnaces are given in Table: 4.1
TABLE 4.1 THERMAL EFFICIENCIES FOR COMMON INDUSTRIAL

FURNACES
Furnace Type Typical thermal efficiencies (%)

1) Low Temperature furnaces
a. 540–980 oC (Batch type) 20–30
b. 540–980 oC (Continous type) 15–25
c. Coil Anneal (Bell) radiant type 5–7
d. Strip Anneal Muffle 7–12
2) High temperature furnaces
a. Pusher, Rotary 7–15
b. Batch forge 5–10
3) Continuous Kiln
a. Hoffman 25–90
b. Tunnel 20–80
4) Ovens
a. Indirect fired ovens (20°C–370°C) 35–40
b. Direct fired ovens (20°C–370°C) 35–40
Example: Furnace Efficiency Calculation for a Typical Reheating Furnace

An oil-fired reheating furnace has an operating temperature of around 1340°C. Average fuel
consumption is 400 litres/hour. The flue gas exit temperature is 750 °C after air preheater.
Air is preheated from ambient temperature of 40 °C to 190 °C through an air pre-heater.

Ch-04.qxd 2/23/2005 5:22 PM Page 100
4. Furnaces
The furnace has 460 mm thick wall (x) on the billet extraction outlet side, which is 1 m high
(D) and 1 m wide. The other data are as given below. Find out the efficiency of the furnace by
both indirect and direct method.
Exit flue gas temperature = 750°C
Ambient temperature = 40°C
Preheated air temperature = 190°C
Specific gravity of oil = 0.92

Average fuel oil consumption = 400 Litres / hr
= 400 × 0.92 =368 kg/hr
Calorific value of oil = 10000 kCal/kg
Average O2 percentage in flue gas = 12%
Weight of stock = 6000 kg/hr
Specific heat of Billet = 0.12 kCal/kg/°C
Average surface temperature

of heating + soaking zone = 122 °C
Average surface temperature of area

other than heating and soaking zone = 80 °C
Area of heating + soaking zone = 70.18 m2

Area other than heating and soaking zone = 12.6 m2
Solution
1. Sensible Heat Loss in Flue Gas:
O2 %
Excess air = x100
21 − O 2%
= 133% excess air
Theoretical air required to burn 1 kg of oil = 14 kg

Total air supplied = 14 x 2.33 kg / kg of oil
= 32.62 kg / kg of oil
Sensible heat loss = m x Cp × ∆T
Where m = Weight of flue gas (Air +fuel)
= 32.62 + 1.0 = 33.62 kg / kg of oil.

Ch-04.qxd 2/23/2005 5:22 PM Page 101
4. Furnaces
Cp = Specific heat
∆T = Temperature difference
Sensible Heat loss = 33.62 × 0.24 × (750- 40)
= 5729 kCal / kg of oil
% Heat Loss in Flue Gas = 5729 × 100 = 5 7.29%

10000
2. Loss Due to Evaporation of Moisture Present in Fuel
M × {584 + C p (Tf g –Tamb )}

% Heat Loss = × 100
GCV of fuel
Where,
M - kg of Moisture in 1 kg of fuel oil (0.15 kg/kg of fuel oil)
Tfg - Flue Gas Temperature, °C
Tamb - Ambient temperature,°C
GCV - Gross Calorific Value of Fuel, kCal/kg
0.15 × {584 + 0.45 (750–40 )}

10000
= 1.36 %
3. Loss Due to Evaporation of Water Formed due to Hydrogen in Fuel
9 × H 2 × {584 + C p (T fg –T amb )}
GCV of fuel
Where,
H2 – kg of H2 in 1 kg of fuel oil (0.1123 kg/kg of fuel oil)
9 × 0.1123 × {584 + 0.45 (750–40)}

= × 100
10000
= 9.13 %

Ch-04.qxd 2/23/2005 5:22 PM Page 102
4. Furnaces
4. Heat Loss due to Openings:

If a furnace body has an opening on it, the heat in the furnace escapes to the outside as
radiant heat. Heat loss due to openings can be calculated by computing black body radiation at
furnace temperature, and multiplying these values with emissivity (usually 0.8 for furnace brick
work), and the factor of radiation through openings. Factor for radiation through openings can
be determined with the help of graph as shown in figure 4.13. The black body radiation losses
can be directly computed from the curves as given in the figure 4.14 below.
The reheating furnace in example has 460 mm thick wall (X) on the billet extraction outlet
side, which is 1m high (D) and 1m wide. With furnace temperature of 1340°C, the quantity (Q)
of radiation heat loss from the opening is calculated as follows:
The shape of the opening is square and D/X = 1/0.46 = 2.17
The factor of radiation (Refer Figure 4.13) = 0.71
Black body radiation corresponding to 1340°C = 36.00 kCal/cm2/hr
(Refer Figure 4.14 on Black body radiation)
Area of opening = 100 cm x 100 cm = 10000 cm2
Emissivity = 0.8
Total heat loss = 36 x 10000 x 0.71 x 0.8
= 204480 kCal/hr
Equivalent fuel oil loss = 20.45 kg/hr
% of heat loss through openings = 20.45 /368 x 100 = 5.56 %
Figure 4.13 Factor for Determining the Equivalent of Heat Release from
Openings to the Quality of Heat Release from Perfect Black Body

Ch-04.qxd 2/23/2005 5:22 PM Page 103
4. Furnaces
Figure 4.14 Graph for Determining Black Body Radiation at a Particular Temperature
5. Heat Loss through Furnace Skin:

a. Heat loss through roof and sidewalls:
Total average surface temperature = 122°C
Heat loss at 122 °C (Refer Fig 4.26) = 1252 kCal / m2 / hr
Total area of heating + soaking zone = 70.18 m2
Total heat loss = 1252 kCal / m2 / hr x 70.18 m2
= 87865 kCal/hr
Equivalent oil loss (a) = 8.78 kg / hr
b.Total average surface temperature of

area other than heating and soaking zone = 80°C
Heat loss at 80°C = 740 kCal / m2 / hr
Total area = 12.6 m2
Total heat loss = 740 kCal / m2 / hr x 12.6 m2
= 9324 kCal/hr
Equivalent oil loss (b) = 0.93 kg / hr
Total loss of fuel oil = a + b = 9.71 kg/hr

Total percentage loss = 9.71 x 100 / 368
= 2.64%
6. Unaccounted Loss
These losses comprises of heat storage loss, loss of furnace gases around charging door and
opening, heat loss by incomplete combustion, loss of heat by conduction through hearth, loss
due to formation of scales.

Ch-04.qxd 2/23/2005 5:22 PM Page 104
4. Furnaces
Furnace Efficiency (Direct Method)

Heat input = 400 litres / hr
= 368 kg/hr
Heat output = m × Cp × ∆T
= 6000 kg × 0.12 × (1340 – 40)
= 936000 kCal
Efficiency = 936000 × 100 / (368 × 10000)
= 25.43 %
= 25% (app)
Losses = 75% (app)
Furnace Efficiency (Indirect Method)
1. Sensible Heat Loss in flue gas = 57.29%
2. Loss due to evaporation of moisture in fuel = 1.36 %
3. Loss due to evaporation of water
formed from H2 in fuel = 9.13 %
4. Heat loss due to openings = 5.56 %
5. Heat loss through skin = 2.64%
Total losses = 75.98%
Furnace Efficiency = 100 – 75.98
= 24.02 %
The instruments required for carrying out performance evaluation in a furnace is given in the
Table 4.2.
TABLE 4.2 FURNACE INSTRUMENTATION
Sl. Parameters Location of Instrument Required

No. to be measured Measurement Required Value
1. Furnace soaking Soaking zone side wall Pt/Pt-Rh thermocouple 1200–1300°C
zone temperature with indicator and recorder
(reheating furnaces)
2. Flue gas Flue gas exit from Chromel Alummel 700°C
furnace and entry to Thermocouple with max
re-cuperator indicator
3. Flue gas After recuperator Hg in steel thermometer 300°C (max)
4. Furnace hearth pressure Near charging end side Low pressure +0.1 mm. of Wg
in the heating zone wall over hearth level ring gauge
5. Flue gas analyser Near charging end side Fuel efficiency monitor 02% = 5
wall end side for oxygen & temperature t = 700°C (max)
6. Billet temperature Portable Infrared Pyrometer or ----
optical pyrometer

Ch-04.qxd 2/23/2005 5:22 PM Page 105
4. Furnaces
4.3 General Fuel Economy Measures in Furnaces

Typical energy efficiency measures for an industry with furnace are:
1) Complete combustion with minimum excess air
2) Correct heat distribution
3) Operating at the desired temperature
4) Reducing heat losses from furnace openings
5) Maintaining correct amount of furnace draught
6) Optimum capacity utilization
7) Waste heat recovery from the flue gases
8) Minimum refractory losses
9) Use of Ceramic Coatings
1. Complete Combustion with Minimum Excess Air:

The amount of heat lost in the flue gases (stack losses) depends upon amount of excess air.
In the case of a furnace carrying away flue gases at 900°C, % heat lost is shown in table 4.3:
TABLE 4.3 HEAT LOSS IN FLUE GAS BASED ON EXCESS

AIR LEVEL
Excess Air % of total heat in the fuel carried away by waste gases
(flue gas temp. 900°C)
25 48
50 55
75 63
100 71
To obtain complete combustion of fuel with the

minimum amount of air, it is necessary to control
air infiltration, maintain pressure of combustion
air, fuel quality and excess air monitoring
Higher excess air will reduce flame tempera-
ture, furnace temperature and heating rate. On the
other hand, if the excess air is less, then unburnt
components in flue gases will increase and would
be carried away in the flue gases through stack.
The figure 4.15 also indicates relation between air
ratio and exhaust gas loss.
The optimization of combustion air is the most
attractive and economical measure for energy
conservation. The impact of this measure is higher
when the temperature of furnace is high. Air ratio
is the value that is given by dividing the actual air
amount by the theoretical combustion air amount,
and it represents the extent of excess of air. Figure 4.15 Relation Between Air Ratio
and Exhaust Gas Loss

Ch-04.qxd 2/23/2005 5:22 PM Page 106
4. Furnaces
If a reheating furnace is not equipped with an automatic air/fuel ratio controller, it is

necessary to periodically sample gas in the furnace and measure its oxygen contents by a gas
analyzer. The Figure 4.16 shows a typical example of a reheating furnace equipped with an
automatic air/fuel ratio controller.
Figure 4.16 Air/Fuel Ratio Control System with Flow Rate Controller
More excess air also means more scale losses, which is equally a big loss in terms of money.
2. Proper Heat Distribution:

Furnace design should be such that in a given time, as much of the stock could be heated
uniformly to a desired temperature with minimum fuel firing rate.
Following care should be taken when using burners, for proper heat distribution:
i) The flame should not touch any solid object and should propagate clear of any solid
object. Any obstruction will deatomise the fuel particles thus affecting combustion
and create black smoke. If flame impinges on the stock, there would be increase in
scale losses (Refer Figures 4.17 and 4.18).
Figure 4.17 Heat Distribution in Furnace
ii) If the flames impinge on refractories, the incomplete combustion products can settle
and react with the refractory constituents at high flame temperatures.
iii) The flames of different burners in the furnace should stay clear of each other.

Ch-04.qxd 2/23/2005 5:22 PM Page 107
4. Furnaces
Figure 4.18 Alignment of Burners in Furnace
If they intersect, inefficient combustion would occur. It is desirable to stagger the

burners on the opposite sides.
iv) The burner flame has a tendency to travel freely in the combustion space just above
the material. In small furnaces, the axis of the burner is never placed parallel to the
hearth but always at an upward angle. Flame should not hit the roof.
v) The larger burners produce a long flame, which may be difficult to contain within the
furnace walls. More burners of less capacity give better heat distribution in the
furnace and also increase furnace life.
vi) For small furnaces, it is desirable to have a long flame with golden yellow colour
while firing furnace oil for uniform heating. The flame should not be too long that it
enters the chimney or comes out through the furnace top or through doors. In such
cases, major portion of additional fuel is carried away from the furnace.
3. Maintaining Optimum Operating Temperature of Furnace :

It is important to operate the furnace at optimum temperature. The operating temperatures of
various furnaces are given in Table 4.4.
TABLE 4.4 OPERATING TEMPERATURE OF VARIOUS

FURNACES
Slab Reheating furnaces 1200°C

Rolling Mill furnaces 1200°C
Bar furnace for Sheet Mill 800°C
Bogey type annealing furnaces 650°C–750°C
Operating at too high temperatures than optimum causes heat loss, excessive oxidation, de-
carbonization as well as over-stressing of the refractories. These controls are normally left to
operator judgment, which is not desirable. To avoid human error, on/off controls should be
provided.
4. Prevention of Heat Loss through Openings

Heat loss through openings consists of the heat loss by direct radiation through openings and
the heat loss caused by combustion gas that leaks through openings. The heat loss from an
opening can also be calculated using the following formula:

Ch-04.qxd 2/23/2005 5:22 PM Page 108
4. Furnaces
4
 T 
Q = 4.88 ×   × a × A× H
 100 
where
T: absolute temperature (K)
a: factor for total radiation
A: area of opening, m2
H: time (Hr)
This is explained by an example as follows.

A reheating furnace with walls 460 mm thick (X) has a billet extraction outlet, which is
1 m high (D) and 1 m wide. When the furnace temperature is 1,340°C the quantity (Q) of
radiation heat loss from this opening is evaluated as follows.
The shape of opening is square, and D/X = l/0.46 = 2.17. Thus, the factor for total
radiation is 0.71 (refer Figure 4.13) and we get
4
 1340 + 273 
Q = 4.88 ×   × 0.71×1 = 2,34,500 kCal/hr
 100 
If the furnace pressure is slightly higher than outside air pressure (as in case of reheating
furnace) during its operation, the combustion gas inside may blow off through openings and
heat is lost with that. But damage is more, if outside air intrudes into the furnace, making
temperature distribution uneven and oxidizing billets. This heat loss is about 1% of the total
quantity of heat generated in the furnace, if furnace pressure is controlled properly.
5. Control of furnace draft:

If negative pressures exist in the furnace, air infiltration is liable to occur through the cracks and
openings thereby affecting air-fuel ratio control. Tests conducted on apparently airtight furnaces
have shown air infiltration up to the extent of 40%. Neglecting furnaces pressure could mean
problems of cold metal and non-uniform metal temperatures, which could affect subsequent
operations like forging and rolling and result in increased fuel consumption. For optimum fuel
consumption, slight positive pressure should be maintained in the furnace as shown in
Figure 4.19.Ex-filtration is less serious than infiltration. Some of the associated problems with
ex filtration are leaping out of flames, overheating of the furnace refractories leading to reduced
brick life, increased furnace maintenance, burning out of ducts and equipments attached to the
furnace, etc.
In addition to the proper control on furnace pressure, it is important to keep the openings as
small as possible and to seal them in order to prevent the release of high temperature gas and
intrusion of outside air through openings such as the charging inlet, extracting outlet and peep-
hole on furnace walls or the ceiling.

Ch-04.qxd 2/23/2005 5:22 PM Page 109
4. Furnaces
Figure 4.19 Effect of Pressure on the Location of Zero Level and Infiltration of Air
6. Optimum Capacity Utilization:

One of the most vital factors affecting efficiency is loading. There is a particular loading at
which the furnace will operate at maximum thermal efficiency. If the furnace is under loaded
a smaller fraction of the available heat in the working chamber will be taken up by the load and
therefore efficiency will be low.
The best method of loading is generally obtained by trial-noting the weight of material put
in at each charge, the time it takes to reach temperature and the amount of fuel used. Every
endeavour should be made to load a furnace at the rate associated with optimum efficiency
although it must be realised that limitations to achieving this are sometimes imposed by work
availability or other factors beyond control.
The loading of the charge on the furnace hearth should be arranged so that
• It receives the maximum amount of radiation from the hot surfaces of the heating chambers
and the flames produced.
• The hot gases are efficiently circulated around the heat receiving surfaces
Stock should not be placed in the following position
• In the direct path of the burners or where flame impingement is likely to occur.
• In an area which is likely to cause a blockage or restriction of the flue system of the furnace.
• Close to any door openings where cold spots are likely to develop.
The other reason for not operating the furnace at optimum loading is the mismatching of
furnace dimension with respect to charge and production schedule.
In the interests of economy and work quality the materials comprising the load should only
remain in the furnace for the minimum time to obtain the required physical and metallurgical
requirements. When the materials attain these properties they should be removed from the

Ch-04.qxd 2/23/2005 5:22 PM Page 110
4. Furnaces
furnace to avoid damage and fuel wastage. The higher the working temperature, higher is the
loss per unit time. The effect on the materials by excessive residence time will be an increase
in surface defects due to oxidation. The rate of oxidation is dependent upon time, temperature,
as well as free oxygen content. The possible increase in surface defects can lead to rejection of
the product. It is therefore essential that coordination between the furnace operator, production
and planning personnel be maintained.
Optimum utilization of furnace can be planned at design stage. Correct furnace for the jobs
should be selected considering whether continuous or batch type furnace would be more
suitable. For a continuous type furnace, the overall efficiency will increase with heat
recuperation from the waste gas stream. If only batch type furnace is used, careful planning of
the loads is important. Furnace should be recharged as soon as possible to enable use of
residual furnace heat.
7. Waste Heat Recovery from Furnace Flue Gases:

In any industrial furnace the products of
combustion leave the furnace at a temper-
ature higher than the stock temperature.
Sensible heat losses in the flue gases,
while leaving the chimney, carry 35 to 55
per cent of the heat input to the furnace.
The higher the quantum of excess air and
flue gas temperature, the higher would be
the waste heat availability.
Waste heat recovery should be considered
after all other energy conservation mea-
sures have been taken. Minimizing the
generation of waste heat should be the
primary objective. The sensible heat in
flue gases can be generally recovered by
the following methods. (Figure 4.20)
• Charge (stock) preheating,
Figure 4.20 Waste Heat Recovery from a Furnace
• Preheating of combustion air,
• Utilizing waste heat for other process (to generate steam or hot water by a waste heat boiler)
Charge Pre-heating
When raw materials are preheated by exhaust gases before being placed in a heating furnace,
the amount of fuel necessary to heat them in the furnace is reduced. Since raw materials are
usually at room temperature, they can be heated sufficiently using high-temperature gas to
reduce fuel consumption rate.
Preheating of Combustion Air

For a long time, the preheating of combustion air using heat from exhaust gas was not used
except for large boilers, metal-heating furnaces and high-temperature kilns. This method is now
being employed in compact boilers and compact industrial furnaces as well. (Refer Figure 4.21)

Ch-04.qxd 2/23/2005 5:22 PM Page 111
4. Furnaces
The energy contained in the exhaust gases can be recycled by using it to pre-heat the
combustion air. A variety of equipment is available; external recuperators are common, but
other techniques are now available such as self-recuperative burners. For example, with a
furnace exhaust gas temperature of l,000°C, a modern recuperator can pre-heat the combustion
air to over 500°C, giving energy savings compared with cold air of up to 30%
Figure 4.21 Preheating the Air for Combustion by a Recuperator
External Recuperators
There are two main types of external recuperators:
radiation recuperators;
convection recuperators
Radiation Recuperators
generally take the form of concentric cylinders, in which the combustion air passes through the
annulus and the exhaust gases from the furnace pass through the centre, see Figure 4.22 (a).
The simple construction means that such recuperators are suitable for use with dirty gases, have
a negligible resistance to flow, and can replace the flue or chimney if space is limited.
The annulus can be replaced by a ring of vertical tubes, but this design is more difficult to install
and maintain. Radiation recuperators rely on radiation from high temperature exhaust gases and
should not he employed with exhaust gases at less than about 800°C.
Convection Recuperators
consist essentially of bundles of drawn or cast tubes, see Figure 4.22 (b). Internal and/or
external fins can be added to assist heat transfer. The combustion air normally passes through
the tubes and the exhaust gases outside the tubes, but there are some applications where this is
reversed. For example, with dirty gases, it is easier to keep the tubes clean if the air flows on
the outside. Design variations include 'U' tube and double pass systems. Convection recupe
rators are more suitable for exhaust gas temperatures of less than about 900°C.

Ch-04.qxd 2/23/2005 5:22 PM Page 112
4. Furnaces
Figure 4.22 Metallic Recuperators
Self-Recuperative Burners
Self-recuperative burners (SRBs) are based on traditional heat recovery techniques in that the
products of combustion are drawn through a concentric tube recuperator around the burner body
and used to pre-heat the combustion air (Figure 4.23.)
Figure 4.23 Self-Recuperative Burners
A major advantage of this type of system is that it can be retro-fitted to an existing furnace
structure to increase production capability without having to alter the existing exhaust gas
ducting arrangements. SRBs are generally more suited to heat treatment furnaces where
exhaust gas temperatures are lower and there are no stock recuperation facilities.

Ch-04.qxd 2/23/2005 5:22 PM Page 113
4. Furnaces
Estimation of fuel savings

By using preheated air for combustion, fuel can be saved. The fuel saving rate is given by the
following formula:
P
S= ×100(%)
F + P −Q
where S: fuel saving rate, %

F: Calorific value of fuel (kCal/kg fuel)
P: quantity of heat brought in by preheated air (kCal/kg fuel)
Q: quantity of heat taken away by exhaust gas (kCal/kg fuel)
By this formula, fuel saving rates for heavy oil and natural gas were calculated for various
temperatures of exhaust gas and preheated air. The results are shown in the following
Figure 4.24 and Figure 4.25.
Figure 4.24 Fuel Conservation Rate when Oil is Used

Ch-04.qxd 2/23/2005 5:22 PM Page 114
4. Furnaces
Figure 4.25 Fuel Conservation Rate when Natural Gas is Used
For example, when combustion air for heavy oil is preheated to 400°C by a heat
exchanger with an inlet temperature of 800 °C, the fuel conservation rate is estimated to be
about 20 percent. When installing a recuperator in a continuous steel reheating furnace, it is
important to choose a preheated air temperature that will balance the fuel saving effect and the
invested cost for the equipment.
Also, the following points should be checked:
• Draft of exhaust gas: When exhaust gas goes through a recuperator, its draft resistance
usually causes a pressure loss of 5–10 mm H2O. Thus, the draft of stack should be checked.
• Air blower for combustion air: While the air for combustion goes through a recuperator,
usually 100–200 mm H2O pressure is lost. Thus, the discharge pressure of air blower should
be checked, and the necessary pressure should be provided by burners.
Since the volume of air is increased owing to its preheating, it is necessary to be careful about
the modification of air-duct diameters and blowers. As for the use of combustion gases
resulting from high-density oils with a high sulphur content, care must be taken to avoid
problems such as clogging with dust or sulphides, corrosion or increases in nitrogen oxides.
Utilizing Waste Heat as a Heat Source for Other Processes

The temperature of heating-furnace exhaust gas can be as high as 400–600 °C, even after heat
has been recovered from it.
When a large amount of steam or hot water is needed in a plant, installing a waste heat boiler
to produce the steam or hot water using the exhaust gas heat is preferred. If the exhaust gas heat
is suitable for equipment in terms of heat quantity, temperature range, operation time etc., the
fuel consumption can be greatly reduced. In one case, exhaust gas from a quenching furnace
was used as a heat source in a tempering furnace so as to obviate the need to use fuel for the
tempering furnace itself.

Ch-04.qxd 2/23/2005 5:22 PM Page 115
4. Furnaces
8. Minimising Wall Losses:

About 30–40% of the fuel input to the furnace generally goes to make up for heat losses in
intermittent or continuous furnaces. The appropriate choice of refractory and insulation
materials goes a long way in achieving fairly high fuel savings in industrial furnaces.
The heat losses from furnace walls affect the fuel economy considerably. The extent of wall
losses depend on:
• Emissivity of wall
• Thermal conductivity of refractories
• Wall thickness
• Whether furnace is operated continuously or intermittently
Heat losses can be reduced by increasing the wall thickness, or through the application of
insulating bricks. Outside wall temperatures and heat losses of a composite wall of a certain
thickness of firebrick and insulation brick are much lower, due to lesser conductivity of
insulating brick as compared to a refractory brick of similar thickness. In the actual operation
in most of the small furnaces the operating periods alternate with the idle periods. During the
off period, the heat stored in the refractories during the on period is gradually dissipated,
mainly through radiation and convection from the cold face. In addition, some heat is
abstracted by air flowing through the furnace. Dissipation of stored heat is a loss, because the
lost heat is again imparted to the refractories during the heat "on" period, thus consuming extra
fuel to generate that heat. If a furnace is operated 24 hours, every third day, practically all the
heat stored in the refractories is lost. But if the furnace is operated 8 hours per day all the heat
stored in the refractories is not dissipated. For a furnace with a firebrick wall of 350 mm
thickness, it is estimated that 55 percent of the heat stored in the refractories is dissipated from
the cold surface during the 16 hours idle period. Furnace walls built of insulating refractories
and cased in a shell reduce the flow of heat to the surroundings.
Prevention of Radiation Heat Loss from Surface of Furnace

The quantity of heat release from surface of furnace body is the sum of natural convection and
thermal radiation. This quantity can be calculated from surface temperatures of furnace. The
temperatures on furnace surface should be measured at as many points as possible, and their
average should be used. If the number of measuring points is too small, the error becomes large.
The quantity (Q) of heat release from a reheating furnace is calculated with the following
formula:
  t1 + 273  4  t2 + 273  4 
Q = a × (t1 − t 2 ) + 4.88 E ×  
5/ 4
− 
  100   100  
 
where Q: Quantity of heat released (kCal/hr)

a : factor regarding direction of the surface of natural convection ceiling = 2.8,
side walls = 2.2, hearth = 1.5
tl : temperature of external wall surface of the furnace (°C)
t2 : temperature of air around the furnace (°C)
E: emissivity of external wall surface of the furnace

Ch-04.qxd 2/23/2005 5:22 PM Page 116
4. Furnaces
The first term of the formula above represents the quantity of heat release by natural
convection, and the second term represents the quantity of heat release by radiation. The
following Figure 4.26 shows the relation between the temperature of external wall surface and
the quantity of heat release calculated with this formula.
This is explained with an example as follows:
There is a reheating furnace

whose ceiling; side walls and
hearth have 20 m2, 50 m2 and 20
m2 of surface area respectively.
Their surface temperatures are
measured, and the averages are
80°C, 90°C and 100°C respec-
tively. Evaluate the quantity of
heat release from the whole
surface of this furnace.
From the Figure 4.26, the
quantities of heat release from
ceiling, side walls and hearth per
unit area are respectively 650
kCal/m2h, 720 kCal/m2h and
730 kCal/m2h.
Figure 4.26 Quantity of Heat Release at Various Temperatures
Therefore, the total quantity of heat release is

Q = 650×20+720×50+730×20
= 13000 + 36000 +14600= 63,600 kCal/hr
Use of Ceramic Fibre

Ceramic fibre is a low thermal mass refractory used in the hot face of the furnace and fastened
to the refractory walls. Due to its low thermal mass the storage losses are minimized. This
results in faster heating up of furnace and also faster cooling. Energy
savings by this application is possible only in intermittent furnaces. More details about
ceramic fibre are given in the chapter on insulation and refractories.
9. Use of Ceramic Coatings

Ceramic coatings in furnace chamber promote rapid and efficient transfer of heat, uniform
heating and extended life of refractories. The emissivity of conventional refractories decreases

Ch-04.qxd 2/23/2005 5:22 PM Page 117
4. Furnaces
with increase in temperature whereas for ceramic coatings it increases. This outstanding
property has been exploited for use in hot face insulation.
Ceramic coatings are high emissivity coatings which when applied has a long life at
temperatures up to 1350°C. The coatings fall into two general categories-those used for
coating metal substrates, and those used for coating refractory substrates. The coatings are
non-toxic, non-flammable and water based. Applied at room temperatures, they are sprayed and
air dried in less than five minutes. The coatings allow the substrate to maintain its designed
metallurgical properties and mechanical strength. Installation is quick and can be completed
during shut down. Energy savings of the order of 8–20% have been reported depending on the
type of furnace and operating conditions.
10. Fish Bone Diagram for Energy Conservation Analysis in Furnaces

All the possible measures discussed can be incorporated in furnace design and operation.
The figure 4.27 shows characteristics diagram of energy conservation for a fuel-fired furnace.
Figure 4.27 Characteristic Diagram of Energy Conservation for Reheating Furnace
4.4 Case Study

In a rerolling mill, following energy conservation measure was implemented and savings
achieved are explained below:
Saving by Installing a Recuperator

This plant had a continuous pusher type billet-reheating furnace. The furnace consists of two
burners at the heating zone. The furnace is having a length of 40 ft. Annual furnace oil
consumption is 620 kL. The furnace did not have any waste heat recovery device. The flue gas
temperature is found to be 650°C. To tap this potential heat the unit has installed a recuperator
device. It was possible to preheat the combustion air to 325°C. By resorting to this measure,
there was 15% fuel saving which is 93 kL of oil per annum.

Ch-04.qxd 2/23/2005 5:22 PM Page 118
4. Furnaces
QUESTIONS
1. What do you understand by intermittent and continuous furnaces?
2. What are the parameters to be considered in the design of an efficient furnace?
3. Why do furnaces operate at low efficiency? What are the methods by which furnace
efficiencies can be improved?
4. What are the major losses in a furnace?
5. How is the furnace performance evaluated by direct method?
6. How is the furnace performance evaluated by indirect method?
7. What are the instruments required for undertaking performance evaluation of the
furnace?
8. What are the disadvantages of excess air in a furnace?
9. For the same excess air the heat loss will be (a) higher at higher temperatures (b) same
at higher temperatures (c) lower at higher temperatures (d) has no impact on
temperatures
10. Scale losses will (a) increase with excess air (b) decrease with excess air (c) will have
no relation with excess air (d) will increase with nitrogen in air
11. What care should be taken when using furnace for proper heat distribution in a
furnace?
12. What is the impact of flame impingement on the refractory?
13. Explain why a flame should not touch the stock.?
14. List down the adverse impacts of operating the furnace at temperatures higher than
required.
15. Discuss how heat loss takes place through openings.
16. What are the advantages and disadvantages of operating the furnace at a positive
pressure?
17. How is the furnace loading related to energy consumption?
18. Discuss some of the practical difficulties in optimizing the loading of the furnace.
19. What are the methods of waste heat recovery in a furnace?
20. Explain the term recuperator:
21. The exhaust gas is leaving the furnace at 1000°C. A recuperator is to be installed for
pre heating the combustion air to 300°C. Using the chart provided in this chapter.
Find out the fuel savings.
22. For the same conditions given in the earlier problem find out the saving if natural gas
is used

Ch-04.qxd 2/23/2005 5:22 PM Page 119
4. Furnaces
23. What are the precautions to be taken when retrofitting the recuperator in the existing
furnace.
24. Give two examples of utilizing furnace waste heat for other processes.
25. What are the parameters on which the wall losses depends?
26. What are the methods by which wall losses can be reduced?
27. How does ceramic fibre save energy in the furnace?
28. Ceramic fibre gives the maximum savings when used in (a) continuous furnace (b)
batch furnace (c) arc furnace (d) induction furnace
29. How does ceramic coatings help in reducing energy consumption?
30. Explain how you would undertake an energy audit of a batch type heat treatment
furnace.
31. Find out the efficiency of reheating furnaces by direct method from the following data:
a) Dimension of hearth of reheating furnace = 2m × 4m
b) Rate of heating of stock = 125 kg/m2 /hr.
c) Temperature of heated stock = 1030°C
d) Ambient air temperature = 30°C
e) Calorific value of fuel oil = 10200 kCal/kg
f) Specific gravity of fuel oil = 95
g) Fuel consumption during 8 hrs. of shift = 1980 liters.
h) Mean specific heat of stock = 0.6 kCal/kg/K
32. Calculate the radiation heat loss through a opening in the furnace for a period of eight
hours from the data given below
a) a reheating furnace with walls 460 mm thick (X) has a billet extraction outlet which
is 1m high and 1m wide. Furnace operating temperature is 1350°C. The factor total
radiation for the opening is 0.71.
REFERENCES
1. Coal and Industrial Furnaces – Department of Coal Publications, Government of India
2. Fuel Economy in furnaces and Waste heat recovery-PCRA
3. Industrial Furnaces (Vol-2) by W.Trinks, John Wiley and Sons Inc, Newyork, 1925.
4. Output of seminar on energy conservation in iron and steel industry - Sponsored by
United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) and Ministry of
International Trade and Industry (MITI), Japan
www.pcra.org

Ch-05.qxd 2/23/2005 10:45 AM Page 121
5. INSULATION AND REFRACTORIES
Syllabus
Insulation and Refractories: Insulation-types and application, Economic thickness
of insulation, Heat savings and application criteria, Refractory-types, selection and
application of refractories, Heat loss.
5.1 Purpose of Insulation

A thermal insulator is a poor conductor of heat and has a low thermal conductivity. Insulation
is used in buildings and in manufacturing processes to prevent heat loss or heat gain. Although
its primary purpose is an economic one, it also provides more accurate control of process
temperatures and protection of personnel. It prevents condensation on cold surfaces and the
resulting corrosion. Such materials are porous, containing large number of dormant air cells.
Thermal insulation delivers the following benefits:
• Reduces over-all energy consumption
• Offers better process control by maintaining process temperature.
• Prevents corrosion by keeping the exposed surface of a refrigerated system above dew
point
• Provides fire protection to equipment
• Absorbs vibration
5.2 Types and Application

The Insulation can be classified into three groups according to the temperature ranges for which
they are used.
Low Temperature Insulations (up to 90 °C)
This range covers insulating materials for refrigerators, cold and hot water systems, storage
tanks, etc. The commonly used materials are Cork, Wood, 85% magnesia, Mineral Fibers,
Polyurethane and expanded Polystyrene, etc.
Medium Temperature Insulations (90 – 325 °C)

Insulators in this range are used in low temperature, heating and steam raising equipment, steam
lines, flue ducts etc. The types of materials used in this temperatures range include 85%
Magnesia, Asbestos, Calcium Silicate and Mineral Fibers etc.
High Temperature Insulations (325 °C – above )

Typical uses of such materials are super heated steam system, oven dryer and furnaces etc. The
most extensively used materials in this range are Asbestos, Calcium Silicate, Mineral Fibre,
Mica and Vermiculite based insulation, Fireclay or Silica based insulation and Ceramic Fibre.

Ch-05.qxd 2/23/2005 10:45 AM Page 122
5. Insulation & Refractories
Insulation material
Insulation materials can also be classified into organic and inorganic types. Organic insulations
are based on hydrocarbon polymers, which can be expanded to obtain high void structures
Example: Thermocol (Expanded Polystyrene) and Poly Urethane Form(PUF).
Inorganic insulation is based on Siliceous/Aluminous/Calcium materials in fibrous, granular or
powder forms.
Example: Mineral wool, Calcium silicate etc.
Properties of common insulating materials are as under:
Calcium Silicate: Used in industrial process plant piping where high service temperature and
compressive strength are needed. Temperature ranges varies from 40 °C to 950 °C.
Glass mineral wool: These are available in flexible forms, rigid slabs and preformed pipe work
sections. Good for thermal and acoustic insulation for heating and chilling system pipelines.
Temperature range of application is –10 to 500 °C.
Thermocol: These are mainly used as cold insulation for piping and cold storage construction.
Calcium silicate sections Glass Mineral wool

Figure 5.1
Expanded nitrile rubber: This is a flexible material that forms a closed cell integral vapour
barrier. Originally developed for condensation control in refrigeration pipe work and chilled water
lines; now-a-days also used for ducting insulation for air conditioning.
Rock mineral wool: This is available in a range of forms from light weight rolled products
to heavy rigid slabs including preformed pipe sections. In addition to good thermal insulation
properties, it can also provide acoustic insulation and is fire retardant.
Use of Moulded Insulation

Lagging materials can be obtained in bulk, in the form of moulded sections; semi - cylindrical for
pipes, slabs for vessels, flanges, valves etc. The main advantage of the moulded sections is the ease
of application and replacement when undertaking repairs for damaged lagging.
The thermal conductivity of a material is the heat loss per unit area per unit insulation thickness
per unit temperature difference. The unit of measurement is W-m2/m°C or W-m/ °C. The thermal
conductivity of materials increases with temperature. So thermal conductivity is always specified
at the mean temperature (mean of hot and cold face temperatures) of the insulation material.

Ch-05.qxd 2/23/2005 10:45 AM Page 123
Thermal conductivities of typical hot and cold insulation materials are given in Table 5.1 and
Table 5.2.
TABLE 5.1 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF HOT
INSULATION
TABLE 5.2 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF COLD

INSULATION
5.3 Calculation of Insulation Thickness

The most basic model for insulation on a pipe is shown
in Figure 5.2. r1 show the outside radius of the pipe r2
shows the radius of the Pipe+ insulation.
Heat loss from a surface is expressed as
H = h X A x (Th–Ta)
Where
h = Heat transfer coefficient, W/m2–K
H = Heat loss, Watts
Figure 5.2 Pipe Insulation

Ch-05.qxd 2/23/2005 10:45 AM Page 124
Ta = Average ambient temperature, ºC

Ts = Desired/actual insulation surface temperature, ºC
Th = Hot surface temperature (for hot fluid piping), ºC & Cold surface temperature for
cold fluids piping)
For horizontal pipes, heat transfer coefficient can be calculated by:
h = (A + 0.005 (Th – Ta)) × 10 W/m2-K
For vertical pipes,
h = (B + 0.009 ( Th – Ta)) × 10 W/m2-K
Using the coefficients A, B as given below.
(Th + Ts )
Tm =
2
k = Thermal conductivity of insulation at mean temperature of Tm, W/m-°C
tk = Thickness of insulation, mm
r1 = Actual outer radius of pipe, mm
r2 = (r1 + tk)
1 o
R s = Surface thermal resistance = C–m 2 / W
h
tk o
R l = Thermal resistance of insulation = C–m 2/ W
k
The heat flow from the pipe surface and the ambient can be expressed as follows:
H = Heat flow, Watts

(Th − Ta ) (Ts − Ta )
= =
(R l + R s ) Rs
From the above equation, and for a desired Ts, Rl can be calculated. From Rl and known value
of thermal conductivity k, thickness of insulation can be calculated.
 (r1 +t k ) 
Equivalent thickness of insulation for p ipe, E tk ⋅ = (r1+t k ) ×ln  
 r1 

Ch-05.qxd 2/23/2005 10:45 AM Page 125
5.4 Economic Thickness of Insulation (ETI)

Insulation of any system means capital expenditure. Hence the most important factor in any
insulation system is to analyse the thermal insulation with respect to cost. The effectiveness of
insulation follows the law of decreasing returns. Hence, there is a definite economic limit to the
amount of insulation, which is
justified. An increased thickness
is uneconomical and cannot be
recovered through small heat
savings. This limiting value is
termed as economic thickness of
insulation. An illustrative case is
given in Figure 5.3. Each industry
has different fuel cost and boiler
efficiency. These values can be
used for calculating economic
thickness of insulation. This
shows that thickness for a given
set of circumstances results in the
lowest overall cost of insulation
and heat loss combined over Figure 5.3 Illustration of Optimal Insulation
a given period of time. The
following Figure 5.4 illustrates the principle of economic thickness of insulation.
The simplest method of analysing whether you should use 1" or 2" or 3" insulation is
by comparing the cost of energy losses with the cost of insulating the pipe. The insulation
thickness for which the total cost is minimum is termed as economic thickness. Refer
Figure 5.4 The curve representing the total cost reduces initially and after reaching the
economic thickness corresponding to the minimum cost, it increases.
Figure 5.4 Determination of Economic Thickness of Insulation

Ch-05.qxd 2/23/2005 10:45 AM Page 126
The determination of economic thickness requires the attention to the following factors.
i. Cost of fuel
ii. Annual hours of operation
iii. Heat content of fuel
iv. Boiler efficiency
v. Operating surface temperature
vi. Pipe diameter/thickness of surface
vii. Estimated cost of insulation.
viii. Average exposure ambient still air temperature
Procedure for Calculating Economic Thickness of Insulation

To explain the concept of economic thickness of insulation, we will use an example.
(Refer Table 5.3) Consider an 8 bar steam pipeline of 6" dia having 50-meter length. We will
evaluate the cost of energy losses when we use 1", 2" and 3" insulation to find out the most
economic thickness.
A step-by-step procedure is given below.
1. Establish the bare pipe surface temperature, by measurement.
2. Note the dimensions such as diameter, length & surface area of the pipe section under
consideration.
3. Assume an average ambient temperature. Here, we have taken 30 °C.
4. Since we are doing the calculations for commercially available insulation thickness,
some trial and error calculations will be required for deciding the surface temperature
after putting insulation. To begin with assume a value between 55 & 65 °C, which is
a safe, touch temperature.
5. Select an insulation material, with known thermal conductivity values in the mean
insulation temperature range. Here the mean temperature is 111 °C. and the value of
k = 0.044 W/m2 °C for mineral wool.
6. Calculate surface heat transfer coefficients of bare and insulated surfaces, using
equations discussed previously. Calculate the thermal resistance and thickness of
insulation.
7. Select r2 such that the equivalent thickness of insulation of pipe equals to the
insulation thickness estimated in step 6. From this value, calculate the radial
thickness of pipe insulation = r2-r1
8. Adjust the desired surface temperature values so that the thickness of insulation is
close to the standard value of 1" ( 25.4 mm).
9. Estimate the surface area of the pipe with different insulation thickness and calculate
the total heat loss from the surfaces using heat transfer coefficient, temperature
difference between pipe surface and ambient.
10. Estimate the cost of energy losses in the 3 scenarios. Calculate the Net Present Value
of the future energy costs during an insulation life of typically 5 years.
11. Find out the total cost of putting insulation on the pipe ( material + labor cost)
12. Calculate the total cost of energy costs and insulation for 3 situations.
13. Insulation thickness corresponding to the lowest total cost will be the economic
thickness of insulation.

Ch-05.qxd 2/23/2005 10:45 AM Page 127
TABLE 5.3 EXAMPLE FOR ECONOMIC INSULATION THICKNESS
Note that the total cost is lower when using 2" insulation, hence is the economic insulation
thickness.

Ch-05.qxd 2/23/2005 10:45 AM Page 128
5.5 Simplified Formula for Heat Loss Calculation

Various charts, graphs and references are available for heat loss computation. The surface heat
loss can be computed with the help of a simple relation as given below. This equation can be
used up to 200 °C surface temperature. Factors like wind velocities, conductivity of insulating
material etc has not been considered in the equation.
S = [10+(Ts–Ta)/20] x (Ts–Ta)
Where
S = Surface heat loss in kCal/hr m2
Ts = Hot surface temperature in °C
Ta = Ambient temperature in °C
Total heat loss/hr (Hs) = S × A
Where A is the surface area in m2
Based on the cost of heat energy, the quantification of heat loss in Rs. can be worked out as
under:
Hs × Yearly hours of operation

Equivalent fuel loss (Hf) (kg/Yr) =
GCV × η b
Annual heat loss in monetary terms (Rs.) = Hf × Fuel cost (Rs./kg)
Where
GCV = Gross Calorific value of fuel kCal/kg
ηb = Boiler efficiency in %
Case Example
Steam pipeline 100 mm diameter is not insulated for 100 metre length supplying steam at 10
kg/cm2 to the equipment. Find out the fuel savings if it is properly insulated with 65 mm insu-
lating material.
Assumptions:
Boiler efficiency – 80%
Fuel Oil cost – Rs.15000/tonne
Surface temperature without insulation – 170 °C
Surface temperature after insulation – 65 °C
Ambient temperature – 25 °C
Existing Heat Loss:
S = [10+ (Ts – Ta)/20] × (Ts – Ta)
Ts = 170 °C
Ta = 25 °C
S = [10 + (170 – 25)/20] × (170 – 25) = 2500 kCal/hr-m2
S1 = S =Existing heat loss (2500 kCal/hr-m2 )
Modified System:
After insulating with 65 mm glass wool with aluminum cladding the hot face temperature will
be 65 °C.

Ch-05.qxd 2/23/2005 10:45 AM Page 129
Ts – 65 °C
Ta – 25 °C
Substituting these values
S = [10+(65-25)/20] × (65 – 25)
= 480 kCal/hr m2
S2 = S = Existing heat loss (480 kCal/hr – m2)
Fuel Savings Calculation

Pipe dimension = φ 100 mm & 100 m length
Surface area existing (A1) = 3.14 × 0.1 × 100 = 31.4 m2
Surface area after insulation (A2) = 3.14 × 0.23 × 100 = 72.2 m2
Total heat loss in existing system (S1 × A1) = 2500 × 31.4 = 78500 kCal/hr
Total heat loss in Modified system (S2 × A2) = 480 × 72.2 = 34656 kCal/hr
Reduction in heat loss = 78500 – 34656 = 43844 kCal/hr
No. of hours operation in a year = 8400
Total heat loss (kCal/yr) = 43844 × 8400 = 368289600
Calorific value of fuel oil = 10300 kCal/kg
Boiler efficiency = 80%
Price of fuel oil = Rs.15000/Tonne
Yearly fuel oil savings = 368289600/10300 × 0.8
= 44695 kg/year
5.6 Refractories
Any material can be described as ‘refractory’, if it can with stand the action of abrasive or
corrosive solids, liquids or gases at high temperatures. The various combinations of operating
conditions in which refractories are used, make it necessary to manufacture a range of
refractory materials with different properties. Refractory materials are made in varying
combinations and shapes and for different applications.
The general requirements of a refractory material can be summed up as :
• Ability to withstand high temperatures.
• Ability to withstand sudden changes of temperatures.
• Ability to withstand action of molten metal slag, glass, hot gases, etc.
• Ability to withstand load at service conditions.
• Ability to withstand load and abrasive forces.
• Low coefficient of thermal expansion.
• Should be able to conserve heat.
• Should not contaminate the material with which it comes into contact.

Ch-05.qxd 2/23/2005 10:45 AM Page 130
5.7 Properties of Refractories

Some of the important properties of refractories are:
TABLE 5.4 MELTING POINTS OF PURE COMPOUNDS

Pure Compound Formula Melting Temperature °C
Alumina A2O3 2050
Lime CaO 2570
Chromite FeOCr2O3 2180
Chromium Oxide Cr2O2 2275
Megnesia MgO 2800
Silica SiO2 1715
Titania TiO2 1850
Melting point: Pure substances melt sharply at a definite temperature. Most refractory
materials consist of high melting particles bonded together. At high temperature, glass fuses and
as the temperature rises, the resulting slag increases in quantity by partial solution of the
refractory particles. The temperature at which this action results in failure of a test pyramid
(cone) to support its own weight is called, for convenience, the melting point of the refractory.
Table 5.4 shows the melting point of some pure compounds used as refractories.
Size: The size and shape of the refractories is a part of the design feature. It is an important
feature in design since it affects the stability of any structure. Accuracy and size is extremely
important to enable proper fitting of the refractory shape and to minimize the thickness and
joints in construction.
Bulk density: A useful property of refractories is bulk density, which defines the material
present in a given volume. An increase in bulk density of a given refractory increases its
volume stability, its heat capacity, as well as resistance to slag penetration.
Porosity: The apparent porosity is a measure of the volume of the open pores, into which a
liquid can penetrate, as a percentage of the total volume. This is an important property in cases
where the refractory is in contact with molten charge and slags. A low apparent porosity is desir-
able since it would prevent easy penetration of the refractory size and continuity of pores will
have important influences on refractory behaviour. A large number of small pores is
generally preferable to an equivalent number of large pores.
Cold crushing strength: The cold crushing strength, which is considered by some to be of
doubtful relevance as a useful property, other than that it reveals little more than the ability to
withstand the rigors of transport, can be used as a useful indicator to the adequacy of firing and
abrasion resistance in consonance with other properties such as bulk density and porosity.
Pyrometric cone equivalent (PCE): Temperature at which a refractory will deform under its
own weight is known as its softening temperature which is indicated by PCE. Refractories,
due to their chemical complexity, melt progressively over a range of temperature. Hence
refractoriness or fusion point is ideally assessed by the cone fusion method. The equivalent

Ch-05.qxd 2/23/2005 10:45 AM Page 131
standard cone which melts to the same extent as the

test cone is known as the pyrometric cone equivalent.
Thus in the Figure 5.5 refractoriness of Sample A is
much higher than B and C. The pyrometric cone
equivalent indicates only the softening temperature.
But, in service the refractory is subjected to loads
which would deform the refractory at a much lower
temperature than that indicated by PCE. With change
in the environmental conditions, such as reducing
Figure 5.5
atmosphere, the P.C.E. value changes drastically.
Refractoriness under load (RUL): The refractoriness under load test (RUL test) gives an
indication of the temperature at which the bricks will collapse, in service conditions with
similar load.
Creep at high temperature: Creep is a time dependent property which determines the
deformation in a given time and at a given temperature by a material under stress.
Volume stability, expansion, and shrinkage at high temperatures: The contraction or
expansion of the refractories can take place during service. Such permanent changes in
dimensions may be due to:
i) The changes in the allotropic forms which cause a change in specific gravity.
ii) A chemical reaction which produces a new material of altered specific gravity.
iii) The formation of liquid phase.
iv) Sintering reactions.
v) It may also happen on account of fluxing with dust and stag or by the action of
alkalies on fireclay refractories, to form alkali-alumina silicates, causing expansion
and disruption.
This is an example which is generally observed in blast furnaces.
Reversible Thermal Expansion: Any material when heated, expands, and contracts on cool-
ing. The reversible thermal expansion is a reflection on the phase transformations that occur
during heating and cooling.
Thermal Conductivity: Thermal conductivity depends upon the chemical and mineralogical
compositions as well as the glassy phase contained in the refractory and the application
temperature. The conductivity usually changes with rise in temperature. In cases where heat
transfer is required though the brick work, for example in recuperators, regenerators, muffles,
etc. the refractory should have high conductivity. Low thermal conductivity is desirable for
conservation of heat by providing adequate insulation.
The provisions for back-up insulation, conserves heat but at the same time it increases the
hot face temperature and hence the demand on the refractory quality increases.
Accordingly, insulation on the roof in open hearth furnaces is normally not provided,
otherwise it would cause failure due to severe dripping. Depending on the characteristic of the
refractory used in the hot face, such as the high temperature load bearing capacity, it may be
required that the quality of the brick be increased to match the rise temperature caused by over
insulation.

Ch-05.qxd 2/23/2005 10:45 AM Page 132
Light weight refractories of low thermal conductivity find wider applications in the
moderately low temperature heat treatment furnaces, where its primary function is usually
conservation of energy. It is more so in case of batch type furnaces where the low heat
capacity of the refractory structure would minimize the heat storage during the intermittent
heating and cooling cycles.
5.8 Classification of Refractories

Refractories can be classified on the basis of chemical composition and use and methods of
manufacture as shown below:
Classification based on Chemical composition Examples
ACID which readily combines with bases. Silica, Semisilica, Aluminosilicate.
BASIC which consists mainly of metallic oxides which Magnesite, chromemagnesite, Dolomite.
resist the action of bases.
NEUTRAL which doesn't combine; neither with acids nor Chrome, Pure. Alumina
bases.
Special Carbon, Silicon Carbide, Zirconia.
Classification based on end use Blast furnace Casting Pit
Classification based on method of manufacture • Dry Press Process
• Fused Cast
• Hand Moulded
• Formed Normal, fired or Chemically
bonded.)
• Unformed (Monolithics – plastics,
Ramming Mass, Gunning Castable,
Spraying.)
Mineral-based refractories are classified according to their chemical composition:

i. Acid bricks contain at least 92%~ silicon oxide (SiO2);
ii. Semi-basic bricks contain at least 65% silicon oxide. but less than 30% alumina
(A12O3);
iii. Neutral bricks contain at least 30% alumina;
iv. Basic bricks contain at least 60% magnesium oxide (MgO).
v. Synthetic refractories e.g. silicon carbide are produced by melting and casting
processes.
The structure of the furnace consists mainly of refractory bricks and cement, which must be able
to withstand the high furnace temperatures and must be carefully selected and constructed. The
furnace structure may contain monolithic refractories, which can be shaped in situ, e.g. those
used for burner quarls. There are three basic types of monolithic refractories:
• Castables;
• Mouldables;
• Ramming mixtures
Different furnace zones normally operate at different temperatures. The correct selection

Ch-05.qxd 2/23/2005 10:45 AM Page 133
of refractory materials for the various parts of the furnace and for various components e.g.
hearths, walls, etc, is important. This process is governed not only by properties like thermal
conductivity, expansion, etc, but also by the experience of the furnace designer or builder.
The hearth is the most important and the most severely treated region of a furnace. It should
be able to bear the required load and withstand chemical attack and mechanical wear. The
selection of hearth refractories is less critical for top and bottom fired furnaces, than for top
fired only pusher types.
For optimum strength and thermal insulation, the walls, roof and hearth of most furnaces
are constructed using layers of refractory materials. Thermal insulation is determined by
the thermal properties of the refractory, and these properties are important in minimising
transmission and storage heat losses. Table 5.5 compares the thermal properties of typical high
density and low density refractory materials. Structural heat losses can be reduced by using low
thermal mass refractory materials in the construction of the furnace.
TABLE 5.5 TYPICAL REFRACTORY PROPERTIES
Property High Thermal Mass(High Low Thermal Mass (Ceramic Fibre)

Density Refractories)
Thermal Conductivity, W/m K 1.2 0.3
Specific Heat, J/kg K 1000 1000
Density ,kg/m3 2300 130
5.9 Typical Refractories in Industrial Use

Depending on the area of application such as boilers, furnaces, kilns, ovens etc, temperatures
and atmospheres encountered different types of refractories are used. Typical installations of
refractories are shown in Figure 5.6
Refractory lining of a furnace arch Refractory walls of a furnace interior with burner
blocks
Figure 5.6
Fireclay Refractories
Fireclay refractories, such as firebricks, siliceous fireclays and aluminous clay refractories
consist of aluminium silicates with various amounts of silica ranging from SiO2 content of less
than 78% and containing less than 44% of Al2O3.
Table 5.6 shows that as the quantity of impurities increases and the amount of Al2O3

Ch-05.qxd 2/23/2005 10:45 AM Page 134
decreases, the melting point of fireclay brick decreases. Owing to its relative cheapness and
widespread location of the raw materials used to manufacture firebricks, this material finds use
in most furnaces, kilns, stoves, etc.
Firebrick is the most common form of refractory material. It is used extensively in the iron
and steel industry, nonferrous metallurgy, glass industry, pottery kilns, cement industry, and by
many others.
TABLE 5.6 PROPERTIES OF TYPICAL FIRECLAY BRICKS
Brick Percent SiO2 Percent Al2O3 Other Constituents PCE °C
Super Duty 49-53 40−44 5-7 1745-1760

High Duty 50-80 35-40 5-9 1690-1745
Intermediate 60-70 26-36 5-9 1640-1680
HighDuty (Siliceous) 65-80 18-30 3-8 1620-1680
Low Duty 60-70 23-33 6-10 1520-1595
High Alumina Refractories

Alumino silicate refractories containing more than 45% alumina are generally termed as high
alumina materials. The alumina concentration ranges from 45 to 100%. The refractoriness of
high alumina refractories increases with increase in alumina percentage. The applications of
high alumina refractories includes the hearth and shaft of blast furnaces, ceramic kilns, cement
kilns, glass tanks and crucibles for melting a wide range of metals.
Silica Brick
Silica brick (or Dinas) is a refractory material containing at least 93% SiO2. The raw material
is quality rocks. Various grades of silica brick have found extensive use in the iron and steel
melting furnaces. In addition to high fusion point multi-type refractories, the other important
properties are their high resistance to thermal shock (spalling) and their high refractoriness. It
finds typical use in glass making and steel industry.
The outstanding property of silica brick is that it does not begin to soften under high loads
until its fusion point is approached. This behaviour contrasts with that of many other refracto-
ries, for example alumino silicate materials, which begin to fuse and creep at temperatures con-
siderably lower than their fusion points. Other advantages are flux and stag resistance, volume
stability and high spalling resistance.
Magnesite
Magnesite refractories are chemically basic materials, containing at least 85% magnesium
oxide. They are made from naturally occurring magnesite (MgCO3). The properties of magne-
site refractories depend on the concentration of silicate bond at the operating temperatures.
Good quality magnesite usually results from a CaO-SiO2 ratio of less than 2 with a minimum
ferrite concentration, particularly if the furnaces lined with the refractory operate in oxidizing
and reducing conditions. The slag resistance is very high particularly to lime and iron rich slags.

Ch-05.qxd 2/23/2005 10:45 AM Page 135
Chromite Refractories
Here, a distinction must be made between chrome-magnesite refractories and magnesite-
chromite-refractories. Chromemagnesite material usually contain 15-35% Cr2O3 and 42-50%
MgO whereas magnesite-chromite refractories contain at least 60% MgO and 8-18% Cr2O3.
Chrome-magnesite refractories are made in a wide range of qualities and are used for build-
ing the critical parts of high temperature furnaces. These materials can withstand corrosive
slags and gases and have high refractoriness. The magnesite-chromite products are suitable for
service at the highest temperatures and in contact with the most basic slags used in steel melt-
ing. Magnesite-chromite usually ahs a better spalling resistance than chrome-magnesite.
Zirconia Refractories
Zirconium dioxide (ZrO2) is a polymorphic, material. There are certain difficulties in its usage
and fabrication as a refractory material. It is essential to stabilize it before application as a
refractory. This is achieved by incorporating small quantities of calcium, magnesium and ceri-
um oxide, etc. Its properties depend mainly on the degree of stabilization and quantity of stabi-
lizer as well as the quality of the original raw material. Zirconia refractories have a very high
strength at room temperature which is maintained upto temperatures as high as 1500 °C. They
are, therefore, useful as high temperature constructional materials for furnaces and kilns. The
thermal conductivity, of zirconium dioxide is found to be much lower than that of most other
refractories and the material is therefore used as a high temperature insulating refractory.
Since Zirconia exhibits very low thermal losses and does not react readily with liquid
metals, it is particularly useful for making refractory crucibles and other vessels for
metallurgical purposes. Zirconia is a useful refractory material for glass furnaces primarily
since it is not easily wetted by molten glasses and because of its low reaction with them.
Oxide Refractories (Alumina)

Alumina refractory materials which consist of aluminium oxide with little traces of impurities
are often known as pure alumina. Alumina is one of the most chemically stable oxides known.
It is mechanically very strong, insoluble in water and super heated steam, and in most inorgan-
ic acids and alkalies. Its properties make it suitable for the shaping of crucibles for fusing sodi-
um carbonate, sodium hydroxide and sodium peroxide. It has a high resistance in oxidizing and
reducing atmosphere. Alumina is extensively used in heat processing industries. Highly porous
alumina is used for lining furnaces operating up to 1850 °C.
Monolithics
Monolithic refractories (single piece cast in the shape of
equipment such as one for a ladle shown in Figure 5.7) are
replacing the conventional type fired refractories at a much
faster rate in many applications including those of industrial
furnaces. The main advantages being:
• It eliminates joints which is an inherent weakness
• Method of application is faster and skilled measures in
large number are not required
• Transportation and handling are simple Figure 5.7 Monolithic Lining
• Offers better scope to reduce downtime for repairs for a Ladle

Ch-05.qxd 2/23/2005 10:45 AM Page 136
• Offers considerable scope to reduce inventory and eliminate special shapes

• It is a heat saver
• Has better spalling resistance
• Has greater volume stability
Various means are employed in the placement of monolithics like ramming, casting, gunniting,
spraying, sand slinging, etc. Ramming masses are used mostly in cold applications where
proper consolidation of the material is important. The same practice can be adopted with both
air setting and heat setting materials. Proper ramming tools need to be selected.
Castables by name implies a material of hydraulic setting in nature. Calcium aluminate
cement being the binder, it will have to be stored properly to prevent moisture absorption.
Further its strength starts deteriorating after a period of 6 to 12 months.
Insulating Materials
Insulating materials greatly reduce the heat losses through walls. Insulation is effected by
providing a layer of material having a low heat conductivity between the internal hot surface of
a furnace and the external surface, thus causing the temperature of the external surface reduced.
The insulating materials may be classified into the following groups:
• Insulating bricks
• Insulating Castables
• Ceramic fibre
• Calcium silicate
• Ceramic coating
Insulating materials owe their low conductivity to their pores while their heat capacity depends
on the bulk density and specific heat. Structure of air insulating material consists of minute
pores filled with air which have in themselves very low thermal conductivity, excessive heat
affects all insulation material adversely, but the temperatures to which the various materials can
be heated before this adverse effect occurs differ widely. Clearly, therefore, the choice of an
insulating material must depend upon its effectiveness to resist heat conductivity and upon the
temperature that it will withstand.
One of the most widely used insulating materials is diatomite, also known as kiesel guhr
which is made up of a mass of skeletons of minute aquatic plants deposited thousands of years
ago on the beds of seas and lakes. Chemically this consists of silica contaminated with clay and
organic matter. A wide range of insulating refractories with wide combinations of properties are
now available.
The important physical properties of some insulating refractories are shown in the Table 5.7.
TABLE 5.7 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF INSULATING REFRACTORIES

Type Thermal Max. safe Cold Crushing Porosity Bulk density
conductivity at 400 °C temperature °C Strength Kg/cm2 % Kg/m3
Diatomite Solid Grade 0.025 1000 270 52 1090
Diatomite Porous Grade 0.014 800 110 77 540
Clay 0.030 1500 260 68 560
High Aluminia 0.028 1500–1600 300 66 910
Silica 0.040 1400 400 65 830

Ch-05.qxd 2/23/2005 10:45 AM Page 137
Castables and Concretes

Monolithic linings and furnace sections can be built up by casting refractory insulating
concretes, and by stamping into place certain light weight aggregates suitably bonded. Other
applications include the formation of the bases of tunnel kiln cars used in the ceramic industry.
The ingredients are similar to those used for making piece refractories, except that concretes
contain some kind of cement, either Portland or a high-alumina cement.
Ceramic Fibre
Ceramic fibre is a low thermal mass insulation
material, which has revolutionalised the furnace design
lining systems.
Ceramic fibre is an alumino silicate material
manufactured by blending and melting alumina and
silica at temperature of 1800 - 2000 °C and breaking
the molten stream by blowing compressed air or drop-
ping the melt on spinning disc to form loose or bulk
ceramic fibre. The bulk fibre is converted to
various products including blanket, strips, veneering
and anchored modules, paper, vacuum formed boards Figure 5.8 Ceramic Fibre Insulation
and shapes, rope, wet felt, mastic cement etc. for
insulation applications.
Fibres are usually produced in two temperature grades based on Al2O3 content. A recent
addition is ZrO2 added alumino silicate fibre, which helps to reduce shrinkage levels thereby
rating the fibre for higher temperatures. Continuous recommended operating temperature for
fibres are given in the following Table 5.8:
TABLE 5.8 CONTINUOUS RECOMMENDED OPERATING TEMPERATURE FOR FIBRES
A12O3 SiO2 ZrO2

1150 °C 43 – 47% 53 – 57% –
1250 °C 52 – 56% 44 – 48% –
1325 °C 33 – 35% 47 – 50% 17 – 20%
These fibres are generally produced in bulk wool form and needled into blanket mass of
various densities ranging from 64 to 190 kg/m3. Converted products and over 40 different forms
are made from blankets to suit various requirements.
Important Properties of Ceramic Fibre

The characteristics of ceramic fibres are a remarkable combination of the properties of refrac-
tories and traditional insulation material.
1. Lower Thermal Conductivity

The low thermal conductivity - 0.1 kCal/m hour deg C at 600 °C for 128 kg/m3 density blanket
- allows construction of thinner linings with the same thermal efficiency as that of conventi
onal refractories. Hence, for the same outer envelope dimension the furnace volume is much

Ch-05.qxd 2/23/2005 10:45 AM Page 138
higher. It is 40 % more effective than good quality insulation brick and 2.5 times better than
asbestos product. Insulating property of ceramic fibre is better than calcium silicate product.
2. Light Weight
Average density of ceramic fibre is 96 kg/m3. It is one tenth of the weight of insulating brick
and one third that of asbestos / calcium silicate boards. For new furnaces structural supports can
be reduced by 40%.
3. Lower Heat Storage

Ceramic fibre linings absorb less heat because of lower density. Furnace can be heated and
cooled at faster rates. Typically the heat stored in a ceramic fibre lining system is in the range
of 2700 - 4050 kCal/m2 (1000 - 1500 Btu/Ft2) as compared to 54200-493900 kCal/m2
(20000 - 250000 Btu/Ft2) for conventionally lined system.
4. Thermal Shock Resistant

Ceramic fibre lining resist thermal shock due to their resilient matrix. Also faster heat up and
cool down cycles are possible thereby improving furnace availability and productivity.
5. Chemical Resistance
Ceramic fibre resist most of the chemical attack and is unaffected by hydrocarbons, water and
steam present in flue gases.
6. Mechanical Resilience
This property permits fibre lined furnaces to be shop fabricated and shipped to site in
assembled form without fear of damage.
7. Low Installation Cost

No special skills are required as application practices are standardised. Fibre linings require no
dry out or curing times and can be heated to the capacity of the burners after installation is
completed without concern for cracking or spalling.
8. Simple Maintenance
In case of physical damage the defective section can be quickly removed and a replacement
piece added. Whole panel sections can be prefabricated for fast installation with minimal down
time.
9. Ease of Handling
All product forms are easily handled and most can be quickly cut with a knife or scissors.
Vacuum formed products may require cutting with a band saw.
10. Thermal Efficiency

The low thermal conductivity of ceramic fibre can be advantageously made use of by the
lesser lining thickness and reduced furnace volume. The fast response of ceramic fibre lined fur-
nace also allows for more accurate control and uniform temperature distribution within the fur-
nace.
The other advantages offered by ceramic fibre are summarized below:
• Light weight furnace
• Simple steel fabrication work

Ch-05.qxd 2/23/2005 10:45 AM Page 139
• Low down time

• Increased productivity
• Additional capacity
• Low maintenance cost
• Longer service life
• Higher thermal efficiency
• Faster response.
High Emissivity Coatings

Emissivity, the measure of a material's ability to both absorb and radiate heat, has been
considered by engineers as being an inherent physical property which like density, specific heat
and thermal conductivity, is not readily amenable to change. However, the development of high
emissivity coatings now allows the surface emissivity of materials to be increased, with
resultant benefits in heat transfer efficiency and in the service life of heat transfer components.
High emissivity coatings are applied in the interior surface of furnaces. The Figure 5.9 shows
emissivity of various insulating materials including high emissivity coatings. High emissivity
coating shows a constant value over varying process temperatures.
The application of high-emissivity coatings in furnace chambers promotes rapid and
efficient transfer of heat, uniform heating, and extended life of refractories and metallic
components such as radiant tubes and heating elements. For intermittent furnaces or where
rapid heating is required, use of such coatings was found to reduce fuel or power to tune of
25-45%. Other benefits are temperature uniformity and increased refractory life.
Figure 5.9 Emissivity of Refractory Materials at Different Temperatures

Ch-05.qxd 2/23/2005 10:45 AM Page 140
Furnaces, which operate at high temperature, have emissivities of 0.3. By using high
emissivity coatings this can go upto 0.8 thus effectively increasing the radiative heat transfer.
5.10 Selection of Refractories

The selection of refractories for any particular application is made with a view to achieve the
best performance of the equipment furnace, kiln or boiler and depends on their properties.
Further, the choice of a refractory material for a given application will be determined by the
type of furnace or heating unit and the prevailing conditions e.g. the gaseous atmosphere, the
presence of slags, the type of metal charge etc. It is, therefore, clear that temperature is by no
means the only criterion for selection of refractories.
Any furnace designer or industry should have a clear idea about the service conditions
which the refractory is required to face. The furnace manufacturers or users have to consider
the following points, before selecting a refractory.
i) Area of application.
ii) Working temperatures.
iii) Extent of abrasion and impact.
iv) Structural load of the furnace.
v) Stress due to temperature gradient in the structures and temperature fluctuations.
vi) Chemical compatibility to the furnace environment.
vii) Heat transfer and fuel conservation
viii) Cost considerations.
It is therefore, essential to have an objective evaluation of the above conditions. A proper
assessment of the desired properties would provide guidelines for selection of the proper refrac-
tory materials.
It would be important to mention here that the furnace manufacturer or a user is also con-
cerned with the conservation of energy. Fuel can be saved in two ways: either by insulation or
by faster working. Both these methods give low energy cost per tonne of product.
5.11 Heat Losses from Furnace Walls

In furnaces and kilns, heat losses from furnace walls, affect the fuel economy substantially. The
extent of wall losses depends on:
i) emissivity of walls;
ii) conductivity of refractories;
iii) wall thickness;
iv) whether furnace or kiln is operated continuously or intermittently.
Different materials have different radiation power (emissivity). The emissivity of walls coated
with aluminium paint is lower than that of bricks. Fig. 5.10(A) shows the coefficient of heat
dissipation for the following conditions:
a) rough vertical plane surface.
b) Vertical aluminium painted walls
The variations of thermal conductivity for typical refractory materials (silica brick,
fireclay brick and insulation brick) with temperature is depicted in Figure(B). Thus at a mean

Ch-05.qxd 2/23/2005 10:45 AM Page 141
temperature of 600 °C, conductivity of the insulation brick is only 20 per cent of that for
fireclay brick.
Figure 5.10 (A) Coefficient of Heat Transfer for Figure 5.10 (B) Average Conductivity of Refractory
Different Conditions in Still Air at 40 °C Material
Heat losses can be reduced by increasing the wall thickness, or through the application of
insulating bricks. Outside wall temperature and heat losses for a composite wall of a certain
thickness of firebrick and insulation brick are much lower due to lesser conductivity of insulat-
ing brick as compared to a refractory brick.
In the case of batch furnace operation, operating periods (‘on’) alternate with idle periods
(‘off’). During the off period, the heat stored in the refractories in the on-period is gradually
dissipated, mainly through radiation and convection from the cold face. In addition, some heat
is obstructed by air flowing through the furnace. Dissipation of stored heat is a loss, because the
lost heat is at least in part again imparted to the refractories during the next ‘on’ period, thus
expending fuel to generate the heat. If a furnace is operated 24 hr. every third day, practically
all of the heat stored in the refractories is lost.
But if the furnace is operated 8 hrs. per day, not all the heat stored in the refractories is
dissipated. For a furnace with firebrick wall (350 mm) it is estimated that 55 per cent of the heat
stored in the refractories is dissipated from the cold surface during 166 hours idle period.
Furnace walls build of insulating refractories and encased in a shell reduce flow of heat to the
surroundings. Inserting a fibre block between the insulating refractory and the steel casing can
further reduce the loss. The general question one asks is how much heat loss can be reduced by
application of insulation. The answer is that it depends on the thickness of firebricks and of the
insulation and on continuity of furnace operation.
To sum up, the heat losses from the walls depend on:
• Inside temperature.
• Outside air temperature.
• Outside air velocity.
• Configuration of walls.

Ch-05.qxd 2/23/2005 10:45 AM Page 142
• Emissivity of walls.
• Thickness of walls.
• Conductivity of walls.
The following conclusions can be drawn:
• Thickness of walls and Conductivity of walls can be easily controlled by the furnace
fabricator.
• As the wall thickness increases, the heat losses reduce.
• As thickness of insulation is increased, heat losses reduce.
• The effect of insulation in reducing heat losses is more pronounced than the increase
of wall thickness. Roughly 1 cm of insulation brick is equivalent to 5 to 8 cm of
refractory (firebrick).
• In intermittent furnaces, thin walls of insulating refractories are preferable to thick
walls of a normal refractory for intermittent operation since less heat is stored in them.
• One approach to achieve less heat storage capacity would be to utilise insulating
material itself to form the inner refractory lining. Robust refractories with fairly good
strength and spalling resistance can be used for temperatures in the range of 1300 °C.
They are termed as hot face insulation.
• Hot face insulating bricks are lighter than normal refractories, weighing only one-third
to one-half as much. Therefore, heat storage in the hot face insulation is very much
reduced.

Ch-05.qxd 2/23/2005 10:45 AM Page 143
QUESTIONS
A thermal insulator has
1. (a) low thermal conductivity (b) high thermal conductivity
(c) high convection co-efficient (d) low convection co-efficient
2. What are the benefits of insulation other than heat loss / heat gain?
3. Give examples of materials for medium temperature insulations.
4. Give examples of materials for high temperature insulations.
5. State the advantages of moulded insulations.
6. Explain the term economic thickness of insulation.
7. Of the following which are the property is most important for an insulating brick
(a) Porosity (b) Mechanical strength (c) Chemical property (d) Compact strength
8. What are castables ?
9. Explain briefly how ceramic fibre is made.
10. Which of the following when added to alumino silicate helps to reduce the shrinkage
level of ceramic fibre
(a) Zr O2 (b) SiO2 (c) Al2O3 (d) CaSO4
11. The term blanket refers to
(a) Ceramic fibre (b) Refractory brick
(c) Insulating brick (d) Castables
12. Explain the advantages of ceramic fibre with respective properties.
13. Find out from the figure given in this chapter, the emissivity at 1000 °C for the
following:
(a) fire brick (b) high alumina brick
(c) ceramic fibre (d) high emissivity coatings
14. Name the three classifications of refractories on the basis of chemical composition.
15. The most common refractory used in furnaces is
(a) fire brick (b) zirconia brick (c) magnesite brick (d) silica brick
16. State briefly the criteria of selection of refractories.
REFERENCES
1. Handbook on Refractories by D.N.Nandi, Tata McGraw, New Delhi, 1987.
2. Thermal Insulation and Refractories -PCRA.
3. Insulation and Refractories - British Energy Efficiency Office.
4. Handbook on Refractories by D N Nandi, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company
Limited, New Delhi.
www.seav.vic.gov.au/ftp/advice/business/info_sheets/EnergySaving-Insulatio_0_a.pdf
www.pcra.org

Ch-06.qxd 2/23/2005 11:24 AM Page 143
6. FBC BOILERS
Syllabus
FBC boilers: Introduction, Mechanism of fluidised bed combustion, Advantages, Types
of FBC boilers, Operational features, Retrofitting FBC system to conventional boilers,
Saving potential.
6.1 Introduction
The major portion of the coal available in India is of low quality, high ash content and low
calorific value. The traditional grate fuel firing systems have got limitations and are techno-eco-
nomically unviable to meet the challenges of future. Fluidised bed combustion has emerged as
a viable alternative and has significant advantages over conventional firing system and offers
multiple benefits – compact boiler design, fuel flexibility, higher combustion efficiency and
reduced emission of noxious pollutants such as SOx and NOx. The fuels burnt in these boilers
include coal, washery rejects, rice husk, bagasse and other agricultural wastes. The fluidized
bed boilers have a wide capacity range- 0.5 T/hr to over 100 T/hr.
6.2 Mechanism of Fluidised Bed Combustion

When an evenly distributed air or gas is passed upward through a finely divided bed of solid
particles such as sand supported on a fine mesh, the particles are undisturbed at low velocity.
As air velocity is gradually increased, a stage is reached when the individual particles are
suspended in the air stream – the bed is called “fluidised”.
With further increase in air velocity, there is bubble formation, vigorous turbulence, rapid
mixing and formation of dense defined bed surface. The bed of solid particles exhibits the
properties of a boiling liquid and assumes the appearance of a fluid – “bubbling fluidized bed”.
At higher velocities, bubbles disappear, and particles are blown out of the bed. Therefore, some
amounts of particles have to be recirculated to maintain a stable system - "circulating
fluidised bed".
This principle of fluidisation is illustrated in Figure 6.1.
Fluidization depends largely on the particle size and the air velocity. The mean solids velocity
increases at a slower rate than does the gas velocity, as illustrated in Figure 6.2. The difference
between the mean solid velocity and mean gas velocity is called as slip velocity. Maximum slip
velocity between the solids and the gas is desirable for good heat transfer and intimate contact.
If sand particles in a fluidised state is heated to the ignition temperatures of coal, and coal is
injected continuously into the bed, the coal will burn rapidly and bed attains a uniform temperature.
The fluidised bed combustion (FBC) takes place at about 840°C to 950°C. Since this temperature
is much below the ash fusion temperature, melting of ash and associated problems are avoided.
The lower combustion temperature is achieved because of high coefficient of heat transfer
due to rapid mixing in the fluidised bed and effective extraction of heat from the bed through
in-bed heat transfer tubes and walls of the bed. The gas velocity is maintained between mini-
mum fluidisation velocity and particle entrainment velocity. This ensures stable operation of the

Ch-06.qxd 2/23/2005 11:24 AM Page 144
6. FBC Boilers
Fixing, bubbling and

fast fluidized beds
As the velocity of a
gas flowing through a
bed of particles
increases,
a value is reaches when
the bed fluidises and
bubbles form as in a
boiling liquid. At
higher velocities the
bubbles disappear; and
the solids are rapidly
blown out of the bed
and must be recycled to
maintain a stable
system.
Figure 6.1 Principle of Fluidisation
bed and avoids particle entrainment in the gas stream.

Combustion process requires the three “T”s that is Time, Temperature and Turbulence.
In FBC, turbulence is promoted by fluidisation. Improved mixing generates evenly
Figure 6.2 Relation between Gas Velocity and Solid Velocity

Ch-06.qxd 2/23/2005 11:24 AM Page 145
6. FBC Boilers
distributed heat at lower temperature. Residence time is many times greater than
conventional grate firing. Thus an FBC system releases heat more efficiently at lower
temperatures.
Since limestone is used as particle bed, control of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide
emissions in the combustion chamber is achieved without any additional control equipment.
This is one of the major advantages over conventional boilers.
6.3 Types of Fluidised Bed Combustion Boilers

There are three basic types of fluidised bed combustion boilers:
1. Atmospheric classic Fluidised Bed Combustion System (AFBC)
2. Atmospheric circulating (fast) Fluidised Bed Combustion system(CFBC)
3. Pressurised Fluidised Bed Combustion System (PFBC).
6.3.1 AFBC / Bubbling Bed

In AFBC, coal is crushed to a size of 1 – 10 mm depending on the rank of coal, type of fuel feed
and fed into the combustion chamber. The atmospheric air, which acts as both the fluidization air
and combustion air, is delivered at a pressure and flows through the bed after being preheated by
the exhaust flue gases. The velocity of fluidising air is in the range of 1.2 to 3.7 m /sec. The rate
at which air is blown through the bed determines the amount of fuel that can be reacted.
Almost all AFBC/ bubbling bed boilers use in-bed evaporator tubes in the bed of limestone,
sand and fuel for extracting the heat from the bed to maintain the bed temperature. The bed depth
is usually 0.9 m to 1.5 m deep and the pressure drop averages about 1 inch of water per inch of bed
depth. Very little material leaves the bubbling bed – only about 2 to 4 kg of solids are recycled per
Features of bubbling bed boiler
Fluidised bed boiler can operate at near

atmospheric or elevated pressure and have these
essential features:
• Distribution plate through which air is blown
for fluidizing.
• Immersed steam-raising or water heating
tubes which extract heat directly from the bed.
• Tubes above the bed which extract heat from
hot combustion gas before it enters the flue
duct.
Figure 6.3 Bubbling Bed Boiler-1

Ch-06.qxd 2/23/2005 11:24 AM Page 146
6. FBC Boilers
Figure 6.4 Bubbling Bed Boiler-2
ton of fuel burned. Typical fluidised bed combustors of this type are shown in Figures 6.3 and 6.4.
The combustion gases pass over the super heater sections of the boiler, flow past the
economizer, the dust collectors and the air preheaters before being exhausted to atmosphere.
The main special feature of atmospheric fluidised bed combustion is the constraint imposed
by the relatively narrow temperature range within which the bed must be operated. With coal,
there is risk of clinker formation in the bed if the temperature exceeds 950°C and loss of com-
bustion efficiency if the temperature falls below 800°C. For efficient sulphur retention, the tem-
perature should be in the range of 800°C to 850°C.
General Arrangements of AFBC Boiler

AFBC boilers comprise of following systems:
i) Fuel feeding system
ii) Air Distributor
iii) Bed & In-bed heat transfer surface
iv) Ash handling system.
Many of these are common to all types of FBC boilers.
1. Fuel Feeding System

For feeding fuel, sorbents like limestone or dolomite, usually two methods are followed: under
bed pneumatic feeding and over-bed feeding.
Under Bed Pneumatic Feeding

If the fuel is coal, it is crushed to 1–6 mm size and pneumatically transported from feed hopper
to the combustor through a feed pipe piercing the distributor. Based on the capacity of the

Ch-06.qxd 2/23/2005 11:24 AM Page 147
6. FBC Boilers
boiler, the number of feed points is increased, as it is necessary to distribute the fuel into the
bed uniformly.
Over-Bed Feeding
The crushed coal, 6–10 mm size is conveyed from coal bunker to a spreader by a screw
conveyor. The spreader distributes the coal over the surface of the bed uniformly. This type of
fuel feeding system accepts over size fuel also and eliminates transport lines, when compared
to under-bed feeding system.
2. Air Distributor
The purpose of the distributor is to introduce the fluidizing air evenly through the bed cross
section thereby keeping the solid particles in constant motion, and preventing the formation of
defluidization zones within the bed. The distributor, which forms the furnace floor, is normally
constructed from metal plate with a number of perforations in a definite geometric pattern. The
perforations may be located in simple nozzles or nozzles with bubble caps, which serve to
prevent solid particles from flowing back into the space below the distributor.
The distributor plate is protected from high temperature of the furnace by:
i) Refractory Lining
ii) A Static Layer of the Bed Material or
iii) Water Cooled Tubes.
3. Bed & In-Bed Heat Transfer Surface:
a) Bed
The bed material can be sand, ash, crushed refractory or limestone, with an average size of
about 1 mm. Depending on the bed height these are of two types: shallow bed and deep bed.
At the same fluidizing velocity, the two ends fluidise differently, thus affecting the heat
transfer to an immersed heat transfer surfaces. A shallow bed offers a lower bed resistance and
hence a lower pressure drop and lower fan power consumption. In the case of deep bed, the
pressure drop is more and this increases the effective gas velocity and also the fan power.
b) In-Bed Heat Transfer Surface

In a fluidised in-bed heat transfer process, it is necessary to transfer heat between the bed
material and an immersed surface, which could be that of a tube bundle, or a coil. The heat
exchanger orientation can be horizontal, vertical or inclined. From a pressure drop point of
view, a horizontal bundle in a shallow bed is more attractive than a vertical bundle in a deep
bed. Also, the heat transfer in the bed depends on number of parameters like (i) bed pressure
(ii) bed temperature (iii) superficial gas velocity (iv) particle size (v) Heat exchanger design
and (vi) gas distributor plate design.
4. Ash Handling System
a) Bottom Ash Removal

In the FBC boilers, the bottom ash constitutes roughly 30 – 40 % of the total ash, the rest
being the fly ash. The bed ash is removed by continuous over flow to maintain bed height

Ch-06.qxd 2/23/2005 11:24 AM Page 148
6. FBC Boilers
and also by intermittent flow from the bottom to remove over size particles, avoid accumu-
lation and consequent defluidization. While firing high ash coal such as washery rejects, the
bed ash overflow drain quantity is considerable so special care has to be taken.
b) Fly Ash Removal

The amount of fly ash to be handled in FBC boiler is relatively very high, when compared to
conventional boilers. This is due to elutriation of particles at high velocities. Fly ash carried
away by the flue gas is removed in number of stages; firstly in convection section, then from
the bottom of air preheater/economizer and finally a major portion is removed in dust
collectors.
The types of dust collectors used are cyclone, bagfilters, electrostatic precipitators (ESP’s)
or some combination of all of these. To increase the combustion efficiency, recycling of fly ash
is practiced in some of the units.
6.3.2 Circulating Fluidised Bed Combustion (CFBC)

Circulating Fluidised Bed Combustion (CFBC) technology has evolved from conventional
bubbling bed combustion as a means to overcome some of the drawbacks associated with
conventional bubbling bed combustion (see Figure 6.5).
This CFBC technology utilizes the fluidised bed principle in which crushed (6 –12 mm
size) fuel and limestone are injected into the furnace or combustor. The particles are suspended
in a stream of upwardly flowing air (60-70% of the total air), which enters the bottom of the
furnace through air distribution nozzles. The fluidising velocity in circulating beds ranges from
3.7 to 9 m/sec. The balance of combustion air is admitted above the bottom of the furnace as
secondary air. The combustion takes place at 840-900 °C, and the fine particles (<450 microns)
are elutriated out of the furnace with flue gas velocity of 4–6 m/s. The particles are then
collected by the solids separators and circulated back into the furnace. Solid recycle is about 50
to 100 kg per kg of fuel burnt.
There are no steam generation tubes immersed in the bed. The circulating bed is designed
to move a lot more solids out of the furnace area and to achieve most of the heat transfer out-
side the combustion zone – convection section, water walls, and at the exit of the riser. Some
circulating bed units even have external heat exchanges.
The particles circulation provides efficient heat transfer to the furnace walls and longer res-
idence time for carbon and limestone utilisation. Similar to Pulverized Coal (PC) firing, the
controlling parameters in the CFB combustion process are temperature, residence time and
turbulence.
For large units, the taller furnace characteristics of CFBC boiler offers better space
utilisation, greater fuel particle and sorbent residence time for efficient combustion and SO2
capture, and easier application of staged combustion techniques for NOx control than AFBC
generators. CFBC boilers are said to achieve better calcium to sulphur utilisation – 1.5 to 1 vs.
3.2 to 1 for the AFBC boilers, although the furnace temperatures are almost the same.
CFBC boilers are generally claimed to be more economical than AFBC boilers for industrial
application requiring more than 75 - 100 T/hr of steam.
CFBC requires huge mechanical cyclones to capture and recycle the large amount of bed
material, which requires a tall boiler.

Ch-06.qxd 2/23/2005 11:24 AM Page 149
6. FBC Boilers
A CFBC could be good choice if the following conditions are met.

J Capacity of boiler is large to medium
J Sulphur emission and NOx control is important
J The boiler is required to fire low-grade fuel or fuel with highly fluctuating fuel quality.
Major performance features of the circulating bed system are as follows:
a) It has a high processing capacity because of the high gas velocity through the system.
b) The temperature of about 870 °C is reasonably constant throughout the process because of
the high turbulence and circulation of solids. The low combustion temperature also results
in minimal NOx formation.
c) Sulphur present in the fuel is retained in the circulating solids in the form of calcium
sulphate and removed in solid form. The use of limestone or dolomite sorbents allows a
higher sulfur retention rate, and limestone requirements have been demonstrated to be
substantially less than with bubbling bed combustor.
d) The combustion air is supplied at 1.5 to 2 psig rather than 3–5 psig as required by bubbling
bed combustors.
e) It has high combustion efficiency.
f) It has a better turndown ratio than bubbling bed systems.
g) Erosion of the heat transfer surface in the combustion chamber is reduced, since the surface
is parallel to the flow. In a bubbling bed system, the surface generally is perpendicular to the
flow.
Circulating bed boiler
At high fluidizing gas velocities in

which a fast recycling bed of fine
material is superimposed on a
bubbling bed of larger particles.
The combustion temperature is
controlled by rate of recycling of
fine material. Hot fine material is
separated from the flue gas by a
cyclone and is partially cooled in a
separate low velocity fluidized bed
heat exchanger, where the heat is
given up to the steam. The cooler
fine material is then recycled to
the dense bed.
Figure 6.5 Circulating Bed Boiler Design

Ch-06.qxd 2/23/2005 11:24 AM Page 150
6. FBC Boilers
6.3.3 Pressurised Fluid Bed Combustion

Pressurised Fluidised Bed Combustion (PFBC) is a variation of fluid bed technology that is
meant for large-scale coal burning applications. In PFBC, the bed vessel is operated at pressure
upto 16 ata ( 16 kg/cm2).
The off-gas from the fluidised bed combustor drives the gas turbine. The steam turbine is
driven by steam raised in tubes immersed in the fluidised bed. The condensate from the steam
turbine is pre-heated using waste heat from gas turbine exhaust and is then taken as feed water
for steam generation.
The PFBC system can be used for cogeneration or combined cycle power generation. By
combining the gas and steam turbines in this way, electricity is generated more efficiently
than in conventional system. The overall conversion efficiency is higher by 5% to 8%. .
(Refer Figure 6.6).
Figure 6.6 PFBC Boiler for Cogeneration
At elevated pressure, the potential reduction in boiler size is considerable due to increased
amount of combustion in pressurized mode and high heat flux through in-bed tubes. A
comparison of size of a typical 250 MW PFBC boiler versus conventional pulverized fuel-fired
boiler is shown in the Figure 6.7.

Ch-06.qxd 2/23/2005 11:24 AM Page 151
6. FBC Boilers
Figure 6.7 Comparison of PFBC Boiler Versus Pulverized Fuel Boiler
6.4 Retrofitting of FBC Systems to Conventional Boilers

Retrofitting fluidised bed coal fired combustion systems to conventional boilers has been car-
ried out successfully both in India and abroad.
The important aspects to be considered in retrofit projects are:
a) Water/steam circulation design
b) Furnace bottom-grate clearance
c) Type of particulate control device
d) Fan capacity
e) Availability of space.
Retrofitting of a fluidised bed combustor to a conventional stoker fired water tube boiler may
involve:
a) The replacement of grate by a distributor plate with short stand pipes for admitting air from
the wind box located underneath.
b) Installations of stand pipes to remove ash from the bed.
c) Provision of horizontal hairpin tubes in the bed with a pump for forced circulation from the
boiler drum.
d) Modification of crusher to size the coal/limestone mixture for pneumatic underbed injection
of the mixture.
It may be emphasised that conversion of a conventional coal fired system to a fluidised bed
combustion system can be accomplished without effecting major changes, after making a cost-
benefit analysis. Oil fired boilers can also be converted to coal fired fluidised bed combustion
systems. However it has to be examined on a case-to-case basis.

Ch-06.qxd 2/23/2005 11:24 AM Page 152
6. FBC Boilers
6.5 Advantages of Fluidised Bed Combustion Boilers

1. High Efficiency
FBC boilers can burn fuel with a combustion efficiency of over 95% irrespective of ash con-
tent. FBC boilers can operate with overall efficiency of 84% (plus or minus 2%).
2. Reduction in Boiler Size

High heat transfer rate over a small heat transfer area immersed in the bed result in overall
size reduction of the boiler.
3. Fuel Flexibility
FBC boilers can be operated efficiently with a variety of fuels. Even fuels like flotation
slimes, washer rejects, agro waste can be burnt efficiently. These can be fed either inde-
pendently or in combination with coal into the same furnace.
4. Ability to Burn Low Grade Fuel

FBC boilers would give the rated output even with inferior quality fuel. The boilers can fire
coals with ash content as high as 62% and having calorific value as low as 2,500 kCal/kg.
Even carbon content of only 1% by weight can sustain the fluidised bed combustion.
5. Ability to Burn Fines

Coal containing fines below 6 mm can be burnt efficiently in FBC boiler, which is very
difficult to achieve in conventional firing system.
6. Pollution Control
SO2 formation can be greatly minimised by addition of limestone or dolomite for high sul-
phur coals. 3% limestone is required for every 1% sulphur in the coal feed. Low combus-
tion temperature eliminates NOx formation.
7. Low Corrosion and Erosion
The corrosion and erosion effects are less due to lower combustion temperature, softness of
ash and low particle velocity (of the order of 1 m/sec).
8. Easier Ash Removal – No Clinker Formation
Since the temperature of the furnace is in the range of 750 – 900 °C in FBC boilers, even
coal of low ash fusion temperature can be burnt without clinker formation. Ash removal is
easier as the ash flows like liquid from the combustion chamber. Hence less manpower is
required for ash handling.
9. Less Excess Air – Higher CO2 in Flue Gas
The CO2 in the flue gases will be of the order of 14 – 15% at full load. Hence, the FBC -
boiler can operate at low excess air - only 20 - 25%.
10. Simple Operation, Quick Start-Up
High turbulence of the bed facilitates quick start up and shut down. Full automation of start
up and operation using reliable equipment is possible.

Ch-06.qxd 2/23/2005 11:24 AM Page 153
6. FBC Boilers
11. Fast Response to Load Fluctuations

Inherent high thermal storage characteristics can easily absorb fluctuation in fuel feed rates.
Response to changing load is comparable to that of oil fired boilers.
12. No Slagging in the Furnace–No Soot Blowing

In FBC boilers, volatilisation of alkali components in ash does not take place and the ash is
non sticky. This means that there is no slagging or soot blowing.
13 Provisions of Automatic Coal and Ash Handling System

Automatic systems for coal and ash handling can be incorporated, making the plant easy to
operate comparable to oil or gas fired installation.
14 Provision of Automatic Ignition System

Control systems using micro-processors and automatic ignition equipment give excellent
control with minimum manual supervision.
15 High Reliability
The absence of moving parts in the combustion zone results in a high degree of reliability
and low maintenance costs.
16 Reduced Maintenance
Routine overhauls are infrequent and high efficiency is maintained for long periods.
17 Quick Responses to Changing Demand

A fluidised bed combustor can respond to changing heat demands more easily than stoker
fired systems. This makes it very suitable for applications such as thermal fluid heaters,
which require rapid responses.
18 High Efficiency of Power Generation

By operating the fluidised bed at elevated pressure, it can be used to generate hot pressur-
ized gases to power a gas turbine. This can be combined with a conventional steam turbine
to improve the efficiency of electricity generation and give a potential fuel savings of at
least 4%.

Ch-06.qxd 2/23/2005 11:24 AM Page 154
6. FBC Boilers
QUESTIONS
1. Explain the principle of operation of a FBC Boiler.
2. The combustion temperatures in FBC Boiler is
(a) 900°C (b) 1000°C (c) 550°C (d) 1400°C
3. Explain how FBC Boiler operates the low combustion temperature
4. In a AFBC Boiler the size of coal used is
(a) 1–10 mm (b) 10–100 mm (c) less than 1 mm (d) 10–20 inches
5. What is the function of an air distributor in a FBC Boiler?
6. What are the various types of bed materials used in a FBC Boiler?
7. In FBC Boilers, of the total ash bottom ash constituted
(a) 30–40% (b) 80–90% (c) 50–55% (d) 100%
8. How is the fly ash removed in the FBC Boiler?
9. Explain the difference between CFBC and AFBC
10. What are the advantages and benefits of CFBC Boilers?
11. In a CFBC Boiler the capture and recycling of bed materials is accomplished by
(a) settling chamber (b) cyclone (c) back filter (d) Scrubber
12. The low combustion temperatures in FBC Boilers results in minimal formation of
(a) SOX (b) NOX (c) CO2 (d) CO
13. The function of lime stone used as bed material is to remove
(a) ash (b) carbon (c) unburnts (d) sulphur
14. Explain the operating principle of PFBC Boiler.
15. What are the aspects to be considered in retrofitting FBC to existing boilers?
16. The efficiency of a typical boiler would be
(a) 33% (b) 45% (c) 54% (d) 84%
17. Enumerate the advantages of FBC Boilers.
REFERENCES
1. Energy Technology Handbook by Douglas M.Considine, McGraw Hill Inc, New York,
1977.
2. Pressurised FBC Technology by W.F.Podolski, Noyes Data Corporation, U.S, 1983.
3. Fluidised Bed Coal-Fired Boilers – Department of Coal Publications, Government of
India Fluidised Combustion of Coal – A National Coal Board Report, London

Ch-07.qxd 2/23/2005 11:24 AM Page 155
7. COGENERATION
Syllabus
Cogeneration: Definition, Need, Application, Advantages, Classification, Saving potentials
7.1 Need for Cogeneration

Thermal power plants are a major source of electricity supply in India. The conventional
method of power generation and supply to the customer is wasteful in the sense that only about
a third of the primary energy fed into the power plant is actually made available to the user in
the form of electricity (Figure 7.1). In conventional power plant, efficiency is only 35% and
remaining 65% of energy is lost. The major source of loss in the conversion process is the heat
rejected to the surrounding water or air due to the inherent constraints of the different
thermodynamic cycles employed in power generation. Also further losses of around 10–15%
are associated with the transmission and distribution of electricity in the electrical grid.
Figure 7.1 BALANCE IN TYPICAL COAL FIRED POWER STATION

For an Input Energy of 100 Giga Joules (GJ)
7.2 Principle of Cogeneration

Cogeneration or Combined Heat and Power (CHP) is defined as the sequential generation of
two different forms of useful energy from a single primary energy source, typically mechanical
energy and thermal energy. Mechanical energy may be used either to drive an alternator for pro-
ducing electricity, or rotating equipment such as motor, compressor, pump or fan for delivering

Ch-07.qxd 2/23/2005 11:24 AM Page 156
7. Cogeneration
various services. Thermal energy can be used either for direct process applications or for indi-
rectly producing steam, hot water, hot air for dryer or chilled water for process cooling.
Cogeneration provides a wide range of technologies for application in various domains of
economic activities. The overall efficiency of energy use in cogeneration mode can be up to 85
per cent and above in some cases.
Figure 7.2 Cogeneration Advantage
For example in the scheme shown in Figure 7.2, an industry requires 24 units of electrical
energy and 34 units of heat energy. Through separate heat and power route the primary energy
input in power plant will be 60 units (24/0.40). If a separate boiler is used for steam generation
then the fuel input to boiler will be 40 units (34/0.85). If the plant had cogeneration then the
fuel input will be only 68 units (24+34)/0.85 to meet both electrical and thermal energy
requirements. It can be observed that the losses, which were 42 units in the case of, separate
heat and power has reduced to 10 units in cogeneration mode.
Along with the saving of fossil fuels, cogeneration also allows to reduce the emission of
greenhouse gases (particularly CO2 emission). The production of electricity being on-site, the
burden on the utility network is reduced and the transmission line losses eliminated.
Cogeneration makes sense from both macro and micro perspectives. At the macro level, it
allows a part of the financial burden of the national power utility to be shared by the private
sector; in addition, indigenous energy sources are conserved. At the micro level, the overall
energy bill of the users can be reduced, particularly when there is a simultaneous need for both
power and heat at the site, and a rational energy tariff is practiced in the country.
7.3 Technical Options for Cogeneration

Cogeneration technologies that have been widely commercialized include extraction/back
pressure steam turbines, gas turbine with heat recovery boiler (with or without bottoming steam
turbine) and reciprocating engines with heat recovery boiler.

Ch-07.qxd 2/23/2005 11:24 AM Page 157
7. Cogeneration
7.3.1 Steam Turbine Cogeneration systems

The two types of steam turbines most widely used are the backpressure and the extraction-
Another variation of the steam turbine topping cycle cogeneration system is the extraction-back
pressure turbine that can be employed where the end-user needs thermal energy at two
different temperature levels. The full-condensing steam turbines are usually incorporated at
sites where heat rejected from the process is used to generate power.
The specific advantage of using steam turbines in comparison with the other prime movers
is the option for using a wide variety of conventional as well as alternative fuels such as coal,
natural gas, fuel oil and biomass. The power generation efficiency of the emand for electricity
is greater than one MW up to a few hundreds of MW. Due to the system inertia, their operation
is not suitable for sites with intermittent energy demand.
Figure 7.3 Schematic Diagrams of Steam Turbine Cogeneration Systems
7.3.2 Gasturbine Cogeneration Systems

Gas turbine cogeneration systems can produce all or a part of the energy requirement of the site,
and the energy released at high temperature in the exhaust stack can be recovered for various
heating and cooling applications (see Figure 7.4). Though natural gas is most commonly used,
other fuels such as light fuel oil or diesel can also be employed. The typical range of gas
turbines varies from a fraction of a MW to around 100 MW.
Gas turbine cogeneration has probably experienced the most rapid development in the
recent years due to the greater availability of natural gas, rapid progress in the technology,
significant reduction in installation costs, and better environmental performance. Furthermore,
the gestation period for developing a project is shorter and the equipment can be delivered in a
modular manner. Gas turbine has a short start-up time and provides the flexibility of intermit-
tent operation. Though it has a low heat to power conversion efficiency, more heat can be
recovered at higher temperatures. If the heat output is less than that required by the user, it is
possible to have supplementary natural gas firing by mixing additional fuel to the oxygen-rich
exhaust gas to boost the thermal output more efficiently.

Ch-07.qxd 2/23/2005 11:24 AM Page 158
7. Cogeneration
Flue Exhaust
Gases Heat(–150°C)
(–500°C)
Steam
Fuel Air
Water
Boiler
Electricity
Generator
Gas Turbine
Figure 7.4 Schematic Diagram of Gas Turbine Cogeneration
On the other hand, if more power is required at the site, it is possible to adopt a combined cycle
that is a combination of gas turbine and steam turbine cogeneration. Steam generated from the
exhaust gas of the gas turbine is passed through a backpressure or extraction-condensing steam
turbine to generate additional power. The exhaust or the extracted steam from the steam turbine
provides the required thermal energy.
7.3.3 Reciprocating Engine Cogeneration Systems

Also known as internal combustion (I. C.) engines, these cogeneration systems have high power
generation efficiencies in comparison with other prime movers. There are two sources of heat
for recovery: exhaust gas at high temperature and engine jacket cooling water system at low
temperature (see Figure 7.5). As heat recovery can be quite efficient for smaller systems, these
systems are more popular with smaller energy consuming facilities, particularly those having a
greater need for electricity than thermal energy and where the quality of heat required is not
high, e.g. low pressure steam or hot water.
Figure 7.5 Schematic Diagram of Reciprocating Engine Cogeneration

Ch-07.qxd 2/23/2005 11:24 AM Page 159
7. Cogeneration
Though diesel has been the most common fuel in the past, the prime movers can also
operate with heavy fuel oil or natural gas. These machines are ideal for intermittent operation
and their performance is not as sensitive to the changes in ambient temperatures as the gas tur-
bines. Though the initial investment on these machines is low, their operating and maintenance
costs are high due to high wear and tear.
7.4 Classification of Cogeneration Systems

Cogeneration systems are normally classified according to the sequence of energy use and the
operating schemes adopted.
A cogeneration system can be classified as either a topping or a bottoming cycle on the basis
of the sequence of energy use. In a topping cycle, the fuel supplied is used to first produce
power and then thermal energy, which is the by-product of the cycle and is used to satisfy
process heat or other thermal requirements. Topping cycle cogeneration is widely used and is
the most popular method of cogeneration.
Topping Cycle
The four types of topping cycle cogeneration systems are briefly explained in Table 7.1.
TABLE 7.1 TYPES OF TOPPING CYCLES
A gas turbine or diesel engine

producing electrical or mechanical
power followed by a heat recovery
boiler to create steam to drive a
secondary steam turbine. This is called
a combined-cycle topping system.
The second type of system burns fuel

(any type) to produce high-pressure
steam that then passes through a steam
turbine to produce power with the
exhaust provides low-pressure process
steam. This is a steam-turbine topping
system.
A third type employs heat recovery

from an engine exhaust and/or jacket
cooling system flowing to a heat
recovery boiler, where it is converted
to process steam / hot water for further
use.

Ch-07.qxd 2/23/2005 11:24 AM Page 160
7. Cogeneration
The fourth type is a gas-turbine top-

ping system. A natural gas turbine
drives a generator. The exhaust gas
goes to a heat recovery boiler that
makes process steam and process heat
Bottoming Cycle
In a bottoming cycle, the primary fuel produces high temperature thermal energy and the heat
rejected from the process is used to generate power through a recovery boiler and a turbine
generator. Bottoming cycles are suitable for manufacturing processes that require heat at high
temperature in furnaces and kilns, and reject heat at significantly high temperatures. Typical
areas of application include cement, steel, ceramic, gas and petrochemical industries.
Bottoming cycle plants are much less common than topping cycle plants. The Figure 7.6
illustrates the bottoming cycle where fuel is burnt in a furnace to produce synthetic rutile.
The waste gases coming out of the furnace is utilized in a boiler to generate steam, which
drives the turbine to produce electricity.
Figure 7.6 Bottoming Cycle
7.5 Factors Influencing Cogeneration Choice

The selection and operating scheme of a cogeneration system is very much site-specific and
depends on several factors, as described below:
7.5.1 Base electrical load matching

In this configuration, the cogeneration plant is sized to meet the minimum electricity demand
of the site based on the historical demand curve. The rest of the needed power is purchased from
the utility grid. The thermal energy requirement of the site could be met by the cogeneration

Ch-07.qxd 2/23/2005 11:24 AM Page 161
7. Cogeneration
system alone or by additional boilers. If the thermal energy generated with the base electrical
load exceeds the plant’s demand and if the situation permits, excess thermal energy can be
exported to neighbouring customers.
7.5.2 Base Thermal Load Matching

Here, the cogeneration system is sized to supply the minimum thermal energy requirement of
the site. Stand-by boilers or burners are operated during periods when the demand for heat is
higher. The prime mover installed operates at full load at all times. If the electricity demand of
the site exceeds that which can be provided by the prime mover, then the remaining amount can
be purchased from the grid. Likewise, if local laws permit, the excess electricity can be sold to
the power utility.
7.5.3 Electrical Load Matching

In this operating scheme, the facility is totally independent of the power utility grid. All the
power requirements of the site, including the reserves needed during scheduled and unsched-
uled maintenance, are to be taken into account while sizing the system. This is also referred
to as a “stand-alone” system. If the thermal energy demand of the site is higher than that
generated by the cogeneration system, auxiliary boilers are used. On the other hand, when the
thermal energy demand is low, some thermal energy is wasted. If there is a possibility, excess
thermal energy can be exported to neighbouring facilities.
7.5.4 Thermal Load Matching

The cogeneration system is designed to meet the thermal energy requirement of the site at any
time. The prime movers are operated following the thermal demand. During the period when
the electricity demand exceeds the generation capacity, the deficit can be compensated by
power purchased from the grid. Similarly, if the local legislation permits, electricity produced
in excess at any time may be sold to the utility.
7.6 Important Technical Parameters for Cogeneration

While selecting cogeneration systems, one should consider some important technical
parameters that assist in defining the type and operating scheme of different alternative
cogeneration systems to be selected.
7.6.1 Heat-to-Power Ratio

Heat-to-power ratio is one of the most important technical parameters influencing the selection
of the type of cogeneration system. The heat-to-power ratio of a facility should match with the
characteristics of the cogeneration system to be installed.
It is defined as the ratio of thermal energy to electricity required by the energy consuming
facility. Though it can be expressed in different units such as Btu/kWh, kCal/kWh, lb./hr/kW,
etc., here it is presented on the basis of the same energy unit (kW).
Basic heat-to-power ratios of the different cogeneration systems are shown in Table 7.2
along with some technical parameters. The steam turbine cogeneration system can offer a large
range of heat-to-power ratios.

Ch-07.qxd 2/23/2005 11:24 AM Page 162
7. Cogeneration
TABLE 7.2 HEAT-TO-POWER RATIOS AND OTHER PARAMETERS OF

COGENERATION SYSTEMS
Cogeneration System Heat-to-power Power output Overall

ratio (as percent of efficiency
(kWth/kWe) fuel input) per cent
Back-pressure steam turbine 4.0-14.3 14-28 84-92
Extraction-condensing steam turbine 2.0-10.0 22-40 60-80
Gas turbine 1.3-2.0 24-35 70-85
Combined cycle 1.0-1.7 34-40 69-83
Reciprocating engine 1.1-2.5 33-53 75-85
Cogeneration uses a single process to generate both electricity and usable heat or cooling.
The proportions of heat and power needed (heat: power ratio) vary from site to site, so the type
of plant must be selected carefully and appropriate operating schemes must be established to
match demands as closely as possible. The plant may therefore be set up to supply part or all
of the site heat and electricity loads, or an excess of either may be exported if a suitable
customer is available. The following Table 7.3 shows typical heat: power ratios for certain
energy intensive industries:
TABLE 7.3 TYPICAL HEAT: POWER RATIOS FOR CERTAIN

ENERGY INTENSIVE INDUSTRIES
Industry Minimum Maximum Average

Breweries 1.1 4.5 3.1
Pharmaceuticals 1.5 2.5 2.0
Fertilizer 0.8 3.0 2.0
Food 0.8 2.5 1.2
Paper 1.5 2.5 1.9
Cogeneration is likely to be most attractive under the following circumstances:

(a) The demand for both steam and power is balanced i.e. consistent with the range of
steam: power output ratios that can be obtained from a suitable cogeneration plant.
(b) A single plant or group of plants has sufficient demand for steam and power to permit
economies of scale to be achieved.
(c) Peaks and troughs in demand can be managed or, in the case of electricity, adequate
backup supplies can be obtained from the utility company.
The ratio of heat to power required by a site may vary during different times of the day and
seasons of the year. Importing power from the grid can make up a shortfall in electrical output
from the cogeneration unit and firing standby boilers can satisfy additional heat demand.

Ch-07.qxd 2/23/2005 11:24 AM Page 163
7. Cogeneration
Many large cogeneration units utilize supplementary or boost firing of the exhaust gases in
order to modify the heat: power ratio of the system to match site loads.
7.6.2 Quality of Thermal Energy Needed

The quality of thermal energy required (temperature and pressure) also determines the type of
cogeneration system. For a sugar mill needing thermal energy at about 120°C, a topping cycle
cogeneration system can meet the heat demand. On the other hand, for a cement plant
requiring thermal energy at about 1450°C, a bottoming cycle cogeneration system can meet
both high quality thermal energy and electricity demands of the plant.
7.6.3 Load Patterns

The heat and power demand patterns of the user affect the selection (type and size) of the
cogeneration system. For instance, the load patterns of two energy consuming facilities shown
in Figure 7.7 would lead to two different sizes, possibly types also, of cogeneration systems.
Figure 7.7 Different Heat and Power Demand Patterns in two Factories
7.6.4 Fuels Available

Depending on the availability of fuels, some potential cogeneration systems may have to be
rejected. The availability of cheap fuels or waste products that can be used as fuels at a site is
one of the major factors in the technical consideration because it determines the competitive-
ness of the cogeneration system.
A rice mill needs mechanical power for milling and heat for paddy drying. If a cogeneration
system were considered, the steam turbine system would be the first priority because it can use
the rice husk as the fuel, which is available as waste product from the mill.
7.6.5 System Reliability

Some energy consuming facilities require very reliable power and/or heat; for instance, a pulp
and paper industry cannot operate with a prolonged unavailability of process steam. In such
instances, the cogeneration system to be installed must be modular, i.e. it should consist of more
than one unit so that shut down of a specific unit cannot seriously affect the energy supply.

Ch-07.qxd 2/23/2005 11:24 AM Page 164
7. Cogeneration
7.6.6 Grid Dependent System Versus Independent System

A grid-dependent system has access to the grid to buy or sell electricity. The grid-independent
system is also known as a “stand-alone” system that meets all the energy demands of the site.
It is obvious that for the same energy consuming facility, the technical configuration of the
cogeneration system designed as a grid dependent system would be different from that of a
stand-alone system.
7.6.7 Retrofit Versus New Installation

If the cogeneration system is installed as a retrofit, the system must be designed so that the
existing energy conversion systems, such as boilers, can still be used. In such a circumstance,
the options for cogeneration system would depend on whether the system is a retrofit or a new
installation.
7.6.8 Electricity Buy-back

The technical consideration of cogeneration system must take into account whether the local
regulations permit electric utilities to buy electricity from the cogenerators or not. The size and
type of cogeneration system could be significantly different if one were to allow the export of
electricity to the grid.
7.6.9 Local Environmental Regulation

The local environmental regulations can limit the choice of fuels to be used for the proposed
cogeneration systems. If the local environmental regulations are stringent, some available fuels
cannot be considered because of the high treatment cost of the polluted exhaust gas and in some
cases, the fuel itself.
7.7 Prime Movers for Cogeneration
7.7.1 Steam Turbine

Steam turbines (Figure 7.8) are the most commonly employed prime movers for cogeneration
applications In the steam turbine, the incoming high pressure steam is expanded to a lower
pressure level, converting the thermal energy of high pressure steam to kinetic energy through
nozzles and then to mechanical power through rotating blades.
Figure 7.8 Steam Turbine

Ch-07.qxd 2/23/2005 11:24 AM Page 165
7. Cogeneration
Back Pressure turbine: In this type steam enters the turbine chamber at High Pressure and
expands to Low or Medium Pressure. Enthalpy difference is used for generating power / work.
Depending on the pressure (or temperature) levels at which process steam is required,
backpressure steam turbines can have different configurations as shown in Figure 7.9.
Figure 7.9 Different Configurations for Back Pressure Steam Turbines
In extraction and double extraction backpressure turbines, some amount of steam is extract-
ed from the turbine after being expanded to a certain pressure level. The extracted steam meets
the heat demands at pressure levels higher than the exhaust pressure of the steam turbine.
The efficiency of a backpressure steam turbine cogeneration system is the highest. In cases
where 100 per cent backpressure exhaust steam is used, the only inefficiencies are gear drive
and electric generator losses, and the inefficiency of steam generation. Therefore, with an
efficient boiler, the overall thermal efficiency of the system could reach as much as 90 per cent.
Extraction Condensing turbine: In this type, steam entering at High / Medium Pressure is
extracted at an intermediate pressure in the turbine for process use while the remaining steam
continues to expand and condenses in a
surface condenser and work is done till it
reaches the Condensing pressure.(vacuum).
In Extraction cum Condensing steam
turbine as shown in Figure 7.10, high
Pressure steam enters the turbine and passes
out from the turbine chamber in stages. In a
two stage extraction cum condensing turbine
MP steam and LP steam pass out to meet the
process needs. Balance quantity condenses
in the surface condenser. The Energy differ-
ence is used for generating Power. This con-
figuration meets the heat-power requirement Figure 7.10 Extraction Condensing Turbine

Ch-07.qxd 2/23/2005 11:24 AM Page 166
7. Cogeneration
of the process.
The extraction condensing turbines have higher power to heat ratio in comparison with back-
pressure turbines. Although condensing systems need more auxiliary equipment such as the
condenser and cooling towers, better matching of electrical power and heat demand can be
obtained where electricity demand is much higher than the steam demand and the load patterns
are highly fluctuating.
The overall thermal efficiency of an extraction condensing turbine cogeneration system is
lower than that of back pressure turbine system, basically because the exhaust heat cannot be
utilized (it is normally lost in the cooling water circuit). However, extraction condensing cogen-
eration systems have higher electricity generation efficiencies
7.7.2 Gas Turbine

The fuel is burnt in a pressurized
combustion chamber using combus-
tion air supplied by a compressor
that is integral with the gas turbine.
In conventional Gas turbine
(Figure 7.11), gases enter the turbine
at a temperature range of 900 to
1000°C and leave at 400 to 500°C.
The very hot pressurized gases are
used to turn a series of turbine
blades, and the shaft on which they
are mounted, to produce mechanical
energy. Residual energy in the form
of a high flow of hot exhaust gases
Figure 7.11 Gas Turbine
can be used to meet, wholly or partly,
the thermal (steam) demand of the site. Waste gases are exhausted from the turbine at 450°C to
550°C, making the gas turbine particularly suitable for high-grade heat supply.
The available mechanical energy can be applied in the following ways:
• to produce electricity with a generator (most applications);

• to drive pumps, compressors, blowers, etc.
A gas turbine operates under exacting conditions of high speed and high temperature. The hot
gases supplied to it must therefore be clean (i.e. free of particulates which would erode the
blades) and must contain not more than minimal amounts of contaminants, which would cause
corrosion under operating conditions. High-premium fuels are therefore most often used,
particularly natural gas. Distillate oils such as gas oil are also suitable, and sets capable of using
both are often installed to take advantage of cheaper interruptible gas tariffs. LPGs and Naphtha
are also suitable, LPG being a possible fuel in either gaseous or liquid form.
Gas Turbine Efficiency

Turbine Efficiency is the ratio of actual work output of the turbine to the net input energy
supplied in the form of fuel. For stand alone Gas Turbines, without any heat recovery system

Ch-07.qxd 2/23/2005 11:24 AM Page 167
7. Cogeneration
the efficiency will be as low as 35 to 40%. This is attributed to the blade efficiency of the rotor,
leakage through clearance spaces, friction, irreversible turbulence etc.
Since Exhaust gas from the Gas Turbine is high, it is possible to recover energy from the
hot gas by a Heat Recovery Steam Generator and use the steam for process.
Net Turbine Efficiency
Above efficiency figures did not include the energy consumed by air compressors, fuel pump
and other auxiliaries. Air compressor alone consumes about 50 to 60% of energy generated by
the turbine. Hence net turbine efficiency, which is the actual energy output available will be less
than what has been calculated. In most Gas Turbine plants, air compressor is an integral part of
Turbine plant.
7.7.3 Reciprocating Engine Systems

This system provides process heat or steam from engine exhaust. The engine jacket cooling
water heat exchanger and lube oil cooler may also be used to provide hot water or hot air. There
are, however, limited applications for this.
As these engines can use only fuels like HSD, distillate, residual oils, natural gas, LPG etc.
and as they are not economically better than steam/gas turbine, their use is not widespread for
co-generation. One more reason for this is the engine maintenance requirement.
Figure 7.12

Ch-07.qxd 2/23/2005 11:24 AM Page 168
7. Cogeneration
7.8 Typical Cogeneration Performance Parameters

The following Table 7.4 gives typical Cogeneration Performance Parameters for different
Cogeneration Packages giving heat rate, overall efficiencies etc.
TABLE 7.4 TYPICAL COGENERATION PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS
Prime Mover in Nominal Electrical Generation Efficiencies, %

Cogen. Range Heat Rate Electrical Thermal Overall
Package (Electrical) (kCal / kWh Conversion Recovery Cogeneration
Smaller 10–500 kW 2650–6300 20–32 50 74–82
Reciprocating
Engines
Larger 500–3000 kW 2400–3275 26–36 50 76–86
Reciprocating
Engines
Diesel Engines 10–3000 kW 2770–3775 23–38 50 73–88
Smaller Gas 800–10000 kW 2770–3525 24–31 50 74–81
Turbines
Larger Gas 10–20 MW 2770–3275 26–31 50 78–81
Turbines
Steam Turbines 10–100 MW 2520–5040 17–34 – –
Note: Adapted from Cogeneration Handbook California Energy Commission, 1982
7.9 Relative Merits of Cogeneration Systems

The following Table 7.5 gives the advantages and disadvantages of various co-generation
systems:
TABLE7.5 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF VARIOUS COGENERATION SYSTEMS
Variant Advantages Disadvantages

Back pressure – High fuel efficiency rating – Little flexibility in design
and operation
Steam turbine & fuel – Simple plant – More capital investment
firing in boiler – Well-suited to low quality fuels – Low fuel efficiency
rating
– High cooling water demand
– More impact on environment
High civil const. cost due to
complicated foundations
Gas turbine with – Good fuel efficiency – Moderate part load efficiency
waste heat recovery – Simple plant – Limited suitability for low
boiler – Low civil const. Cost quality fuels
– Less delivery period

Ch-07.qxd 2/23/2005 11:24 AM Page 169
7. Cogeneration
– Less impact on environment

– High flexibility in operation
Combined gas & steam – Optimum fuel efficiency rating – Average to moderate
turbine with waste – Low relative capital cost part-load efficiency
heat recovery boiler – Less gestation period – Limited suitability for
– Quick start up & stoppage low quality fuels
– Less impact on environment
– High flexibility in operation
Diesel Engine & waste – Low civil const. Cost due to block – Low overall efficiency
heat recovery foundations & least no. of auxiliaries – Limited suitability for
Boiler & cooling – High Power efficiency low quality fuels
water heat exchanger – Better suitability as stand by – Availability of low
power source temperature steam
– Highly maintenance prone.
7.10 Case Study
Economics of a Gas Turbine based co-generation System

Alternative I – Gas Turbine Based Co-generation
Gas turbine Parameters
Capacity of gas turbine generator : 4000 kW
Plant operating hours per annum : 8000 hrs.
Plant load factor : 90 %
Heat rate as per standard given by gas.turbine supplier : 3049.77 kCal / kWh
Waste heat boiler parameters – unfired steam output : 10 TPH
Steam temperature : 200 °C
Steam pressure : 8.5 kg /cm2.
Steam enthalpy : 676.44 kCal / Kg.
Fuel used : Natural gas
Calorific value – LCV : 9500 kCal/ sm3
Price of gas : Rs 3000 /1000 sm3
Capital investment for total co-generation plant : Rs. 1300 Lakhs
Cost Estimation of Power & Steam From Cogeneration Plant

1. Estimated power generation from Cogeneration : PLF × Plant Capacity × no.
plant at 90% Plant Load Factor (PLF) of operation hours
(90/100)×4000×8000
288.00 × 105 kWh per annum
2. Heat input to generate above units : Units (kWh) × heat rate
288 x 105 × 3049.77
878333.76 × 105 kCal
3. Natural gas quantity required per annum : Heat input / Calorific value
(LCV ) of natural gas
: 878333.76 x 105 / 9500

Ch-07.qxd 2/23/2005 11:24 AM Page 170
7. Cogeneration
92.46 × 105 sm3

4. Cost of fuel per annum : Annual gas consumption.
× Price
92.46 × 105× Rs.3000./1000 sm3
Rs. 277.37 lakhs
5. Cost of capital and operation charges/annum : Rs. 298.63. lakhs
6. Overall cost of power from cogeneration Plant : Rs. 576.00.lakhs per annum
7. Cost of power : Rs. 2.00 /kWh
Alternative-II: Electric Power from State Grid & Steam from Natural Gas Fired Boiler
Boiler Installed in Plant:
Cost of electric power from state grid – average electricity : Rs. 3.00/kWh
cost with demand & energy charges
Capital investment for 10 TPH, 8.5 kg/sq.cm.200)°C : Rs. 80.00 lakh

Natural gas fired fire tube boiler & all auxiliaries
Estimation of cost for electric power from grid & steam from direct conventional fired
boiler:
1. Cost of Power from state grid for 288 lakh kWh : Rs. 864.00 lakh per annum
2. Fuel cost for steam by separate boiler
(i) Heat output in form of 10 TPH steam per annum : Steam quantity ×
Enthalphy ×
Operations/annum
10 × 1000 × 676.44 ×
8000
=541152 × 105 kCals
(ii) Heat Input required to generate 10 TPH steam : Heat output/boiler

per annum @ 90% efficiency efficiency
541152 × 105/0.90
Heat Input : 601280 × 105 kCal
per annum
(iii) Natural Gas Quantity : Heat Input/Calorific

Ch-07.qxd 2/23/2005 11:24 AM Page 171
7. Cogeneration
value (LCV) of
natural gas
601280 × 105/9500
63.29 × 105 sm3 per
annum
(iv) Cost of fuel per annum : Annual gas

consumption × price
63.29 × 105× 3000
/1000 sm3
Rs. 189.88.lakh
per annum
(v) Total cost for Alternative-II : Cost of grid power +

fuel cost for steam
Rs. 864+ Rs.189.88 (lakh)
Rs.1053.88 lakh per annum
Alternative I - Total cost : Rs. 576.00 lakh

Alternative II - Total cost : Rs. 1053.88 lakh
Differential cost : Rs. 477.88 lakh
(Note: In case of alternative-II, there will be some additional impact on cost of steam due to
capital cost required for a separate boiler).
In the above case, Alternative 1 gas turbine based cogeneration system is economical com-
pared to Alternative 2 i.e. electricity from State Grid and Steam from Natural Gas fired boiler.

Ch-07.qxd 2/23/2005 11:24 AM Page 172
7. Cogeneration
QUESTIONS
1. Explain what do you mean by cogeneration.
2. Explain how cogeneration is advantageous over conventional power plant.
3. What is meant by wheeling?
4. What is meant by combined cycle cogeneration?
5. Explain the term topping cycles with examples.
6. Explain the term bottoming cycles with examples.
7. Explain the term heat-to-power ratio.
8. Explain with diagrams cogeneration systems using the back pressure turbine,
extraction-condensing turbine and double extraction back pressure turbine.
9. The efficiency of which of the following is the highest (a) condensing (b) back
pressure (c) extraction condensing (d) double extraction condensing
10. Explain the principle of operation of a steam turbine.
11. Explain the principle of operation of a gas turbine.
12. What are the common fuels used in gas turbines?
13. Clean fuels are used in gas turbines because (a) the operate at high speed and high
temperature (b) pollution act requires it (c) combustion would be affected (d) they
are inexpensive
14. The system efficiencies of gas turbine units are (a) 35 to 40% (b) 85 to 90% (c) 75
to 80% (d) 55 to 60%
15. A heat recovery steam generator is used with (a) gas turbines (b) stem turbines (c)
back pressure turbines (d) condensing turbines
16. List the circumstances under which cogeneration will become attractive.
17. What are the sources of waste heat in a diesel engine?
18. Explain how you will go about an energy audit of a steam turbine based fully back
pressure cogeneration system.
REFERENCES
1. Cogeneration – Training Material by NIFES, UK.
2. Energy Cogeneration handbook Criteria for Central Plant Desing by George
Polimeros, Industrial Press Inc, N.Y.
www.cogen.org
www.unescap.org/enrd/energy/co-gen/
http://www.cogen.org/Downloadables/Projects/EDUCOGEN_Cogen_Guide.pdf.

Ch-08.qxd 2/23/2005 11:25 AM Page 173
8. WASTE HEAT RECOVERY
Syllabus
Waste Heat Recovery: Classification, Advantages and applications, Commercially viable
waste heat recovery devices, Saving potential.
8.1 Introduction
Waste heat is heat, which is generated in a process by way of fuel combustion or chemical
reaction, and then “dumped” into the environment even though it could still be reused for some
useful and economic purpose. The essential quality of heat is not the amount but rather its
“value”. The strategy of how to recover this heat depends in part on the temperature of the waste
heat gases and the economics involved.
Large quantity of hot flue gases is generated from Boilers, Kilns, Ovens and Furnaces.
If some of this waste heat could be recovered, a considerable amount of primary fuel could
be saved. The energy lost in waste gases cannot be fully recovered. However, much of the
heat could be recovered and loss minimized by adopting following measures as outlined in
this chapter.
Heat Losses – Quality

Depending upon the type of process, waste heat can be rejected at virtually any temperature
from that of chilled cooling water to high temperature waste gases from an industrial fur-
nace or kiln. Usually higher the temperature, higher the quality and more cost effective is
the heat recovery. In any study of waste heat recovery, it is absolutely necessary that there
should be some use for the recovered heat. Typical examples of use would be preheating of
combustion air, space heating, or pre-heating boiler feed water or process water. With high
temperature heat recovery, a cascade system of waste heat recovery may be practiced to
ensure that the maximum amount of heat is recovered at the highest potential. An example
of this technique of waste heat recovery would be where the high temperature stage was
used for air pre-heating and the low temperature stage used for process feed water heating
or steam raising.
Heat Losses – Quantity

In any heat recovery situation it is essential to know the amount of heat recoverable and also
how it can be used. An example of the availability of waste heat is given below:
• Heat recovery from heat treatment furnace

In a heat treatment furnace, the exhaust gases are leaving the furnace at 900 °C at the rate of
2100 m3/hour. The total heat recoverable at 180oC final exhaust can be calculated as
Q = V × ρ × Cp × ∆T
Q is the heat content in kCal
V is the flowrate of the substance in m3/hr

Ch-08.qxd 2/23/2005 11:25 AM Page 174
8. Waste Heat Recovery
ρ is density of the flue gas in kg/m3

Cp is the specific heat of the substance in kCal/kg °C
∆T is the temperature difference in °C
Cp (Specific heat of flue gas) = 0.24 kCal/kg/°C
Heat available (Q) = 2100 × 1.19 × 0.24 × ((900-180) = 4,31,827 kCal/hr
By installing a recuperator, this heat can be recovered to pre-heat the combustion air.
The fuel savings would be 33% (@ 1% fuel reduction for every 22 °C reduction in temper-
ature of flue gas.
8.2 Classification and Application

In considering the potential for heat recovery, it is useful to note all the possibilities, and
grade the waste heat in terms of potential value as shown in the following Table 8.1:
TABLE 8.1 WASTE SOURCE AND QUALITY
S.No. Source Quality

1. Heat in flue gases. The higher the temperature, the greater the potential value for heat
recovery
2. Heat in vapour streams. As above but when condensed, latent heat also recoverable.
3. Convective and radiant heat Low grade – if collected may be used for space heating or air
lost from exterior of preheats.
equipment
4. Heat losses in cooling water. Low grade – useful gains if heat is exchanged with incoming fresh
water
5. Heat losses in providing a) High grade if it can be utilized to reduce demand for refrigeration.
chilled water or in the b) Low grade if refrigeration unit used as a form of heat pump.
disposal of chilled water
6. Heat stored in products Quality depends upon temperature.
leaving the process
7. Heat in gaseous and liquid Poor if heavily contaminated and thus requiring alloy heat exchanger.
effluents leaving process.
High Temperature Heat Recovery

The following Table 8.2 gives temperatures of waste gases from industrial process equipment
in the high temperature range. All of these results from direct fuel fired processes.
Medium Temperature Heat Recovery

The following Table 8.3 gives the temperatures of waste gases from process equipment in the
medium temperature range. Most of the waste heat in this temperature range comes from the
exhaust of directly fired process units.

Ch-08.qxd 2/23/2005 11:25 AM Page 175
TABLE 8.2 TYPICAL WASTE HEAT TEMPERATURE AT HIGH

TEMPERATURE RANGE FROM VARIOUS SOURCES
Types of Device Temperature, °C

Nickel refining furnace 1370 –1650
Aluminium refining furnace 650–760
Zinc refining furnace 760–1100
Copper refining furnace 760– 815
Steel heating furnaces 925–1050
Copper reverberatory furnace 900–1100
Open hearth furnace 650–700
Cement kiln (Dry process) 620– 730
Glass melting furnace 1000–1550
Hydrogen plants 650–1000
Solid waste incinerators 650–1000
Fume incinerators 650–1450
TABLE 8.3 TYPICAL WASTE HEAT TEMPERATURE AT MEDIUM

Type of Device Temperature, °C

Steam boiler exhausts 230–480
Gas turbine exhausts 370–540
Reciprocating engine exhausts 315–600
Reciprocating engine exhausts (turbo charged) 230–370
Heat treating furnaces 425–650
Drying and baking ovens 230–600
Catalytic crackers 425–650
Annealing furnace cooling systems 425–650
Low Temperature Heat Recovery

The following Table 8.4 lists some heat sources in the low temperature range. In this range it
is usually not practical to extract work from the source, though steam production may not be
completely excluded if there is a need for low-pressure steam. Low temperature waste heat may
be useful in a supplementary way for preheating purposes.

Ch-08.qxd 2/23/2005 11:25 AM Page 176
TABLE 8.4 TYPICAL WASTE HEAT TEMPERATURE AT LOW

Source Temperature, °C
Process steam condensate 55–88
Cooling water from:
Furnace doors 32–55
Bearings 32–88
Welding machines 32–88
Injection molding machines 32–88
Annealing furnaces 66–230
Forming dies 27–88
Air compressors 27–50
Pumps 27–88
Internal combustion engines 66–120
Air conditioning and refrigeration condensers 32–43
Liquid still condensers 32–88
Drying, baking and curing ovens 93–230
Hot processed liquids 32–232
Hot processed solids 93–232
8.3 Benefits of Waste Heat Recovery

Benefits of 'waste heat recovery' can be broadly classified in two categories:
Direct Benefits:
Recovery of waste heat has a direct effect on the efficiency of the process. This is reflected by
reduction in the utility consumption & costs, and process cost.
Indirect Benefits:
a) Reduction in pollution: A number of toxic combustible wastes such as carbon monoxide

gas, sour gas, carbon black off gases, oil sludge, Acrylonitrile and other plastic chemicals
etc, releasing to atmosphere if/when burnt in the incinerators serves dual purpose i.e.
recovers heat and reduces the environmental pollution levels.
b) Reduction in equipment sizes: Waste heat recovery reduces the fuel consumption, which
leads to reduction in the flue gas produced. This results in reduction in equipment sizes of
all flue gas handling equipments such as fans, stacks, ducts, burners, etc.
c) Reduction in auxiliary energy consumption: Reduction in equipment sizes gives
additional benefits in the form of reduction in auxiliary energy consumption like electricity
for fans, pumps etc..

Ch-08.qxd 2/23/2005 11:25 AM Page 177
8.4 Development of a Waste Heat Recovery System
Understanding the process

Understanding the process is essential for development of Waste Heat Recovery system. This can be
accomplished by reviewing the process flow sheets, layout diagrams, piping isometrics, electrical
and instrumentation cable ducting etc. Detail review of these documents will help in identifying:
a) Sources and uses of waste heat
b) Upset conditions occurring in the plant due to heat recovery
c) Availability of space
d) Any other constraint, such as dew point occurring in an equipments etc.
After identifying source of waste heat and the possible use of it, the next step is to select
suitable heat recovery system and equipments to recover and utilise the same.
Economic Evaluation of Waste Heat Recovery System

It is necessary to evaluate the selected waste heat recovery system on the basis of financial
analysis such as investment, depreciation, payback period, rate of return etc. In addition the
advice of experienced consultants and suppliers must be obtained for rational decision.
Next section gives a brief description of common heat recovery devices available commer-
cially and its typical industrial applications.
8.5 Commercial Waste Heat Recovery Devices
Recuperators
In a recuperator, heat exchange takes
place between the flue gases and the
air through metallic or ceramic
walls. Duct or tubes carry the air for
combustion to be pre-heated, the
other side contains the waste heat
stream. A recuperator for recovering
waste heat from flue gases is shown
in Figure 8.1.
The simplest configuration for a
recuperator is the metallic radiation
recuperator, which consists of two
concentric lengths of metal tubing as Figure 8.1 Waste Heat Recovery using Recuperator
shown in Figure 8.2.
The inner tube carries the hot
exhaust gases while the external annulus carries the combustion air from the atmosphere to
the air inlets of the furnace burners. The hot gases are cooled by the incoming combustion
air which now carries additional energy into the combustion chamber. This is energy which
does not have to be supplied by the fuel; consequently, less fuel is burned for a given
furnace loading. The saving in fuel also means a decrease in combustion air and therefore

Ch-08.qxd 2/23/2005 11:25 AM Page 178
stack losses are decreased not only by lowering

the stack gas temperatures but also by discharg-
ing smaller quantities of exhaust gas. The radi-
ation recuperator gets its name from the fact that
a substantial portion of the heat transfer from the
hot gases to the surface of the inner tube takes
place by radiative heat transfer. The cold air in
the annuals, however, is almost transparent to
infrared radiation so that only convection heat
transfer takes place to the incoming air. As
shown in the diagram, the two gas flows are usu-
ally parallel, although the configuration would
be simpler and the heat transfer more efficient if
the flows were opposed in direction (or counter-
flow). The reason for the use of parallel flow is
that recuperators frequently serve the additional
function of cooling the duct carrying away the
exhaust gases and consequently extending its
Figure 8.2 Metallic Radiation Recuperator
service life.
A second common configuration for

recuperators is called the tube type or convective
recuperator. As seen in the figure 8.3, the hot
gases are carried through a number of parallel
small diameter tubes, while the incoming air to be
heated enters a shell surrounding the tubes and
passes over the hot tubes one or more times in a
direction normal to their axes.
If the tubes are baffled to allow the gas to pass
over them twice, the heat exchanger is termed a
two-pass recuperator; if two baffles are used, a
three-pass recuperator, etc. Although baffling
increases both the cost of the exchanger and the
pressure drop in the combustion air path, it
increases the effectiveness of heat exchange. Shell
and tube type recuperators are generally more Figure 8.3 Convective Recuperator
compact and have a higher effectiveness than
radiation recuperators, because of the larger heat transfer area made possible through the use of
multiple tubes and multiple passes of the gases.
Radiation/Convective Hybrid Recuperator:

For maximum effectiveness of heat transfer, combinations of radiation and convective designs are
used, with the high-temperature radiation recuperator being first followed by convection type.
These are more expensive than simple metallic radiation recuperators, but are less bulky.
A Convective/radiative Hybrid recuperator is shown in Figure 8.4

Ch-08.qxd 2/23/2005 11:25 AM Page 179
Figure 8.4 Convective Radiative Recuperator
Ceramic Recuperator
The principal limitation on the heat recovery of metal recuperators is the reduced life of the liner
at inlet temperatures exceeding 1100°C. In order to overcome the temperature limitations of metal
recuperators, ceramic tube recuperators have been developed whose materials allow operation on the
gas side to 1550°C and on the preheated air side to 815°C on a more or less practical basis. Early
ceramic recuperators were built of tile and joined with furnace cement, and thermal cycling caused
cracking of joints and rapid deterioration of the tubes. Later developments introduced various kinds
of short silicon carbide tubes which can be joined by flexible seals located in the air headers.
Earlier designs had experienced leakage rates from 8 to 60 percent. The new designs are report-
ed to last two years with air preheat temperatures as high as 700°C, with much lower leakage rates.
Regenerator
The Regeneration which is preferable for
large capacities has been very widely used in
glass and steel melting furnaces. Important
relations exist between the size of the regener-
ator, time between reversals, thickness of
brick, conductivity of brick and heat storage
ratio of the brick.
In a regenerator, the time between the
reversals is an important aspect. Long
periods would mean higher thermal storage
and hence higher cost. Also long periods of
reversal result in lower average temperature
of preheat and consequently reduce fuel
economy. (Refer Figure 8.5).
Accumulation of dust and slagging on
the surfaces reduce efficiency of the heat
transfer as the furnace becomes old. Figure 8.5 Regenerator

Ch-08.qxd 2/23/2005 11:25 AM Page 180
Heat losses from the walls of the regenerator and air in leaks during the gas period and out-
leaks during air period also reduces the heat transfer.
Heat Wheels
A heat wheel is finding increasing applications in low to medium temperature waste heat recov-
ery systems. Figure 8.6 is a sketch illustrating the application of a heat wheel.
Figure 8.6 Heat Wheel
It is a sizable porous disk, fabricated with material having a fairly high heat capacity, which
rotates between two side-by-side ducts: one a cold gas duct, the other a hot gas duct. The axis
of the disk is located parallel to, and on the partition between, the two ducts. As the disk slow-
ly rotates, sensible heat (moisture that contains latent heat) is transferred to the disk by the hot
air and, as the disk rotates, from the disk to the cold air. The overall efficiency of sensible heat
transfer for this kind of regenerator can be as high as 85 percent. Heat wheels have been built
as large as 21 metres in diameter with air capacities up to 1130 m3 / min.
A variation of the Heat Wheel is the rotary regenerator where the matrix is in a cylinder
rotating across the waste gas and air streams. The heat or energy recovery wheel is a rotary gas
heat regenerator, which can transfer heat from exhaust to incoming gases.
Its main area of application is where heat exchange between large masses of air having
small temperature differences is required. Heating and ventilation systems and recovery of heat
from dryer exhaust air are typical applications.
Case Example
A rotary heat regenerator was installed on a two colour printing press to recover some of the
heat, which had been previously dissipated to the atmosphere, and used for drying stage of the
process. The outlet exhaust temperature before heat recovery was often in excess of 100°C.
After heat recovery the temperature was 35°C. Percentage heat recovery was 55% and payback
on the investment was estimated to be about 18 months. Cross contamination of the fresh air
from the solvent in the exhaust gases was at a very acceptable level.

Ch-08.qxd 2/23/2005 11:25 AM Page 181
Case Example
A ceramic firm installed a heat wheel on the preheating zone of a tunnel kiln where 7500
m3/hour of hot gas at 300°C was being rejected to the atmosphere. The result was that the flue
gas temperature was reduced to 150°C and the fresh air drawn from the top of the kiln was pre-
heated to 155°C. The burner previously used for providing the preheated air was no longer
required. The capital cost of the equipment was recovered in less than 12 months.
Heat Pipe
A heat pipe can transfer up to 100 times more thermal energy than copper, the best known con-
ductor. In other words, heat pipe is a thermal energy absorbing and transferring system and have
no moving parts and hence require minimum maintenance.
Figure 8.7 Heat Pipe

The Heat Pipe comprises of three elements - a sealed container, a capillary wick structure
and a working fluid. The capillary wick structure is integrally fabricated into the interior sur-
face of the container tube and sealed under vacuum. Thermal energy applied to the external
surface of the heat pipe is in equilibrium with its own vapour as the container tube is sealed
under vacuum. Thermal energy applied to the external surface of the heat pipe causes the work-
ing fluid near the surface to evaporate instantaneously. Vapour thus formed absorbs the latent
heat of vapourisation and this part of the heat pipe becomes an evaporator region. The vapour
then travels to the other end the pipe where the thermal energy is removed causing the vapour
to condense into liquid again, thereby giving up the latent heat of the condensation. This part
of the heat pipe works as the condenser region. The condensed liquid then flows back to the
evaporated region. A figure of Heat pipe is shown in Figure 8.7
Performance and Advantage

The heat pipe exchanger (HPHE) is a lightweight compact heat recovery system. It virtually
does not need mechanical maintenance, as there are no moving parts to wear out. It does not
need input power for its operation and is free from cooling water and lubrication systems. It
also lowers the fan horsepower requirement and increases the overall thermal efficiency of the
system. The heat pipe heat recovery systems are capable of operating at 315°C. with 60% to
80% heat recovery capability.

Ch-08.qxd 2/23/2005 11:25 AM Page 182
Typical Application
The heat pipes are used in following industrial applications:
a. Process to Space Heating: The heat pipe heat exchanger transfers the thermal energy
from process exhaust for building heating. The preheated air can be blended if required.
The requirement of additional heating equipment to deliver heated make up air is dras-
tically reduced or eliminated.
b. Process to Process: The heat pipe heat exchangers recover waste thermal energy from
the process exhaust and transfer this energy to the incoming process air. The incoming
air thus become warm and can be used for the same process/other processes and reduces
process energy consumption.
c. HVAC Applications:
Cooling: Heat pipe heat exchangers precools the building make up air in summer and
thus reduces the total tons of refrigeration, apart from the operational saving of the cool-
ing system. Thermal energy is supply recovered from the cool exhaust and transferred
to the hot supply make up air.
Heating: The above process is reversed during winter to preheat the make up air.
The other applications in industries are:
• Preheating of boiler combustion air
• Recovery of Waste heat from furnaces
• Reheating of fresh air for hot air driers
• Recovery of waste heat from catalytic deodorizing equipment
• Reuse of Furnace waste heat as heat source for other oven
• Cooling of closed rooms with outside air
• Preheating of boiler feed water with waste heat recovery from flue gases in the heat pipe
economizers.
• Drying, curing and baking ovens
• Waste steam reclamation
• Brick kilns (secondary recovery)
• Reverberatory furnaces (secondary recovery)
• Heating, ventilating and air-conditioning systems
Case Example
Savings in Hospital Cooling Systems
Volume 140 m3/min Exhaust
Recovered heat 28225 kCal/hr
Plant capacity reduction 9.33 Tons of Refrigeration
Electricity cost (operation) Rs. 268/Million kCal (based on 0.8 kW/TR)
Plant capacity reduction cost (Capital) Rs.12,000/TR
Capital cost savings Rs. 1,12,000/-
Payback period 16570 hours

Ch-08.qxd 2/23/2005 11:25 AM Page 183
Economiser
In case of boiler system, economizer can be
provided to utilize the flue gas heat for pre-
heating the boiler feed water. On the other
hand, in an air pre-heater, the waste heat is
used to heat combustion air. In both the
cases, there is a corresponding reduction in
the fuel requirements of the boiler.
An economizer is shown in Figure 8.8.
For every 22°C reduction in flue gas
temperature by passing through an
economiser or a pre-heater, there is 1%
saving of fuel in the boiler. In other
words, for every 6°C rise in feed water Figure 8.8 Economiser
temperature through an economiser, or
20°C rise in combustion air temperature through an air pre-heater, there is 1% saving of fuel in
the boiler.
Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger:

When the medium containing waste heat is a liquid or a vapor which heats another liquid, then
the shell and tube heat exchanger must be used since both paths must be sealed to contain the
pressures of their respective fluids. The shell contains the tube bundle, and usually internal
baffles, to direct the fluid in the shell over the tubes in multiple passes. The shell is inherently
weaker than the tubes so that the higher-pressure fluid is circulated in the tubes while the lower
pressure fluid flows through the shell. When a vapor contains the waste heat, it usually
condenses, giving up its latent heat to the liquid being heated. In this application, the vapor is
almost invariably contained within the shell. If the reverse is attempted, the condensation of
vapors within small diameter parallel tubes causes flow instabilities. Tube and shell heat
exchangers are available in a wide range of standard sizes with many combinations of
materials for the tubes and shells. A shell and tube heat exchanger is illustrated in Figure 8.9.
Figure 8.9 Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger

Typical applications of shell and tube heat exchangers include heating liquids with the heat
contained by condensates from refrigeration and air-conditioning systems; condensate from
process steam; coolants from furnace doors, grates, and pipe supports; coolants from engines,
air compressors, bearings, and lubricants; and the condensates from distillation processes.

Ch-08.qxd 2/23/2005 11:25 AM Page 184
Plate heat exchanger

The cost of heat exchange surfaces is a
major cost factor when the tempera-
ture differences are not large. One way
of meeting this problem is the plate
type heat exchanger, which consists of
a series of separate parallel plates
forming thin flow pass. Each plate is
separated from the next by gaskets and
the hot stream passes in parallel
Figure 8.10 Plate Heat Exchanger
through alternative plates whilst the liq-
uid to be heated passes in parallel between the hot plates. To improve heat transfer the plates
are corrugated.
Hot liquid passing through a bottom port in the head is permitted to pass upwards between
every second plate while cold liquid at the top of the head is permitted to pass downwards
between the odd plates. When the directions of hot & cold fluids are opposite, the
arrangement is described as counter current. A plate heat exchanger is shown in Figure 8.10.
Typical industrial applications are:
– Pasteurisation section in milk packaging plant.
– Evaporation plants in food industry.
Run Around Coil Exchanger

It is quite similar in principle to the heat pipe exchanger. The heat from hot fluid is transferred
to the colder fluid via an intermediate fluid known as the Heat Transfer Fluid. One coil of this
closed loop is installed in the hot stream while the other is in the cold stream. Circulation of this
fluid is maintained by means of circulating pump.
It is more useful when the hot land cold fluids are located far away from each other and are
not easily accessible.
Typical industrial applications are heat recovery from ventilation, air conditioning and low
temperature heat recovery.
Waste Heat Boilers

Waste heat boilers are ordinarily water tube boilers in which the hot exhaust gases from gas
turbines, incinerators, etc., pass over a number of parallel tubes containing water. The water is
vaporized in the tubes and collected in a steam drum from which it is drawn off for use as
heating or processing steam.
Because the exhaust gases are usually in the medium temperature range and in order to
conserve space, a more compact boiler can be produced if the water tubes are finned in order to
increase the effective heat transfer area on the gas side. The Figure 8.11 shows a mud drum, a
set of tubes over which the hot gases make a double pass, and a steam drum which collects the
steam generated above the water surface. The pressure at which the steam is generated and the
rate of steam production depends on the temperature of waste heat. The pressure of a pure vapor
in the presence of its liquid is a function of the temperature of the liquid from which it is evap-
orated. The steam tables tabulate this relationship between saturation pressure and temperature.

Ch-08.qxd 2/23/2005 11:25 AM Page 185
If the waste heat in the exhaust gases is insufficient for generating the required amount of
process steam, auxiliary burners which burn fuel in the waste heat boiler or an after-burner in
the exhaust gases flue are added. Waste heat boilers are built in capacities from 25 m3 almost
30,000 m3 / min. of exhaust gas.
Figure 8.11 Two-Pass Water Tube Waste Heat Recovery Boiler
Typical applications of waste heat boilers are to recover energy from the exhausts of gas tur-
bines, reciprocating engines, incinerators, and furnaces.
Case Example
Gases leaving a carbon black plant rich in carbon monoxide which are vented to the
atmosphere.
Equipment Suggested Carbon monoxide incinerator along with waste heat

boiler and steam turbine
Estimated equipment cost Rs.350 Lakhs
New boiler efficiency 80%
Savings by way of power generated ~Rs.160 Lakhs /annum
Indirect benefits Reduction in pollution levels
Heat Pumps:
In the various commercial options previously discussed, we find waste heat being transferred
from a hot fluid to a fluid at a lower temperature. Heat must flow spontaneously "downhill",

Ch-08.qxd 2/23/2005 11:25 AM Page 186
that is from a system at high temperature to one at a lower temperature. When energy is repeat-
edly transferred or transformed, it becomes less and less available for use. Eventually that
energy has such low intensity (resides in a medium at such low temperature) that it is no longer
available at all to perform a useful function. It has been taken as a general rule of thumb in
industrial operations that fluids with temperatures less than 120°C (or, better, 150°C to provide
a safe margin), as limit for waste heat recovery because of the risk of condensation of corrosive
liquids. However, as fuel costs continue to rise, even such waste heat can be used economical-
ly for space heating and other low temperature applications. It is possible to reverse the
direction of spontaneous energy flow by the use of a thermodynamic system known as a heat
pump.
The majority of heat pumps work on the principle of the vapour compression cycle. In this
cycle, the circulating substance is physically separated from the source (waste heat, with a
temperature of Tin) and user (heat to be used in the process, Tout) streams, and is re-used in a
cyclical fashion, therefore called 'closed cycle'. In the heat pump, the following processes take
place:
1. In the evaporator the heat is extracted from the heat source to boil the circulating substance;
2. The circulating substance is compressed by the compressor, raising its pressure and tem-
perature; The low temperature vapor is compressed by a compressor, which requires exter-
nal work. The work done on the vapor raises its pressure and temperature to a level where
its energy becomes available for use
3. The heat is delivered to the condenser;
4. The pressure of the circulating substance (working fluid) is reduced back to the evaporator
condition in the throttling valve, where the cycle repeats.
The heat pump was developed as a space heating system where low temperature energy
from the ambient air, water, or earth is raised to heating system temperatures by doing com-
pression work with an electric motor-driven compressor. The arrangement of a heat pump is
shown in figure 8.12.
Figure 8.12 Heat Pump Arrangement

Ch-08.qxd 2/23/2005 11:25 AM Page 187
The heat pumps have the ability to upgrade heat to a value more than twice that of the energy
consumed by the device. The potential for application of heat pump is growing and number of
industries have been benefited by recovering low grade waste heat by upgrading it and using it
in the main process stream.
Heat pump applications are most promising when both the heating and cooling capabilities
can be used in combination. One such example of this is a plastics factory where chilled water
from a heat is used to cool injection-moulding machines whilst the heat output from the heat
pump is used to provide factory or office heating. Other examples of heat pump installation
include product drying, maintaining dry atmosphere for storage and drying compressed air.
Thermocompressor :
In many cases, very low pressure steam are reused as water after condensation for lack of any better
option of reuse. In many cases it becomes feasible to compress this low pressure steam by very high
pressure steam and reuse it as a medium pressure steam. The major energy in steam, is in its latent
heat value and thus thermocompressing would give a large improvement in waste heat recovery.
The thermocompressor is a simple equipment with a nozzle where HP steam is accelerated into
a high velocity fluid. This entrains the LP steam by momentum transfer and then recompresses in a
divergent venturi. A figure of thermocompressor is shown in Figure 8.13.
It is typically used in evaporators where the boiling steam is recompressed and used as heating
steam.
MOTIVE DISCHARG
STEAM E STEAM
H.P. M.P.
SUCTION STEAM L.P.
Figure 8.13 Thermocompressor
Case Example
Exhaust steam from evaporator in a fruit juice concentrator plant was condensed in a precon-
denser operation on cooling water upstream of a steam jet vaccum ejector
Equipment Suggested Alt-1 Thermocompressor
Alt-2 shell &tube exchanger
Cost of thermocompressor Rs.1.5 Lakhs
Savings of jacket steam due to recompression of vapour Rs.5.0 Lakhs per annum
Cost of shell &tube exchanger to preheat boiler feed water Rs.75,000/-
Savings in fuel cost ~Rs.4.5 Lakhs per annum

Ch-08.qxd 2/23/2005 11:25 AM Page 188
Direct Contact Heat Exchanger :

Low pressure steam may also be used to preheat the feed water or some other fluid where mis-
cibility is acceptable. This principle is used in Direct Contact Heat Exchanger and finds wide
use in a steam generating station. They essentially consists of a number of trays mounted one
over the other or packed beds. Steam is supplied below the packing while the cold water is
sprayed at the top. The steam is completely condensed in the incoming water thereby heating
it. A figure of direct contact heat exchanger is shown in Figure 8.14. Typical application is in
the deaerator of a steam generation station.
VEN
COLD
WATER IN
L.P.
HOT
Figure 8.14 Direct Contact Condenser

Ch-08.qxd 2/23/2005 11:25 AM Page 189
QUESTIONS
1. What do you understand by the term waste heat?
2. The heat recovery equipment will be the cheapest when the temperature of flue gases
are
(a) 200°C (b) 400°C (c) 600°C (d) 800°C
3. Give two examples of waste heat recovery.
4. What are the direct and indirect benefits of waste heat recovery?
5. How will you go about developing a waste heat recovery system?
6. Explain the various types of recuperators.
7. The ceramic recuperators can withstand temperatures upto
(a) 400°C (b) 1700°C (c) 1300°C (d) 1400°C
8. Explain the operating principle of a regenerator.
9. What are heat wheels? Explain with sketch.
10. Explain the principle of operation of a heat pipe.
11. What are the typical applications of a heat pipe in heat exchangers ?
12. Explain the operation of an economizer.
13. How does a shell and tube heat exchanger work? Give typical examples.
14. How does a plate heat exchanger work? Give typical examples.
15. Explain the operating principle of a run around coil exchanger
16. Explain the operating principle of a waste heat recovery boiler with examples.
17. Explain the operating principle of a heat pump with examples.
REFERENCES
1. Fuel Economy in furnaces and Waste heat recovery-PCRA
2. Heat Recovery Systems by D.A.Reay, E & F.N.Span, London, 1979.
www.bhes.com/frbbohome.htm
www.portalenergy.com
www.pcra.org
www.seav.vic.gov.au/ftp/advice/business/ info_sheets/HeatRecoveryInfo_0_a.pdf

Annexure.qxd 2/23/2005 11:26 AM Page 157
ANNEXURE
CHECKLISTS & TIPS FOR ENERGY EFFICIENCY
IN THERMAL UTILITIES
Boilers
• Preheat combustion air with waste heat.
(22°C reduction in flue gas temperature increases boiler efficiency by 1%)
• Use variable speed drives on large boiler combustion air fans with variable flows.
• Burn wastes if permitted.
• Insulate exposed heated oil tanks.
• Clean burners, nozzles, strainers, etc.
• Inspect oil heaters for proper oil temperature.
• Close burner air and/or stack dampers when the burner is off to minimize heat loss up the
stack.
• Improve oxygen trim control (e.g. -- limit excess air to less than 10% on clean fuels).
(5% reduction in excess air increases boiler efficiency by 1% or: 1% reduction of residual
oxygen in stack gas increases boiler efficiency by 1%)
• Automate/optimize boiler blowdown. Recover boiler blowdown heat.
• Use boiler blowdown to help warm the back-up boiler.
• Optimize deaerator venting.
• Inspect door gaskets.
• Inspect for scale and sediment on the water side.
(A 1 mm thick scale (deposit) on the water side could increase fuel consumption by 5
to 8%.)
• Inspect for soot, flyash, and slag on the fire side.
(A 3 mm thick soot deposition on the heat transfer surface can cause an increase in fuel
consumption to the tune of 2.5%)
• Optimize boiler water treatment.
• Add an economizer to preheat boiler feedwater using exhaust heat.
• Recycle steam condensate.
• Study part-load characteristics and cycling costs to determine the most-efficient mode for
operating multiple boilers.
• Consider multiple or modular boiler units instead of one or two large boilers.
• Establish a boiler efficiency-maintenance program. Start with an energy audit and follow-
up, then make a boiler efficiency-maintenance program a part of your continuous energy
management program.
Steam System
• Fix steam leaks and condensate leaks.
(A 3 mm diameter hole on a pipe line carrying 7 Kg/cm2 steam would waste 33 Kilo litres
of fuel oil per year)

Checklists & Tips for Energy Efficiency in Thermal Utilities
• Accumulate work orders for repair of steam leaks that can't be fixed during the heating sea-
son due to system shutdown requirements. Tag each such leak with a durable tag with a
good description.
• Use back pressure steam turbines to produce lower steam pressures.
• Use more-efficient steam desuperheating methods.
• Ensure process temperatures are correctly controlled.
• Maintain lowest acceptable process steam pressures.
• Reduce hot water wastage to drain.
• Remove or blank off all redundant steam piping.
• Ensure condensate is returned or re-used in the process.
(6°C raise in feed water temperature by economiser/condensate recovery corresponds to a
1% saving in fuel consumption, in boiler)
• Preheat boiler feed-water.
• Recover boiler blowdown.
• Check operation of steam traps.
• Remove air from indirect steam using equipment
(0.25 mm thick air film offers the same resistance to heat transfer as a 330 mm thick cop-
per wall)
• Inspect steam traps regularly and repair malfunctioning traps promptly.
• Consider recovery of vent steam (e.g. -- on large flash tanks).
• Use waste steam for water heating.
• Use an absorption chiller to condense exhaust steam before returning the condensate to the
boiler.
• Use electric pumps instead of steam ejectors when cost benefits permit
• Establish a steam efficiency-maintenance program. Start with an energy audit and follow-
up, then make a steam efficiency-maintenance program a part of your continuous energy
management program.
Furnaces
• Check against infiltration of air: Use doors or air curtains
• Monitor O2 /CO2/CO and control excess air to the optimum level
• Improve burner design, combustion control and instrumentation.
• Ensure that the furnace combustion chamber is under slight positive pressure
• Use ceramic fibres in the case of batch operations
• Match the load to the furnace capacity
• Retrofit with heat recovery device
• Investigate cycle times and reduce
• Provide temperature controllers
• Ensure that flame does not touch the stock

Checklists & Tips for Energy Efficiency in Thermal Utilities
Insulation
• Repair damaged insulation.
(A bare steam pipe of 150 mm diameter and 100 m length, carrying saturated steam at 8
kg/cm2 would waste 25,000 litres furnace oil in a year)
• Insulate any hot or cold metal or insulation.
• Replace wet insulation.
• Use an infrared gun to check for cold wall areas during cold weather or hot wall areas dur-
ing hot weather.
• Ensure that all insulated surfaces are cladded with aluminum
• Insulate all flanges, valves and couplings
• Insulate open tanks
(70% heat losses can be reduced by floating a layer of 45 mm diameter polypropylene
(plastic) balls on the surface of 90°C hot liquid/condensate)
Waste heat recovery

• Recover heat from flue gas, engine cooling water, engine exhaust, low pressure waste
steam, drying oven exhaust, boiler blowdown, etc.
• Recover heat from incinerator off-gas.
• Use waste heat for fuel oil heating, boiler feedwater heating, outside air heating, etc.
• Use chiller waste heat to preheat hot water.
• Use heat pumps.
• Use absorption refrigeration.
• Use thermal wheels, run-around systems, heat pipe systems, and air-to-air exchangers.

1. ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
Syllabus
Electrical system: Electricity billing, Electrical load management and maximum demand
control, Power factor improvement and its benefit, Selection and location of capacitors,
Performance assessment of PF capacitors, Distribution and transformer losses.
1.1 Introduction to Electric Power Supply Systems

Electric power supply system in a country comprises of generating units that produce electric-
ity; high voltage transmission lines that transport electricity over long distances; distribution
lines that deliver the electricity to consumers; substations that connect the pieces to each other;
and energy control centers to coordinate the operation of the components.
The Figure 1.1 shows a simple electric supply system with transmission and distribution
network and linkages from electricity sources to end-user.
Figure 1.1 Typical Electric Power Supply Systems
Power Generation Plant

The fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas, nuclear energy, and falling water (hydel) are
commonly used energy sources in the power generating plant. A wide and growing variety of
unconventional generation technologies and fuels have also been developed, including cogen-
eration, solar energy, wind generators, and waste materials.
About 70 % of power generating capacity in India is from coal based thermal power plants.
The principle of coal-fired power generation plant is shown in Figure 1.2. Energy stored in the

1. Electrical System
coal is converted in to electricity in thermal power plant. Coal is pulverized to the consistency
of talcum powder. Then powdered coal is blown into the water wall boiler where it is burned at
temperature higher than 1300°C. The heat in the combustion gas is transferred into steam. This
high-pressure steam is used to run the steam turbine to spin. Finally turbine rotates the genera-
tor to produce electricity.
Figure 1.2 Principle of Thermal Power Generation
In India, for the coal based power plants, the overall efficiency ranges from 28% to 35%
depending upon the size, operational practices and capacity utilization. Where fuels are the
source of generation, a common term used is the “HEAT RATE” which reflects the efficiency
of generation. “HEAT RATE” is the heat input in kilo Calories or kilo Joules, for generating
‘one’ kilo Watt-hour of electrical output. One kilo Watt hour of electrical energy being equiv-
alent to 860 kilo Calories of thermal energy or 3600 kilo Joules of thermal energy. The “HEAT
RATE” expresses in inverse the efficiency of power generation.
Transmission and Distribution Lines

The power plants typically produce 50 cycle/second
(Hertz), alternating-current (AC) electricity with volt-
ages between 11kV and 33kV. At the power plant site,
the 3-phase voltage is stepped up to a higher voltage for
transmission on cables strung on cross-country towers.
High voltage (HV) and extra high voltage (EHV)
transmission is the next stage from power plant to
transport A.C. power over long distances at voltages
like; 220 kV & 400 kV. Where transmission is over
1000 kM, high voltage direct current transmission is
also favoured to minimize the losses.
Sub-transmission network at 132 kV, 110 kV, 66 kV
or 33 kV constitutes the next link towards the end user.
Distribution at 11 kV / 6.6 kV / 3.3 kV constitutes the
last link to the consumer, who is connected directly or
through transformers depending upon the drawl level of

service. The transmission and distribution network include sub-stations, lines and distribution
transformers. High voltage transmission is used so that smaller, more economical wire sizes can
be employed to carry the lower current and to reduce losses. Sub-stations, containing step-down
transformers, reduce the voltage for distribution to industrial users. The voltage is further
reduced for commercial facilities. Electricity must be generated, as and when it is needed since
electricity cannot be stored virtually in the system.
There is no difference between a transmission line and a distribution line except for the volt-
age level and power handling capability. Transmission lines are usually capable of transmitting
large quantities of electric energy over great distances. They operate at high voltages.
Distribution lines carry limited quantities of power over shorter distances.
Voltage drops in line are in relation to the resistance and reactance of line, length and the
current drawn. For the same quantity of power handled, lower the voltage, higher the current
drawn and higher the voltage drop. The current drawn is inversely proportional to the voltage
level for the same quantity of power handled.
The power loss in line is proportional to resistance and square of current. (i.e. PLOSS=I2R).
Higher voltage transmission and distribution thus would help to minimize line voltage drop in
the ratio of voltages, and the line power loss in the ratio of square of voltages. For instance, if
distribution of power is raised from 11 kV to 33 kV, the voltage drop would be lower by a fac-
tor 1/3 and the line loss would be lower by a factor (1/3)2 i.e., 1/9. Lower voltage transmission
and distribution also calls for bigger size conductor on account of current handling capacity
needed.
Cascade Efficiency
The primary function of transmission and distribution equipment is to transfer power econom-
ically and reliably from one location to another.
Conductors in the form of wires and cables strung on towers and poles carry the high-volt-
age, AC electric current. A large number of copper or aluminum conductors are used to form
the transmission path. The resistance of the long-distance transmission conductors is to be min-
imized. Energy loss in transmission lines is wasted in the form of I2R losses.
Capacitors are used to correct power factor by causing the current to lead the voltage. When
the AC currents are kept in phase with the voltage, operating efficiency of the system is main-
tained at a high level.
Circuit-interrupting devices are switches, relays, circuit breakers, and fuses. Each of these
devices is designed to carry and interrupt certain levels of current. Making and breaking the cur-
rent carrying conductors in the transmission path with a minimum of arcing is one of the most
important characteristics of this device. Relays sense abnormal voltages, currents, and frequen-
cy and operate to protect the system.
Transformers are placed at strategic locations throughout the system to minimize power
losses in the T&D system. They are used to change the voltage level from low-to-high in step-
up transformers and from high-to-low in step-down units.
The power source to end user energy efficiency link is a key factor, which influences the
energy input at the source of supply. If we consider the electricity flow from generation to the
user in terms of cascade energy efficiency, typical cascade efficiency profile from generation to
11 – 33 kV user industry will be as below:

Generation Efficiency ranges 28 – 35 % with respect to size of thermal plant,

Efficiency η1 age of plant and capacity utilisation
▼
Step-up Station Step-up to 400 / 800 kV to enable EHV transmission
η2 Envisaged max. losses 0.5 % or efficiency of 99.5 %
▼
EHV
EHV transmission and substations at 400 kV / 800 kV.
Transmission &
Envisaged maximum losses 1.0 % or efficiency of 99 %
Station η3
▼
HV
HV transmission & Substations for 220 / 400 kV.
Transmission &
Envisaged maximum losses 2.5 % or efficiency of 97.5 %
Station η4
▼
Sub-transmission Sub-transmission at 66 / 132 kV
η5 Envisaged maximum losses 4 % or efficiency of 96 %
▼
Distribution Step-down to a level of 11 / 33 kV.
Station η6 Envisaged losses 0.5 % or efficiency of 99.5 %
▼
Primary Distribution is final link to end user at 11 / 33 kV.
Distribution η7 Envisaged losses maximum 5 % of efficiency of 95 %
▼
End user Cascade efficiency from Generation to end user
Premises = η1 x η2 x η3 x η4 x η5 x η6 x η7
The cascade efficiency in the T&D system from output of the power plant to the end use is
87% (i.e. 0.995 x 0.99 x 0.975 x 0.96 x 0.995 x 0.95 = 87%)
Industrial End User

At the industrial end user premises, again the plant network elements like transformers at
receiving sub-station, switchgear, lines and cables, load-break switches, capacitors cause loss-
es, which affect the input-received energy. However the losses in such systems are meager and
unavoidable.
A typical plant single line diagram of electrical distribution system is shown in Figure 1.3

TRIVECTOR METER
ONE Unit saved = TWO Units Generated

After power generation at the plant it is transmitted and distributed over a wide network.
The standard technical losses are around 17 % in India (Efficiency = 83%). But the figures for
many of the states show T & D losses ranging from 17 – 50 %. All these may not constitute
technical losses, since un-metered and pilferage are also accounted in this loss.
When the power reaches the industry, it meets the transformer. The energy efficiency of the
transformer is generally very high. Next, it goes to the motor through internal plant distribution
network. A typical distribution network efficiency including transformer is 95% and motor effi-
ciency is about 90%. Another 30 % (Efficiency =70%)is lost in the mechanical system which
includes coupling/ drive train, a driven equipment such as pump and flow control valves/throt-
tling etc. Thus the overall energy efficiency becomes 50%. (0.83 x 0.95x 0.9 x 0.70 = 0.50, i.e.
50% efficiency)
Hence one unit saved in the end user is equivalent to two units generated in the power plant.
(1Unit / 0.5Eff = 2 Units)
1.2 Electricity Billing

The electricity billing by utilities for medium & large enterprises, in High Tension (HT) cate-
gory, is often done on two-part tariff structure, i.e. one part for capacity (or demand) drawn and
the second part for actual energy drawn during the billing cycle. Capacity or demand is in kVA
(apparent power) or kW terms. The reactive energy (i.e.) kVArh drawn by the service is also

recorded and billed for in some utilities, because this would affect the load on the utility.
Accordingly, utility charges for maximum demand, active energy and reactive power drawn (as
reflected by the power factor) in its billing structure. In addition, other fixed and variable
expenses are also levied.
The tariff structure generally includes the following components:
a) Maximum demand Charges
These charges relate to maximum demand registered during month/billing period and
corresponding rate of utility.
b) Energy Charges
These charges relate to energy (kilowatt hours) consumed during month / billing
period and corresponding rates, often levied in slabs of use rates. Some utilities now
charge on the basis of apparent energy (kVAh), which is a vector sum of kWh and
kVArh.
c) Power factor penalty or bonus rates, as levied by most utilities, are to contain reactive
power drawn from grid.
d) Fuel cost adjustment charges as levied by some utilities are to adjust the increasing fuel
expenses over a base reference value.
e) Electricity duty charges levied w.r.t units consumed.
f) Meter rentals
g) Lighting and fan power consumption is often at higher rates, levied sometimes on slab
basis or on actual metering basis.
h) Time Of Day (TOD) rates like peak and non-peak hours are also prevalent in tariff
structure provisions of some utilities.
i) Penalty for exceeding contract demand
j) Surcharge if metering is at LT side in some of the utilities
Analysis of utility bill data and monitoring its trends helps energy manager to identify ways
for electricity bill reduction through available provisions in tariff framework, apart from ener-
gy budgeting.
The utility employs an electromagnetic or electronic trivector meter, for billing purposes.
The minimum outputs from the electromagnetic meters are
• Maximum demand registered during the month, which is measured in preset time inter-
vals (say of 30 minute duration) and this is reset at the end of every billing cycle.
• Active energy in kWh during billing cycle
• Reactive energy in kVArh during billing cycle and
• Apparent energy in kVAh during billing cycle
It is important to note that while maximum demand is recorded, it is not the instantaneous
demand drawn, as is often misunderstood, but the time integrated demand over the predefined
recording cycle.

As example, in an industry, if the drawl over a recording cycle of 30 minutes is :

2500 kVA for 4 minutes
The MD recorder will be computing MD as:
(2500 x 4) + (3600 x 12) + (4100 x 6) + (3800 x 8) = 3606.7 kVA
30
The month’s maximum demand

will be the highest among such
demand values recorded over the
month. The meter registers only if
the value exceeds the previous
maximum demand value and thus,
even if, average maximum demand
is low, the industry / facility has to
pay for the maximum demand
charges for the highest value
registered during the month, even
if it occurs for just one recording
cycle duration i.e., 30 minutes
during whole of the month. A Figure 1.4 Demand Curve
typical demand curve is shown in
Figure 1.4.
As can be seen from the Figure 1.4 above the demand varies from time to time. The demand
is measured over predetermined time interval and averaged out for that interval as shown by the
horizontal dotted line.
Of late most electricity boards have changed over from conventional electromechanical
trivector meters to electronic meters, which have some excellent provisions that can help the
utility as well as the industry. These provisions include:
• Substantial memory for logging and recording all relevant events
• High accuracy up to 0.2 class
• Amenability to time of day tariffs
• Tamper detection /recording
• Measurement of harmonics and Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)
• Long service life due to absence of moving parts
• Amenability for remote data access/downloads
Trend analysis of purchased electricity and cost components can help the industry to iden-
tify key result areas for bill reduction within the utility tariff available framework along the fol-
lowing lines.

TABLE 1.1 PURCHASED ELECTRICAL ENERGY TREND
Month MD Billing Total Energy Energy MD Energy PF PF Total Average

& Recorded Demand* Consumption Consumption Charge Charge Penalty/ Bills Cost
Year kVA kVA kWh During Peak Rs./kVA Rs./kWh Rebate Rs. Rs. Rs./kWh
Hours (kWh)
Jan.
Feb.
…….
…….
…….
Dec.
*Some utilities charge Maximum Demand on the basis of minimum billing demand, which may be between 75 to 100% of the contract demand
or actual recorded demand whichever is higher
1.3 Electrical Load Management and Maximum Demand Control

Need for Electrical Load Management
In a macro perspective, the growth in the electricity use and diversity of end use segments in
time of use has led to shortfalls in capacity to meet demand. As capacity addition is costly and
only a long time prospect, better load management at user end helps to minimize peak demands
on the utility infrastructure as well as better utilization of power plant capacities.
The utilities (State Electricity Boards) use power tariff structure to influence end user in bet-
ter load management through measures like time of use tariffs, penalties on exceeding allowed
maximum demand, night tariff concessions etc. Load management is a powerful means of effi-
ciency improvement both for end user as well as utility.
As the demand charges constitute a considerable portion of the electricity bill, from user angle
too there is a need for integrated load management to effectively control the maximum demand.
Step By Step Approach for Maximum Demand Control
1. Load Curve Generation

Presenting the load demand of a consumer
against time of the day is known as a ‘load
curve’. If it is plotted for the 24 hours of a
single day, it is known as an ‘hourly load
curve’ and if daily demands plotted over a
month, it is called daily load curves. A typi-
cal hourly load curve for an engineering
industry is shown in Figure 1.5. These types
of curves are useful in predicting patterns of
drawl, peaks and valleys and energy use
trend in a section or in an industry or in a Figure 1.5 Maximum Demand
distribution network as the case may be. (Daily Load Curve, Hourly kVA)

2. Rescheduling of Loads
Rescheduling of large electric loads and equipment operations, in different shifts can be planned
and implemented to minimize the simultaneous maximum demand. For this purpose, it is advis-
able to prepare an operation flow chart and a process chart. Analyzing these charts and with an
integrated approach, it would be possible to reschedule the operations and running equipment
in such a way as to improve the load factor which in turn reduces the maximum demand.
3. Storage of Products/in process material/ process utilities like refrigeration
It is possible to reduce the maximum demand by building up storage capacity of products/ materi-
als, water, chilled water / hot water, using electricity during off peak periods. Off peak hour oper-
ations also help to save energy due to favorable conditions such as lower ambient temperature etc.
Example: Ice bank system is used in milk & dairy industry. Ice is made in lean period and
used in peak load period and thus maximum demand is reduced.
4. Shedding of Non-Essential Loads
When the maximum demand tends to reach preset limit, shedding some of non-essential loads
temporarily can help to reduce it. It is possible to install direct demand monitoring systems,
which will switch off non-essential loads when a preset demand is reached. Simple systems give
an alarm, and the loads are shed manually. Sophisticated microprocessor controlled systems are
also available, which provide a wide variety of control options like:
■ Accurate prediction of demand
■ Graphical display of present load, available load, demand limit
■ Visual and audible alarm
■ Automatic load shedding in a predetermined sequence
■ Automatic restoration of load
■ Recording and metering
5. Operation of Captive Generation and Diesel Generation Sets
When diesel generation sets are used to supplement the power supplied by the electric utilities,
it is advisable to connect the D.G. sets for durations when demand reaches the peak value. This
would reduce the load demand to a considerable extent and minimize the demand charges.
6. Reactive Power Compensation
The maximum demand can also be reduced at the plant level by using capacitor banks and
maintaining the optimum power factor. Capacitor banks are available with microprocessor
based control systems. These systems switch on and off the capacitor banks to maintain the
desired Power factor of system and optimize maximum demand thereby.
1.4 Power Factor Improvement and Benefits

Power factor Basics
In all industrial electrical distribution systems, the major loads are resistive and inductive.
Resistive loads are incandescent lighting and resistance heating. In case of pure resistive loads,
the voltage (V), current (I), resistance (R) relations are linearly related, i.e.
V = I x R and Power (kW) = V x I

Typical inductive loads are A.C. Motors, induction furnaces, transformers and ballast-type
lighting. Inductive loads require two kinds of power: a) active (or working) power to perform
the work and b) reactive power to create and maintain electro-magnetic fields.
Active power is measured in kW (Kilo Watts). Reactive power is measured in kVAr (Kilo
Volt-Amperes Reactive).
The vector sum of the active power and reactive power make up the total (or apparent)
power used. This is the power generated by the SEBs for the user to perform a given amount of
work. Total Power is measured in kVA (Kilo Volts-Amperes) (See Figure 1.6).
Figure 1.6 kW, kVAr and kVA Vector
The active power (shaft power required or true power required) in kW and the reactive
power required (kVAr) are 90° apart vectorically in a pure inductive circuit i.e., reactive power
kVAr lagging the active kW. The vector sum of the two is called the apparent power or kVA, as
illustrated above and the kVA reflects the actual electrical load on distribution system.
The ratio of kW to kVA is called the power factor, which is always less than or equal to
unity. Theoretically, when electric utilities supply power, if all loads have unity power factor,
maximum power can be transferred for the same distribution system capacity. However, as the
loads are inductive in nature, with the power factor ranging from 0.2 to 0.9, the electrical dis-
tribution network is stressed for capacity at low power factors.
Improving Power Factor

The solution to improve the power factor is to add power factor cor-
rection capacitors (see Figure 1.7) to the plant power distribution sys-
tem. They act as reactive power generators, and provide the needed
reactive power to accomplish kW of work. This reduces the amount
of reactive power, and thus total power, generated by the utilities.
Example:
A chemical industry had installed a 1500 kVA transformer. The ini-
tial demand of the plant was 1160 kVA with power factor of 0.70.
~ Figure 1.7 Capacitors
The % loading of transformer was about 78% (1160/1500 =
77.3%). To improve the power factor and to avoid the penalty, the
unit had added about 410 kVAr in motor load end. This improved the power factor to 0.89, and
reduced the required kVA to 913, which is the vector sum of kW and kVAr (see Figure 1.8).

Figure 1.8 Power factor before and after Improvement
After improvement the plant had avoided penalty and the 1500 kVA transformer now loaded
only to 60% of capacity. This will allow the addition of more load in the future to be supplied
by the transformer.
The advantages of PF improvement by capacitor addition

a) Reactive component of the network is reduced and so also the total current in the system
from the source end.
b) I2R power losses are reduced in the system because of reduction in current.
c) Voltage level at the load end is increased.
d) kVA loading on the source generators as also on the transformers and lines upto the capac-
itors reduces giving capacity relief. A high power factor can help in utilising the full capac-
ity of your electrical system.
Cost benefits of PF improvement
While costs of PF improvement are in terms of investment needs for capacitor addition the ben-
efits to be quantified for feasibility analysis are:
a) Reduced kVA (Maximum demand) charges in utility bill
b) Reduced distribution losses (KWH) within the plant network
c) Better voltage at motor terminals and improved performance of motors
d) A high power factor eliminates penalty charges imposed when operating with a low power
factor
e) Investment on system facilities such as transformers, cables, switchgears etc for delivering
load is reduced.
Selection and location of capacitors

Direct relation for capacitor sizing.
kVAr Rating = kW [tan φ1 – tan φ2]

where kVAr rating is the size of the capacitor needed, kW is the average power drawn, tan φ1
is the trigonometric ratio for the present power factor, and tan φ2 is the trigonometric ratio for
the desired PF.
φ1 = Existing (Cos-1 PF1) and φ2 = Improved (Cos-1 PF2)

Alternatively the Table 1.2 can be used for capacitor sizing.

The figures given in table are the multiplication factors which are to be multiplied with the input
power (kW) to give the kVAr of capacitance required to improve present power factor to a new
desired power factor.
Example:
The utility bill shows an average power factor of 0.72 with an average KW of 627. How much
kVAr is required to improve the power factor to .95 ?
Using formula
Cos Φ1 = 0.72 , tan Φ1 = 0.963
Cos Φ2 = 0.95 , tan Φ2 = 0.329
kVAr required = P ( tanφ1 - tanφ2 ) = 627 (0.964 – 0.329)
= 398 kVAr
Using table (see Table 1.2)

1) Locate 0.72 (original power factor) in column (1).
2) Read across desired power factor to 0.95 column. We find 0.635 multiplier
3) Multiply 627 (average kW) by 0.635 = 398 kVAr.
4) Install 400 kVAr to improve power factor to 95%.
Location of Capacitors
The primary purpose of capacitors is to reduce the maximum demand. Additional benefits are
derived by capacitor location. The Figure 1.9 indicates typical capacitor locations. Maximum
benefit of capacitors is derived by locating them as close as possible to the load. At this loca-
tion, its kVAr are confined to the smallest possible segment, decreasing the load current. This,
in turn, will reduce power losses of the
system substantially. Power losses are
proportional to the square of the cur-
rent. When power losses are reduced,
voltage at the motor increases; thus,
motor performance also increases.
Locations C1A, C1B and C1C of
Figure 1.9 indicate three different
arrangements at the load. Note that in
all three locations extra switches are
not required, since the capacitor is
either switched with the motor starter
or the breaker before the starter. Case
C1A is recommended for new installa-
tion, since the maximum benefit is
derived and the size of the motor ther-
mal protector is reduced. In Case C1B,
as in Case C1A, the capacitor is ener- Figure 1.9: Power Distribution Diagram Illustrating
gized only when the motor is in opera- Capacitor Locations

TABLE 1.2 MULTIPLIERS TO DETERMINE CAPACITOR kVAr REQUIREMENTS FOR

POWER FACTOR CORRECTION
tion. Case C1B is recommended in cases where the installation already exists and the thermal
protector does not need to be re-sized. In position C1C, the capacitor is permanently connected
to the circuit but does not require a separate switch, since capacitor can be disconnected by the
breaker before the starter.

It should be noted that the rating of the capacitor should not be greater than the no-load
magnetizing kVAr of the motor. If this condition exists, damaging over voltage or transient
torques can occur. This is why most motor manufacturers specify maximum capacitor ratings
to be applied to specific motors.
The next preference for capacitor locations as illustrated by Figure 1.9 is at locations C2 and
C3. In these locations, a breaker or switch will be required. Location C4 requires a high volt-
age breaker. The advantage of locating capacitors at power centres or feeders is that they can
be grouped together. When several motors are running intermittently, the capacitors are per-
mitted to be on line all the time, reducing the total power regardless of load.
From energy efficiency point of view, capacitor location at receiving substation only helps
the utility in loss reduction. Locating capacitors at tail end will help to reduce loss reduction
within the plants distribution network as well and directly benefit the user by reduced
consumption. Reduction in the distribution loss % in kWh when tail end power factor is raised
from PF1 to a new power factor PF2, will be proportional to
Capacitors for Other Loads

The other types of load requiring capacitor application include induction furnaces, induction
heaters and arc welding transformers etc. The capacitors are normally supplied with control
gear for the application of induction furnaces and induction heating furnaces. The PF of arc fur-
naces experiences a wide variation over melting cycle as it changes from 0.7 at starting to 0.9
at the end of the cycle. Power factor for welding transformers is corrected by connecting capac-
itors across the primary winding of the transformers, as the normal PF would be in the range of
0.35.
Performance Assessment of Power Factor Capacitors

Voltage effects: Ideally capacitor voltage rating is to match the supply voltage. If the supply
voltage is lower, the reactive kVAr produced will be the ratio V12 /V22 where V1 is the actual
supply voltage, V2 is the rated voltage.
On the other hand, if the supply voltage exceeds rated voltage, the life of the capacitor is
adversely affected.
Material of capacitors: Power factor capacitors are available in various types by dielectric
material used as; paper/ polypropylene etc. The watt loss per kVAr as well as life vary with
respect to the choice of the dielectric material and hence is a factor to be considered while selec-
tion.
Connections: Shunt capacitor connections are adopted for almost all industry/ end user appli-
cations, while series capacitors are adopted for voltage boosting in distribution networks.
Operational performance of capacitors: This can be made by monitoring capacitor charging
current vis- a- vis the rated charging current. Capacity of fused elements can be replenished as
per requirements. Portable analyzers can be used for measuring kVAr delivered as well as
charging current. Capacitors consume 0.2 to 6.0 Watt per kVAr, which is negligible in compar-
ison to benefits.

Some checks that need to be adopted in use of capacitors are :

i) Nameplates can be misleading with respect to ratings. It is good to check by charging
currents.
ii) Capacitor boxes may contain only insulated compound and insulated terminals with no
capacitor elements inside.
iii) Capacitors for single phase motor starting and those used for lighting circuits for volt-
age boost, are not power factor capacitor units and these cannot withstand power sys-
tem conditions.
1.5 Transformers
A transformer can accept energy at one voltage and deliver
it at another voltage. This permits electrical energy to be
generated at relatively low voltages and transmitted at high
voltages and low currents, thus reducing line losses and
voltage drop (see Figure 1.10).
Transformers consist of two or more coils that are elec-
trically insulated, but magnetically linked. The primary coil
is connected to the power source and the secondary coil
connects to the load. The turn’s ratio is the ratio between the
number of turns on the secondary to the turns on the prima-
ry (See Figure 1.11).
The secondary voltage is equal to the primary voltage Figure 1.10 View of a Transformer
times the turn’s ratio. Ampere-turns are calculated by multi-
plying the current in the coil times the number of turns. Primary ampere-turns are equal to sec-
ondary ampere-turns. Voltage regulation of a transformer is the percent increase in voltage from
full load to no load.
Types of Transformers
Transformers are classified as two categories: power transformers
and distribution transformers.
Power transformers are used in transmission network of higher
voltages, deployed for step-up and step down transformer applica-
tion (400 kV, 200 kV, 110 kV, 66 kV, 33kV)
Distribution transformers are used for lower voltage distribu-
tion networks as a means to end user connectivity. (11kV, 6.6 kV,
3.3 kV, 440V, 230V)
Rating of Transformer
Rating of the transformer is calculated based on the connected load
and applying the diversity factor on the connected load, applicable Figure 1.11
to the particular industry and arrive at the kVA rating of the Transformer Coil
Transformer. Diversity factor is defined as the ratio of overall max-
imum demand of the plant to the sum of individual maximum demand of various equipment.
Diversity factor varies from industry to industry and depends on various factors such as

individual loads, load factor and future expansion needs of the plant. Diversity factor will
always be less than one.
Location of Transformer
Location of the transformer is very important as far as distribution loss is concerned.
Transformer receives HT voltage from the grid and steps it down to the required voltage.
Transformers should be placed close to the load centre, considering other features like optimi-
sation needs for centralised control, operational flexibility etc. This will bring down the distri-
bution loss in cables.
Transformer Losses and Efficiency

The efficiency varies anywhere between 96 to 99 percent. The efficiency of the transformers
not only depends on the design, but also, on the effective operating load.
Transformer losses consist of two parts: No-load loss and Load loss
1. No-load loss (also called core loss) is the power consumed to sustain the magnetic field
in the transformer's steel core. Core loss occurs whenever the transformer is energized;
core loss does not vary with load. Core losses are caused by two factors: hysteresis and
eddy current losses. Hysteresis loss is that energy lost by reversing the magnetic field in
the core as the magnetizing AC rises and falls and reverses direction. Eddy current loss
is a result of induced currents circulating in the core.
2. Load loss (also called copper loss) is associated with full-load current flow in the trans-
former windings. Copper loss is power lost in the primary and secondary windings of a
transformer due to the ohmic resistance of the windings. Copper loss varies with the
square of the load current. (P = I2R).
Transformer losses as a percentage of load is given in the Figure 1.12.
Figure 1.12 Transformer loss vs %Load

For a given transformer, the manufacturer can supply values for no-load loss, PNO-LOAD, and
load loss, PLOAD. The total transformer loss, PTOTAL, at any load level can then be calculated
from:
PTOTAL = PNO-LOAD + (% Load/100)2 x PLOAD
Where transformer loading is known, the actual transformers loss at given load can be com-
puted as:
Voltage Fluctuation Control

A control of voltage in a transformer is important due to frequent changes in supply voltage
level. Whenever the supply voltage is less than the optimal value, there is a chance of nuisance
tripping of voltage sensitive devices. The voltage regulation in transformers is done by altering
the voltage transformation ratio with the help of tapping.
There are two methods of tap changing facility available: Off-circuit tap changer and
On-load tap changer.
Off-circuit tap changer

It is a device fitted in the transformer, which is used to vary the voltage transformation ratio.
Here the voltage levels can be varied only after isolating the primary voltage of the transformer.
On load tap changer (OLTC)

The voltage levels can be varied without isolating the connected load to the transformer. To
minimise the magnetisation losses and to reduce the nuisance tripping of the plant, the main
transformer (the transformer that receives supply from the grid) should be provided with On
Load Tap Changing facility at design stage. The down stream distribution transformers can be
provided with off-circuit tap changer.
The On-load gear can be put in auto mode or manually depending on the requirement.
OLTC can be arranged for transformers of size 250 kVA onwards. However, the necessity of
OLTC below 1000 kVA can be considered after calculating the cost economics.
Parallel Operation of Transformers

The design of Power Control Centre (PCC) and Motor Control Centre (MCC) of any new plant
should have the provision of operating two or more transformers in parallel. Additional
switchgears and bus couplers should be provided at design stage.
Whenever two transformers are operating in parallel, both should be technically identical in
all aspects and more importantly should have the same impedance level. This will minimise the
circulating current between transformers.
Where the load is fluctuating in nature, it is preferable to have more than one transformer
running in parallel, so that the load can be optimised by sharing the load between
transformers. The transformers can be operated close to the maximum efficiency range by
this operation.

1.6 System Distribution Losses

In an electrical system often the constant no load losses and the variable load losses are to be
assessed alongside, over long reference duration, towards energy loss estimation.
Identifying and calculating the sum of the individual contributing loss components is a chal-
lenging one, requiring extensive experience and knowledge of all the factors impacting the
operating efficiencies of each of these components.
For example the cable losses in any industrial plant will be up to 6 percent depending on the
size and complexity of the distribution system. Note that all of these are current dependent, and
can be readily mitigated by any technique that reduces facility current load. Various losses in
distribution equipment is given in the Table1.3.
In system distribution loss optimization, the various options available include:
■ Relocating transformers and sub-stations near to load centers
■ Re-routing and re-conductoring such feeders and lines where the losses / voltage drops
are higher.
■ Power factor improvement by incorporating capacitors at load end.
■ Optimum loading of transformers in the system.
■ Opting for lower resistance All Aluminum Alloy Conductors (AAAC) in place of
conventional Aluminum Cored Steel Reinforced (ACSR) lines
■ Minimizing losses due to weak links in distribution network such as jumpers, loose
contacts, old brittle conductors.
TABLE 1.3 LOSSES IN ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION EQUIPMENT
S.No Equipment % Energy Loss at Full

Load Variations
Min Max
1. Outdoor circuit breaker (15 to 230 KV) 0.002 0.015
2. Generators 0.019 3.5
3. Medium voltage switchgears (5 to 15 KV) 0.005 0.02
4. Current limiting reactors 0.09 0.30
5. Transformers 0.40 1.90
6. Load break switches 0.003 0.0 25
7. Medium voltage starters 0.02 0.15
8. Bus ways less than 430 V 0.05 0.50
9. Low voltage switchgear 0.13 0.34
10. Motor control centers 0.01 0.40
11. Cables 1.00 4.00
12. Large rectifiers 3.0 9.0
13. Static variable speed drives 6.0 15.0
14. Capacitors (Watts / kVAr) 0.50 6.0

1.7 Harmonics
In any alternating current network, flow of current depends upon the voltage applied and the
impedance (resistance to AC) provided by elements like resistances, reactances of inductive and
capacitive nature. As the value of impedance in above devices is constant, they are called lin-
ear whereby the voltage and current relation is of linear nature.
However in real life situation, various devices like diodes, silicon controlled rectifiers,
PWM systems, thyristors, voltage & current chopping saturated core reactors, induction & arc
furnaces are also deployed for various requirements and due to their varying impedance char-
acteristic, these NON LINEAR devices cause distortion in voltage and current waveforms
which is of increasing concern in recent times. Harmonics occurs as spikes at intervals which
are multiples of the mains (supply) frequency and these distort the pure sine wave form of the
supply voltage & current.
Harmonics are multiples of the fundamental frequency of an electrical power system. If, for
example, the fundamental frequency is 50 Hz, then the 5th harmonic is five times that frequen-
cy, or 250 Hz. Likewise, the 7th harmonic is seven times the fundamental or 350 Hz, and so on
for higher order harmonics.
Harmonics can be discussed in terms of current or voltage. A 5th harmonic current is simply
a current flowing at 250 Hz on a 50 Hz system. The 5th harmonic current flowing through the
system impedance creates a 5th harmonic voltage. Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) expresses
the amount of harmonics. The following is the formula for calculating the THD for current:
When harmonic currents flow in a power system, they are known as “poor power quality”
or “dirty power”. Other causes of poor power quality include transients such as voltage spikes,
surges, sags, and ringing. Because they repeat every cycle, harmonics are regarded as a steady-
state cause of poor power quality.
When expressed as a percentage of fundamental voltage THD is given by,
THDvoltage =
where V1 is the fundamental frequency voltage and Vn is nth harmonic voltage component.
Major Causes Of Harmonics

Devices that draw non-sinusoidal currents when a sinusoidal voltage is applied create harmon-
ics. Frequently these are devices that convert AC to DC. Some of these devices are listed below:

Electronic Switching Power Converters

• Computers, Uninterruptible power supplies (UPS), Solid-state rectifiers
• Electronic process control equipment, PLC’s, etc
• Electronic lighting ballasts, including light dimmer
• Reduced voltage motor controllers
Arcing Devices
• Discharge lighting, e.g. Fluorescent, Sodium and Mercury vapor
• Arc furnaces, Welding equipment, Electrical traction system
Ferromagnetic Devices
• Transformers operating near saturation level
• Magnetic ballasts (Saturated Iron core)
• Induction heating equipment, Chokes, Motors
Appliances
• TV sets, air conditioners, washing machines, microwave ovens
• Fax machines, photocopiers, printers
These devices use power electronics like SCRs, diodes, and thyristors, which are a growing
percentage of the load in industrial power systems. The majority use a 6-pulse converter. Most
loads which produce harmonics, do so as a steady-state phenomenon. A snapshot reading of an
operating load that is suspected to be non-linear can determine if it is producing harmonics.
Normally each load would manifest a specific harmonic spectrum.
Many problems can arise from harmonic currents in a power system. Some problems are
easy to detect; others exist and persist because harmonics are not suspected. Higher RMS cur-
rent and voltage in the system are caused by harmonic currents, which can result in any of the
problems listed below:
1. Blinking of Incandescent Lights - Transformer Saturation
2. Capacitor Failure - Harmonic Resonance
3. Circuit Breakers Tripping - Inductive Heating and Overload
4. Conductor Failure - Inductive Heating
5. Electronic Equipment Shutting down - Voltage Distortion
6. Flickering of Fluorescent Lights - Transformer Saturation
7. Fuses Blowing for No Apparent Reason - Inductive Heating and Overload
8. Motor Failures (overheating) - Voltage Drop
9. Neutral Conductor and Terminal Failures - Additive Triplen Currents
10. Electromagnetic Load Failures - Inductive Heating
11. Overheating of Metal Enclosures - Inductive Heating
12. Power Interference on Voice Communication - Harmonic Noise
13. Transformer Failures - Inductive Heating
Overcoming Harmonics
Tuned Harmonic filters consisting of a capacitor bank and reactor in series are designed and
adopted for suppressing harmonics, by providing low impedance path for harmonic component.

The Harmonic filters connected suitably near the equipment generating harmonics help to
reduce THD to acceptable limits. In present Indian context where no Electro Magnetic
Compatibility regulations exist as a application of Harmonic filters is very relevant for indus-
tries having diesel power generation sets and co-generation units.
1.8 Analysis of Electrical Power Systems

An analysis of an electrical power system may uncover energy waste, fire hazards, and equip-
ment failure. Facility /energy managers increasingly find that reliability-centered maintenance
can save money, energy, and downtime (see Table 1.4).
TABLE 1.4 TROUBLE SHOOTING OF ELECTRICAL POWER SYSTEMS
System Problem Common Causes Possible Effects Solutions

Voltage imbalances Improper transformer tap Motor vibration, Balance loads among
among the three settings, single-phase loads premature motor failure phases.
phases not balanced among
phases, poor connections, A 5% imbalance causes
bad conductors, transformer a 40% increase in motor
grounds or faults. losses.
Voltage deviations Improper transformer settings, Over-voltages in motors Correct transformer
from rated voltages Incorrect selection of motors. reduce efficiency, power settings, motor ratings
( too low or high) factor and equipment life and motor input
Increased temperature voltages
Poor connections in Loose bus bar connections, Produces heat, causes Use Infra Red camera
distribution or at loose cable connections, failure at connection site, to locate hot-spots
connected loads. corroded connections, poor leads to voltage drops and and correct.
crimps, loose or worn voltage imbalances
contactors
Undersized Facilities expanding beyond Voltage drop and energy Reduce the load by
conductors. original designs, poor power waste. conservation load
factors scheduling.
Insulation leakage Degradation over time due May leak to ground or to Replace conductors,
to extreme temperatures, another phase. Variable insulators
abrasion, moisture, chemicals energy waste.
Low Power Factor Inductive loads such as Reduces current-carrying Add capacitors to
motors, transformers, and capacity of wiring, voltage counteract reactive
lighting ballasts regulation effectiveness, loads.
Non-linear loads, such as and equipment life.
most electronic loads.
Harmonics (non- Office-electronics, UPSs, Over-heating of neutral Take care with
sinusoidal voltage variable frequency drives, conductors, motors, equipment selection
and/or current wave high intensity discharge transformers, switch gear. and isolate sensitive
forms) lighting, and electronic Voltage drop, low power electronics from noisy
and core-coil ballasts. factors, reduced capacity. circuits.

QUESTIONS
1. Name different types of power generation sources.
2. The temperatures encountered in power plant boilers is of the order of
a) 8500C b) 3200°C c) 1300°C d) 1000°C
3. What do you understand by the term "Heat Rate"?
4. Explain why power is generated at lower voltage and transmitted at higher voltages.
5. The efficiency of steam based power plant is of the order of
a) 28-35% b) 50-60% c) 70-75% d) 90-95%
6. The technical T & D loss in India is estimated to be
a) 50% b) 25% c) 17% d) 10%
7. What are the typical billing components of the two-part tariff structure of industrial utility?
8. Define contract demand and billing demand.
9. What are the areas to be looked into for maximum demand reduction in industry?
10. A trivector-meter with half-hour cycle has the following inputs during the maximum
demand period:
MD Drawn Duration
kVA in Minutes
100 10
200 5
50 10
150 5
What is the maximum demand during the half-hour interval?
11. Power factor is the ratio of
a) kW/kVA b) kVA/kW c) kVAr/kW d) kVAr/kVA
12. A 3-phase, 415 V, 100 kW induction motor is drawing 50 kW at a 0.75 PF
Calculate the capacitor rating requirements at motor terminals for improving PF to
0.95. Also calculate the reduction in current drawn and kVA reduction, from the
point of installation back to the generated side due to the improved PF.
13. A process plant consumes of 12500 kWh per month at 0.9 Power Factor (PF). What
is the percentage reduction in distribution losses per month if PF is improved up to
0.96 at load end?
14. What is the % loss reduction, if an 11 kV supply line is converted into 33 kV supply
system for the same length and electrical load application?
15. The efficiency at various stages from power plant to end-use is given below.
Efficiency of power generation in a power plant is 30 %. The T & D losses are 23 %.
The distribution loss of the plant is 6 %. Equipment end use efficiency is 65 %.
What is the overall system efficiency from generation to end-use?

Ch-01_gopsons.qxd 2/15/2005 7:57 PM Page 23
16. A unit has a 2 identical 500 kVA transformers each with a no load loss of 840 W and
full load copper loss of 5700 watt. The plant load is 400 kVA. Compare the trans-
former losses when single transformer is operation and when both transformers are in
parallel operation.
17. Explain how fluctuations in plant voltage can be overcome.
18. What are Total Harmonic Distortion and its effects on electrical system?
19. What are the equipments / devices contributing to the harmonics?
20. Select the location of installing capacitor bank, which will provide the maximum
energy efficiency.
a) Main sub-station b) Motor terminals c) Motor control centers
d) Distribution board
21. The designed power transformers efficiency is in the range of
a) 80 to 90.5 % b) 90 to 95.5 % c) 95 to 99.5 % d) 92.5 to 93.5 %
22. The power factor indicated in the electricity bill is
a) Peak day power factor b) Power factor during night c) Average power factor
d) Instantaneous power factor
REFERENCES
1. Technology Menu on Energy Efficiency – NPC
2. NPC In-house Case Studies
3. Electrical energy conservation modules of AIP-NPC, Chennai

2. ELECTRIC MOTORS
Syllabus
Electric motors: Types, Losses in induction motors, Motor efficiency, Factors affecting
motor performance, Rewinding and motor replacement issues, Energy saving opportunities
with energy efficient motors.
2.1 Introduction
Motors convert electrical energy into mechanical energy by the interaction between the mag-
netic fields set up in the stator and rotor windings. Industrial electric motors can be broadly clas-
sified as induction motors, direct current motors or synchronous motors. All motor types have
the same four operating components: stator (stationary windings), rotor (rotating windings),
bearings, and frame (enclosure).
2.2 Motor Types

Induction Motors
Induction motors are the most commonly used prime mover for
various equipments in industrial applications. In induction
motors, the induced magnetic field of the stator winding induces
a current in the rotor. This induced rotor current produces a sec-
ond magnetic field, which tries to oppose the stator magnetic
field, and this causes the rotor to rotate.
The 3-phase squirrel cage motor is the workhorse of industry;
it is rugged and reliable, and is by far the most common motor
type used in industry. These motors drive pumps, blowers and
fans, compressors, conveyers and production lines. The 3-phase
induction motor has three windings each connected to a separate phase of the power supply.
Direct-Current Motors
Direct-Current motors, as the name implies, use direct-unidirectional, current. Direct current
motors are used in special applications- where high torque starting or where smooth accelera-
tion over a broad speed range is required.
Synchronous Motors
AC power is fed to the stator of the synchronous motor. The rotor is fed by DC from a separate
source. The rotor magnetic field locks onto the stator rotating magnetic field and rotates at the same
speed. The speed of the rotor is a function of the supply frequency and the number of magnetic poles
in the stator. While induction motors rotate with a slip, i.e., rpm is less than the synchronous speed,
the synchronous motor rotate with no slip, i.e., the RPM is same as the synchronous speed governed
by supply frequency and number of poles. The slip energy is provided by the D.C. excitation power

2. Electric Motors
2.3 Motor Characteristics

Motor Speed
The speed of a motor is the number of revolutions in a given time frame, typically revolutions
per minute (RPM). The speed of an AC motor depends on the frequency of the input power and
the number of poles for which the motor is wound. The synchronous speed in RPM is given by
the following equation, where the frequency is in hertz or cycles per second:
120 × Frequency
Synchronous Speed (RPM) =
No. of Poles
Indian motors have synchronous speeds like 3000 / 1500 / 1000 / 750 / 600 / 500 / 375 RPM
corresponding to no. of poles being 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16 (always even) and given the mains
frequency of 50 cycles / sec.
The actual speed, with which the motor operates, will be less than the synchronous speed.
The difference between synchronous and full load speed is called slip and is measured in per-
cent. It is calculated using this equation:
Synchronous Speed – Full Load Rated Speed
Slip (%) = × 100
Synchronous Speed
As per relation stated above, the speed of an AC motor is determined by the number of
motor poles and by the input frequency. It can also be seen that theoretically speed of an AC
motor can be varied infinitely by changing the frequency. Manufacturer's guidelines should be
referred for practical limits to speed variation. With the addition of a Variable Frequency Drive
(VFD), the speed of the motor can be decreased as well as increased.
Power Factor
kW
The power factor of the motor is given as: Power Factor = Cos φ =
kVA
As the load on the motor comes down, the magnitude of the active current reduces.
However, there is no corresponding reduction in the magnetizing current, which is propor-
tional to supply voltage with the result that the motor power factor reduces, with a reduction in
applied load. Induction motors, especially those operating below their rated capacity, are the
main reason for low power factor in electric systems.
2.4 Motor Efficiency

Two important attributes relating to efficiency of electricity use by A.C. Induction motors are
efficiency (η), defined as the ratio of the mechanical energy delivered at the rotating shaft to
the electrical energy input at its terminals, and power factor (PF). Motors, like other inductive
loads, are characterized by power factors less than one. As a result, the total current draw need-
ed to deliver the same real power is higher than for a load characterized by a higher PF. An
important effect of operating with a PF less than one is that resistance losses in wiring upstream
of the motor will be higher, since these are proportional to the square of the current. Thus, both
a high value for η and a PF close to unity are desired for efficient overall operation in a plant.
Squirrel cage motors are normally more efficient than slip-ring motors, and higher-speed
motors are normally more efficient than lower-speed motors. Efficiency is also a function of

2. Electric Motors
motor temperature. Totally-enclosed, fan-cooled (TEFC) motors are more efficient than screen-
protected, drip-proof (SPDP) motors. Also, as with most equipment, motor efficiency increas-
es with the rated capacity.
The efficiency of a motor is determined by intrinsic losses that can be reduced only by
changes in motor design. Intrinsic losses are of two types: fixed losses - independent of motor
load, and variable losses - dependent on load.
Fixed losses consist of magnetic core losses and friction and windage losses. Magnetic core
losses (sometimes called iron losses) consist of eddy current and hysteresis losses in the stator.
They vary with the core material and geometry and with input voltage.
Friction and windage losses are caused by friction in the bearings of the motor and aerody-
namic losses associated with the ventilation fan and other rotating parts.
Variable losses consist of resistance losses in the stator and in the rotor and miscellaneous
stray losses. Resistance to current flow in the stator and rotor result in heat generation that is
proportional to the resistance of the material and the square of the current (I2R). Stray losses
arise from a variety of sources and are difficult to either measure directly or to calculate, but are
generally proportional to the square of the rotor current.
Part-load performance characteristics of a motor also depend on its design. Both η and PF
fall to very low levels at low loads. The Figures 2.1 shows the effect of load on power factor
and efficiency. It can be seen that power factor drops sharply at part loads. The Figure 2.2 shows
the effect of speed on power factor.
Field Tests for Determining Efficiency

No Load Test: The motor is run at rated voltage and frequency without any shaft load. Input
power, current, frequency and voltage are noted. The no load P.F. is quite low and hence low
PF wattmeters are required. From the input power, stator I2R losses under no load are subtract-
ed to give the sum of Friction and Windage (F&W) and core losses. To separate core and F &
Figure 2.1 % Load vs. Power factor, Efficiency Figure 2.2 Speed vs. Power factor

2. Electric Motors
W losses, test is repeated at variable voltages. It is useful to plot no-load input kW versus
Voltage; the intercept is Friction & Windage kW loss component.
F&W and core losses = No load power (watts) - (No load current)2 × Stator resistance
Stator and Rotor I2R Losses: The stator winding resistance is directly measured by a bridge
or volt amp method. The resistance must be corrected to the operating temperature. For mod-
ern motors, the operating temperature is likely to be in the range of 100°C to 120°C and nec-
essary correction should be made. Correction to 75°C may be inaccurate. The correction fac-
tor is given as follows :
R2 235 + t2
= , where, t1 = ambient temperature, °C & t2 = operating temperature, °C.
R1 235 +t1
The rotor resistance can be determined from locked rotor test at reduced frequency, but rotor
2
I R losses are measured from measurement of rotor slip.
Rotor I2R losses = Slip × (Stator Input – Stator I2R Losses – Core Loss)
Accurate measurement of slip is possible by stroboscope or non-contact type tachometer.
Slip also must be corrected to operating temperature.
Stray Load Losses: These losses are difficult to measure with any accuracy. IEEE Standard
112 gives a complicated method, which is rarely used on shop floor. IS and IEC standards take
a fixed value as 0.5 % of input. The actual value of stray losses is likely to be more. IEEE –
112 specifies values from 0.9 % to 1.8 % (see Table 2.1.)
TABLE 2.1 MOTOR RATING VS. STRAY

LOSSES - IEEE
Motor Rating Stray Losses

1 – 125 HP 1.8 %
125 – 500 HP 1.5 %
501 – 2499 HP 1.2 %
2500 and above 0.9 %
Pointers for Users:

It must be clear that accurate determination of efficiency is very difficult. The same motor test-
ed by different methods and by same methods by different manufacturers can give a difference
of 2 %. In view of this, for selecting high efficiency motors, the following can be done:
a) When purchasing large number of small motors or a large motor, ask for a detailed test cer-
tificate. If possible, try to remain present during the tests; This will add cost.
b) See that efficiency values are specified without any tolerance
c) Check the actual input current and kW, if replacement is done
d) For new motors, keep a record of no load input power and current
e) Use values of efficiency for comparison and for confirming; rely on measured inputs for all
calculations.

2. Electric Motors
Estimation of efficiency in the field can be done as follows:

a) Measure stator resistance and correct to operating temperature. From rated current value ,
I2R losses are calculated.
b) From rated speed and output, rotor I2R losses are calculated
c) From no load test, core and F & W losses are determined for stray loss
The method is illustrated by the following example:

Example :
Motor Specifications
Rated power = 34 kW/45 HP
Voltage = 415 Volt
Current = 57 Amps
Speed = 1475 rpm
Insulation class = F
Frame = LD 200 L
Connection = Delta
No load test Data

Voltage, V = 415 Volts
Current, I = 16.1 Amps
Frequency, F = 50 Hz
Stator phase resistance at 30°C = 0.264 Ohms
No load power, Pnl = 1063.74 Watts

2. Electric Motors

2. Electric Motors
2.5 Motor Selection

The primary technical consideration defining the motor choice for any particular application is
the torque required by the load, especially the relationship between the maximum torque gen-
erated by the motor (break-down torque) and the torque requirements for start-up (locked rotor
torque) and during acceleration periods.
The duty / load cycle determines the thermal loading on the motor. One consideration with
totally enclosed fan cooled (TEFC) motors is that the cooling may be insufficient when the
motor is operated at speeds below its rated value.
Ambient operating conditions affect motor choice; special motor designs are available for
corrosive or dusty atmospheres, high temperatures, restricted physical space, etc.
An estimate of the switching frequency (usually dictated by the process), whether automat-
ic or manually controlled, can help in selecting the appropriate motor for the duty cycle.
The demand a motor will place on the balance of the plant electrical system is another con-
sideration - if the load variations are large, for example as a result of frequent starts and stops
of large components like compressors, the resulting large voltage drops could be detrimental to
other equipment.

2. Electric Motors
Reliability is of prime importance - in many cases, however, designers and process engi-
neers seeking reliability will grossly oversize equipment, leading to sub-optimal energy perfor-
mance. Good knowledge of process parameters and a better understanding of the plant power
system can aid in reducing oversizing with no loss of reliability.
Inventory is another consideration - Many large industries use standard equipment, which
can be easily serviced or replaced, thereby reducing the stock of spare parts that must be main-
tained and minimizing shut-down time. This practice affects the choice of motors that might
provide better energy performance in specific applications. Shorter lead times for securing
individual motors from suppliers would help reduce the need for this practice.
Price is another issue - Many users are first-cost sensitive, leading to the purchase of less
expensive motors that may be more costly on a lifecycle basis because of lower efficiency. For
example, energy efficient motors or other specially designed motors typically save within a few
years an amount of money equal to several times the incremental cost for an energy efficient
motor, over a standard-efficiency motor. Few of salient selection issues are given below:
• In the selection process, the power drawn at 75 % of loading can be a meaningful indicator
of energy efficiency.
• Reactive power drawn (kVAR) by the motor.
• Indian Standard 325 for standard motors allows 15 % tolerance on efficiency for motors
upto 50 kW rating and 10 % for motors over 50 kW rating.
• The Indian Standard IS 8789 addresses technical performance of Standard Motors while IS
12615 addresses the efficiency criteria of High Efficiency Motors. Both follow IEC 34-2
test methodology wherein, stray losses are assumed as 0.5 % of input power. By the IEC
test method, the losses are understated and if one goes by IEEE test methodology, the motor
efficiency values would be further lowered.
• It would be prudent for buyers to procure motors based on test certificates rather than
labeled values.
• The energy savings by motor replacement can be worked out by the simple relation : kW
savings = kW output × [ 1/ηold – 1/ ηnew ] where ηold and ηnew are the existing and proposed
motor efficiency values.
• The cost benefits can be worked out on the basis of premium required for high efficiency
vs. worth of annual savings.
2.6 Energy-Efficient Motors

Energy-efficient motors (EEM) are the ones in which, design improvements are incorporated
specifically to increase operating efficiency over motors of standard design (see Figure 2.3).
Design improvements focus on reducing intrinsic motor losses. Improvements include the use
of lower-loss silicon steel, a longer core (to increase active material), thicker wires (to reduce
resistance), thinner laminations, smaller air gap between stator and rotor, copper instead of alu-
minum bars in the rotor, superior bearings and a smaller fan, etc.
Energy-efficient motors now available in India operate with efficiencies that are typically
3 to 4 percentage points higher than standard motors. In keeping with the stipulations of the BIS,
energy-efficient motors are designed to operate without loss in efficiency at loads between 75 %
and 100 % of rated capacity. This may result in major benefits in varying load applications. The
power factor is about the same or may be higher than for standard motors. Furthermore, energy-

2. Electric Motors
Figure 2.3 Standard vs High Efficiency Motors
efficient motors have lower operating temperatures and noise levels, greater ability to accelerate
higher-inertia loads, and are less affected by supply voltage fluctuations.
Measures adopted for energy efficiency address each loss specifically as under:
Stator and Rotor I2R Losses

These losses are major losses and typically account for 55% to 60% of the total losses. I2R loss-
es are heating losses resulting from current passing through stator and rotor conductors. I2R
losses are the function of a conductor resistance, the square of current. Resistance of conductor
is a function of conductor material, length and cross sectional area. The suitable selection of
copper conductor size will reduce the resistance. Reducing the motor current is most readily
accomplished by decreasing the magnetizing component of current. This involves lowering the
operating flux density and possible shortening of air gap. Rotor I2R losses are a function of the
rotor conductors (usually aluminium) and the rotor slip. Utilisation of copper conductors will
reduce the winding resistance. Motor operation closer to synchronous speed will also reduce
rotor I2R losses.
Core Losses
Core losses are those found in the stator-rotor magnetic steel and are due to hysterisis effect and
eddy current effect during 50 Hz magnetization of the core material. These losses are indepen-
dent of load and account for 20 – 25 % of the total losses.
The hysterisis losses which are a function of flux density, are be reduced by utilizing low-
loss grade of silicon steel laminations. The reduction of flux density is achieved by suitable
increase in the core length of stator and rotor. Eddy current losses are generated by circulating
current within the core steel laminations. These are reduced by using thinner laminations.
Friction and Windage Losses

Friction and windage losses results from bearing friction, windage and circulating air through
the motor and account for 8 – 12 % of total losses. These losses are independent of load. The

2. Electric Motors
reduction in heat generated by stator and rotor losses permit the use of smaller fan. The windage
losses also reduce with the diameter of fan leading to reduction in windage losses.
Stray Load-Losses
These losses vary according to square of the load current and are caused by leakage flux
induced by load currents in the laminations and account for 4 to 5 % of total losses. These loss-
es are reduced by careful selection of slot numbers, tooth/slot geometry and air gap.
Energy efficient motors cover a wide range of ratings and the full load efficiencies are
higher by 3 to 7 %. The mounting dimensions are also maintained as per IS1231 to enable
easy replacement.
As a result of the modifications to improve performance, the costs of energy-efficient motors are
higher than those of standard motors. The higher cost will often be paid back rapidly in saved oper-
ating costs, particularly in new applications or end-of-life motor replacements. In cases where exist-
ing motors have not reached the end of their useful life, the economics will be less clearly positive.
Because the favourable economics of energy-efficient motors are based on savings in oper-
ating costs, there may be certain cases which are generally economically ill-suited to energy-
efficient motors. These include highly intermittent duty or special torque applications such as
hoists and cranes, traction drives, punch presses, machine tools, and centrifuges. In addition,
energy, efficient designs of multi-speed motors are generally not available. Furthermore, ener-
gy-efficient motors are not yet available for many special applications, e.g. for flame-proof
operation in oil-field or fire pumps or for very low speed applications (below 750 rpm). Also,
most energy-efficient motors produced today are designed only for continuous duty cycle oper-
ation.
Given the tendency of over sizing on the one hand and ground realities like ; voltage, fre-
quency variations, efficacy of rewinding in case of a burnout, on the other hand, benefits of
EEM's can be achieved only by careful selection, implementation, operation and maintenance
efforts of energy managers.
A summary of energy efficiency improvements in EEMs is given in the Table 2.2:
TABLE 2.2 ENERGY EFFICIENT MOTORS
Power Loss Area Efficiency Improvement

1. Iron Use of thinner gauge, lower loss core steel reduces eddy current losses. Longer
core adds more steel to the design, which reduces losses due to lower operating
flux densities.
2. Stator I2R Use of more copper and larger conductors increases cross sectional area of stator
windings. This lowers resistance (R) of the windings and reduces losses due to
current flow (I).
3. Rotor I2R Use of larger rotor conductor bars increases size of cross section, lowering con-
ductor resistance (R) and losses due to current flow (I).
4. Friction & Windage Use of low loss fan design reduces losses due to air movement.
5. Stray Load Loss Use of optimized design and strict quality control procedures minimizes stray
load losses.

2. Electric Motors
2.7 Factors Affecting Energy Efficiency & Minimising Motor Losses in

Operation
Power Supply Quality
Motor performance is affected considerably by the quality of input power, that is the actual volts
and frequency available at motor terminals vis-à-vis rated values as well as voltage and fre-
quency variations and voltage unbalance across the three phases. Motors in India must comply
with standards set by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) for tolerance to variations in input
power quality. The BIS standards specify that a motor should be capable of delivering its rated
output with a voltage variation of +/- 6 % and frequency variation of +/- 3 %. Fluctuations much
larger than these are quite common in utility-supplied electricity in India. Voltage fluctuations
can have detrimental impacts on motor performance. The general effects of voltage and fre-
quency variation on motor performance are presented in Table 2.3:
Voltage unbalance, the condition where the voltages in the three phases are not equal, can
be still more detrimental to motor performance and motor life. Unbalance typically occurs as a
result of supplying single-phase loads disproportionately from one of the phases. It can also
result from the use of different sizes of cables in the distribution system. An example of the
effect of voltage unbalance on motor performance is shown in Table 2.4.

TABLE 2.3 GENERAL EFFECTS OF VOLTAGE AND FREQUENCY VARIATION ON INDUCTION MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS

36
2. Electric Motors
2. Electric Motors
TABLE 2.4 EXAMPLE OF THE EFFECT OF VOLTAGE UNBALANCE ON

MOTOR PERFORMANCE
Percent unbalance in voltage*

Parameter
0.30 2.30 5.40
Unbalance in current (%) .................. 0.4 17.7 40.0
Increased temperature rise (°C) .................. 0 30 40
* Percent unbalance in voltage is defined as 100 (Vmax – Vavg) / Vavg, Where Vmax and Vavg are the largest and
the average of the three phase voltages, respectively.
The options that can be exercised to minimize voltage unbalance include:

i) Balancing any single phase loads equally among all the three phases
ii) Segregating any single phase loads which disturb the load balance and feed them from a sep-
arate line / transformer
Motor Loading
Measuring Load
% Loading of the motor can be estimated by the following relation:
% loading = Input power drawn by the motor (kW) at existing load x 100
(Name plate full load kW rating / name plate full load motor efficiency)
or
% loading = Input power drawn by the motor (kW) at existing load x 100
√3 x kV x I CosØ
• Never assume power factor
• Loading should not be estimated as the ratio of currents.
Reducing Under-loading
Probably the most common practice contributing to sub-optimal motor efficiency is that of
under-loading. Under-loading results in lower efficiency and power factor, and higher-than-nec-
essary first cost for the motor and related control equipment. Under-loading is common for sev-
eral reasons. Original equipment manufacturers tend to use a large safety factor in motors they
select. Under-loading of the motor may also occur from under-utilisation of the equipment. For
example, machine tool equipment manufacturers provide for a motor rated for the full capacity
load of the equipment ex. depth of cut in a lathe machine. The user may need this full capacity
rarely, resulting in under-loaded operation most of the time. Another common reason for under-
loading is selection of a larger motor to enable the output to be maintained at the desired level
even when input voltages are abnormally low. Finally, under-loading also results from select-
ing a large motor for an application requiring high starting torque where a special motor,
designed for high torque, would have been suitable.
A careful evaluation of the load would determine the capacity of the motor that should be select-
ed. Another aspect to consider is the incremental gain in efficiency achievable by changing the
motor. Larger motors have inherently higher rated efficiencies than smaller motors. Therefore, the
replacement of motors operating at 60 – 70 % of capacity or higher is generally not recommended.
However, there are no rigid rules governing motor selection; the savings potential needs to be eval-
uated on a case-to-case basis. When downsizing, it may be preferable to select an energy-efficient
motor, the efficiency of which may be higher than that of a standard motor of higher capacity.

2. Electric Motors
For motors, which consistently operate at loads below 40 % of rated capacity, an inexpen-
sive and effective measure might be to operate in star mode. A change from the standard delta
operation to star operation involves re-configuring the wiring of the three phases of power input
at the terminal box.
Operating in the star mode leads to a voltage reduction by a factor of '√3'. Motor is electri-
cally downsized by star mode operation, but performance characteristics as a function of load
remain unchanged. Thus, full-load operation in star mode gives higher efficiency and power fac-
tor than partial load operation in the delta mode. However, motor operation in the star mode is
possible only for applications where the torque-to-speed requirement is lower at reduced load.
As speed of the motor reduces in star mode this option may be avoided in case the motor is
connected to a production facility whose output is related to the motor speed. For applications
with high initial torque and low running torque needs, Del-Star starters are also available in
market, which help in load following de-rating of electric motors after initial start-up.
Sizing to Variable Load
Industrial motors frequently operate under varying load conditions due to process requirements.
A common practice in cases where such variable-loads are found is to select a motor based on the
highest anticipated load. In many instances, an alternative approach is typically less costly, more
efficient, and provides equally satisfactory operation. With this approach, the optimum rating for
the motor is selected on the basis of the load duration curve for the particular application. Thus,
rather than selecting a motor of high rating that would operate at full capacity for only a short peri-
od, a motor would be selected with a rating slightly lower than the peak anticipated load and
would operate at overload for a short period of time. Since operating within the thermal capacity
of the motor insulation is of greatest concern in a motor operating at higher than its rated load, the
motor rating is selected as that which would result in the same temperature rise under continuous
full-load operation as the weighted average temperature rise over the actual operating cycle.
Under extreme load changes, e.g. frequent starts / stops, or high inertial loads, this method of cal-
culating the motor rating is unsuitable since it would underestimate the heating that would occur.
Where loads vary substantially with time, in addition to proper motor sizing, the control
strategy employed can have a significant impact on motor electricity use. Traditionally,
mechanical means (e.g. throttle valves in piping systems) have been used when lower output is
required. More efficient speed control mechanisms include multi-speed motors, eddy-current
couplings, fluid couplings, and solid-state electronic variable speed drives.
Power Factor Correction
As noted earlier, induction motors are characterized by power factors less than unity, leading to
lower overall efficiency (and higher overall operating cost) associated with a plant's electrical
system. Capacitors connected in parallel (shunted) with the motor are typically used to improve
the power factor. The impacts of PF correction include reduced kVA demand (and hence
reduced utility demand charges), reduced I2R losses in cables upstream of the capacitor (and
hence reduced energy charges), reduced voltage drop in the cables (leading to improved volt-
age regulation), and an increase in the overall efficiency of the plant electrical system.
It should be noted that PF capacitor improves power factor from the point of installation back
to the generating side. It means that, if a PF capacitor is installed at the starter terminals of the
motor, it won't improve the operating PF of the motor, but the PF from starter terminals to the
power generating side will improve, i.e., the benefits of PF would be only on upstream side.

2. Electric Motors
The size of capacitor required for a particular motor depends upon the no-load reactive kVA
(kVAR) drawn by the motor, which can be determined only from no-load testing of the motor.
In general, the capacitor is then selected to not exceed 90 % of the no-load kVAR of the motor.
(Higher capacitors could result in over-voltages and motor burn-outs). Alternatively, typical
power factors of standard motors can provide the basis for conservative estimates of capacitor
ratings to use for different size motors. The capacitor rating for power connection by direct con-
nection to induction motors is shown in Table 2.5.
From the above table, it may be noted that required capacitive kVAr increases with decrease in
speed of the motor, as the magnetizing current requirement of a low speed motor is more in com-
TABLE 2.5 CAPACITOR RATINGS FOR POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

BY DIRECT CONNECTION TO INDUCTION MOTORS
Capacitor rating (kVAr) for Motor Speed

Motor Rating (HP)
3000 1500 1000 750 600 500
5 2 2 2 3 3 3
7.5 2 2 3 3 4 4
10 3 3 4 5 5 6
15 3 4 5 7 7 7
20 5 6 7 8 9 10
25 6 7 8 9 9 12
30 7 8 9 10 10 15
40 9 10 12 15 16 20
50 10 12 15 18 20 22
60 12 14 15 20 22 25
75 15 16 20 22 25 30
100 20 22 25 26 32 35
125 25 26 30 32 35 40
150 30 32 35 40 45 50
200 40 45 45 50 55 60
250 45 50 50 60 65 70
parison to the high speed motor for the same HP of the motor. Since a reduction in line current, and
associated energy efficiency gains, are reflected backwards from the point of application of the
capacitor, the maximum improvement in overall system efficiency is achieved when the capacitor
is connected across the motor terminals, as compared to somewhere further upstream in the plant's
electrical system. However, economies of scale associated with the cost of capacitors and the labor
required to install them will place an economic limit on the lowest desirable capacitor size.
Maintenance
Inadequate maintenance of motors can significantly increase losses and lead to unreliable oper-
ation. For example, improper lubrication can cause increased friction in both the motor and

2. Electric Motors
associated drive transmission equipment. Resistance losses in the motor, which rise with tem-
perature, would increase. Providing adequate ventilation and keeping motor cooling ducts
clean can help dissipate heat to reduce excessive losses. The life of the insulation in the motor
would also be longer : for every 10°C increase in motor operating temperature over the recom-
mended peak, the time before rewinding would be needed is estimated to be halved
A checklist of good maintenance practices to help insure proper motor operation would include:
• Inspecting motors regularly for wear in bearings and housings (to reduce frictional losses)
and for dirt/dust in motor ventilating ducts (to ensure proper heat dissipation).
• Checking load conditions to ensure that the motor is not over or under loaded. A change in
motor load from the last test indicates a change in the driven load, the cause of which should
be understood.
• Lubricating appropriately. Manufacturers generally give recommendations for how and when
to lubricate their motors. Inadequate lubrication can cause problems, as noted above. Over-
lubrication can also create problems, e.g. excess oil or grease from the motor bearings can enter
the motor and saturate the motor insulation, causing premature failure or creating a fire risk.
• Checking periodically for proper alignment of the motor and the driven equipment.
Improper alignment can cause shafts and bearings to wear quickly, resulting in damage to
both the motor and the driven equipment.
• Ensuring that supply wiring and terminal box are properly sized and installed. Inspect reg-
ularly the connections at the motor and starter to be sure that they are clean and tight.
Age
Most motor cores in India are manufactured from silicon steel or de-carbonized cold-rolled steel,
the electrical properties of which do not change measurably with age. However, poor maintenance
(inadequate lubrication of bearings, insufficient cleaning of air cooling passages, etc.) can cause a
deterioration in motor efficiency over time. Ambient conditions can also have a detrimental effect
on motor performance. For example, excessively high temperatures, high dust loading, corrosive
atmosphere, and humidity can impair insulation properties; mechanical stresses due to load cycling
can lead to misalignment. However, with adequate care, motor performance can be maintained.
2.8 Rewinding Effects on Energy Efficiency

It is common practice in industry to rewind burnt-out motors. The population of rewound
motors in some industries exceed 50 % of the total population. Careful rewinding can some-
times maintain motor efficiency at previous levels, but in most cases, losses in efficiency result.
Rewinding can affect a number of factors that contribute to deteriorated motor efficiency :
winding and slot design, winding material, insulation performance, and operating temperature.
For example, a common problem occurs when heat is applied to strip old windings : the insu-
lation between laminations can be damaged, thereby increasing eddy current losses. A change
in the air gap may affect power factor and output torque.
However, if proper measures are taken, motor efficiency can be maintained, and in some
cases increased, after rewinding. Efficiency can be improved by changing the winding design,
though the power factor could be affected in the process. Using wires of greater cross section,
slot size permitting, would reduce stator losses thereby increasing efficiency. However, it is
generally recommended that the original design of the motor be preserved during the rewind,
unless there are specific, load-related reasons for redesign.

2. Electric Motors
The impact of rewinding on motor efficiency and power factor can be easily assessed if the
no-load losses of a motor are known before and after rewinding. Maintaining documentation
of no-load losses and no-load speed from the time of purchase of each motor can facilitate
assessing this impact.
For example, comparison of no load current and stator resistance per phase of a rewound
motor with the original no-load current and stator resistance at the same voltage can be one of
the indicators to assess the efficacy of rewinding.
2.9 Speed Control of AC Induction Motors

Traditionally, DC motors have been employed when variable speed capability was desired. By
controlling the armature (rotor) voltage and field current of a separately excited DC motor, a
wide range of output speeds can be obtained. DC motors are available in a wide range of sizes,
but their use is generally restricted to a few low speed, low-to-medium power applications like
machine tools and rolling mills because of problems with mechanical commutation at large
sizes. Also, they are restricted for use only in clean, non-hazardous areas because of the risk of
sparking at the brushes. DC motors are also expensive relative to AC motors.
Because of the limitations of DC systems, AC motors are increasingly the focus for variable
speed applications. Both AC synchronous and induction motors are suitable for variable speed
control. Induction motors are generally more popular, however, because of their ruggedness and
lower maintenance requirements. AC induction motors are inexpensive (half or less of the cost
of a DC motor) and also provide a high power to weight ratio (about twice that of a DC motor).
An induction motor is an asynchronous motor, the speed of which can be varied by chang-
ing the supply frequency. The control strategy to be adopted in any particular case will depend
on a number of factors including investment cost, load reliability and any special control require-
ments. Thus, for any particular application, a detailed review of the load characteristics, histori-
cal data on process flows, the features required of the speed control system, the electricity tariffs
and the investment costs would be a prerequisite to the selection of a speed control system.
The characteristics of the load are particularly important. Load refers essentially to the
torque output and corresponding speed required. Loads can be broadly classified as either con-
stant power or Constant torque. Constant torque loads are those for which the output power
requirement may vary with the speed of operation but the torque does not vary. Conveyors,
rotary kilns, and constant-displacement pumps are typical examples of constant torque loads.
Variable torque loads are those for which the torque required varies with the speed of operation.
Centrifugal pumps and fans are typical examples of variable torque loads (torque varies as the
square of the speed). Constant power loads are those for which the torque requirements typi-
cally change inversely with speed. Machine tools are a typical example of a constant power
load.
The largest potential for electricity savings with variable speed drives is generally in vari-
able torque applications, for example centrifugal pumps and fans, where the power requirement
changes as the cube of speed. Constant torque loads are also suitable for VSD application.
Motor Speed Control Systems

Multi-speed motors
Motors can be wound such that two speeds, in the ratio of 2:1, can be obtained. Motors can also

2. Electric Motors
be wound with two separate windings, each giving 2 operating speeds, for a total of four speeds.
Multi-speed motors can be designed for applications involving constant torque, variable torque,
or for constant output power. Multi-speed motors are suitable for applications, which require lim-
ited speed control (two or four fixed speeds instead of continuously variable speed), in which
cases they tend to be very economical. They have lower efficiency than single-speed motors
Adjustable Frequency AC Drives

Adjustable frequency drives are also commonly called inverters. They are available in a range
of kW rating from fractional to 750 kW. They are designed to operate standard induction
motors. This allows them to be easily added to an existing system. The inverters are often sold
separately because the motor may already be in place. If necessary, a motor can be included
with the drive or supplied separately.
The basic drive consists of the inverter itself which coverts the 50 Hz incoming power to a
variable frequency and variable voltage. The variable frequency is the actual requirement,
which will control the motor speed.
There are three major types of inverters designs available today. These are known as
Current Source Inverters (CSI), Variable Voltage Inverters (VVI), and Pulse Width Modulated
Inverters (PWM).
Direct Current Drives (DC)

The DC drive technology is the oldest form of electrical speed control. The drive system con-
sists of a DC motor and a controller. The motor is constructed with armature and field wind-
ings. Both of these windings require a DC excitation for motor operation. Usually the field
winding is excited with a constant level voltage from the controller.
Then, applying a DC voltage from the controller to the armature of the motor will operate
the motor. The armature connections are made through a brush and commutator assembly. The
speed of the motor is directly proportional to the applied voltage.
The controller is a phase controlled bridge rectifier with logic circuits to control the DC
voltage delivered to the motor armature. Speed control is achieved by regulating the armature
voltage to the motor. Often a tacho generator is included to achieve good speed regulation. The
tacho would be mounted on the motor and produces a speed feedback signal that is used with-
in the controller.
Wound Rotor AC Motor Drives (Slip Ring Induction Motors)

Wound rotor motor drives use a specially constructed motor to accomplish speed control. The
motor rotor is constructed with windings which are brought out of the motor through slip rings
on the motor shaft. These windings are connected to a controller which places variable resis-
tors in series with the windings. The torque performance of the motor can be controlled using
these variable resistors. Wound rotor motors are most common in the range of 300 HP and
above.
2.10 Motor Load Survey: Methodology

Large industries have a massive population of LT motors. Load survey of LT motors can be

2. Electric Motors
taken-up methodically to identify improvement options as illustrated in following case study.
i) Sampling Criteria
Towards the objective of selecting representative LT motor drives among the motor population,
for analysis, the criteria considered are:
– Utilization factor i.e., hours of operation with preference given to continuously operated
drive motors.
– Sample representative basis, where one drive motor analysis can be reasoned as representa-
tive for the population. Ex : Cooling Tower Fans, Air Washer Units, etc.
– Conservation potential basis, where drive motors with inefficient capacity controls on the
machine side, fluctuating load drive systems, etc., are looked into.
ii) Measurements
Studies on selected LT motors involve measurement of electrical load parameters namely volts,
amperes, power factor, kW drawn.
Observations on machine side parameters such as speed, load, pressure, temperature, etc.,
(as relevant) are also taken. Availability of online instruments for routine measurements, avail-
ability of tail-end capacitors for PF correction, energy meters for monitoring is also looked into
for each case.
iii) Analysis
Analysis of observations on representative LT motors and connected drives is carried out
towards following outputs:
– Motor load on kW basis and estimated energy consumption.
– Scope for improving monitoring systems to enable sustenance of a regular in-house Energy
Audit function.
– Scope areas for energy conservation with related cost benefits and source information.
The observations are to indicate:
% loading on kW, % voltage unbalance if any, voltage, current, frequency, power factor,
machine side conditions like load / unload condition, pressure, flow, temperature, damper /
throttle operation, whether it is a rewound motor, idle operations, metering provisions, etc.
The findings / recommendations may include:
• Identified motors with less than 50 % loading, 50 – 75 % loading, 75 – 100 % loading, over
100 % loading.
• Identified motors with low voltage / power factor / voltage imbalance for needed improve-
ment measures.
• Identified motors with machine side losses / inefficiencies like idle operations, throttling /
damper operations for avenues like automatic controls / interlocks, variable speed drives,
etc.
Motor load survey is aimed not only as a measure to identify motor efficiency areas but
equally importantly, as a means to check combined efficiency of the motor, driven machine
and controller if any. The margins in motor efficiency may be less than 10 % of consumption
often, but the load survey would help to bring out savings in driven machines / systems, which
can give 30 – 40 % energy savings.
2. Electric Motors
QUESTIONS
1. Name three types of motors in industrial practice.
2. What is the relation between RPM (speed) and frequency of an induction motor?
3. A 4-pole squirrel case induction motor operates with 5 % slip at full load. What is
the full load RPM you may expect, if frequency is changed by a V/F control to:
(a)40 c/s (b) 45 c/s (c) 35 c/s
4. List the losses in induction motors and their expected percentage out of the total losses.
5. List the factors affecting energy efficiency of electric motors?
6. The power factor of an induction motor
a) increases with load b) decreases with load c) remains constant with load d) has
no relation to load
7. List factors affecting windage and friction losses while rewinding.
8. What are the factors affecting core losses while rewinding?
9. List methods by which speed control of motor can be achieved.
10. Explain the ways by which efficiencies of energy efficient motors are increased.
11. How does efficiency loss occur in a rewound motor?
12. How do you check the efficacy of rewound motor?
13. A 50 kW induction motor with 86 % present full load efficiency is being considered
for replacement by a 89 % efficiency motor. What will be the savings in energy if
the motor works for 6000 hours per year and cost of energy is Rs. 4.50 per kWh?
REFERENCES
1. Technology Menu (NPC)
2. BEE Publications
3. PCRA Publications

3. COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM
Syllabus
Compressed air system: Types of air compressors, Compressor efficiency, Efficient com-
pressor operation, Compressed air system components, Capacity assessment, Leakage test,
Factors affecting the performance and efficiency
3.1 Introduction
Air compressors account for significant amount of electricity used in Indian industries. Air com-
pressors are used in a variety of industries to supply process requirements, to operate pneumatic
tools and equipment, and to meet instrumentation needs. Only 10 – 30% of energy reaches the point
of end-use, and balance 70 – 90% of energy of the power of the prime mover being converted to
unusable heat energy and to a lesser extent lost in form of friction, misuse and noise.
3.2 Compressor Types

Compressors are broadly classified as: Positive displacement compressor and Dynamic
compressor.
Positive displacement compressors increase the pressure of the gas by reducing the vol-
ume. Positive displacement compressors are further classified as reciprocating and rotary
compressors.
Dynamic compressors increase the air velocity, which is then converted to increased pres-
sure at the outlet. Dynamic compressors are basically centrifugal compressors and are further
classified as radial and axial flow types.

3. Compressed Air System
The flow and pressure requirements of a given application determine the suitability of a par-
ticulars type of compressor.
Positive Displacement Compressors

Reciprocating Compressors
Reciprocating compressors are the most
widely used type for air compression.
They are characterized by a flow output
that remains nearly constant over a range
of discharge pressures. Also, the com-
pressor capacity is directly proportional
to the speed. The output, however, is a
pulsating one.
Reciprocating compressors are
available in many configurations, the
four most widely used of which are
horizontal, vertical, horizontal bal-
ance-opposed and tandem. Vertical
type reciprocating compressors are
used in the capacity range of 50 – 150
cfm. Horizontal balance opposed compressors are used in the capacity range of 200 – 5000 cfm
in multi-stage design and upto 10,000 cfm in single stage designs.
Reciprocating compressors are also available in variety of types:
• Lubricated and non-lubricated
• Single or multiple cylinder

• Water or air-cooled.
• Single or multi stage
In the case of lubricated machines, oil has to be separated from the discharge air. Non-lubri-
cated compressors are especially useful for providing air for instrumentation and for processes
which require oil free discharge. However non-lubricated machines have higher specific power
consumption (kW/cfm) as compared to lubricated types.
Single cylinder machines are generally air-cooled, while multi-cylinder machines are gen-
erally water cooled, although multi-stage air-cooled types are available for machines up to 100
kW. Water-cooled systems are more energy efficient than air-cooled systems.
Two stage machines are used for high pressures and are characterized by lower discharge temper-
ature (140 to 160°C) compared to single-stage machines (205 to 240°C). In some cases, multi-stage
machines may have a lower specific power consumption compared to single stage machines operating
over the same total pressure differential. Multi-stage machines generally have higher investment costs,
particularly for applications with high discharge pressure (above 7 bar) and low capacities (less than 25
cfm). Multi staging has other benefits, such as reduced pressure differential across cylinders, which
reduces the load and stress on compressor components such as valves and piston rings.
Rotary Compressors
Rotary compressors have rotors in place of pistons and give a continuous, pulsation free discharge air.
They are directly coupled to the prime mover and require lower starting torque as compared to recip-
rocating machine. They operate at high speed and generally provide higher throughput than recipro-
cating compressors. Also they require smaller foundations,
vibrate less, and have a lower number of parts - which means less
failure rate.
Among rotary compressor, the Roots blower (also
called as lobe compressor) and screw compressors are
among the most widely used. The roots blower is essen-
tially a low-pressure blower and is limited to a discharge
pressure of 1 bar in single-stage design and up to 2.2 bar
in two stage design.
The most common rotary air compressor is the single
stage helical or spiral lube oil flooded screw air compressor.
These compressors consist of two rotors, within a casing
where the rotors compress the air internally. There are no
valves. These units are basically oil cooled (with air cooled
or water cooled oil coolers) where the oil seals the internal clearances. Since the cooling takes
place right inside the compressor, the working parts never experience extreme operating tem-
peratures. The oil has to be separated from discharge air. Because of the simple design and few
wearing parts, rotary screw air compressors are easy to maintain, to operate and install.
The oil free rotary screw air compressor uses specially designed air ends to compress air without
oil in the compression chamber producing true oil free air. These compressors are available as air-
cooled or water cooled types and provide the same flexibility as oil flooded rotary compressors.
There is a wide range of availability in configuration and in pressure and capacity. Dry types
deliver oil-free air and are available in sizes up to 20,000 cfm and pressure upto 15 bar. Lubricated
types are available in sizes ranging from 100 to 1000 cfm, with discharge pressure up to 10 bar.

Dynamic Compressors
Dynamic compressors are mainly centrifugal
compressors and operate on similar principles
to centrifugal pump. These compressors have
appreciably different characteristics as com-
pared to reciprocating machines. A small
change in compression ratio produces a
marked change in compressor output and effi-
ciency. Centrifugal machines are better suited
for applications requiring very high capacities,
typically above 12,000 cfm.
The centrifugal air compressor depends on
transfer of energy from a rotating impeller to
the air. The rotor accomplishes this by chang-
ing the momentum and pressure of the air. This Figure 3.5 Axial Compressor
momentum is converted to useful pressure by
slowing the air down in a stationary diffuser.
The centrifugal air compressor is an oil free compressor by design. The oil-lubricated run-
ning gear is separated from the air by shaft seals and atmospheric vents. The centrifugal is a
continuous duty compressor, with few moving parts, and is particularly suited to high volume
applications, especially where oil free air is required.
A single-stage centrifugal machine can provide the same capacity as a multi-stage rec-
iprocating compressor. Machines with either axial or radial flow impellers are available.
Axial flow compressors are suitable for higher compression ratios and are generally more
efficient than radial compressors. Axial compressors typically are multi-stage machines, while
radial machines are usually single-stage designs.
The general selection criteria for compressor is given in the Table 3.1
TABLE 3.1 GENERAL SELECTION CRITERIA FOR

COMPRESSORS
Type of Compressor Capacity (m3/h) Pressure (bar)
From To From To
Roots blower compressor
single stage 100 30000 0.1 1
Reciprocating
– Single / Two stage 100 12000 0.8 12
– Multi stage 100 12000 12.0 700
Screw
– Single stage 100 2400 0.8 13
– Two stage 100 2200 0.8 24
Centrifugal 600 300000 0.1 450

3.3 Compressor Performance

Capacity of a Compressor
Capacity of a compressor is the full rated volume of flow of gas compressed and delivered at
conditions of total temperature, total pressure, and composition prevailing at the compressor
inlet. It sometimes means actual flow rate, rather than rated volume of flow. This also termed
as Free Air Delivery (FAD) i.e. air at atmospheric conditions at any specific location. Because
the altitude, barometer, and temperature may vary at different localities and at different times,
it follows that this term does not mean air under identical or standard conditions.
Compressor Efficiency Definitions

Several different measures of compressor efficiency are commonly used: volumetric efficiency,
adiabatic efficiency, isothermal efficiency and mechanical efficiency.
Adiabatic and isothermal efficiencies are computed as the isothermal or adiabatic power
divided by the actual power consumption. The figure obtained indicates the overall efficiency
of compressor and drive motor.
Isothermal Efficiency
Isothermal power(kW) = P1 x Q1 x loger/36.7

P1 = Absolute intake pressure kg/ cm2
P2 = Absolute delivery pressure kg/ cm2
Q1 = Free air delivered m3/hr.
r = Pressure ratio P2/P1
The calculation of isothermal power does not include power needed to overcome friction
and generally gives an efficiency that is lower than adiabatic efficiency. The reported value of
efficiency is normally the isothermal efficiency. This is an important consideration when select-
ing compressors based on reported values of efficiency.
( )
x 100
( )
Volumetric Efficiency
Compressor Displacement = Π x D2 x L x S x χ x n
4
D = Cylinder bore, metre
L = Cylinder stroke, metre
S = Compressor speed rpm
χ = 1 for single acting and
2 for double acting cylinders
n = No. of cylinders
For practical purposes, the most effective guide in comparing compressor efficiencies is the
specific power consumption ie kW/volume flow rate , for different compressors that would pro-
vide identical duty.
3.4 Compressed Air System Components

Compressed air systems consist of following major components: Intake air filters, inter-stage
coolers, after coolers, air dryers, moisture drain traps, receivers, piping network, filters, regula-
tors and lubricators (see Figure 3.6).
• Intake Air Filters: Prevent dust from entering compressor; Dust causes sticking valves,
scoured cylinders, excessive wear etc.
• Inter-stage Coolers: Reduce the temperature of the air before it enters the next stage to
reduce the work of compression and increase efficiency. They are normally water-
cooled.
• After Coolers: The objective is to remove the moisture in the air by reducing the tempera-
ture in a water-cooled heat exchanger.
• Air-dryers: The remaining traces of moisture after after-cooler are removed using air dry-
ers, as air for instrument and pneumatic equipment has to be relatively free of any moisture.
The moisture is removed by using adsorbents like silica gel /activated carbon, or refrigerant
dryers, or heat of compression dryers.
• Moisture Drain Traps: Moisture drain traps are used for removal of moisture in the com-
pressed air. These traps resemble steam traps. Various types of traps used are manual drain
cocks, timer based / automatic drain valves etc.
• Receivers: Air receivers are provided as storage and smoothening pulsating air output -
reducing pressure variations from the compressor

3.5 Efficient Operation of Compressed Air Systems

Location of Compressors
The location of air compressors and the quality of air drawn by the compressors will have a sig-
nificant influence on the amount of energy consumed. Compressor performance as a breathing
machine improves with cool, clean, dry air at intake.
Cool air intake

As a thumb rule, "Every 4°C rise in inlet air temperature results in a higher energy consump-
tion by 1 % to achieve equivalent output". Hence, cool air intake leads to a more efficient com-
pression (see Table 3.2).
TABLE 3.2 EFFECT OF INTAKE AIR TEMPERATURE ON POWER

CONSUMPTION
Inlet Temperature (°C) Relative Air Delivery (%) Power Saved (%)
10.0 102.0 + 1.4
15.5 100.0 Nil
21.1 98.1 – 1.3
26.6 96.3 – 2.5
32.2 94.1 – 4.0
37.7 92.8 – 5.0
43.3 91.2 – 5.8
It is preferable to draw cool ambient air from outside, as the temperature of air inside the
compressor room will be a few degrees higher than the ambient temperature. While extending
air intake to the outside of building, care should be taken to minimize excess pressure drop in
the suction line, by selecting a bigger diameter duct with minimum number of bends.
Dust Free Air Intake

Dust in the suction air causes excessive wear of moving parts and results in malfunctioning of
the valves due to abrasion. Suitable air filters should be provided at the suction side. Air filters
should have high dust separation capacity, low-pressure drops and robust design to avoid fre-
quent cleaning and replacement. See Table 3.3 for effect of pressure drop across air filter on
power consumption.
Air filters should be selected based on the compressor type and installed as close to the com-
pressor as possible. As a thumb rule "For every 250 mm WC pressure drop increase across at
the suction path due to choked filters etc, the compressor power consumption increases by
about 2 percent for the same output"
Hence, it is advisable to clean inlet air filters at regular intervals to minimize pressure drops.
Manometers or differential pressure gauges across filters may be provided for monitoring pres-
sure drops so as to plan filter-cleaning schedules.

TABLE 3.3 EFFECT OF PRESSURE DROP ACROSS AIR INLET

FILTER ON POWER CONSUMPTION
Pressure Drop Across air Increase in Power

filter (mmWC) Consumption (%)
0 0
200 1.6
400 3.2
600 4.7
800 7.0
Dry Air Intake

Atmospheric air always contains some amount of water vapour, depending on the relative
humidity, being high in wet weather. The moisture level will also be high if air is drawn from
a damp area - for example locating compressor close to cooling tower, or dryer exhaust is to be
avoided (see Table 3.4)
TABLE 3.4 MOISTURE IN AMBIENT AIR AT VARIOUS HUMIDITY

LEVELS
% Relative Kg of water vapour per hour for every 1000

Humidity m3/min. of air at 30°C
50 27.60
80 45.00
100 68.22
The moisture-carrying capacity of air increases with a rise in temperature and decreases
with increase in pressure.
Elevation
The altitude of a place has a direct impact on the volumetric efficiency of the compressor. The
effect of altitude on volumetric efficiency is given in the Table 3.5.
It is evident that compressors located at higher altitudes consume more power to achieve a
particular delivery pressure than those at sea level, as the compression ratio is higher.
Cooling Water Circuit

Most of the industrial compressors are water-cooled, wherein the heat of compression is
removed by circulating cold water to cylinder heads, inter-coolers and after-coolers. The result-
ing warm water is cooled in a cooling tower and circulated back to compressors. The com-
pressed air system performance depends upon the effectiveness of inter-coolers, after coolers,
which in turn are dependent on cooling water flow and temperature.
Further, inadequate cooling water treatment can lead to increase, for example, in total dis-
solved solids (TDS), which in turn can lead to scale formation in heat exchangers. The scales,
not only act as insulators reducing the heat transfer, but also increases the pressure drop in the
cooling water pumping system.

TA B LE EFFECT OF ALTITUDE ON VOLUMETRIC

3.5 EFFICIENCY
Altitude Meters Barometric Percentage Relative Volumetric

Pressure milli bar* Efficiency Compared with Sea Level
At 4 bar At 7 bar
Sea level 1013 100.0 100.0
500 945 98.7 97.7
1000 894 97.0 95.2
1500 840 95.5 92.7
2000 789 93.9 90.0
2500 737 92.1 87.0
* 1 milli bar = 1.01972 x 10-3 kg/cm2
Use of treated water or purging a portion of cooling water (blow down) periodically can
maintain TDS levels within acceptable limits. It is better to maintain the water pH by addition
of chemicals, and avoid microbial growth by addition of fungicides and algaecides.
Efficacy of Inter and After Coolers

Efficacy is an indicator of heat exchange performance- how well intercoolers and after coolers
are performing.
Inter-coolers are provided between successive stages of a multi-stage compressor to reduce
the work of compression (power requirements) - by reducing the specific volume through cool-
ing the air - apart from moisture separation.
Ideally, the temperature of the inlet air at each stage of a multi-stage machine should be the
same as it was at the first stage. This is referred to as "perfect cooling" or isothermal com-
pression. The cooling may be imperfect due to reasons described in earlier sections. Hence in
actual practice, the inlet air temperatures at subsequent stages are higher than the normal levels
resulting in higher power consumption, as a larger volume is handled for the same duty (See
Table 3.6).
TABLE 3.6 EFFECT OF INTER-STAGE COOLING ON SPECIFIC POWER CONSUMPTION OF A

RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR -ILLUSTRATION
Details Imperfect Perfect Chilled Water

Cooling Cooling (Base Value) Cooling
First Stage inlet temperature °C 21.1 21.1 21.1
Second Stage inlet temperature °C 26.6 21.1 15.5
Capacity (Nm3/min) 15.5 15.6 15.7
Shaft Power (kW) 76.3 75.3 74.2
Specific energy consumption 4.9 4.8 4.7
(kW/Nm3/min)
Percent Change + 2.1 Reference - 2.1

It can be seen from the Table 3.6 that an increase of 5.5°C in the inlet air temperature to
the second stage results in a 2 % increase in the specific energy consumption. Use of water at
lower temperature reduces specific power consumption. However, very low cooling water
temperature could result in condensation of moisture in the air, which if not removed would
lead to cylinder damage.
Similarly, inadequate cooling in after-coolers (due to fouling, scaling etc.), allow warm,
humid air into the receiver, which causes more condensation in air receivers and distribution
lines, which in consequence, leads to increased corrosion, pressure drops and leakages in pip-
ing and end-use equipment. Periodic cleaning and ensuring adequate flow at proper tempera-
ture of both inter coolers and after coolers are therefore necessary for sustaining desired per-
formance. Typical cooling water requirement is given in Table 3.7.
TABLE 3.7 TYPICAL COOLING WATER REQUIREMENTS
Compressor Type Minimum quantity of Cooling Water

required (in litres per minute) for 2.85 m3/min.
FAD at 7 bar
Single-stage 3.8
Two-stage 7.6
Single-stage with after-cooler 15.1
Two-stage with after-cooler 18.9
Pressure Settings
Compressor operates between pressure ranges called as loading (cut-in) and unloading (cut-out)
pressures. For example, a compressor operating between pressure setting of 6 – 7 kg/cm2
means that the compressor unloads at 7 kg/cm2 and loads at 6 kg/cm2. Loading and unloading
is done using a pressure switch.
For the same capacity, a compressor consumes more power at higher pressures. They should
not be operated above their optimum operating pressures as this not only wastes energy, but also
leads to excessive wear, leading to further energy wastage The volumetric efficiency of a com-
pressor is also less at higher delivery pressures.
TABLE 3.8 TYPICAL POWER SAVINGS THROUGH PRESSURE REDUCTION
Pressure Reduction Power Savings (%)

From To Single-stage Two-stage Two-stage
(bar) (bar) Water-cooled Water-cooled Air-cooled
6.8 6.1 4 4 2.6

6.8 5.5 9 11 6.5

Reducing Delivery Pressure:

The possibility of lowering (optimising) the delivery pressure settings should be explored by
careful study of pressure requirements of various equipment, and the pressure drop in the line
between the compressed air generation and utilization points. Typical power savings through
pressure reduction is shown in Table 3.8.
The pressure switches must be adjusted such that the compressor cuts-in and cuts-out at
optimum levels.
A reduction in the delivery pressure by 1 bar in a compressor would reduce the power con-
sumption by 6 – 10 %.
Compressor modulation by Optimum Pressure Settings:

Very often in an industry, different types, capacities and makes of compressors are connected
to a common distribution network. In such situations, proper selection of a right combination
of compressors and optimal modulation of different compressors can conserve energy.
Where more than one compressor feeds a common header, compressors have to be operat-
ed in such a way that the cost of compressed air generation is minimal.
• If all compressors are similar, the pressure setting can be adjusted such that only one com-
pressor handles the load variation, whereas the others operate more or less at full load.
• If compressors are of different sizes, the pressure switch should be set such that only the
smallest compressor is allowed to modulate (vary in flow rate).
• If different types of compressors are operated together, unload power consumptions are sig-
nificant. The compressor with lowest no load power must be modulated.
• In general, the compressor with lower part load power consumption should be modulated.
• Compressors can be graded according to their specific energy consumption, at different
pressures and energy efficient ones must be made to meet most of the demand (see Table
3.9).
TABLE 3.9 TYPICAL SPECIFIC POWER CONSUMPTION OF RECIPROCATING

COMPRESSORS (BASED ON MOTOR INPUT)
Pressure bar No. of Stages Specific Power kW/170

m3/hour (kW / 100 cfm)
1 1 6.29
2 1 9.64
3 1 13.04
4 2 14.57
7 2 18.34
8 2 19.16
10 2 21.74
15 2 26.22

EXAMPLE
Compressor modulation
Assessing compressed air system study for a plant section gave following results. Comment on
the results?
• Compressors on line A, B, C, D, E (all reciprocating type)
• Trial observation Summary
Compressor Measured Capacity 'On' Load 'Unload' kW Load Time Unload Time
Reference CMM (@ 7 kg/ cm2) kW Min. Min.
A 13.17 115.30 42.3 Full time* Nil
B 12.32 117.20 51.8 Full time* Nil
C 13.14 108.30 43.3 Full time* Nil
D 12.75 104.30 29.8 Full time* Nil
E 13.65 109.30 39.3 5.88 min. 39.12 min.
* Compressors running in load conditions and not getting unloaded during normal operations.
Comments:
• For a cycle time of 45 minutes (39.12 + 5.88)
i) Compressed air generated in m3
= 45 (13.17) + 45 (12.32) + 45 (13.14) + 45 (12.75) + 5.88 (13.65)
= 2392.36 m3
ii) Power consumption kWh
= 45/60 (115.3) + 45/60 (117.20) + 45 / 60 (108.3) + 45/60 (104.3) + 5.88/60 (109.30)
+ (39.12) / 60 ) 39.3
= 370.21 kWh / 45 Minutes
iii) Compressed air generation actual capacity on line in m3
= 45 [ 13.17 + 12.32 + 13.14 + 12.75 + 13.65 ] = 2926.35 m3
a) The consumption rate of the section connected
= 2392.36 / 45 = 53.16 m3/minute
b) Compressor air drawal as a % of capacity on line is
= [2392.36 / 2926.35 ] × 100 = 81.75 %
c) Specific power consumption = 370.21 / 2392.36 = 0.155 kW/m3
d) Idle power consumption due to unload operation = 25.62 kWh in every 45 minutes
cycle i.e., 34.16 kWh every hour.
e) It would be favorable in short term and energy efficient to keep the compressor 'D' in
cycling mode on account of lower un-load losses and hence capacity. Speed of the
compressor can also be reduced by reducing motor pulley size.
f) A suitable smaller capacity compressor can be planned to replace the compressor with
highest unload losses.
g) An investigation is called for, as to why such a large variation of unload power drawn,
exists although all compressors have almost the same rated capacity.

Segregating low and high pressure air requirements

If the low-pressure air requirement is considerable, it is advisable to generate low pressure and
high-pressure air separately, and feed to the respective sections instead of reducing the pressure
through pressure reducing valves, which invariably waste energy.
Minimum pressure drop in air lines

Excess pressure drop due to inadequate pipe sizing, choked filter elements, improperly sized
couplings and hoses represent energy wastage. The Table 3.10 illustrates the energy wastage, if
the pipes are of smaller diameter.
Typical acceptable pressure drop in industrial practice is 0.3 bar in mains header at the far-
thest point and 0.5 bar in distribution system.
TABLE 3.10 TYPICAL ENERGY WASTAGE DUE TO SMALLER PIPE

DIAMETER FOR 170 m3/h (100 CFM) FLOW
Pipe Nominal Bore (mm) Pressure drop (bar) per Equivalent power losses
100 meters (kW)
40 1.80 9.5
50 0.65 3.4
65 0.22 1.2
80 0.04 0.2
100 0.02 0.1
Equivalent lengths of fittings

Not only piping, but also fitting are a source of pressure losses. Typical pressure losses for var-
ious fitting are given in Table 3.11.
TABLE 3.11 RESISTANCE OF PIPE FITTINGS IN EQUIVALENT LENGTHS (IN METRES)
Type of Fitting Nominal Pipe Size in mm

15 20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100 125
Gate Valve 0.11 0.14 0.18 0.27 0.32 0.40 0.49 0.64 0.91 1.20
Tee 90° long bend 0.15 0.18 0.24 0.38 0.46 0.61 0.76 0.91 1.20 1.52
Elbow 0.26 0.37 0.49 0.67 0.76 1.07 1.37 1.83 2.44 3.20
Return bend 0.46 0.61 0.76 1.07 1.20 1.68 1.98 2.60 3.66 4.88
Outlet of tee 0.76 1.07 1.37 1.98 2.44 3.36 3.96 5.18 7.32 9.45
globe valve

Blowers in place of Compressed Air System

Since the compressed air system is already available, plant engineer may be tempted to use
compressed air to provide air for low-pressure applications such as agitation, pneumatic con-
veying or combustion air. Using a blower that is designed for lower pressure operation will cost
only a fraction of compressed air generation energy and cost.
Capacity Control of Compressors

In many installations, the use of air is intermittent. Therefore, some means of controlling the
output flow from the compressor is necessary. The type of capacity control chosen has a direct
impact on the compressor power consumption. Some control schemes commonly used are dis-
cussed below:
Automatic On / Off Control:

Automatic On /Off control, as its name implies, starts or stops the compressor by means of a
pressure activated switch as the air demand varies. This is a very efficient method of control-
ling the capacity of compressor, where the motor idle-running losses are eliminated, as it com-
pletely switches off the motor when the set pressure is reached. This control is suitable for
small compressors.
Load and Unload:

This is a two-step control where compressor is loaded when there is air demand and unloaded
when there is no air demand. During unloading, a positive displacement compressor may con-
sume up to 30 % of the full load power, depending upon the type, configuration, operation and
maintenance practices.
Multi-step Control:
Large capacity reciprocating compressors are usually equipped with a multi-step control. In this
type of control, unloading is accomplished in a series of steps, (0%, 25 %, 50 %, 75 % & 100
%) varying from full load down to no-load (see Table 3.12).
TABLE 3.12 POWER CONSUMPTION OF A TYPICAL

RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR AT VARIOUS LOADS
Load % Power Consumption as % of full load Power

100 100
75 76 – 77
50 52 – 53
25 27 – 29
0 10 – 12
Throttling Control:
The capacity of centrifugal compressors can be controlled using variable inlet guide vanes.
However, another efficient way to match compressor output to meet varying load requirements
is by speed control (see Table 3.13).

TABLE 3.13 TYPICAL PART LOAD GAS COMPRESSION :POWER INPUT FOR
SPEED AND VANE CONTROL OF CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS
System Volume, % Power Input (%) Power Input (%)

Speed Control Vane Control
111 120 -
100 100 100
80 76 81
60 59 64
40 55 50
20 51 46
0 47 43
At low volumetric flow (below 40 %), vane control may result in lower power input com-
pared to speed control due to low efficiency of the speed control system. For loads more than
40 %, speed control is recommended.
Avoiding Misuse of Compressed Air:

Misuse of compressed air for purposes like body cleaning, liquid agitation, floor cleaning, dry-
ing, equipment cooling and other similar uses must be discouraged. Wherever possible, low-
pressure air from a blower should be substituted for compressed air, for example secondary air
for combustion in a boiler / furnace.
The following Table 3.14 gives an idea of savings by stopping use of compressed air by
choosing alternative methods to perform the same task.
• Electric motors can serve more efficiently than air-driven rotary devices, wherever applica-
ble. The Table gives the comparison of pneumatic grinders and electrical grinders.
TABLE 3.14 TYPICAL POWER REQUIREMENTS FOR PNEUMATIC AND

ELECTRICAL TOOLS
Tool Wheel dia mm Speed rpm Air Cons. m3/h Power kW

3
Pneumatic angle grinder 150 6000 102 m /h at 6 bar 10.2
Electric angle grinder 150 5700 – 8600 N.A. 1.95 – 2.90
3
Pneumatic jet grinder 35 30000 32.3 m /h at 6 bar 3.59
Electric straight grinder 25 22900 – 30500 N.A. 0.18
It may be noted that in some areas use of electric tools are not permitted due to safety con-
straints, especially places where inflammable vapours are present in the environment. It should
always be remembered that safety consideration always override energy conservation.

• In place of pneumatic hoists, electric hoists

can be used.
• Material conveying applications by blower
systems can be replaced preferably by a
combination of belt / screw conveyers and
bucket elevators. In a paper manufacturing
facility, compressed air was used for con-
veying wood chips. The equivalent power
consumption was 77 kW. This method of
conveying was replaced by blower system
consuming only 7 kW, a saving of 70 kW.
This has also been widely applied in
cement industry where pneumatic convey-
ing has been replaced by bucket and screw
conveyor resulting in significant energy
reduction.
• When moving air really is required for an
application, often sources other than com-
pressed air can do the job. For applications
like blowing of components, use of compressed air amplifiers (see Figure), blowers or grav-
ity-based systems may be possible. Brushes can sweep away debris from work in progress
as effectively as high-pressure air. Blowers can be also used for this purpose. Many appli-
cations do not require clean, dry, high-pressure and expensive 6 bar or 7 bar compressed air
rather, only moving air is needed to blow away debris, provide cooling, or other functions.
In these cases, local air fans or blowers may satisfy the need for moving air much econom-
ically. If a ¼" hose pipe is kept open at a 7 bar compressed air line for cleaning for at least
1000 hours / annum, it can cost about Rs. 1.0 lakhs / annum. If absolutely necessary, com-
pressed air should be used only with blow guns to keep the air pressure below 2 bar.
• For applications, where compressed air is indispensable for cleaning internal crevices of
machines etc., installation of a separate cleaning air header with a main isolation valve may
be considered. The main valve should be opened only for a few, well-defined time periods
during the whole day; no connections for cleaning should be provided from process or
equipment air lines.
• Replacement of pneumatically operated air cylinders by hydraulic power packs can be con-
sidered.
• Vacuum systems are much more efficient than expensive venturi methods, which use expen-
sive compressed air rushing past an orifice to create a vacuum.
• Mechanical stirrers, conveyers, and low-pressure air will mix materials far more economi-
cally than high-pressure compressed air.
Avoiding Air Leaks and Energy Wastage:

The major opportunity to save energy is in the prevention of leaks in the compressed air sys-
tem. Leaks frequently occur at air receivers, relief valves, pipe and hose joints, shut off valves,
quick release couplings, tools and equipment. In most cases, they are due to poor maintenance
and sometimes, improper installations etc.
Air leakages through Different Size Orifices

The Table 3.15 gives the amount of free air wasted for different nozzles sizes and pressure.
TABLE 3.15 DISCHARGE OF AIR (m3/MINUTE) THROUGH ORIFICE

(ORIFICE CONSTANT Cd – 1.0)
Gauge Pressure
Bar 0.5 mm 1 mm 2 mm 3 mm 5 mm 10 mm 12.5 mm
0.5 0.06 0.22 0.92 2.1 5.7 22.8 35.5
1.0 0.08 0.33 1.33 3.0 8.4 33.6 52.5
2.5 0.14 0.58 2.33 5.5 14.6 58.6 91.4
5.0 0.25 0.97 3.92 8.8 24.4 97.5 152.0
7.0 0.33 1.31 5.19 11.6 32.5 129.0 202.0
Cost of Compressed Air Leakage:

It may be seen from Table 3.16 that any expenditure on stopping leaks would be paid back
through energy saving.
TABLE 3.16 COST OF AIR LEAKAGE
Orifice Size mm kW Wasted * Cost of air leakage (Rs/Year)

0.8 0.2 8000
1.6 0.8 32000
3.1 3.0 120000
6.4 12.0 480000
* based on Rs. 5 / kWh; 8000 operating hours; air at 7.0 bar
Steps in simple shop-floor method for leak quantification

• Shut off compressed air operated equipments (or conduct test when no equipment is using
compressed air).
• Run the compressor to charge the system to set pressure of operation
• Note the sub-sequent time taken for 'load' and 'unload' cycles of the compressors. For accu-
racy, take ON & OFF times for 8 – 10 cycles continuously. Then calculate total 'ON' Time
(T) and Total 'OFF' time (t).
• The system leakage is calculated as:
T = Time on load in minutes

t = Time on unload in minutes

EXAMPLE
In the leakage test in a process industry, following results were observed
Compressor capacity (m3/minute) = 35
Cut in pressure, kg/cm2(g) = 6.8
2
Cut out pressure, kg/cm (g) = 7.5
Load kW drawn = 188 kW
Unload kW drawn = 54 kW
Average 'Load' time, T = 1.5 minutes
Average 'Unload' time, t = 10.5 minutes
Comment on leakage quantity and avoidable loss of power due to air leakages.
,q
4.375 m3/min
Leakage quantity
4.375 x 24 x 60 = 6300 m3/day
188 kW /(35 x 60)m3/hr
0.0895 x 6300 = 564 kWh
Leakage Detection by Ultrasonic Leak Detector:

Leakage tests are conducted by a Leak Detector having a sensing probe, which senses when
there are leakage in compressed air systems at high temperatures-beneath insulated coverings,
pipelines, manifolds etc.
The leak is detected by ultrasonic vibration. Leak testing is done by observing and locat-
ing sources of ultrasonic vibrations created by turbulent flow of gases passing through leaks in
pressurized or evacuated systems.
Line Moisture Separator and Traps

Although, in an ideal system, all cooling and condensing of air should be carried out before the
air leaves the receiver, this is not very often achieved in practice. The amount of condensation,
which takes place in the lines, depends on the efficiency of moisture extraction before the air
leaves the receiver and the temperature in the mains itself. In general, the air main should be
given a fall of not less than 1 m in 100 m in the direction of air flow, and the distance between
drainage points should not exceed 30m.
Drainage points should be provided using equal tees, as it assists in the separation of water.
Whenever a branch line is taken off from the mains it should leave at the top so that any water
in the main does not fall straight into the plant equipment. Further, the bottom of the falling
pipe should also be drained.
Compressed Air Filter

Although, some water, oil and dirt are removed by the separators and traps in the mains, still
some are always left, which are carried over along with compressed air. Moreover, pipe systems

accumulate scale and other foreign matters, such as small pieces of gasket material, jointing
compounds etc. Burnt compressor oil may also be carried over in pipe work, and this, with other
contaminants, forms a gummy substance. To remove these, all of which are liable to have harm-
ful effects on pneumatic equipment, the air should be filtered as near as possible to the point of
use. Water and oil collected in the filter sump must be drained off; because if the level is
allowed to build up, it is forced through the filter element into the very system it is designed to
protect.
Regulators
In many instances, pneumatic operations are to be carried out at a lower pressure than that of
the main supply. For these applications, pressure regulators are required to reduce the pressure
to the required value and also to ensure that it remains reasonably constant at the usage point.
Lubricators
Where air is used to drive prime movers, cylinders and valves, they should be fitted with a lubri-
cator. Essentially, a lubricator is a reservoir of oil and has been designed so that when air is
flowing, a metered amount of oil is fed in mist form into the air stream. This oil is carried with
the motive air, to the point of use to lubricate all moving parts. All lubricators require a certain
minimum rate of airflow to induce oil into their stream. It is advisable to install filters, regula-
tors and lubricators as close as possible to the equipment being served.
Air Dryers
There are certain applications where air must be free from moisture and have a lower dew point.
Dew point is the temperature at which moisture condenses. This calls for more sophisticated
and expensive methods to lower the dew point of compressed air. Three common types of air
dryers used are heat-less (absorption), adsorption and refrigerated dryers. They produce dry air
with -10°C to -40°C dew point, depending on the type of dryers. Refer Table 3.17 for moisture
content in air and Table 3.18 for typical pressure dew point and power consumption data for
dryers.
TABLE 3.17 MOISTURE CONTENT IN AIR
Dew point at Atmospheric Pressure °C Moisture Content, ppm

0 3800
–5 2500
–10 1600
–20 685
–30 234
–40 80
–60 6.5

TABLE 3.18 TYPICAL PRESSURE DEW POINT AND POWER

CONSUMPTION DATA FOR DRYERS
Type of Dryer Atmospheric First Cost Operating Power Cons.

Dew Point °C Cost For 1000 m3/hr
Refrigeration –20 Low Low 2.9 kW
Desiccant regenerative (by
compressed air purging) –20 Low High 20.7 kW
Desiccant regenerative (external
or internal heating with electrical or
steam heater, reduced or
no compressed air purging) –40 Medium Medium 18.0 kW
Desiccant regenerative (using
heated low pressure air, no
compressed air loss) –40 High Low 12.0 kW
Desiccant regenerative (by
recovery of heat of compression
from compressed air) –40 High Very low 0.8 kW
Air Receivers
The air receiver dampens pulsations entering the discharge line from the compressor; serves as
a reservoir for sudden or unusually heavy demands in excess of compressor capacity; prevents
too frequent loading and unloading (short cycling) of the compressor; and separates moisture
and oil vapour, allowing the moisture carried over from the after coolers to precipitate.
The air receiver should be generously sized to give a large cooling surface and even out the
pulsation in delivered air pressure from reciprocating compressor. Simple formulae often quot-
ed for air receiver size is to take a value equal to one minute's continuous output of the com-
pressor. However, this should be considered indicative of the minimum size of receiver.
Another approximation can be to size the receiver volume to be 5% of the rated hourly free
air output. Providing an air receiver near the load end, where there is sudden high demand last-
ing for a short period, would avoid the need to provide extra capacity.
Loss of air pressure due to friction

The loss of pressure in piping is caused by resistance in pipe fittings and valves, which dissi-
pates energy by producing turbulence. The piping system will be designed for a maximum
allowable pressure drop of 5 percent from the compressor to the most distant point of use.
Piping layout
Where possible the piping system should be arranged as a closed loop or "ring main" to allow
for more uniform air distribution to consumption points and to equalize pressure in the piping.
Separate services requiring heavy air consumption and at long distances from the compressor
unit should be supplied by separate main airlines. Pipes are to be installed parallel with the lines
of the building, with main and branch headers sloping down toward a dead end. Traps will be
installed in airlines at all low points and dead ends to remove condensed moisture. Automatic
moisture traps used for this purpose are effective only when the air has been cooled and the

moisture has precipitated. Branch headers from compressed air mains will be taken off at the
top to avoid picking up moisture.
Capacity Utilisation
In many installations, the use of air is intermittent. This means the compressor will be operat-
ed on low load or no load condition, which increases the specific power consumption per unit
of air generated. Hence, for optimum energy consumption, a proper compressor capacity con-
trol should be selected. The nature of the control device depends on the function to be regulat-
ed. One of the objectives of a good compressed air management system would be to minimize
unloading to the least as unloading consumes up to 30% of full load power.
One way of doing this is to use a smaller compressor.
Decentralized compressors, as against centralized compressors often serve this purpose bet-
ter by having the option to switch off when air is not need in a particular section/equipment.
If a compressor is oversized and operates at unloading mode for long periods, an economi-
cal way will be to suitably change the pulley size of the motor or compressor and reduce the
RPM to de-rate the compressor to a lower capacity.
With decreasing cost of variable speed drives, it has become a viable option to maintain
constant pressure in the system and to avoid unloading operations by varying the speed of the
compressor. However, caution should be taken for operations at very low speeds, since it will
affect the lubricating system. This can be overcome by providing a separate lube oil system
independent of the compressor.
3.6 Compressor Capacity Assessment

Due to ageing of the compressors and inherent inefficiencies in the internal components, the
free air delivered may be less than the design value, despite good maintenance practices.
Sometimes, other factors such as poor maintenance, fouled heat exchanger and effects of
altitude also tend to reduce free air delivery. In order to meet the air demand, the inefficient
compressor may have to run for more time, thus consuming more power than actually
required.
The power wastage depends on the percentage deviation of FAD capacity. For example, a worn
out compressor valve can reduce the compressor capacity by as much as 20 percent. A periodic
assessment of the FAD capacity of each compressor has to be carried out to check its actual capac-
ity. If the deviations are more than 10 %, corrective measures should be taken to rectify the same.
The ideal method of compressor capacity assessment is through a nozzle test wherein a cal-
ibrated nozzle is used as a load, to vent out the generated compressed air. Flow is assessed,
based on the air temperature, stabilization pressure, orifice constant. etc.
Simple method of Capacity Assessment in Shop floor

Isolate the compressor along with its individual receiver being taken for test from main com-
pressed air system by tightly closing the isolation valve or blanking it, thus closing the receiv-
er outlet.
Open water drain valve and drain out water fully and empty the receiver and the pipe line.
Make sure that water trap line is tightly closed once again to start the test. Start the compressor
and activate the stopwatch. Note the time taken to attain the normal operational pressure P2 (in
the receiver) from initial pressure P1.

Calculate the capacity as per the formulae given below :

Actual Free air discharge
Where
P2 = Final pressure after filling (kg/cm2 a)
P1 = Initial pressure (kg/cm2a) after bleeding
P0 = Atmospheric Pressure (kg/cm2 a)
V = Storage volume in m3 which includes receiver,
after cooler, and delivery piping
T = Time take to build up pressure to P2 in minutes
The above equation is relevant where the compressed air temperature is same as the ambi-
ent air temperature, i.e., perfect isothermal compression. In case the actual compressed air tem-
perature at discharge, say t20C is higher than ambient air temperature say t10C (as is usual case),
the FAD is to be corrected by a factor (273 + t1) / (273 + t2).
EXAMPLE
An instrument air compressor capacity test gave the following results (assume the final com-
pressed air temperature is same as the ambient temperature) - Comment?
7.79 + 0.4974 = 8.287m3
Time taken to build up pressure : 4.021 minutes
8.287
= 13.12 m3/minute
Capacity shortfall with respect to 14.75 m3/minute rating is 1.63 m3/minute i.e., 11.05%,
which indicates compressor performance needs to be investigated further.
3.7 Checklist for Energy Efficiency in Compressed Air System

• Ensure air intake to compressor is not warm and humid by locating compressors in well-
ventilated area or by drawing cold air from outside. Every 4°C rise in air inlet temperature
will increase power consumption by 1 percent.

• Clean air-inlet filters regularly. Compressor efficiency will be reduced by 2 percent for
every 250 mm WC pressure drop across the filter.
• Keep compressor valves in good condition by removing and inspecting once every six
months. Worn-out valves can reduce compressor efficiency by as much as 50 percent.
• Install manometers across the filter and monitor the pressure drop as a guide to replacement
of element.
• Minimize low-load compressor operation; if air demand is less than 50 percent of compres-
sor capacity, consider change over to a smaller compressor or reduce compressor speed
appropriately (by reducing motor pulley size) in case of belt driven compressors.
• Consider the use of regenerative air dryers, which uses the heat of compressed air to remove
moisture.
• Fouled inter-coolers reduce compressor efficiency and cause more water condensation in air
receivers and distribution lines resulting in increased corrosion. Periodic cleaning of inter-
coolers must be ensured.
• Compressor free air delivery test (FAD) must be done periodically to check the present
operating capacity against its design capacity and corrective steps must be taken if required.
• If more than one compressor is feeding to a common header, compressors must be operat-
ed in such a way that only one small compressor should handle the load variations whereas
other compressors will operate at full load.
• The possibility of heat recovery from hot compressed air to generate hot air or water for
process application must be economically analyzed in case of large compressors.
• Consideration should be given to two-stage or multistage compressor as it consumes less
power for the same air output than a single stage compressor.
• If pressure requirements for processes are widely different (e.g. 3 bar to 7 bar), it is advis-
able to have two separate compressed air systems.
• Reduce compressor delivery pressure, wherever possible, to save energy.
• Provide extra air receivers at points of high cyclic-air demand which permits operation
without extra compressor capacity.
• Retrofit with variable speed drives in big compressors, say over 100 kW, to eliminate the
`unloaded' running condition altogether.
• Keep the minimum possible range between load and unload pressure settings.
• Automatic timer controlled drain traps wastes compressed air every time the valve opens.
So frequency of drainage should be optimized.
• Check air compressor logs regularly for abnormal readings, especially motor current cool-
ing water flow and temperature, inter-stage and discharge pressures and temperatures and
compressor load-cycle.
• Compressed air leakage of 40 – 50 percent is not uncommon. Carry out periodic leak tests
to estimate the quantity of leakage.
• Install equipment interlocked solenoid cut-off valves in the air system so that air supply to
a machine can be switched off when not in use.
• Present energy prices justify liberal designs of pipeline sizes to reduce pressure drops.
• Compressed air piping layout should be made preferably as a ring main to provide desired
pressures for all users.
• A smaller dedicated compressor can be installed at load point, located far off from the cen-
tral compressor house, instead of supplying air through lengthy pipelines.

• All pneumatic equipment should be properly lubricated, which will reduce friction, prevent
wear of seals and other rubber parts thus preventing energy wastage due to excessive air
consumption or leakage.
• Misuse of compressed air such as for body cleaning, agitation, general floor cleaning, and
other similar applications must be discouraged in order to save compressed air and energy.
• Pneumatic equipment should not be operated above the recommended operating pressure as
this not only wastes energy bus can also lead to excessive wear of equipment's components
which leads to further energy wastage.
• Pneumatic transport can be replaced by mechanical system as the former consumed about 8
times more energy. Highest possibility of energy savings is by reducing compressed air use.
• Pneumatic tools such as drill and grinders consume about 20 times more energy than motor
driven tools. Hence they have to be used efficiently. Wherever possible, they should be
replaced with electrically operated tools.
• Where possible welding is a good practice and should be preferred over threaded connec-
tions.
• On account of high pressure drop, ball or plug or gate valves are preferable over globe
valves in compressed air lines.

QUESTIONS
1. The efficiency of compressed air system is around
a) 80% b) 60% c) 90% d) 10%
2. For instrumentation air needs, which of the following compressors are used:
a) Roots blower b) Lubricated screw c) Lubricated reciprocating d) Non-lubri-
cated compressor
3. Which of the following is not a rotary compressor?
a) Roots blower b) Screw c) Centrifugal d) Reciprocating
4. Which of the following compressors best meet high volume low pressure
requirements?
a) Reciprocating b) Screw c) Centrifugal d) Lobe
5. FAD refers to the compressed air discharge
a) at ISO stated conditions b) Inlet conditions c) at outlet conditions d) at STP
6. Isothermal efficiency is the ratio of isothermal power to
a) Motor power drawn b) isentropic power c) Shaft power d) theoretical power
7. Which of the following parameters are not required for evaluating volumetric
efficiency of the compressor?
a) Power b) Cylinder bore diameter c) stroke length d) FAD
8. The smoothening of the pulsating output of a reciprocating compressor is helped by
a) Receiver b) intercooler c) after cooler d) drain traps
9. Which of the following does not improve compressor performance ?
a) cool air intake b) clean air intake c) humid air intake d) lower elevation
10. The leak test results show load time of 5 seconds and unload time of 10 seconds. If
the compressor capacity is 100 cfm, then the leakage would be
a) 33 cfm b) 50 cfm c) 200 cfm d) 66 cfm
11. In a compressor capacity trial in a plant, following were the observations:
Receiver capacity : 10 m3
Initial pressure : 0.2 kg / cm2g
Final pressure : 6.0 kg / cm2g
Additional hold-up volume : 1.2 m3
Atmospheric pressure : 1.026 kg / cm2A
Compressor pump-up time : 4.26 minutes
Motor power consumption (avg.) : 98.6 kW
Calculate the operational capacity of compressor & specific power consumption
(neglect temperature correction)?
12. List the factors that affect energy efficiency in air compressors.
13. What are the methods of capacity control in reciprocating air compressors?
14. Briefly explain shopfloor method of air compressor capacity assessment.

15. What are the effects of moisture on compressed air?

16. Briefly explain the benefits of an air receiver.
17. A reciprocating V belt driven compressor was found to operating during normal fac-
tory operation with the following parameters:
Load pressure = 6 bar
Unload pressure = 8 bar
Load time = 3 minutes
Unload time = 1.5 minutes
Suggest possible energy saving opportunities on a short-term basis.
REFERENCES
1. Technology Menu for Energy Efficiency (NPC)
2. PCRA Publications on Compressed Air System
3. NPC Energy Audit Reports

4. HVAC AND REFRIGERATION SYSTEM
Syllabus
HVAC and Refrigeration System: Vapor compression refrigeration cycle, Refrigerants,
Coefficient of performance, Capacity, Factors affecting Refrigeration and Air conditioning
system performance and savings opportunities.
Vapor absorption refrigeration system: Working principle, Types and comparison with
vapor compression system, Saving potential
4.1 Introduction
The Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) and refrigeration system transfers the
heat energy from or to the products, or building environment. Energy in form of electricity or
heat is used to power mechanical equipment designed to transfer heat from a colder, low-ener-
gy level to a warmer, high-energy level.
Refrigeration deals with the transfer of heat from a low temperature level at the heat
source to a high temperature level at the heat sink by using a low boiling refrigerant.
There are several heat transfer loops in refrigeration system as described below:
Figure 4.1 Heat Transfer Loops In Refrigeration System
In the Figure 4.1, thermal energy moves from left to right as it is extracted from the space and
expelled into the outdoors through five loops of heat transfer:
– Indoor air loop. In the leftmost loop, indoor air is driven by the supply air fan through a cool-
ing coil, where it transfers its heat to chilled water. The cool air then cools the building space.
– Chilled water loop. Driven by the chilled water pump, water returns from the cooling coil
to the chiller’s evaporator to be re-cooled.
– Refrigerant loop. Using a phase-change refrigerant, the chiller’s compressor pumps heat
from the chilled water to the condenser water.
– Condenser water loop. Water absorbs heat from the chiller’s condenser, and the con-
denser water pump sends it to the cooling tower.
– Cooling tower loop. The cooling tower’s fan drives air across an open flow of the hot
condenser water, transferring the heat to the outdoors.

4. HVAC and Refrigeration System
Air-Conditioning Systems
Depending on applications, there are several options / combinations, which are available for use
as given below:
Air Conditioning (for comfort / machine)
Split air conditioners
Fan coil units in a larger system
Air handling units in a larger system
Refrigeration Systems (for processes)
Small capacity modular units of direct expansion type similar to domestic refrigerators,
small capacity refrigeration units.
Centralized chilled water plants with chilled water as a secondary coolant for temperature
range over 5°C typically. They can also be used for ice bank formation.
Brine plants, which use brines as lower temperature, secondary coolant, for typically sub
zero temperature applications, which come as modular unit capacities as well as large cen-
tralized plant capacities.
The plant capacities upto 50 TR are usually considered as small capacity, 50 – 250 TR as
medium capacity and over 250 TR as large capacity units.
A large industry may have a bank of such units, often with common chilled water pumps, con-
denser water pumps, cooling towers, as an off site utility.
The same industry may also have two or three levels of refrigeration & air conditioning such as:
Comfort air conditioning (20° – 25° C)
Chilled water system (8° – 10° C)
Brine system (sub-zero applications)
Two principle types of refrigeration plants found in industrial use are: Vapour Compression
Refrigeration (VCR) and Vapour Absorption Refrigeration (VAR). VCR uses mechanical ener-
gy as the driving force for refrigeration, while VAR uses thermal energy as the driving force for
refrigeration.
4.2 Types of Refrigeration System

Vapour Compression Refrigeration
Heat flows naturally from a hot to a colder body. In refrigeration system the opposite must occur
i.e. heat flows from a cold to a hotter body. This is achieved by using a substance called a refrig-
erant, which absorbs heat and hence boils or evaporates at a low pressure to form a gas. This
gas is then compressed to a higher pressure, such that it transfers the heat it has gained to ambi-
ent air or water and turns back (condenses) into a liquid. In this way heat is absorbed, or
removed, from a low temperature source and transferred to a higher temperature source.
The refrigeration cycle can be broken down into the following stages (see Figure 4.2):
1 – 2 Low pressure liquid refrigerant in the evaporator absorbs heat from its surroundings,
usually air, water or some other process liquid. During this process it changes its state from a
liquid to a gas, and at the evaporator exit is slightly superheated.

2 – 3 The superheated vapour enters the compressor where its pressure is raised. There will
also be a big increase in temperature, because a proportion of the energy input into the com-
pression process is transferred to the refrigerant.
3 – 4 The high pressure superheated gas passes from the compressor into the condenser. The
initial part of the cooling process (3 - 3a) desuperheats the gas before it is then turned back into
liquid (3a - 3b). The cooling for this process is usually achieved by using air or water. A further
reduction in temperature happens in the pipe work and liquid receiver (3b - 4), so that the refrig-
erant liquid is sub-cooled as it enters the expansion device.
4 – 1 The high-pressure sub-cooled liquid passes through the expansion device, which both
reduces its pressure and controls the flow into the evaporator.
Figure 4.2: Schematic of a Basic Vapor Compression Refrigeration System
It can be seen that the condenser has to be capable of rejecting the combined heat inputs of the
evaporator and the compressor; i.e. (1 – 2) + (2 – 3) has to be the same as (3 – 4). There is no
heat loss or gain through the expansion device.
Alternative Refrigerants for Vapour Compression Systems

The use of CFCs is now beginning to be phased out due to their damaging impact on the pro-
tective tropospheric ozone layer around the earth. The Montreal Protocol of 1987 and the
subsequent Copenhagen agreement of 1992 mandate a reduction in the production of ozone
depleting Chlorinated Fluorocarbon (CFC) refrigerants in a phased manner, with an eventu-
al stop to all production by the year 1996. In response, the refrigeration industry has devel-
oped two alternative refrigerants; one based on Hydrochloro Fluorocarbon (HCFC), and
another based on Hydro Fluorocarbon (HFC). The HCFCs have a 2 to 10% ozone depleting
potential as compared to CFCs and also, they have an atmospheric lifetime between 2 to 25
years as compared to 100 or more years for CFCs (Brandt, 1992). However, even HCFCs

are mandated to be phased out by 2005, and only the chlorine free (zero ozone depletion)
HFCs would be acceptable.
Until now, only one HFC based refrigerant, HFC 134a, has been developed. HCFCs are
comparatively simpler to produce and the three refrigerants 22, 123, and 124 have been devel-
oped. The use of HFCs and HCFCs results in slightly lower efficiencies as compared to CFCs,
but this may change with increasing efforts being made to replace CFCs.
Absorption Refrigeration
The absorption chiller is a machine, which produces chilled water by using heat such as steam,
hot water, gas, oil etc. Chilled water is produced by the principle that liquid (refrigerant), which
evaporates at low temperature, absorbs heat from surrounding when it evaporates. Pure water
is used as refrigerant and lithium bromide solution is used as absorbent
Heat for the vapour absorption refrigeration system can be provided by waste heat extract-
ed from process, diesel generator sets etc. Absorption systems require electricity to run pumps
only. Depending on the temperature required and the power cost, it may even be economical to
generate heat / steam to operate the absorption system.
Description of the absorption refrigeration concept is given below:
The refrigerant (water) evaporates at

around 4°C under the high vacuum con-
dition of 754mmHg in the evaporator.
When the refrigerant (water) evaporates,
the latent heat of vaporization takes the
heat from incoming chilled water.
This latent heat of vaporization can cool
the chilled water which runs into the heat
exchanger tubes in the evaporator by
transfer of heat to the refrigerant (water).
In order to keep evaporating, the

refrigerant vapor must be discharged
from the evaporator and refrigerant
(water) must be supplied. The refriger-
ant vapor is absorbed into lithium bro-
mide solution which is convenient to
absorb the refrigerant vapor in the
absorber. The heat generated in the
absorption process is led out of system
by cooling water continually. The
absorption also maintains the vacuum
inside the evaporator.

As lithium bromide solution is diluted,

the effect to absorb the refrigerant
vapor reduces. In order to keep
absorption process, the diluted lithium
bromide solution must be made
concentrated lithium bromide.
Absorption chiller is provided with the
solution concentrating system by the
heating media such as steam, hot
water, gas, oil, which performs such
function is called generator.
The concentrated solution flows into
the absorber and absorbs the refriger-
ant vapor again.
In order to carryout above works con-

tinually and to make complete cycle,
the following two functions are
required.
(1) To concentrate and liquefy the
evaporated refrigerant vapor,
which is generated in the high
pressure generator.
(2) To supply the condensed water to
the evaporator as refrigerant
(water) For this function,
condenser is installed.
A typical schematic of the absorption refrigeration system is given in the Figure 4.3.
Li-Br-water absorption refrigeration systems have a Coefficient of Performance (COP) in
the range of 0.65 – 0.70 and can provide chilled water at 6.7 °C with a cooling water
temperature of 30°C. Systems capable of providing chilled water at 3 °C are also available.
Ammonia based systems operate at above atmospheric pressures and are capable of low tem-
perature operation (below 0°C). Absorption machines of capacities in the range of 10–1500 tons
are available. Although the initial cost of absorption system is higher than compression system,
operational cost is much lower-if waste heat is used.

Figure 4.3 Schematic of Absorption Refrigeration System
Evaporative Cooling
There are occasions where air conditioning, which stipulates control of humidity up to 50 % for
human comfort or for process, can be replaced by a much cheaper and less energy intensive
evaporative cooling.
The concept is very simple and is the same as that used in a cooling tower. Air is brought
in close contact with water to cool it to a temperature close to the wet bulb temperature. The
cool air can be used for comfort or process cooling. The disadvantage is that the air is rich in
moisture. Nevertheless, it is an extremely efficient means of cooling at very low cost. Large
commercial systems employ cellulose filled pads over which water is sprayed. The temperature
can be controlled by controlling the airflow and the water circulation rate. The possibility of
evaporative cooling is especially attractive for comfort cooling in dry regions. This principle is
practiced in textile industries for certain processes.
4.3 Common Refrigerants and Properties

A variety of refrigerants are used in vapor compression systems. The choice of fluid is deter-
mined largely by the cooling temperature required. Commonly used refrigerants are in the fam-
ily of chlorinated fluorocarbons (CFCs, also called Freons): R-11, R-12, R-21, R-22 and R-502.
The properties of these refrigerants are summarized in Table 4.1 and the performance of these
refrigerants is given in Table 4.2.

TABLE 4.1 PROPERTIES OF COMMONLY USED REFRIGERANTS
Refrigerant Boiling Freezing Vapor Vapor Enthalpy *

Point ** Point (°C) Pressure * Volume * Liquid Vapor
(°C) (kPa) (m3 / kg) (kJ / kg) (kJ / kg)
R - 11 -23.82 -111.0 25.73 0.61170 191.40 385.43
R - 12 -29.79 -158.0 219.28 0.07702 190.72 347.96
R - 22 -40.76 -160.0 354.74 0.06513 188.55 400.83
R - 502 -45.40 --- 414.30 0.04234 188.87 342.31
R-7 -33.30 -77.7 289.93 0.41949 808.71 487.76
(Ammonia)
* At -10°C
** At Standard Atmospheric Pressure (101.325 kPa)
TABLE 4.2 PERFORMANCE OF COMMONLY USED REFRIGERANTS*
Refrigerant Evaporating Condensing Pressure Vapor COP**carnot

Press (kPa) Press (kPa) Ratio Enthalpy
(kJ / kg)
R - 11 20.4 125.5 6.15 155.4 5.03
R - 12 182.7 744.6 4.08 116.3 4.70
R - 22 295.8 1192.1 4.03 162.8 4.66
R - 502 349.6 1308.6 3.74 106.2 4.37
R - 717 236.5 1166.5 4.93 103.4 4.78
* At -15°C Evaporator Temperature, and 30°C Condenser Temperature
** COPcarnot = Coefficient of Performance = Temp.Evap. / (Temp.Cond. -TempEvap. )
The choice of refrigerant and the required cooling temperature and load determine the choice
of compressor, as well as the design of the condenser, evaporator, and other auxiliaries.
Additional factors such as ease of maintenance, physical space requirements and availability of
utilities for auxiliaries (water, power, etc.) also influence component selection.
4.4 Compressor Types and Application

For industrial use, open type systems (compressor and motor as separate units) are normally
used, though hermetic systems (motor and compressor in a sealed unit) also find service in
some low capacity applications. Hermetic systems are used in refrigerators, air conditioners,
and other low capacity applications. Industrial applications largely employ reciprocating, cen-
trifugal and, more recently, screw compressors, and scroll compressors. Water-cooled systems
are more efficient than air-cooled alternatives because the temperatures produced by refrigerant
condensation are lower with water than with air.

Centrifugal Compressors
Centrifugal compressors are the most efficient type (see
Figure 4.4) when they are operating near full load. Their
efficiency advantage is greatest in large sizes, and they
offer considerable economy of scale, so they dominate the
market for large chillers. They are able to use a wide range
of refrigerants efficiently, so they will probably continue to
be the dominant type in large sizes.
Centrifugal compressors have a single major moving
part - an impeller that compresses the refrigerant gas by Figure 4.4 Centrifugal Compressor
centrifugal force. The gas is given kinetic energy as it flows
through the impeller. This kinetic energy is not useful in itself, so it must be converted to pres-
sure energy. This is done by allowing the gas to slow down smoothly in a stationary diffuser
surrounding the impeller.
To minimize efficiency loss at reduced loads, centrifugal compressors typically throttle out-
put with inlet guide vanes located at the inlet to the impeller(s). This method is efficient down
to about 50% load, but the efficiency of this method decreases rapidly below 50% load.
Older centrifugal machines are not able to reduce load much below 50%. This is because of
“surge” in the impeller. As the flow through the impeller is choked off, the gas does not acquire
enough energy to overcome the discharge pressure. Flow drops abruptly at this point, and an
oscillation begins as the gas flutters back and forth in the impeller. Efficiency drops abruptly,
and the resulting vibration can damage the machine. Many older centrifugal machines deal with
low loads by creating a false load on the system, such as by using hot gas bypass. This wastes
the portion of the cooling output that is not required.
Another approach is to use variable-speed drives in combination with inlet guide vanes.
This may allow the compressor to throttle down to about 20% of full load, or less, without false
loading. Changing the impeller speed causes a departure from optimum performance, so effi-
ciency still declines badly at low loads. A compressor that uses a variable-speed drive reduces
its output in the range between full load and approximately half load by slowing the impeller
speed. At lower loads, the impeller cannot be slowed further, because the discharge pressure
would become too low to condense the refrigerant. Below the minimum load provided by the
variable-speed drive, inlet guide vanes are used to provide further capacity reduction.
Reciprocating Compressors
The maximum efficiency of reciprocating com-
pressors (see Figure 4.5) is lower than that of cen-
trifugal and screw compressors. Efficiency is
reduced by clearance volume (the compressed gas
volume that is left at the top of the piston stroke),
throttling losses at the intake and discharge
valves, abrupt changes in gas flow, and friction.
Lower efficiency also results from the smaller
sizes of reciprocating units, because motor losses
and friction account for a larger fraction of energy
input in smaller systems. Figure 4.5 Reciprocating Compressor

Reciprocating compressors suffer less efficiency loss at partial loads than other types, and they
may actually have a higher absolute efficiency at low loads than the other types. Smaller recipro-
cating compressors control output by turning on and off. This eliminates all part-load losses, except
for a short period of inefficient operation when the machine starts.
Larger multi-cylinder reciprocating compressors commonly reduce output by disabling
(“unloading”) individual cylinders. When the load falls to the point that even one cylinder provides
too much capacity, the machine turns off. Several methods of cylinder unloading are used, and they
differ in efficiency. The most common is holding open the intake valves of the unloaded cylinders.
This eliminates most of the work of compression, but a small amount of power is still wasted in
pumping refrigerant gas to-and-fro through the unloaded cylinders. Another method is blocking gas
flow to the unloaded cylinders, which is called “suction cutoff.”
Variable-speed drives can be used with reciprocating compressors, eliminating the complica-
tions of cylinder unloading. This method is gaining popularity with the drastic reduction in costs of
variable speed drives.
Screw Compressors
Screw compressors, sometimes called “helical rotary” compres-
sors, compress refrigerant by trapping it in the “threads” of a rotat-
ing screw-shaped rotor (see Figure 4.6). Screw compressors have
increasingly taken over from reciprocating compressors of medium
sizes and large sizes, and they have even entered the size domain of Figure 4.6 Screw Compressor
centrifugal machines. Screw compressors are applicable to refrig-
erants that have higher condensing pressures, such as HCFC-22
and ammonia. They are especially compact. A variety of methods are used to control the output of
screw compressors. There are major efficiency differences among the different methods. The most
common is a slide valve that forms a portion of the housing that surrounds the screws.
Using a variable-speed drive is another method of capacity control. It is limited to oil-injected
compressors, because slowing the speed of a dry compressor would allow excessive internal leak-
age. There are other methods of reducing capacity, such as suction throttling that are inherently less
efficient than the previous two.
Scroll Compressors
The scroll compressor is an old invention that has finally come
to the market. The gas is compressed between two scroll-shaped
vanes. One of the vanes is fixed, and the other moves within it.
The moving vane does not rotate, but its center revolves with
respect to the center of the fixed vane, as shown in Figure 4.7.
This motion squeezes the refrigerant gas along a spiral path,
from the outside of the vanes toward the center, where the dis-
charge port is located. The compressor has only two moving
parts, the moving vane and a shaft with an off-center crank to
drive the moving vane. Scroll compressors have only recently
become practical, because close machining tolerances are need-
ed to prevent leakage between the vanes, and between the vanes
and the casing. Figure 4.7 Scroll Compressor
The features of various refrigeration compressors and application criteria are given in the Table 4.3.

TABLE 4.3 COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF REFRIGERATION PLANTS

80


4.5 Selection of a Suitable Refrigeration System

A clear understanding of the cooling load to be met is the first and most important part of design-
ing / selecting the components of a refrigeration system. Important factors to be considered in quan-
tifying the load are the actual cooling need, heat (cool) leaks, and internal heat sources (from all
heat generating equipment). Consideration should also be given to process changes and / or
changes in ambient conditions that might affect the load in the future. Reducing the load, e.g.
through better insulation, maintaining as high a cooling temperature as practical, etc. is the first step
toward minimizing electrical power required to meet refrigeration needs. With a quantitative
understanding of the required temperatures and the maximum, minimum, and average expected
cooling demands, selection of appropriate refrigeration system (single-stage / multi-stage, econo-
mized compression, compound / cascade operation, direct cooling / secondary coolants) and equip-
ment (type of refrigerant, compressor, evaporator, condenser, etc.) can be undertaken.
4.6 Performance Assessment of Refrigeration Plants

● The cooling effect produced is quantified as tons of refrigeration.(TR).
1 TR of refrigeration = 3024 kCal/hr heat rejected.
● The refrigeration TR is assessed as TR = Q x Cp x (Ti – To) / 3024
Where Q is mass flow rate of coolant in kg/hr
Cp is coolant specific heat in kCal /kg deg C
Ti is inlet, temperature of coolant to evaporator (chiller) in °C
To is outlet temperature of coolant from evaporator (chiller) in °C.
The above TR is also called as chiller tonnage.
● The specific power consumption kW/TR is a useful indicator of the performance of
refrigeration system. By measuring refrigeration duty performed in TR and the
kiloWatt inputs, kW/TR is used as a reference energy performance indicator.
● In a centralized chilled water system, apart from the compressor unit, power is also
consumed by the chilled water (secondary) coolant pump as well condenser water
(for heat rejection to cooling tower) pump and cooling tower fan in the cooling tower.
Effectively, the overall energy consumption would be towards:
– Compressor kW
– Chilled water pump kW
– Condenser water pump kW
– Cooling tower fan kW, for induced / forced draft towers
● The specific power consumption for certain TR output would therefore have to include:
Compressor kW/TR
Chilled water pump kW/TR
Condenser water pump kW/TR
Cooling tower fan kW/TR
The overall kW/TR is the sum of the above.

The theoretical Coefficient of Performance (Carnot), COPCarnot - a standard measure of

refrigeration efficiency of an ideal refrigeration system- depends on two key system tempera-
tures, namely, evaporator temperature Te and condenser temperature Tc with COP being given
as:
COPCarnot = Te / (Tc - Te)
This expression also indicates that higher COPCarnot is achieved with higher evaporator tem-
perature and lower condenser temperature.
But COPCarnot is only a ratio of temperatures, and hence does not take into account the type
of compressor. Hence the COP normally used in the industry is given by
Cooling effect (kW)

COP =
Power input to compressor (kW)
where the cooling effect is the difference in enthalpy across the evaporator and expressed
as kW. The effect of evaporating and condensing temperatures are given in the Figure 4.8 and
Figure 4.9 below:
Figure 4.8 Effect Of Evaporator Figure 4.9 Effect of Condensing

Temperature On Chiller COP Temperature On Chiller COP
In the field performance assessment, accurate instruments for inlet and outlet chilled water
temperature and condenser water temperature measurement are required, preferably with a least
count of 0.1°C. Flow measurements of chilled water can be made by an ultrasonic flow meter
directly or inferred from pump duty parameters. Adequacy check of chilled water is needed
often and most units are designed for a typical 0.68 m3/hr per TR (3 gpm/TR) chilled water
flow. Condenser water flow measurement can also be made by a non-contact flow meter direct-
ly or inferred from pump duty parameters. Adequacy check of condenser water is also needed
often, and most units are designed for a typical 0.91 m3/hr per TR (4 gpm / TR) condenser water
flow.
In case of air conditioning units, the airflow at the Fan Coil Units (FCU) or the Air Handling
Units (AHU) can be measured with an anemometer. Dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures are

measured at the inlet and outlet of AHU or the FCU and the refrigeration load in TR is assessed
as ;
Q × ρ × (hin – hout)
TR =
3024
Where, Q is the air flow in m3/h

ρ is density of air kg/m3
hin is enthalpy of inlet air kCal/kg
hout is enthalpy of outlet air kCal/kg
Use of psychometric charts can help to calculate hin and hout from dry bulb, wet bulb tem-
perature values which are, in-turn measured, during trials, by a whirling psychrometer.
Power measurements at, compressor, pumps, AHU fans, cooling tower fans can be accom-
plished by a portable load analyzer.
Estimation of air conditioning load is also possible by calculating various heat loads, sensi-
ble and latent based on inlet and outlet air parameters, air ingress factors, air flow, no. of peo-
ple and type of materials stored.
An indicative TR load profile for air conditioning is presented as follows:
Small office cabins = 0.1 TR /m2
Medium size office i.e., = 0.06 TR/ m2
10 – 30 people occupancy
with central A/C
Large multistoried office = 0.04 TR/ m2
complexes with central A/C
Integrated Part Load Value (IPLV)

Although the kW/ TR can serve as an initial reference, it should not be taken as an absolute
since this value is derived from 100% of the equipment's capacity level and is based on
design conditions that are considered the most critical. These conditions occur may be, for
example, during only 1% of the total time the equipment is in operation throughout the year.
Consequently, it is essential to have data that reflects how the equipment operates with par-
tial loads or in conditions that demand less than 100% of its capacity. To overcome this, an
average of kW/TR with partial loads ie Integrated Part Load Value (IPLV) have to be
formulated.
The IPLV is the most appropriate reference, although not considered the best, because it
only captures four points within the operational cycle: 100%, 75%, 50% and 25%.
Furthermore, it assigns the same weight to each value, and most equipment usually operates
at between 50 % and 75% of its capacity. This is why it is so important to prepare specific
analysis for each case that addresses the four points already mentioned, as well as develop-
ing a profile of the heat exchanger's operations during the year.

4.7 Factors Affecting Performance & Energy Efficiency of Refrigeration

Plants
Design of Process Heat Exchangers

There is a tendency of the process group to operate with high safety margins which influences
the compressor suction pressure / evaporator set point. For instance, a process cooling require-
ment of 15°C would need chilled water at a lower temperature, but the range can vary from 6°C
to say 10°C. At 10°C chilled water temperature, the refrigerant side temperature has to be
lower, say –5°C to +5°C. The refrigerant temperature, again sets the corresponding suction
pressure of refrigerant which decides the inlet duty conditions for work of compression of the
refrigerant compressor. Having the optimum / minimum driving force (temperature difference)
can, thus, help to achieve highest possible suction pressure at the compressor, thereby leading
to less energy requirement. This requires proper sizing of heat transfer areas of process heat
exchangers and evaporators as well as rationalizing the temperature requirement to highest pos-
sible value. A 1°C raise in evaporator temperature can help to save almost 3 % on power con-
sumption. The TR capacity of the same machine will also increase with the evaporator temper-
ature, as given in Table 4.4.
TABLE 4.4 EFFECT OF VARIATION IN EVAPORATOR TEMPERATURE

ON COMPRESSOR POWER CONSUMPTION
Evaporator Refrigeration Specific Power Increase in

Temperature (°C) Capacity* Consumption kW/ton (%)
(tons)
5.0 67.58 0.81 -
0.0 56.07 0.94 16.0
-5.0 45.98 1.08 33.0
-10.0 37.20 1.25 54.0
-20.0 23.12 1.67 106.0
* Condenser temperature 40°C
Towards rationalizing the heat transfer areas, the heat transfer coefficient on refrigerant side can
be considered to range from 1400 – 2800 watts /m2K.
The refrigerant side heat transfer areas provided are of the order of 0.5 Sqm./TR and above
in evaporators.
Condensers in a refrigeration plant are critical equipment that influence the TR capacity
and power consumption demands. Given a refrigerant, the condensing temperature and cor-
responding condenser pressure, depend upon the heat transfer area provided, effectiveness
of heat exchange and the type of cooling chosen. A lower condensing temperature, pressure,
in best of combinations would mean that the compressor has to work between a lower pres-
sure differential as the discharge pressure is fixed by design and performance of the con-
denser. The choices of condensers in practice range from air cooled, air cooled with water

spray, and heat exchanger cooled. Generously sized shell and tube heat exchangers as con-
densers, with good cooling tower operations help to operate with low discharge pressure val-
ues and the TR capacity of the refrigeration plant also improves. With same refrigerant,
R22, a discharge pressure of 15 kg/cm2 with water cooled shell and tube condenser and 20
kg/cm2 with air cooled condenser indicate the kind of additional work of compression duty
and almost 30 % additional energy consumption required by the plant. One of the best
option at design stage would be to select generously sized (0.65 m2/TR and above) shell and
tube condensers with water-cooling as against cheaper alternatives like air cooled con-
densers or water spray atmospheric condenser units.
The effect of condenser temperature on refrigeration plant energy requirements is given
in Table 4.5.
TABLE 4.5 EFFECT OF VARIATION IN CONDENSER TEMPERATURE

ON COMPRESSOR POWER CONSUMPTION
Condensing Refrigeration Specific Power Increase in

Temperature (°C) Capacity (tons) Consumption (kW / TR)
kW/TR (%)
26.7 31.5 1.17 -
35.0 21.4 1.27 8.5
40.0 20.0 1.41 20.5
* Reciprocating compressor using R-22 refrigerant.
Evaporator temperature.-10°C
Maintenance of Heat Exchanger Surfaces

After ensuring procurement, effective maintenance holds the key to optimizing power con-
sumption.
Heat transfer can also be improved by ensuring proper separation of the lubricating oil and
the refrigerant, timely defrosting of coils, and increasing the velocity of the secondary coolant
(air, water, etc.). However, increased velocity results in larger pressure drops in the distribution
system and higher power consumption in pumps / fans. Therefore, careful analysis is required
to determine the most effective and efficient option.
Fouled condenser tubes force the compressor to work harder to attain the desired capac-
ity. For example, a 0.8 mm scale build-up on condenser tubes can increase energy con-
sumption by as much as 35 %. Similarly, fouled evaporators (due to residual lubricating oil
or infiltration of air) result in increased power consumption. Equally important is proper
selection, sizing, and maintenance of cooling towers. A reduction of 0.55°C temperature in
water returning from the cooling tower reduces compressor power consumption by 3.0 %
(see Table 4.6).

TABLE 4.6 EFFECT OF POOR MAINTENANCE ON COMPRESSOR POWER

CONSUMPTION
Condition Evap. Temp Cond. Refrigeration Specific Power Increase in

(°C) Temp Capacity* (tons) Consumption (kW/ton)
(°C) kW/Ton (%)
Normal 7.2 40.5 17.0 0.69 -
Dirty condenser 7.2 46.1 15.6 0.84 20.4
Dirty evaporator 1.7 40.5 13.8 0.82 18.3
Dirty condenser 1.7 46.1 12.7 0.96 38.7
and evaporator
* 15 ton reciprocating compressor based system. The power consumption is lower than that for
systems typically available in India. However, the percentage change in power consumption
is indicative of the effect of poor maintenance.
Multi-Staging For Efficiency

Efficient compressor operation requires that the compression ratio be kept low, to reduce discharge
pressure and temperature. For low temperature applications involving high compression ratios, and
for wide temperature requirements, it is preferable (due to equipment design limitations) and often
economical to employ multi-stage reciprocating machines or centrifugal / screw compressors.
Multi-staging systems are of two-types: compound and cascade – and are applicable to all types
of compressors. With reciprocating or rotary compressors, two-stage compressors are prefer-
able for load temperatures from –20 to –58°C, and with centrifugal machines for temperatures
around –43°C.
In multi-stage operation, a first-stage compressor, sized to meet the cooling load, feeds into
the suction of a second-stage compressor after inter-cooling of the gas. A part of the high-pres-
sure liquid from the condenser is flashed and used for liquid sub-cooling. The second com-
pressor, therefore, has to meet the load of the evaporator and the flash gas. A single refrigerant
is used in the system, and the work of compression is shared equally by the two compressors.
Therefore, two compressors with low compression ratios can in combination provide a high
compression ratio.
For temperatures in the range of –46°C to –101°C, cascaded systems are preferable. In this
system, two separate systems using different refrigerants are connected such that one provides
the means of heat rejection to the other. The chief advantage of this system is that a low tem-
perature refrigerant which has a high suction temperature and low specific volume can be
selected for the low-stage to meet very low temperature requirements.
Matching Capacity to System Load

During part-load operation, the evaporator temperature rises and the condenser temperature
falls, effectively increasing the COP. But at the same time, deviation from the design operation
point and the fact that mechanical losses form a greater proportion of the total power negate the
effect of improved COP, resulting in lower part-load efficiency.
Therefore, consideration of part-load operation is important, because most refrigeration
applications have varying loads. The load may vary due to variations in temperature and process

cooling needs. Matching refrigeration capacity to the load is a difficult exercise, requiring
knowledge of compressor performance, and variations in ambient conditions, and detailed
knowledge of the cooling load.
Capacity Control and Energy Efficiency

The capacity of compressors is controlled in a number of ways. Capacity control of reciprocating
compressors through cylinder unloading results in incremental (step-by-step) modulation as against
continuous capacity modulation of centrifugal through vane control and screw compressors
through sliding valves. Therefore, temperature control requires careful system design. Usually,
when using reciprocating compressors in applications with widely varying loads, it is desirable to
control the compressor by monitoring the return water (or other secondary coolant) temperature
rather than the temperature of the water leaving the chiller. This prevents excessive on-off cycling
or unnecessary loading / unloading of the compressor. However, if load fluctuations are not high,
the temperature of the water leaving the chiller should be monitored. This has the advantage of pre-
venting operation at very low water temperatures, especially when flow reduces at low loads. The
leaving water temperature should be monitored for centrifugal and screw chillers.
Capacity regulation through speed control is the most efficient option. However, when
employing speed control for reciprocating compressors, it should be ensured that the lubrica-
tion system is not affected. In the case of centrifugal compressors, it is usually desirable to
restrict speed control to about 50 % of the capacity to prevent surging. Below 50 %, vane con-
trol or hot gas bypass can be used for capacity modulation.
The efficiency of screw compressors operating at part load is generally higher than either
centrifugal compressors or reciprocating compressors, which may make them attractive in sit-
uations where part-load operation is common. Screw compressor performance can be optimized
by changing the volume ratio. In some cases, this may result in higher full-load efficiencies as
compared to reciprocating and centrifugal compressors. Also, the ability of screw compressors
to tolerate oil and liquid refrigerant slugs makes them preferred in some situations.
Multi-level Refrigeration for Plant Needs

The selection of refrigeration systems also depends on the range of temperatures required in the
plant. For diverse applications requiring a wide range of temperatures, it is generally more eco-
nomical to provide several packaged units (several units distributed throughout the plant)
instead of one large central plant. Another advantage would be the flexibility and reliability
accorded. The selection of packaged units could also be made depending on the distance at
which cooling loads need to be met. Packaged units at load centers reduce distribution losses in
the system. Despite the advantages of packaged units, central plants generally have lower power
consumption since at reduced loads power consumption can reduce significantly due to the
large condenser and evaporator surfaces.
Many industries use a bank of compressors at a central location to meet the load. Usually
the chillers feed into a common header from which branch lines are taken to different locations
in the plant. In such situations, operation at part-load requires extreme care. For efficient oper-
ation, the cooling load, and the load on each chiller must be monitored closely. It is more effi-
cient to operate a single chiller at full load than to operate two chillers at part-load. The distri-
bution system should be designed such that individual chillers can feed all branch lines.
Isolation valves must be provided to ensure that chilled water (or other coolant) does not flow

through chillers not in operation. Valves should also be provided on branch lines to isolate sec-
tions where cooling is not required. This reduces pressure drops in the system and reduces
power consumption in the pumping system. Individual compressors should be loaded to their
full capacity before operating the second compressor. In some cases it is economical to provide
a separate smaller capacity chiller, which can be operated on an on-off control to meet peak
demands, with larger chillers meeting the base load.
Flow control is also commonly used to meet varying demands. In such cases the savings in
pumping at reduced flow should be weighed against the reduced heat transfer in coils due to
reduced velocity. In some cases, operation at normal flow rates, with subsequent longer periods
of no-load (or shut-off) operation of the compressor, may result in larger savings.
Chilled Water Storage

Depending on the nature of the load, it is economical to provide a chilled water storage facili-
ty with very good cold insulation. Also, the storage facility can be fully filled to meet the
process requirements so that chillers need not be operated continuously. This system is usually
economical if small variations in temperature are acceptable. This system has the added advan-
tage of allowing the chillers to be operated at periods of low electricity demand to reduce peak
demand charges - Low tariffs offered by some electric utilities for operation at night time can
also be taken advantage of by using a storage facility. An added benefit is that lower ambient
temperature at night lowers condenser temperature and thereby increases the COP.
If temperature variations cannot be tolerated, it may not be economical to provide a storage
facility since the secondary coolant would have to be stored at a temperature much lower than
required to provide for heat gain. The additional cost of cooling to a lower temperature may
offset the benefits. The solutions are case specific. For example, in some cases it may be pos-
sible to employ large heat exchangers, at a lower cost burden than low temperature chiller oper-
ation, to take advantage of the storage facility even when temperature variations are not accept-
able. Ice bank system which store ice rather than water are often economical.
System Design Features

In overall plant design, adoption of good practices improves the energy efficiency significant-
ly. Some areas for consideration are:
Design of cooling towers with FRP impellers and film fills, PVC drift eliminators, etc.
Use of softened water for condensers in place of raw water.
Use of economic insulation thickness on cold lines, heat exchangers, considering
cost of heat gains and adopting practices like infrared thermography for monitoring
- applicable especially in large chemical / fertilizer / process industry.
Adoption of roof coatings / cooling systems, false ceilings / as applicable, to mini-
mize refrigeration load.
Adoption of energy efficient heat recovery devices like air to air heat exchangers to
pre-cool the fresh air by indirect heat exchange; control of relative humidity through
indirect heat exchange rather than use of duct heaters after chilling.
Adopting of variable air volume systems; adopting of sun film application for heat
reflection; optimizing lighting loads in the air conditioned areas; optimizing number
of air changes in the air conditioned areas are few other examples.

a) Cold Insulation
Insulate all cold lines / vessels using economic insulation thickness to minimize heat gains; and
choose appropriate (correct) insulation.
b) Building Envelope
Optimise air conditioning volumes by measures such as use of false ceiling and segregation of
critical areas for air conditioning by air curtains.
c) Building Heat Loads Minimisation

Minimise the air conditioning loads by measures such as roof cooling, roof painting, efficient
lighting, pre-cooling of fresh air by air- to-air heat exchangers, variable volume air system, otpi-
mal thermo-static setting of temperature of air conditioned spaces, sun film applications, etc.
e) Process Heat Loads Minimisation

Minimize process heat loads in terms of TR capacity as well as refrigeration level, i.e., tem-
perature required, by way of:
i) Flow optimization
ii) Heat transfer area increase to accept higher temperature coolant
iii) Avoiding wastages like heat gains, loss of chilled water, idle flows.
iv) Frequent cleaning / de-scaling of all heat exchangers
f) At the Refrigeration A/C Plant Area
i) Ensure regular maintenance of all A/C plant components as per manufacturer guide-
lines.
ii) Ensure adequate quantity of chilled water and cooling water flows, avoid bypass flows
by closing valves of idle equipment.
iii) Minimize part load operations by matching loads and plant capacity on line; adopt vari-
able speed drives for varying process load.
iv) Make efforts to continuously optimize condenser and evaporator parameters for mini-
mizing specific energy consumption and maximizing capacity.
v) Adopt VAR system where economics permit as a non-CFC solution.

QUESTIONS
1. List a few types of air conditioning systems in use.
2. 1 TR of refrigeration is
a) 50 kCal/hour b) 3024 kCal/hour c) 1000 kCal/hour d) 100 kCal/hour
3. Explain with a sketch the working principle of a vapour compression refrigeration
plant
4. Explain the working principle of vapour absorption refrigeration system.
5. Of the following, which has zero ozone depletion potential?
a) R11 b) R22 c) HFC 134a d) HCFC22
6. List a few energy efficiency improvement options in a refrigeration plant.
7. Name different types of compressors used in refrigeration system.
8. Throttling as a means of capacity control applies to
Reciprocating compressor b) Screw compressor c) Scroll Compressor d) Centrifugal
compressor
9. Explain the phenomenon of surge in a centrifugal compressor.
10. What is the refrigeration load in TR when 15 m3/hr of water is cooled from 21°C to
15°C? If the compressor motor draws 29 kW, chilled water pump draws 4.6 kW,
condenser water pump draws 6.1 kW and Cooling Tower fan draws 2.7 kW, what is
overall kW/TR?
11. Explain the term Integrated Part Load Value (IPLV).
12. Explain the impact of condensing and evaporation temperatures on compressor
power consumption.
13. Briefly list various energy conservation opportunities in a refrigeration plant.
REFERENCES
1. Technology Menu on Energy Efficiency (NPC)
2. ASHRAE Hand Book
3. NPC Case Studies
4. Vendor Information

5. FANS AND BLOWERS
Syllabus
Fans and blowers: Types, Performance evaluation, Efficient system operation, Flow
control strategies and energy conservation opportunities
5.1 Introduction
Fans and blowers provide air for ventilation and industrial process requirements. Fans generate
a pressure to move air (or gases) against a resistance caused by ducts, dampers, or other com-
ponents in a fan system. The fan rotor receives energy from a rotating shaft and transmits it to
the air.
Difference between Fans, Blowers and Compressors

Fans, blowers and compressors
are differentiated by the method
used to move the air, and by the TABLE 5.1 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FANS, BLOWER
system pressure they must oper- AND COMPRESSOR
ate against. As per American Equipment Specific Ratio Pressure rise (mmWg)
Society of Mechanical Engineers Fans Up to 1.11 1136
(ASME) the specific ratio - the
ratio of the discharge pressure Blowers 1.11 to 1.20 1136 – 2066
over the suction pressure – is Compressors more than 1.20 –
used for defining the fans,
blowers and compressors (see
Table 5.1).
TABLE 5.2 FAN EFFICIENCIES
Type of fan Peak Efficiency
5.2 Fan Types Range
Centrifugal Fans
Fan and blower selection depends on the volume flow
rate, pressure, type of material handled, space limita- Airfoil, backward 79–83
curved/inclined
tions, and efficiency. Fan efficiencies differ from
design to design and also by types. Typical ranges of Modified radial 72–79
fan efficiencies are given in Table 5.2. Radial 69–75
Fans fall into two general categories: centrifugal Pressure blower 58–68
flow and axial flow.
In centrifugal flow, airflow changes direction Forward curved 60–65
twice - once when entering and second when leaving Axial fan
(forward curved, backward curved or inclined, radial) Vane axial 78–85
(see Figure 5.1).
Tube axial 67–72
In axial flow, air enters and leaves the fan with no
change in direction (propeller, tubeaxial, vaneaxial) Propeller 45–50
(see Figure 5.2).

5. Fans and Blowers
Figure 5.1 Centrifugal Fan Figure 5.2 Axial Fan
Centrifugal Fan: Types

The major types of centrifugal fan are: radial, forward curved and backward curved (see Figure 5.3).
Radial fans are industrial workhorses because of their high static pressures (upto 1400 mm
WC) and ability to handle heavily contaminated airstreams. Because of their simple design,
radial fans are well suited for high temperatures and medium blade tip speeds.
Forward-curved fans are used in clean environments and operate at lower temperatures.
They are well suited for low tip speed and high-airflow work - they are best suited for moving
large volumes of air against relatively low pressures.
Backward-inclined fans are more efficient than forward-curved fans. Backward-inclined
fans reach their peak power consumption and then power demand drops off well within their
useable airflow range. Backward-inclined fans are known as "non-overloading" because
changes in static pressure do not overload the motor.
Paddle Blade (Radial blade) Forward Curved (Multi-Vane) Backward Curved
Figure 5.3 Types of Centrifugal Fans
Axial Flow Fan: Types

The major types of axial flow fans are: tube axial, vane axial and propeller (see Figure 5.4.)
Tubeaxial fans have a wheel inside a cylindrical housing, with close clearance between
blade and housing to improve airflow efficiency. The wheel turn faster than propeller fans,
enabling operation under high-pressures 250 – 400 mm WC. The efficiency is up to 65%.

5. Fans and Blowers
Vaneaxial fans are similar to tubeaxials, but with addition of guide vanes that improve effi-
ciency by directing and straightening the flow. As a result, they have a higher static pressure
with less dependence on the duct static pressure. Such fans are used generally for pressures upto
500 mmWC. Vaneaxials are typically the most energy-efficient fans available and should be
used whenever possible.
Propeller fans usually run at low speeds and moderate temperatures. They experience a
large change in airflow with small changes in static pressure. They handle large volumes of air
at low pressure or free delivery. Propeller fans are often used indoors as exhaust fans. Outdoor
applications include air-cooled condensers and cooling towers. Efficiency is low – approxi-
mately 50% or less.
Tube Axial Vane Axial Propeller
Figure 5.4 Types of Axial Fans
The different types of fans, their characteristics and typical applications are given in Table 5.3.
Common Blower Types

Blowers can achieve much higher pressures than fans, as high as 1.20 kg/cm2. They are also
used to produce negative pressures for industrial vacuum systems. Major types are: centrifugal
blower and positive-displacement blower.
Centrifugal blowers look more like centrifugal pumps than fans. The impeller is typically
gear-driven and rotates as fast as 15,000 rpm. In multi-stage blowers, air is accelerated as it
passes through each impeller. In single-stage blower, air does not take many turns, and hence it
is more efficient.
Centrifugal blowers typically operate against pressures of 0.35 to 0.70 kg/cm2, but can achieve
higher pressures. One characteristic is that airflow tends to drop drastically as system pressure

5. Fans and Blowers
TABLE 5.3 TYPES OF FANS, CHARACTERISTICS, AND TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
Centrifugal Fans Axial-flow Fans

Type Characteristics Typical Type Characteristics Typical
Applications Applications
Radial High pressure, Various Propeller Low pressure, high Air-circulation,
medium flow, industrial flow, low efficiency, ventilation,
efficiency close to applications, peak efficiency close exhaust
tube-axial fans, suitable for to point of free air
power increases dust laden, delivery (zero static
continuously moist pressure)
air/gases
Forward- Medium pressure, Low pressure Tube-axial Medium pressure, HVAC, drying
curved high flow, dip in HVAC, high flow, higher ovens, exhaust
blades pressure curve, packaged efficiency than systems
efficiency higher units, suitable propeller type, dip in
than radial fans, for clean and pressure-flow curve
power rises dust laden air / before peak pressure
continuously gases point.
Backward High pressure, HVAC, Vane-axial High pressure, High pressure
curved high flow, high various medium flow, dip applications
blades efficiency, power industrial in pressure-flow including
reduces as flow applications curve, use of guide HVAC
increases beyond forced draft vanes improves systems,
point of highest fans, etc. efficiencyexhausts
efficiency
Airfoil Same as backward Same as
type curved type, backward
highest efficiency curved, but for
clean air
applications
increases, which can be a disadvantage in material conveying systems that depend on a steady air
volume. Because of this, they are most often used in applications that are not prone to clogging.
Positive-displacement blowers have rotors, which "trap" air and push it through housing.
Positive-displacement blowers provide a constant volume of air even if the system pressure varies.
They are especially suitable for applications prone to clogging, since they can produce enough pres-
sure - typically up to 1.25 kg/cm2 - to blow clogged materials free. They turn much slower than
centrifugal blowers (e.g. 3,600 rpm), and are often belt driven to facilitate speed changes.
5.3 Fan Performance Evaluation and Efficient System Operation

System Characteristics
The term "system resistance" is used when referring to the static pressure. The system resistance
is the sum of static pressure losses in the system. The system resistance is a function of the con-
figuration of ducts, pickups, elbows and the pressure drops across equipment-for example back-

5. Fans and Blowers
filter or cyclone. The system resistance varies

with the square of the volume of air flowing
through the system. For a given volume of air,
the fan in a system with narrow ducts and multi-
ple short radius elbows is going to have to work
harder to overcome a greater system resistance
than it would in a system with larger ducts and a
minimum number of long radius turns. Long
narrow ducts with many bends and twists will
require more energy to pull the air through them.
Consequently, for a given fan speed, the fan will
be able to pull less air through this system than
through a short system with no elbows. Thus, the Figure 5.5 System Characteristics
system resistance increases substantially as the
volume of air flowing through the system increases; square of air flow.
Conversely, resistance decreases as flow decreases. To determine what volume the fan will
produce, it is therefore necessary to know the system resistance characteristics.
In existing systems, the system resistance can be measured. In systems that have been
designed, but not built, the system resistance must be calculated. Typically a system resistance
curve (see Figure 5.5) is generated with for various flow rates on the x-axis and the associated
resistance on the y-axis.
Fan Characteristics
Fan characteristics can be represented in form of fan curve(s). The fan curve is a performance
curve for the particular fan under a specific set of conditions. The fan curve is a graphical rep-
resentation of a number of inter-related parameters. Typically a curve will be developed for a
given set of conditions usually including: fan volume, system static pressure, fan speed, and
brake horsepower required to drive the fan under the stated conditions. Some fan curves will
also include an efficiency curve so that a system designer will know where on that curve the fan
will be operating under the chosen conditions (see Figure 5.6). In the many curves shown in the
Figure, the curve static pressure (SP) vs. flow is especially important.
The intersection of the system curve and the static pressure curve defines the operating
point. When the system resistance changes, the operating point also changes. Once the operat-
ing point is fixed, the power required could be found by following a vertical line that passes
through the operating point to an intersection with the power (BHP) curve. A horizontal line
drawn through the intersection with the power curve will lead to the required power on the right
vertical axis. In the depicted curves, the fan efficiency curve is also presented.
System Characteristics and Fan Curves
In any fan system, the resistance to air flow (pressure) increases when the flow of air is
increased. As mentioned before, it varies as the square of the flow. The pressure required by a
system over a range of flows can be determined and a "system performance curve" can be
developed (shown as SC) (see Figure 5.7).
This system curve can then be plotted on the fan curve to show the fan's actual operating
point at "A" where the two curves (N1 and SC1) intersect. This operating point is at air flow Q1
delivered against pressure P1.

5. Fans and Blowers
Figure 5.6 Fan Characteristics Curve by Manufacturer
A fan operates along a performance given by the manufacturer for a particular fan speed.
(The fan performance chart shows performance curves for a series of fan speeds.) At fan speed
N1, the fan will operate along the N1 performance curve as shown in Figure 5.7. The fan's actu-
Figure 5.7 System Curve

5. Fans and Blowers
al operating point on this curve will depend on the system resistance; fan's operating point at
"A" is flow (Q1) against pressure (P1).
Two methods can be used to reduce air flow from Q1 to Q2:
First method is to restrict the air flow by partially closing a damper in the system. This action caus-
es a new system performance curve (SC2) where the required pressure is greater for any given air flow.
The fan will now operate at "B" to provide the reduced air flow Q2 against higher pressure P2.
Second method to reduce air flow is by reducing the speed from N1 to N2, keeping the damper
fully open. The fan would operate at "C" to provide the same Q2 air flow, but at a lower pressure P3.
Thus, reducing the fan speed is a much more efficient method to decrease airflow since less
power is required and less energy is consumed.
Fan Laws
The fans operate under a predictable set of laws concerning speed, power and pressure. A
change in speed (RPM) of any fan will predictably change the pressure rise and power neces-
sary to operate it at the new RPM.
α α α
Where Q – flow, SP – Static Pressure, kW – Power and N – speed (RPM)

5.4 Fan Design and Selection Criteria
Precise determination of air-flow and required outlet pressure are most important in proper
selection of fan type and size. The air-flow required depends on the process requirements; nor-
mally determined from heat transfer rates, or combustion air or flue gas quantity to be handled.
System pressure requirement is usually more difficult to compute or predict. Detailed analysis
should be carried out to determine pressure drop across the length, bends, contractions and
expansions in the ducting system, pressure drop across filters, drop in branch lines, etc. These
pressure drops should be added to any fixed pressure required by the process (in the case of
ventilation fans there is no fixed pressure requirement). Frequently, a very conservative
approach is adopted allocating large safety margins, resulting in over-sized fans which operate
at flow rates much below their design values and, consequently, at very poor efficiency.

5. Fans and Blowers
Once the system flow and pressure requirements are determined, the fan and impeller type
are then selected. For best results, values should be obtained from the manufacturer for specif-
ic fans and impellers.
The choice of fan type for a given application depends on the magnitudes of required flow
and static pressure. For a given fan type, the selection of the appropriate impeller depends addi-
tionally on rotational speed. Speed of operation varies with the application. High speed small
units are generally more economical because of their higher hydraulic efficiency and relatively
low cost. However, at low pressure ratios, large, low-speed units are preferable.
Fan Performance and Efficiency

Typical static pressures and power requirements for different types of fans are given in the
Figure 5.8.
Figure 5.8 Fan Static Pressure and Power Requirements for Different Fans
Fan performance characteristics and

efficiency differ based on fan and impeller
type ( See Figure 5.9).
In the case of centrifugal fans, the hub-
to-tip ratios (ratio of inner-to-outer impeller
diameter) the tip angles (angle at which for-
ward or backward curved blades are curved
at the blade tip - at the base the blades are
always oriented in the direction of flow),
and the blade width determine the pressure
developed by the fan.
Forward curved fans have large hub-to-
tip ratios compared to backward curved
fans and produce lower pressure.
Radial fans can be made with different
heel-to-tip ratios to produce different pres- Figure 5.9 Fan Performance Characteristics Based on
sures. Fans/ Impellers

5. Fans and Blowers
At both design and off-design points, backward-curved fans provide the most stable opera-
tion. Also, the power required by most backward –curved fans will decrease at flow higher than
design values. A similar effect can be obtained by using inlet guide vanes instead of replacing
the impeller with different tip angles. Radial fans are simple in construction and are preferable
for high-pressure applications.
Forward curved fans, however, are less efficient than backward curved fans and power rises
continuously with flow. Thus, they are generally more expensive to operate despite their lower
first cost.
Among centrifugal fan designs, aerofoil designs provide the highest efficiency (upto 10%
higher than backward curved blades), but their use is limited to clean, dust-free air.
Axial-flow fans produce lower pressure than centrifugal fans, and exhibit a dip in pressure
before reaching the peak pressure point. Axial-flow fans equipped with adjustable / variable
pitch blades are also available to meet varying flow requirements.
Propeller-type fans are capable of high-flow rates at low pressures. Tube-axial fans have
medium pressure, high flow capability and are not equipped with guide vanes.
Vane-axial fans are equipped with inlet or outlet guide vanes, and are characterized by high
pressure, medium flow-rate capabilities.
Performance is also dependant on the fan enclosure and duct design. Spiral housing designs
with inducers, diffusers are more efficient as compared to square housings. Density of inlet air
is another important consideration, since it affects both volume flow-rate and capacity of the
fan to develop pressure. Inlet and outlet conditions (whirl and turbulence created by grills,
dampers, etc.) can significantly alter fan performance curves from that provided by the manu-
facturer (which are developed under controlled conditions). Bends and elbows in the inlet or
outlet ducting can change the velocity of air, thereby changing fan characteristics (the pressure
drop in these elements is attributed to the system resistance). All these factors, termed as System
Effect Factors, should, therefore, be carefully evaluated during fan selection since they would
modify the fan performance curve.
Centrifugal fans are suitable for low to moderate flow at high pressures, while axial-flow
fans are suitable for low to high flows at low pressures. Centrifugal fans are generally more
expensive than axial fans. Fan prices vary widely based on the impeller type and the mounting
(direct-or-belt-coupled, wall-or-duct-mounted). Among centrifugal fans, aerofoil and back-
ward-curved blade designs tend to be somewhat more expensive than forward-curved blade
designs and will typically provide more favourable economics on a lifecycle basis. Reliable cost
comparisons are difficult since costs vary with a number of application-specific factors. A care-
ful technical and economic evaluation of available options is important in identifying the fan
that will minimize lifecycle costs in any specific application.
Safety margin
The choice of safety margin also affects the efficient operation of the fan. In all cases where the
fan requirement is linked to the process/other equipment, the safety margin is to be decided,
based on the discussions with the process equipment supplier. In general, the safety margin can
be 5% over the maximum requirement on flow rate.
In the case of boilers, the induced draft (ID) fan can be designed with a safety margin of
20% on volume and 30% on head. The forced draft (FD) fans and primary air (PA) fans do not
require any safety margins. However, safety margins of 10 % on volume and 20% on pressure
are maintained for FD and PA fans.

5. Fans and Blowers
Some pointers on fan specification

The right specification of the parameters of the fan at the initial stage, is pre-requisite for
choosing the appropriate and energy efficient fan.
The user should specify following information to fan manufacturer to enable right
selection:
Design operating point of the fan – volume and pressure
Normal operating point – volume and pressure
Maximum continuous rating
Low load operation - This is particularly essential for units, which in the initial few
years may operate at lower capacities, with plans for upgradation at a later stage. The
initial low load and the later higher load operational requirements need to be specified
clearly, so that, the manufacturer can supply a fan which can meet both the requirements,
with different sizes of impeller.
Ambient temperature – The ambient temperatures, both the minimum and maximum, are
to be specified to the supplier. This affects the choice of the material of construction of the
impeller.
The maximum temperature of the gas at the fan during upset conditions should be
specified to the supplier. This will enable choice of the right material of the required creep
strength.
Density of gas at different temperatures at fan outlet
Composition of the gas – This is very important for choosing the material of construc-
tion of the fan.
Dust concentration and nature of dust – The dust concentration and the nature of dust
(e.g. bagasse – soft dust, coal – hard dust) should be clearly specified.
The proposed control mechanisms that are going to be used for controlling the fan.
The operating frequency varies from plant-to-plant, depending on the source of power
supply. Since this has a direct effect on the speed of the fan, the frequency prevailing or
being maintained in the plant also needs to be specified to the supplier.
Altitude of the plant

The choice of speed of the fan can be best left to fan manufacturer. This will enable him to
design the fan of the highest possible efficiency. However, if the plant has some preferred speeds
on account of any operational need, the same can be communicated to the fan supplier.
Installation of Fan
The installation of fan and mechanical maintenance of the fan also plays a critical role in the
efficiency of the fan. The following clearances (typical values) should be maintained for the
efficient operation of the impeller.
Impeller Inlet Seal Clearances

• Axial overlap –5 to 10 mm for 1 metre plus dia impeller
• Radial clearance –1 to 2 mm for 1 metre plus dia impeller
• Back plate clearance –20 to 30 mm for 1 metre plus dia impeller
• Labyrinth seal clearance –0.5 to 1.5 mm

5. Fans and Blowers
The inlet damper positioning is also to be checked regularly so that the "full open" and "full
close" conditions are satisfied. The fan user should get all the details of the mechanical clear-
ances from the supplier at the time of installation. As these should be strictly adhered to, for
efficient operation of the fan, and a checklist should be prepared on these clearances. A check
on these clearances should be done after every maintenance, so that efficient operation of the
fan is ensured on a continuous basis.
System Resistance Change

The system resistance has a major role in determining the performance and efficiency of a fan.
The system resistance also changes depending on the process. For example, the formation of
the coatings / erosion of the lining in the ducts, changes the system resistance marginally. In
some cases, the change of equipment (e.g. Replacement of Multi-cyclones with ESP /
Installation of low pressure drop cyclones in cement industry) duct modifications, drastically
shift the operating point, resulting in lower efficiency. In such cases, to maintain the efficiency
as before, the fan has to be changed.
Hence, the system resistance has to be periodically checked, more so when modifications
are introduced and action taken accordingly, for efficient operation of the fan.
5.5 Flow Control Strategies

Typically, once a fan system is designed and installed, the fan operates at a constant speed.
There may be occasions when a speed change is desirable, i.e., when adding a new run of duct
that requires an increase in air flow (volume) through the fan. There are also instances when the
fan is oversized and flow reductions are required.
Various ways to achieve change in flow are: pulley change, damper control, inlet guide vane
control, variable speed drive and series and parallel operation of fans.
Pulley Change
When a fan volume change is required on a
permanent basis, and the existing fan can
handle the change in capacity, the volume
change can be achieved with a speed
change. The simplest way to change the
speed is with a pulley change. For this, the
fan must be driven by a motor through a v-
belt system. The fan speed can be increased
or decreased with a change in the drive pul-
11 kW
ley or the driven pulley or in some cases,
both pulleys. As shown in the Figure 5.10, a
higher sized fan operating with damper con-
trol was downsized by reducing the motor Figure 5.10 Pulley Change
(drive) pulley size from 8" to 6". The power
reduction was 15 kW.

5. Fans and Blowers
Damper Controls
Some fans are designed with damper controls (see Figure 5.11). Dampers
can be located at inlet or outlet. Dampers provide a means of changing
air volume by adding or removing system resistance. This resistance
forces the fan to move up or down along its characteristic curve, gener-
ating more or less air without changing fan speed. However, dampers
provide a limited amount of adjustment, and they are not particularly
energy efficient. Figure 5.11 Damper
change
Inlet Guide Vanes
Inlet guide vanes are another mechanism that can be used
to meet variable air demand (see Figure 5.12). Guide
vanes are curved sections that lay against the inlet of the
fan when they are open. When they are closed, they
extend out into the air stream. As they are closed, guide
vanes pre-swirl the air entering the fan housing. This
changes the angle at which the air is presented to the fan
blades, which, in turn, changes the characteristics of the
fan curve. Guide vanes are energy efficient for modest
flow reductions – from 100 percent flow to about 80 per-
cent. Below 80 percent flow, energy efficiency drops
sharply.
Axial-flow fans can be equipped with variable pitch
blades, which can be hydraulically or pneumatically con-
Figure 5.12 Inlet Guide Vanes
trolled to change blade pitch, while the fan is at station-
ary. Variable-pitch blades modify the fan characteristics
substantially and thereby provide dramatically higher energy efficiency than the other options
discussed thus far.
Variable Speed Drives

Although, variable speed drives are expensive, they provide almost infinite variability in speed
control. Variable speed operation involves reducing the speed of the fan to meet reduced flow
requirements. Fan performance can be predicted at different speeds using the fan laws. Since
power input to the fan changes as the cube of the flow, this will usually be the most efficient
form of capacity control. However, variable speed control may not be economical for systems,
which have infrequent flow variations. When considering variable speed drive, the efficiency
of the control system (fluid coupling, eddy-current, VFD, etc.) should be accounted for, in the
analysis of power consumption.
Series and Parallel Operation

Parallel operation of fans is another useful form of capacity control. Fans in parallel can be
additionally equipped with dampers, variable inlet vanes, variable-pitch blades, or speed con-
trols to provide a high degree of flexibility and reliability.
Combining fans in series or parallel can achieve the desired airflow without greatly
increasing the system package size or fan diameter. Parallel operation is defined as having

5. Fans and Blowers
two or more fans blowing together side

by side.
The performance of two fans in paral-
lel will result in doubling the volume
flow, but only at free delivery. As Figure
5.13 shows, when a system curve is over-
laid on the parallel performance curves,
the higher the system resistance, the less
increase in flow results with parallel fan
operation. Thus, this type of application
should only be used when the fans can
operate in a low resistance almost in a free
delivery condition.
Series operation can be defined as
using multiple fans in a push-pull arrange- Figure 5.13 Series and Parallel Operation
ment. By staging two fans in series, the sta-
tic pressure capability at a given airflow can be increased, but again, not to double at every flow
point, as the above Figure displays. In series operation, the best results are achieved in systems
with high resistances.
In both series and parallel operation, particularly with multiple fans certain areas of the
combined performance curve will be unstable and should be avoided. This instability is unpre-
dictable and is a function of the fan and motor construction and the operating point.
Factors to be considered in the selection of flow control methods

Comparison of various volume control methods with respect to power consumption (%)
required power is shown in Figure 5.14.
All methods of capacity control mentioned above have turn-down ratios (ratio of
maximum–to–minimum flow rate) determined by the amount of leakage (slip) through the
control elements. For example, even with dampers fully closed, the flow may not be zero
due to leakage through the damper. In the case of variable-speed drives the turn-down ratio
is limited by the control system. In many cases, the minimum possible flow will be
determined by the characteristics of the fan itself. Stable operation of a fan requires that it
operate in a region where the system curve has a positive slope and the fan curve has a
negative slope.
The range of operation and the time duration at each operating point also serves as a
guide to selection of the most suitable capacity control system. Outlet damper control due
to its simplicity, ease of operation, and low investment cost, is the most prevalent form of
capacity control. However, it is the most inefficient of all methods and is best suited for
situations where only small, infrequent changes are required (for example, minor process
variations due to seasonal changes. The economic advantage of one method over the other
is determined by the time duration over which the fan operates at different operating points.
The frequency of flow change is another important determinant. For systems requiring
frequent flow control, damper adjustment may not be convenient. Indeed, in many plants,
dampers are not easily accessible and are left at some intermediate position to avoid
frequent control.

5. Fans and Blowers
Figure 5.14 Comparison: Various Volume Control Methods
5.6 Fan Performance Assessment

The fans are tested for field performance by measurement of flow, head, temperature on the fan
side and electrical motor kW input on the motor side.
Air flow measurement

Static pressure
Static pressure is the potential energy put into the system by the fan. It is given up to friction in
the ducts and at the duct inlet as it is converted to velocity pressure. At the inlet to the duct, the
static pressure produces an area of low pressure (see Figure 5.15).
Velocity pressure
Velocity pressure is the pressure along the line of the flow that results from the air flowing
through the duct. The velocity pressure is used to calculate air velocity.
Total pressure
Total pressure is the sum of the static and velocity pressure. Velocity pressure and static pres-
sure can change as the air flows though different size ducts, accelerating and decelerating the

5. Fans and Blowers
velocity. The total pressure stays constant,

changing only with friction losses. The illus-
tration that follows shows how the total pres-
sure changes in a system.
The fan flow is measured using pitot tube
manometer combination, or a flow sensor (dif-
ferential pressure instrument) or an accurate
anemometer. Care needs to be taken regarding
number of traverse points, straight length sec-
tion (to avoid turbulent flow regimes of mea-
surement) up stream and downstream of mea-
surement location. The measurements can be
on the suction or discharge side of the fan and
preferably both where feasible.
Measurement by Pitot tube

The Figure 5.16 shows how velocity pressure is
measured using a pitot tube and a manometer. Figure 5.15 Static, Total and Velocity Pressure
Total pressure is measured using the inner tube
of pitot tube and static pressure is measured using the outer tube of pitot tube. When the inner and
outer tube ends are connected to a manometer, we get the velocity pressure. For measuring low
velocities, it is preferable to use an inclined tube manometer instead of U tube manometer.
Figure 5.16 Velocity Measurement Using Pitot Tube
Measurements and Calculations

Velocity pressure/velocity calculation
When measuring velocity pressure the duct diameter (or the circumference from which to cal-
culate the diameter) should be measured as well. This will allow us to calculate the velocity and
the volume of air in the duct. In most cases, velocity must be measured at several places in the
same system.

5. Fans and Blowers
The velocity pressure varies across the duct. Friction slows the air near the duct walls, so the
velocity is greater in the center of the duct. The velocity is affected by changes in the ducting con-
figuration such as bends and curves. The best place to take measurements is in a section of duct that
is straight for at least 3–5 diameters after any elbows, branch entries or duct size changes
To determine the average veloci-
ty, it is necessary to take a number of
velocity pressure readings across the
cross-section of the duct. The velocity
should be calculated for each velocity
pressure reading, and the average of
the velocities should be used. Do not
average the velocity pressure; average
the velocities. For round ducts over 6
inches diameter, the following loca-
tions will give areas of equal concen-
tric area (see Figure 5.17).
For best results, one set of read-
ings should be taken in one direction
and another set at a 90 ° angle to the Figure 5.17 Traverse Points for Circular Duct
first. For square ducts, the readings
can be taken in 16 equally spaced areas. If it is impossible to traverse the duct, an approximate aver-
age velocity can be calculated by measuring the velocity pressure in the center of the duct and cal-
culating the velocity. This value is reduced to an approximate average by multiplying by 0 .9.
Air density calculation

The first calculation is to determine the density of the air. To calculate the velocity and volume
from the velocity pressure measurements it is necessary to know the density of the air. The den-
sity is dependent on altitude and temperature.
(γ)
t°C – temperature of gas/air at site condition
Velocity calculation
Once the air density and velocity pressure have been established, the velocity can be determined
from the equation:
Density of air or gas at test condition,

5. Fans and Blowers
Volume calculation
The volume in a duct can be calculated for the velocity using the equation:
Volumetric flow (Q), m3 /sec = Velocity,V(m / sec) x Area (m2)
Fan efficiency
Fan manufacturers generally use two ways to mention fan efficiency: mechanical efficiency
(sometimes called the total efficiency) and static efficiency. Both measure how well the fan con-
verts horsepower into flow and pressure.
The equation for determining mechanical efficiency is:
x 100
The static efficiency equation is the same except that the outlet velocity pressure is not
added to the fan static pressure
x 100
Drive motor kW can be measured by a load analyzer. This kW multiplied by motor effi-
ciency gives the shaft power to the fan.

Minimizing demand on the fan.
1. Minimising excess air level in combustion systems to reduce FD fan and ID fan load.
2. Minimising air in-leaks in hot flue gas path to reduce ID fan load, especially in case of
kilns, boiler plants, furnaces, etc. Cold air in-leaks increase ID fan load tremendously, due
to density increase of flue gases and in-fact choke up the capacity of fan, resulting as a bot-
tleneck for boiler / furnace itself.
3. In-leaks / out-leaks in air conditioning systems also have a major impact on energy effi-
ciency and fan power consumption and need to be minimized.
The findings of performance assessment trials will automatically indicate potential areas for
improvement, which could be one or a more of the following:
1. Change of impeller by a high efficiency impeller along with cone.
2. Change of fan assembly as a whole, by a higher efficiency fan
3. Impeller de-rating (by a smaller dia impeller)
4. Change of metallic / Glass reinforced Plastic (GRP) impeller by the more energy efficient
hollow FRP impeller with aerofoil design, in case of axial flow fans, where significant sav-
ings have been reported
5. Fan speed reduction by pulley dia modifications for derating
6. Option of two speed motors or variable speed drives for variable duty conditions
7. Option of energy efficient flat belts, or, cogged raw edged V belts, in place of convention-
al V belt systems, for reducing transmission losses.
8. Adopting inlet guide vanes in place of discharge damper control
9. Minimizing system resistance and pressure drops by improvements in duct system

5. Fans and Blowers
Case Study – 1
VSD Applications
Cement plants use a large number of high capacity fans. By using liners on the impellers,
which can be replaced when they are eroded by the abrasive particles in the dust-laden air, the
plants have been able to switch from radial blades to forward-curved and backward-curved
centrifugal fans. This has vastly improved system efficiency without requiring frequent
impeller changes.
For example, a careful study of the clinker cooler fans at a cement plant showed that the
flow was much higher than required and also the old straight blade impeller resulted in low sys-
tem efficiency. It was decided to replace the impeller with a backward-curved blade and use lin-
ers to prevent erosion of the blade. This simple measure resulted in a 53 % reduction in power
consumption, which amounted to annual savings of Rs. 2.1 million.
Another cement plant found that a large primary air fan which was belt driven through
an arrangement of bearings was operating at system efficiency of 23 %. The fan was
replaced with a direct coupled fan with a more efficient impeller. Power consumption
reduced from 57 kW to 22 kW. Since cement plants use a large number of fans, it is gener-
ally possible to integrate the system such that air can be supplied from a common duct in
many cases.
For example, a study indicated that one of the fans was operated with the damper open to
only 5 %. By re-ducting to allow air to be supplied from another duct where flow was being
throttled, it was possible to totally eliminate the use of a 55 kW fan.
The use of variable-speed drives for capacity control can result in significant power
savings. A 25 ton-per-hour capacity boiler was equipped with both an induced-draft and
forced-draft fan. Outlet dampers were used to control the airflow. After a study of the air-
flow pattern, it was decided to install a variable speed drive to control air flow. The average
power consumption was reduced by nearly 41 kW resulting in annual savings of Rs. 0.33
million. The investment of Rs. 0.65 million for the variable-speed drive was paid back in
under 2 years.
The type of variable-speed drive employed also significantly impacts power consump-
tion. Thermal power stations install a hydraulic coupling to control the capacity of the
induced-draft fan. It was decided to install a VFD on ID fans in a 200 MW thermal power
plant. A comparison of the power consumption of the two fan systems indicated that for sim-
ilar operating conditions of flow and plant power generation, the unit equipped with the VFD
control unit consumed, on average, 4 million units / annum less than the unit equipped with
the hydraulic coupling.
Case Study – 2
FRP Fans in Cooling Towers / Humidification Plants
The fans used for cooling tower applications are usually axial flow fans. Such fans are also
commonly used in humidification plants. The conventional fans are made from aluminium /
steel. These fans are being replaced in recent times by high efficiency FRP (fibre reinforced
plastics) fans. The savings potential is shown below:

5. Fans and Blowers
ILLUSTRATIVE DATA ON ENERGY SAVINGS WITH HIGH EFFICIENCY

FRP BLADE AXIAL FLOW FANS

5. Fans and Blowers
QUESTIONS
1. Explain the difference between fans, blowers and compressors?
2. Which fan you would chose for moving large flows against relatively low pressures
a) Radial fan b) backward inclined fan c) forward curved fan d) axial fan
3. If efficiency is the main consideration you would select
4. For heavy dust conditions, which type of fan is ideally suited
5. The system resistance refers to
a) static pressure b) velocity pressure c) total pressure d) differential pressure
6. System resistance varies as
a) square of flow rate b) cube of flow rate c) directly proportional to square root
of flow rate d) directly with flow rate
7. The intersection of system curve with fan operating curve is called
a) design point b) operating point c) selection point d) shut off point
8. Varying the RPM of a fan by 10% varies the pressure by
a) 19% b) 29% c) 10% d) does not vary
9. Varying the RPM of a fan by 10% varies the flow by
10. Varying the RPM of a fan by 10% varies the power by
11. Explain the factors, which can change the system resistance?
12. What are affinity laws as applicable to centrifugal fans?
13. Explain the method of flow measurements using pitot tube?
REFERENCES
1. Technology Menu on Energy Efficiency (NPC)
2. SADC Industrial Energy Management Project
3. Energy Audit Reports of NPC

6. PUMPS AND PUMPING SYSTEM
Syllabus
Pumps and Pumping System: Types, Performance evaluation, Efficient system opera-
tion, Flow control strategies and energy conservation opportunities
6.1 Pump Types

Pumps come in a variety of sizes for a wide range of applications. They can be classified
according to their basic operating principle as dynamic or displacement pumps. Dynamic
pumps can be sub-classified as centrifugal and special effect pumps. Displacement pumps can
be sub-classified as rotary or reciprocating pumps.
In principle, any liquid can be handled by any of the pump designs. Where different pump
designs could be used, the centrifugal pump is generally the most economical followed by
rotary and reciprocating pumps. Although, positive displacement pumps are generally more
efficient than centrifugal pumps, the benefit of higher efficiency tends to be offset by increased
maintenance costs.
Since, worldwide, centrifugal pumps account for the majority of electricity used by pumps,
the focus of this chapter is on centrifugal pump.
Centrifugal Pumps
A centrifugal pump is of a very simple design. The two main parts of the pump are the impeller
and the diffuser. Impeller, which is the only moving part, is attached to a shaft and driven by a
motor. Impellers are generally made of bronze, polycarbonate, cast iron, stainless steel as well
as other materials. The diffuser (also called as volute)
houses the impeller and captures and directs the water
off the impeller.
Water enters the center (eye) of the impeller and exits
the impeller with the help of centrifugal force. As water
leaves the eye of the impeller a low-pressure area is cre-
ated, causing more water to flow into the eye.
Atmospheric pressure and centrifugal force cause this to
happen. Velocity is developed as the water flows through
the impeller spinning at high speed. The water velocity is
collected by the diffuser and converted to pressure by
specially designed passageways that direct the flow to
the discharge of the pump, or to the next impeller should
the pump have a multi-stage configuration.
The pressure (head) that a pump will develop is in Figure 6.1 Centrifugal pump
direct relationship to the impeller diameter, the number
of impellers, the size of impeller eye, and shaft speed. Capacity is determined by the exit width
of the impeller. The head and capacity are the main factors, which affect the horsepower size of
the motor to be used. The more the quantity of water to be pumped, the more energy is required.

6. Pumps and Pumping System
A centrifugal pump is not positive acting; it will not pump the same volume always. The
greater the depth of the water, the lesser is the flow from the pump. Also, when it pumps against
increasing pressure, the less it will pump. For these reasons it is important to select a centrifu-
gal pump that is designed to do a particular job.
Since the pump is a dynamic device, it is convenient to consider the pressure in terms of
head i.e. meters of liquid column. The pump generates the same head of liquid whatever the
density of the liquid being pumped. The actual contours of the hydraulic passages of the
impeller and the casing are extremely important, in order to attain the highest efficiency possi-
ble. The standard convention for centrifugal pump is to draw the pump performance curves
showing Flow on the horizontal axis and Head generated on the vertical axis. Efficiency, Power
& NPSH Required (described later), are conventionally shown on the vertical axis, plotted
against Flow, as illustrated in Figure 6.2.
Figure 6.2 Pump Performance Curve
Given the significant amount of electricity attributed to pumping systems, even small
improvements in pumping efficiency could yield very significant savings of electricity. The
pump is among the most inefficient of the components that comprise a pumping system, includ-
ing the motor, transmission drive, piping and valves.
Hydraulic power, pump shaft power and electrical input power
Hydraulic power Ph = Q (m3/s) x Total head, hd - hs (m) x ρ (kg/m3) x g (m/s2) / 1000
Where hd – discharge head, hs – suction head, ρ – density of the fluid, g – acceleration due to gravity
Pump shaft power Ps = Hydraulic power, Ph / pump efficiency, ηPump
Electrical input power = Pump shaft power Ps
ηMotor

6.2 System Characteristics

In a pumping system, the objective, in most cases, is either to transfer a liquid from a source to
a required destination, e.g. filling a high level reservoir, or to circulate liquid around a system,
e.g. as a means of heat transfer in heat exchanger.
A pressure is needed to make the liquid flow at the required rate and this must overcome
head 'losses' in the system. Losses are of two types: static and friction head.
Static head is simply the difference in height of the supply and destination reservoirs, as in
Figure 6.3. In this illustration, flow velocity in the pipe is assumed to be very small. Another
example of a system with only static head is pumping into a pressurised vessel with short pipe
runs. Static head is independent of flow and graphically would be shown as in Figure 6.4.
Figure 6.3 Static Head Figure 6.4 Static Head vs. Flow
Friction head (sometimes called dynamic head loss) is the friction loss, on the liquid being
moved, in pipes, valves and equipment in the system. Friction tables are universally available for
various pipe fittings and valves. These tables show friction loss per 100 feet (or metres) of a spe-
cific pipe size at various flow rates. In case of fittings, friction is stated as an equivalent length
of pipe of the same size. The friction losses are proportional to the square of the flow rate. A
closed loop circulating system without a surface open to atmospheric pressure, would exhibit
only friction losses and would have a system friction head loss vs. flow curve as Figure 6.5.
Figure 6.5 Friction Head vs. Flow

Most systems have a combination of static and friction head and the system curves for two
cases are shown in Figures 6.6 and 6.7. The ratio of static to friction head over the operating range
influences the benefits achievable from variable speed drives which shall be discussed later.
Figure 6.6 System with High Static Head Figure 6.7 System with Low Static Head
Static head is a characteristic of the specific installation and reducing this head where this
is possible, generally helps both the cost of the installation and the cost of pumping the liquid.
Friction head losses must be minimised to reduce pumping cost, but after eliminating unneces-
sary pipe fittings and length, further reduction in friction head will require larger diameter pipe,
which adds to installation cost.
6.3 Pump Curves

The performance of a pump can be expressed graphically as head against flow rate. The cen-
trifugal pump has a curve where the head falls gradually with increasing flow. This is called the
pump characteristic curve (Head - Flow curve) -see Figure 6.8.
Figure 6.8 Head- Flow Curve

Pump operating point

When a pump is installed in a system the effect can be illustrated graphically by superimposing
pump and system curves. The operating point will always be where the two curves intersect.
Figure 6.9.
Figure 6.9 Pump Operating Point
If the actual system curve is different in reality to that calculated, the pump will operate at
a flow and head different to that expected.
For a centrifugal pump, an increasing system resistance will reduce the flow, eventually to
zero, but the maximum head is limited as shown. Even so, this condition is only acceptable for
a short period without causing problems. An error in the system curve calculation is also likely
to lead to a centrifugal pump selection, which is less than optimal for the actual system head loss-
es. Adding safety margins to the calculated system curve to ensure that a sufficiently large pump
is selected will generally result in installing an oversized pump, which will operate at an exces-
sive flow rate or in a throttled condition, which increases energy usage and reduces pump life.
6.4 Factors Affecting Pump Performance

Matching Pump and System Head-flow Characteristics
Centrifugal pumps are characterized by the relationship between the flow rate (Q) they produce
and the pressure (H) at which the flow is delivered. Pump efficiency varies with flow and pres-
sure, and it is highest at one particular flow rate.

The Figure 6.10 below shows a typical vendor-supplied head-flow curve for a centrifugal
pump. Pump head-flow curves are typically given for clear water. The choice of pump for a
given application depends largely on how the pump head-flow characteristics match the
requirement of the system downstream of the pump.
Figure 6.10 Typical Centrifugal Pump Performance Curve
Effect of over sizing the pump

As mentioned earlier, pressure losses to be overcome by the pumps are function of flow – the
system characteristics – are also quantified in the form of head-flow curves. The system curve
is basically a plot of system resistance i.e. head to be overcome by the pump versus various
flow rates. The system curves change with the physical configuration of the system; for
example, the system curves depends upon height or elevation, diameter and length of piping,
number and type of fittings and pressure drops across various equipment - say a heat
exchanger.
A pump is selected based on how well the pump curve and system head-flow curves match.
The pump operating point is identified as the point, where the system curve crosses the pump
curve when they are superimposed on each other.

The Figure 6.11 shows the effect on system curve with throttling.
Figure 6.11 Effect on System Curve with Throttling
In the system under consideration, water has to be first lifted to a height – this represents
the static head.
Then, we make a system curve, considering the friction and pressure drops in the system-
this is shown as the green curve.
Suppose, we have estimated our operating conditions as 500 m3/hr flow and 50 m head, we
will chose a pump curve which intersects the system curve (Point A) at the pump's best effi-
ciency point (BEP).
But, in actual operation, we find that 300 m3/hr is sufficient. The reduction in flow rate has
to be effected by a throttle valve. In other words, we are introducing an artificial resistance in
the system.
Due to this additional resistance, the frictional part of the system curve increases and thus
the new system curve will shift to the left -this is shown as the red curve.
So the pump has to overcome additional pressure in order to deliver the reduced flow. Now,
the new system curve will intersect the pump curve at point B. The revised parameters are
300 m3/hr at 70 m head. The red double arrow line shows the additional pressure drop due to
throttling.
You may note that the best efficiency point has shifted from 82% to 77% efficiency.
So what we want is to actually operate at point C which is 300 m3/hr on the original system
curve. The head required at this point is only 42 meters.
What we now need is a new pump which will operate with its best efficiency point at C. But
there are other simpler options rather than replacing the pump. The speed of the pump can be
reduced or the existing impeller can be trimmed (or new lower size impeller). The blue pump
curve represents either of these options.

Energy loss in throttling

Consider a case (see Figure 6.12) where we need to pump 68 m3/hr of water at 47 m head. The
pump characteristic curves (A…E) for a range of pumps are given in the Figure 6.12.
Figure 6.12 Pump Characteristic Curves

6.5 Efficient Pumping System Operation

To understand a pumping system, one must realize that all of its components are interdepen-
dent. When examining or designing a pump system, the process demands must first be estab-
lished and most energy efficiency solution introduced. For example, does the flow rate have to
be regulated continuously or in steps? Can on-off batch pumping be used? What are the flow
rates needed and how are they distributed in time?
The first step to achieve energy efficiency in pumping system is to target the end-use. A
plant water balance would establish usage pattern and highlight areas where water consumption
can be reduced or optimized. Good water conservation measures, alone, may eliminate the need
for some pumps.
Once flow requirements are optimized, then the pumping system can be analysed for ener-
gy conservation opportunities. Basically this means matching the pump to requirements by
adopting proper flow control strategies. Common symptoms that indicate opportunities for
energy efficiency in pumps are given in the Table 6.1.
TABLE 6.1 SYMPTOMS THAT INDICATE POTENTIAL OPPORTUNITY FOR

ENERGY SAVINGS
Symptom Likely Reason Best Solutions

Throttle valve-controlled systems Oversized pump Trim impeller, smaller impeller,
variable speed drive, two speed
drive, lower rpm
Bypass line (partially or Oversized pump Trim impeller, smaller impeller,
completely) open variable speed drive, two speed
drive, lower rpm
Multiple parallel pump system Pump use not Install controls
with the same number of pumps monitored or controlled
always operating
Constant pump operation in a Wrong system design On-off controls
batch environment
High maintenance cost (seals, Pump operated far Match pump capacity with
bearings) away from BEP system requirement

Effect of speed variation

As stated above, a centrifugal pump is a dynamic device with the head generated from a rotat-
ing impeller. There is therefore a relationship between impeller peripheral velocity and gener-
ated head. Peripheral velocity is directly related to shaft rotational speed, for a fixed impeller
diameter and so varying the rotational speed has a direct effect on the performance of the pump.
All the parameters shown in fig 6.2 will change if the speed is varied and it is important to have
an appreciation of how these parameters vary in order to safely control a pump at different
speeds. The equations relating rotodynamic pump performance parameters of flow, head and
power absorbed, to speed are known as the Affinity Laws:
Where:
Q = Flow rate
H = Head
P = Power absorbed
N = Rotating speed
Efficiency is essentially independent of speed
Flow: Flow is proportional to the speed
Q1 / Q2 = N1 / N2
Example: 100 / Q2 = 1750/3500
Q2 = 200 m3/hr
Head: Head is proportional to the square of speed
H1/H2 = (N12) / (N22)

Example: 100 /H2 = 17502 / 35002
H2 = 400 m
Power(kW): Power is proportional to the cube of speed
kW1 / kW2 = (N13) / (N23)

Example: 5/kW2 = 17503 / 35003
kW2 = 40
As can be seen from the above laws, doubling the speed of the centrifugal pump will
increase the power consumption by 8 times. Conversely a small reduction in speed will result
in drastic reduction in power consumption. This forms the basis for energy conservation in cen-
trifugal pumps with varying flow requirements. The implication of this can be better understood
as shown in an example of a centrifugal pump in Figure 6.13 below.

Figure 6.13 Example of Speed Variation Effecting Centrifugal Pump Performance
Points of equal efficiency on the curves for the 3 different speeds are joined to make the iso-
efficiency lines, showing that efficiency remains constant over small changes of speed provid-
ing the pump continues to operate at the same position related to its best efficiency point (BEP).
The affinity laws give a good approximation of how pump performance curves change with
speed but in order to obtain the actual performance of the pump in a system, the system curve
also has to be taken into account.
Effects of impeller diameter change

Changing the impeller diameter gives a proportional change in peripheral velocity, so it follows
that there are equations, similar to the affinity laws, for the variation of performance with
impeller diameter D:
Efficiency varies when the diameter is changed within a particular casing. Note the difference
in iso-efficiency lines in Figure 6.14 compared with Figure 6.13. The relationships shown here
apply to the case for changing only the diameter of an impeller within a fixed casing geometry,
which is a common practice for making small permanent adjustments to the performance of a cen-
trifugal pump. Diameter changes are generally limited to reducing the diameter to about 75% of
the maximum, i.e. a head reduction to about 50%. Beyond this, efficiency and NPSH are badly
affected. However speed change can be used over a wider range without seriously reducing effi-
ciency. For example reducing the speed by 50% typically results in a reduction of efficiency by 1
or 2 percentage points. The reason for the small loss of efficiency with the lower speed is that

mechanical losses in seals and bearings, which generally represent <5% of total power, are pro-
portional to speed, rather than speed cubed. It should be noted that if the change in diameter is
more than about 5%, the accuracy of the squared and cubic relationships can fall off and for pre-
cise calculations, the pump manufacturer's performance curves should be referred to.
Figure 6.14 Example: Impeller Diameter Reduction on Centrifugal Pump Performance
The illustrated curves are typical of most centrifugal pump types. Certain high flow, low
head pumps have performance curve shapes somewhat different and have a reduced operating
region of flows. This requires additional care in matching the pump to the system, when chang-
ing speed and diameter.
Pump suction performance (NPSH)
Liquid entering the impeller eye turns and is split into separate streams by the leading edges of the
impeller vanes, an action which locally drops the pressure below that in the inlet pipe to the pump.
If the incoming liquid is at a pressure with insufficient margin above its vapour pressure,
then vapour cavities or bubbles appear along the impeller vanes just behind the inlet edges. This
phenomenon is known as cavitation and has three undesirable effects:
1) The collapsing cavitation bubbles can erode the vane surface, especially when pumping
water-based liquids.
2) Noise and vibration are increased, with possible shortened seal and bearing life.
3) The cavity areas will initially partially choke the impeller passages and reduce the pump per-
formance. In extreme cases, total loss of pump developed head occurs.
The value, by which the pressure in the pump suction exceeds the liquid vapour pressure, is expressed
as a head of liquid and referred to as Net Positive Suction Head Available – (NPSHA). This is a charac-
teristic of the system design. The value of NPSH needed at the pump suction to prevent the pump from
cavitating is known as NPSH Required – (NPSHR). This is a characteristic of the pump design.
The three undesirable effects of cavitation described above begin at different values of
NPSHA and generally there will be cavitation erosion before there is a noticeable loss of pump

head. However for a consistent approach, manufacturers and industry standards, usually define
the onset of cavitation as the value of NPSHR when there is a head drop of 3% compared with
the head with cavitation free performance. At this point cavitation is present and prolonged
operation at this point will usually lead to damage. It is usual therefore to apply a margin
bywhich NPSHA should exceed NPSHR.
As would be expected, the NPSHR increases as the flow through the pump increases, see fig
6.2. In addition, as flow increases in the suction pipework, friction losses also increase, giving a
lower NPSHA at the pump suction, both of which give a greater chance that cavitation will occur.
NPSHR also varies approximately with the square of speed in the same way as pump head and
conversion of NPSHR from one speed to another can be made using the following equations.
Q∝N
NPSHR ∝ N 2
It should be noted however that at very low speeds there is a minimum NPSHR plateau,
NPSHR does not tend to zero at zero speed It is therefore essential to carefully consider NPSH
in variable speed pumping.

Pump control by varying speed
To understand how speed variation changes the duty point, the pump and system curves are
over-laid. Two systems are considered, one with only friction loss and another where static head
is high in relation to friction head. It will be seen that the benefits are different. In Figure 6.15,
Figure 6.15 Example of the Effect of Pump Speed Change in a System With Only Friction Loss

reducing speed in the friction loss system moves the intersection point on the system curve
along a line of constant efficiency. The operating point of the pump, relative to its best effi-
ciency point, remains constant and the pump continues to operate in its ideal region. The affin-
ity laws are obeyed which means that there is a substantial reduction in power absorbed accom-
panying the reduction in flow and head, making variable speed the ideal control method for sys-
tems with friction loss.
In a system where static head is high, as illustrated in Figure 6.16, the operating point for
the pump moves relative to the lines of constant pump efficiency when the speed is changed.
The reduction in flow is no longer proportional to speed. A small turn down in speed could give
a big reduction in flow rate and pump efficiency, which could result in the pump operating in a
region where it could be damaged if it ran for an extended period of time even at the lower
speed. At the lowest speed illustrated, (1184 rpm), the pump does not generate sufficient head
to pump any liquid into the system, i.e. pump efficiency and flow rate are zero and with ener-
gy still being input to the liquid, the pump becomes a water heater and damaging temperatures
can quickly be reached.
Figure 6.16 Example for the Effect of Pump Speed Change with a System with High Static Head.
The drop in pump efficiency during speed reduction in a system with static head, reduces
the economic benefits of variable speed control. There may still be overall benefits but eco-
nomics should be examined on a case-by-case basis. Usually it is advantageous to select the
pump such that the system curve intersects the full speed pump curve to the right of best effi-
ciency, in order that the efficiency will first increase as the speed is reduced and then decrease.
This can extend the useful range of variable speed operation in a system with static head. The
pump manufacturer should be consulted on the safe operating range of the pump.

It is relevant to note that flow control by speed regulation is always more efficient than by
control valve. In addition to energy savings there could be other benefits of lower speed. The
hydraulic forces on the impeller, created by the pressure profile inside the pump casing, reduce
approximately with the square of speed. These forces are carried by the pump bearings and so
reducing speed increases bearing life. It can be shown that for a centrifugal pump, bearing life
is inversely proportional to the 7th power of speed. In addition, vibration and noise are reduced
and seal life is increased providing the duty point remains within the allowable operating range.
The corollary to this is that small increases in the speed of a pump significantly increase
power absorbed, shaft stress and bearing loads. It should be remembered that the pump and
motor must be sized for the maximum speed at which the pump set will operate. At higher speed
the noise and vibration from both pump and motor will increase, although for small increases
the change will be small. If the liquid contains abrasive particles, increasing speed will give a
corresponding increase in surface wear in the pump and pipework.
The effect on the mechanical seal of the change in seal chamber pressure, should be
reviewed with the pump or seal manufacturer, if the speed increase is large. Conventional
mechanical seals operate satisfactorily at very low speeds and generally there is no requirement
for a minimum speed to be specified, however due to their method of operation, gas seals
require a minimum peripheral speed of 5 m/s.
Pumps in parallel switched to meet demand

Another energy efficient method of flow control, particularly for systems where static head is a
high proportion of the total, is to install two or more pumps to operate in parallel. Variation of
flow rate is achieved by switching on and off additional pumps to meet demand. The combined
pump curve is obtained by adding the flow rates at a specific head. The head/flow rate curves
for two and three pumps are shown in Figure 6.17.
Figure 6.17 Typical Head-Flow Curves for Pumps in Parallel
The system curve is usually not affected by the number of pumps that are running. For a
system with a combination of static and friction head loss, it can be seen, in Figure 6.18, that

the operating point of the pumps on their performance curves moves to a higher head and hence
lower flow rate per pump, as more pumps are started. It is also apparent that the flow rate with
two pumps running is not double that of a single pump. If the system head were only static, then
flow rate would be proportional to the number of pumps operating.
It is possible to run pumps of different sizes in parallel provided their closed valve heads
are similar. By arranging different combinations of pumps running together, a larger number of
different flow rates can be provided into the system.
Care must be taken when running pumps in parallel to ensure that the operating point of the
pump is controlled within the region deemed as acceptable by the manufacturer. It can be seen
from Figure 6.18 that if 1 or 2 pumps were stopped then the remaining pump(s) would operate
well out along the curve where NPSH is higher and vibration level increased, giving an
increased risk of operating problems.
Figure 6.18 Typical Head-Flow Curves for Pumps in Parallel, With System Curve Illustrated.
Stop/start control
In this control method, the flow is controlled by switching pumps on or off. It is necessary to
have a storage capacity in the system e.g. a wet well, an elevated tank or an accumulator type
pressure vessel. The storage can provide a steady flow to the system with an intermittent oper-
ating pump. When the pump runs, it does so at the chosen (presumably optimum) duty point and
when it is off, there is no energy consumption. If intermittent flow, stop/start operation and the
storage facility are acceptable, this is an effective approach to minimise energy consumption.
The stop/start operation causes additional loads on the power transmission components and
increased heating in the motor. The frequency of the stop/start cycle should be within the motor
design criteria and checked with the pump manufacturer.
It may also be used to benefit from "off peak" energy tariffs by arranging the run times dur-
ing the low tariff periods.
To minimise energy consumption with stop start control it is better to pump at as low flow
rate as the process permits. This minimises friction losses in the pipe and an appropriately small
pump can be installed. For example, pumping at half the flow rate for twice as long can reduce
energy consumption to a quarter.

Flow control valve

With this control method, the pump runs continuously and a valve in the pump discharge line
is opened or closed to adjust the flow to the required value.
Figure 6.19 Control of Pump Flow by Changing System Resistance Using a Valve.
To understand how the flow rate is controlled, see Figure 6.19. With the valve fully open,
the pump operates at "Flow 1". When the valve is partially closed it introduces an additional
friction loss in the system, which is proportional to flow squared. The new system curve cuts
the pump curve at "Flow 2", which is the new operating point. The head difference between the
two curves is the pressure drop across the valve.
It is usual practice with valve control to have the valve 10% shut even at maximum flow.
Energy is therefore wasted overcoming the resistance through the valve at all flow conditions.
There is some reduction in pump power absorbed at the lower flow rate (see Figure 6.19), but
the flow multiplied by the head drop across the valve, is wasted energy. It should also be noted
that, while the pump will accommodate changes in its operating point as far as it is able within
its performance range, it can be forced to operate high on the curve, where its efficiency is low,
and its reliability is affected.
Maintenance cost of control valves can be high, particularly on corrosive and solids-con-
taining liquids. Therefore, the lifetime cost could be unnecessarily high.
By-pass control
With this control approach, the pump runs continuously at the maximum process demand duty,
with a permanent by-pass line attached to the outlet. When a lower flow is required the surplus
liquid is bypassed and returned to the supply source.
An alternative configuration may have a tank supplying a varying process demand, which
is kept full by a fixed duty pump running at the peak flow rate. Most of the time the tank over-

flows and recycles back to the pump suction. This is even less energy efficient than a control
valve because there is no reduction in power consumption with reduced process demand.
The small by-pass line sometimes installed to prevent a pump running at zero flow is not a
means of flow control, but required for the safe operation of the pump.
Fixed Flow reduction

Impeller trimming
Impeller trimming refers to the process
of machining the diameter of an
impeller to reduce the energy added to
the system fluid.
Impeller trimming offers a useful
correction to pumps that, through over-
ly conservative design practices or
changes in system loads are oversized
for their application.
Trimming an impeller provides a
level of correction below buying a
smaller impeller from the pump manu-
facturer. But in many cases, the next
smaller size impeller is too small for the
pump load. Also, smaller impellers may Figure 6.20 Before Impeller trimming
not be available for the pump size in
question and impeller trimming is the
only practical alternative short of
replacing the entire pump/motor assem-
bly. (see Figures 6.20 & 6.21 for before
and after impeller trimming).
Impeller trimming reduces tip
speed, which in turn directly lowers the
amount of energy imparted to the sys-
tem fluid and lowers both the flow and
pressure generated by the pump.
The Affinity Laws, which describe
centrifugal pump performance, provide
a theoretical relationship between
impeller size and pump output (assum- Figure 6.21 After Impeller Trimming
ing constant pump speed):
Where:
Q = flow
H = head
BHP = brake horsepower of the pump motor
Subscript 1 = original pump,
Subscript 2 = pump after impeller trimming
D = Diameter
Trimming an impeller changes its operating efficiency, and the non-linearities of the
Affinity Laws with respect to impeller machining complicate the prediction of pump perfor-
mance. Consequently, impeller diameters are rarely reduced below 70 percent of their original
size.
Meeting variable flow reduction

Variable Speed Drives (VSDs)
In contrast, pump speed adjustments provide the most efficient means of controlling pump flow.
By reducing pump speed, less energy is imparted to the fluid and less energy needs to be throt-
tled or bypassed. There are two primary methods of reducing pump speed: multiple-speed pump
motors and variable speed drives (VSDs).
Although both directly control pump output, multiple-speed motors and VSDs serve
entirely separate applications. Multiple-speed motors contain a different set of windings for
each motor speed; consequently, they are more expensive and less efficient than single speed
motors. Multiple speed motors also lack subtle speed changing capabilities within discrete
speeds.
VSDs allow pump speed adjustments over a continuous range, avoiding the need to jump
from speed to speed as with multiple-speed pumps. VSDs control pump speeds using several
different types of mechanical and electrical systems. Mechanical VSDs include hydraulic
clutches, fluid couplings, and adjustable
belts and pulleys. Electrical VSDs
include eddy current clutches, wound-
rotor motor controllers, and variable fre-
quency drives (VFDs). VFDs adjust the
electrical frequency of the power sup-
plied to a motor to change the motor's
rotational speed. VFDs are by far the
most popular type of VSD.
However, pump speed adjustment is
not appropriate for all systems. In appli-
cations with high static head, slowing a
pump risks inducing vibrations and cre-
ating performance problems that are
similar to those found when a pump
operates against its shutoff head. For
systems in which the static head repre- Figure 6.22 Effect of VFD

sents a large portion of the total head, caution should be used in deciding whether to use VFDs.
Operators should review the performance of VFDs in similar applications and consult VFD
manufacturers to avoid the damage that can result when a pump operates too slowly against
high static head.
For many systems, VFDs offer a means to improve pump operating efficiency despite
changes in operating conditions. The effect of slowing pump speed on pump operation is illus-
trated by the three curves in Figure 6.22. When a VFD slows a pump, its head/flow and brake
horsepower (BHP) curves drop down and to the left and its efficiency curve shifts to the left.
This efficiency response provides an essential cost advantage; by keeping the operating effi-
ciency as high as possible across variations in the system's flow demand, the energy and main-
tenance costs of the pump can be significantly reduced.
VFDs may offer operating cost reductions by allowing higher pump operating efficiency,
but the principal savings derive from the reduction in frictional or bypass flow losses. Using a
system perspective to identify areas in which fluid energy is dissipated in non-useful work often
reveals opportunities for operating cost reductions.
For example, in many systems, increasing flow through bypass lines does not noticeably
impact the backpressure on a pump. Consequently, in these applications pump efficiency does
not necessarily decline during periods of low flow demand. By analyzing the entire system,
however, the energy lost in pushing fluid through bypass lines and across throttle valves can be
identified.
Another system benefit of VFDs is a soft start capability. During startup, most motors expe-
rience in-rush currents that are 5 – 6 times higher than normal operating currents. This high cur-
rent fades when the motor spins up to normal speed. VFDs allow the motor to be started with a
lower startup current (usually only about 1.5 times the normal operating current). This reduces
wear on the motor and its controller.
6.7 Energy Conservation Opportunities in Pumping Systems

■ Ensure adequate NPSH at site of installation
■ Ensure availability of basic instruments at pumps like pressure gauges, flow meters.
■ Operate pumps near best efficiency point.
■ Modify pumping system and pumps losses to minimize throttling.
■ Adapt to wide load variation with variable speed drives or sequenced control of multiple
units.
■ Stop running multiple pumps - add an auto-start for an on-line spare or add a booster pump
in the problem area.
■ Use booster pumps for small loads requiring higher pressures.
■ Increase fluid temperature differentials to reduce pumping rates in case of heat
exchangers.
■ Repair seals and packing to minimize water loss by dripping.
■ Balance the system to minimize flows and reduce pump power requirements.
■ Avoid pumping head with a free-fall return (gravity); Use siphon effect to advantage:
■ Conduct water balance to minimise water consumption
■ Avoid cooling water re-circulation in DG sets, air compressors, refrigeration systems,
cooling towers feed water pumps, condenser pumps and process pumps.

■ In multiple pump operations, carefully combine the operation of pumps to avoid throttling
■ Provide booster pump for few areas of higher head
■ Replace old pumps by energy efficient pumps
■ In the case of over designed pump, provide variable speed drive, or downsize / replace
impeller or replace with correct sized pump for efficient operation.
■ Optimise number of stages in multi-stage pump in case of head margins
■ Reduce system resistance by pressure drop assessment and pipe size optimisation

QUESTIONS
1. What is NPSH of a pump and effects of inadequate NPSH?
2. State the affinity laws as applicable to centrifugal pumps?
3. Explain what do you understand by static head and friction head?
4. What are the various methods of pump capacity control normally adopted?
5. Briefly explain with a diagram the energy loss due to throttling in a centrifugal
pump.
6. Briefly explain with a sketch the concept of pump head flow characteristics and sys-
tem resistance.
7. What are the effects of over sizing a pump?
8. If the speed of the pump is doubled, power goes up by
a) 2 times b) 6 times c) 8 times d) 4 times
9. How does the pump performance vary with impeller diameter?
10. State the relationship between liquid kW, flow and pressure in a pumping
application.
11. Draw a pump curve for parallel operation of pumps (2 nos).
12. Draw a pump curve for series operation of pumps (2 nos).
13. List down few energy conservation opportunities in pumping system.
REFERENCES
1. British Pump Manufacturers' Association
2. BEE (EMC) Inputs
3. PCRA Literature

7. COOLING TOWER
Syllabus
Cooling Tower: Types and performance evaluation, Efficient system operation, Flow
control strategies and energy saving opportunities, Assessment of cooling towers
7.1 Introduction
Cooling towers are a very important part of many chemical plants. The primary task of a cool-
ing tower is to reject heat into the atmosphere. They represent a relatively inexpensive and
dependable means of removing low-grade heat from cooling water. The make-up water source
is used to replenish water lost to evaporation. Hot water from heat exchangers is sent to the
cooling tower. The water exits the cooling tower and is sent back to the exchangers or to other
units for further cooling. Typical closed loop cooling tower system is shown in Figure 7.1.
Figure 7.1 Cooling Water System
Cooling Tower Types

Cooling towers fall into two main categories: Natural draft and Mechanical draft.
Natural draft towers use very large concrete chimneys to introduce air through the media.
Due to the large size of these towers, they are generally used for water flow rates above 45,000
m3/hr. These types of towers are used only by utility power stations.
Mechanical draft towers utilize large fans to force or suck air through circulated water. The
water falls downward over fill surfaces, which help increase the contact time between the water
and the air - this helps maximise heat transfer between the two. Cooling rates of Mechanical
draft towers depend upon their fan diameter and speed of operation. Since, the mechanical draft
cooling towers are much more widely used, the focus is on them in this chapter.

7. Cooling Tower
Mechanical draft towers

Mechanical draft towers are available in the following airflow arrangements:
1. Counter flows induced draft.
2. Counter flow forced draft.
3. Cross flow induced draft.
In the counter flow induced draft design, hot water enters at the top, while the air is intro-
duced at the bottom and exits at the top. Both forced and induced draft fans are used.
In cross flow induced draft towers, the water enters at the top and passes over the fill. The
air, however, is introduced at the side either on one side (single-flow tower) or opposite sides
(double-flow tower). An induced draft fan draws the air across the wetted fill and expels it
through the top of the structure.
The Figure 7.2 illustrates various cooling tower types. Mechanical draft towers are avail-
able in a large range of capacities. Normal capacities range from approximately 10 tons,
2.5 m3/hr flow to several thousand tons and m3/hr. Towers can be either factory built or field
erected - for example concrete towers are only field erected.
Many towers are constructed so that they can be grouped together to achieve the desired
capacity. Thus, many cooling towers are assemblies of two or more individual cooling
towers or "cells." The number of cells they have, e.g., an eight-cell tower, often refers to
such towers. Multiple-cell towers can be lineal, square, or round depending upon the shape
of the individual cells and whether the air inlets are located on the sides or bottoms of the
cells.
Components of Cooling Tower

The basic components of an evaporative tower are: Frame and casing, fill, cold water basin,
drift eliminators, air inlet, louvers, nozzles and fans.
Frame and casing: Most towers have structural frames that support the exterior enclosures
(casings), motors, fans, and other components. With some smaller designs, such as some glass
fiber units, the casing may essentially be the frame.
Fill: Most towers employ fills (made of plastic or wood) to facilitate heat transfer by maximis-
ing water and air contact. Fill can either be splash or film type.
With splash fill, water falls over successive layers of horizontal splash bars, continuously
breaking into smaller droplets, while also wetting the fill surface. Plastic splash fill promotes
better heat transfer than the wood splash fill.
Film fill consists of thin, closely spaced plastic surfaces over which the water spreads, form-
ing a thin film in contact with the air. These surfaces may be flat, corrugated, honeycombed, or
other patterns. The film type of fill is the more efficient and provides same heat transfer in a
smaller volume than the splash fill.
Cold water basin: The cold water basin, located at or near the bottom of the tower, receives
the cooled water that flows down through the tower and fill. The basin usually has a sump or
low point for the cold water discharge connection. In many tower designs, the cold water basin
is beneath the entire fill.

7. Cooling Tower
Figure 7.2 Cooling Tower Types
In some forced draft counter flow design, however, the water at the bottom of the fill is
channeled to a perimeter trough that functions as the cold water basin. Propeller fans are mount-
ed beneath the fill to blow the air up through the tower. With this design, the tower is mounted
on legs, providing easy access to the fans and their motors.

7. Cooling Tower
Drift eliminators: These capture water droplets entrapped in the air stream that otherwise
would be lost to the atmosphere.
Air inlet: This is the point of entry for the air entering a tower. The inlet may take up an entire
side of a tower–cross flow design– or be located low on the side or the bottom of counter flow
designs.
Louvers: Generally, cross-flow towers have inlet louvers. The purpose of louvers is to equal-
ize air flow into the fill and retain the water within the tower. Many counter flow tower designs
do not require louvers.
Nozzles: These provide the water sprays to wet the fill. Uniform water distribution at the top of
the fill is essential to achieve proper wetting of the entire fill surface. Nozzles can either be
fixed in place and have either round or square spray patterns or can be part of a rotating assem-
bly as found in some circular cross-section towers.
Fans: Both axial (propeller type) and centrifugal fans are used in towers. Generally, propeller
fans are used in induced draft towers and both propeller and centrifugal fans are found in forced
draft towers. Depending upon their size, propeller fans can either be fixed or variable pitch.
A fan having non-automatic adjustable pitch blades permits the same fan to be used over a wide
range of kW with the fan adjusted to deliver the desired air flow at the lowest power consumption.
Automatic variable pitch blades can vary air flow in response to changing load conditions.
Tower Materials
In the early days of cooling tower manufacture, towers were constructed primarily of wood.
Wooden components included the frame, casing, louvers, fill, and often the cold water basin. If
the basin was not of wood, it likely was of concrete.
Today, tower manufacturers fabricate towers and tower components from a variety of mate-
rials. Often several materials are used to enhance corrosion resistance, reduce maintenance, and
promote reliability and long service life. Galvanized steel, various grades of stainless steel,
glass fiber, and concrete are widely used in tower construction as well as aluminum and vari-
ous types of plastics for some components.
Wood towers are still available, but they have glass fiber rather than wood panels (casing)
over the wood framework. The inlet air louvers may be glass fiber, the fill may be plastic, and
the cold water basin may be steel.
Larger towers sometimes are made of concrete. Many towers–casings and basins–are con-
structed of galvanized steel or, where a corrosive atmosphere is a problem, stainless steel.
Sometimes a galvanized tower has a stainless steel basin. Glass fiber is also widely used for
cooling tower casings and basins, giving long life and protection from the harmful effects of
many chemicals.
Plastics are widely used for fill, including PVC, polypropylene, and other polymers. Treated
wood splash fill is still specified for wood towers, but plastic splash fill is also widely used
when water conditions mandate the use of splash fill. Film fill, because it offers greater heat
transfer efficiency, is the fill of choice for applications where the circulating water is generally
free of debris that could plug the fill passageways.

7. Cooling Tower
Plastics also find wide use as nozzle materials. Many nozzles are being made of PVC, ABS,
polypropylene, and glass-filled nylon. Aluminum, glass fiber, and hot-dipped galvanized steel are
commonly used fan materials. Centrifugal fans are often fabricated from galvanized steel.
Propeller fans are fabricated from galvanized, aluminum, or moulded glass fiber reinforced plas-
tic.
7.2 Cooling Tower Performance
Figure 7.3 Range and Approach
The important parameters, from the point of determining the performance of cooling towers, are:
i) "Range" is the difference between the cooling tower water inlet and outlet temperature.
(See Figure 7.3).
ii) "Approach" is the difference between the cooling tower outlet cold water temperature
and ambient wet bulb temperature. Although, both range and approach should be moni-
tored, the 'Approach' is a better indicator of cooling tower performance. (see Figure 7.3).
iii) Cooling tower effectiveness (in percentage) is the ratio of range, to the ideal range, i.e.,
difference between cooling water inlet temperature and ambient wet bulb temperature,
or in other words it is = Range / (Range + Approach).
iv) Cooling capacity is the heat rejected in kCal/hr or TR, given as product of mass flow
rate of water, specific heat and temperature difference.
v) Evaporation loss is the water quantity evaporated for cooling duty and, theoretically, for
every 10,00,000 kCal heat rejected, evaporation quantity works out to 1.8 m3. An empir-
ical relation used often is:
*Evaporation Loss (m3/hr) = 0.00085 x 1.8 x circulation rate (m3/hr) x (T1-T2)
T1-T2 = Temp. difference between inlet and outlet water.
*Source: Perry’s Chemical Engineers Handbook (Page: 12-17)

7. Cooling Tower
vi) Cycles of concentration (C.O.C) is the ratio of dissolved solids in circulating water to
the dissolved solids in make up water.
vii) Blow down losses depend upon cycles of concentration and the evaporation losses and
is given by relation:
Blow Down = Evaporation Loss / (C.O.C. – 1)
viii) Liquid/Gas (L/G) ratio, of a cooling tower is the ratio between the water and the air mass
flow rates. Against design values, seasonal variations require adjustment and tuning of
water and air flow rates to get the best cooling tower effectiveness through measures
like water box loading changes, blade angle adjustments.
Thermodynamics also dictate that the heat removed from the water must be equal to the
heat absorbed by the surrounding air:
L(T1 –T2) = G(h2 – h1)

L h – h1
= 2
G T1– T2
where:
L/G = liquid to gas mass flow ratio (kg/kg)
T1 = hot water temperature (°C)
T2 = cold water temperature (°C)
h2 = enthalpy of air-water vapor mixture at exhaust wet-bulb temperature
(same units as above)
h1 = enthalpy of air-water vapor mixture at inlet wet-bulb temperature (same
units as above)
Factors Affecting Cooling Tower Performance

Capacity
Heat dissipation (in kCal/hour) and circulated flow rate (m3/hr) are not sufficient to understand
cooling tower performance. Other factors, which we will see, must be stated along with flow
rate m3/hr. For example, a cooling tower sized to cool 4540 m3/hr through a 13.9°C range might
be larger than a cooling tower to cool 4540 m3/hr through 19.5°C range.
Range
Range is determined not by the cooling tower, but by the process it is serving. The range at the
exchanger is determined entirely by the heat load and the water circulation rate through the
exchanger and on to the cooling water.
Range °C = Heat Load in kcals/hour / Water Circulation Rate in LPH
Thus, Range is a function of the heat load and the flow circulated through the system.

7. Cooling Tower
Cooling towers are usually specified to cool a certain flow rate from one temperature
to another temperature at a certain wet bulb temperature. For example, the cooling
tower might be specified to cool 4540 m3/hr from 48.9°C to 32.2°C at 26.7°C wet bulb
temperature.
Cold Water Temperature 32.2°C – Wet Bulb Temperature (26.7°C) = Approach (5.5°C)
As a generalization, the closer the approach to the wet
bulb, the more expensive the cooling tower due to increased
size. Usually a 2.8°C approach to the design wet bulb is
the coldest water temperature that cooling tower manufac-
turers will guarantee. If flow rate, range, approach and wet
bulb had to be ranked in the order of their importance in
sizing a tower, approach would be first with flow rate closely
following the range and wet bulb would be of lesser
importance.
Heat Load
The heat load imposed on a cooling tower is determined by the process being served. The
degree of cooling required is controlled by the desired operating temperature level of the
process. In most cases, a low operating temperature is desirable to increase process efficiency
or to improve the quality or quantity of the product. In some applications (e.g. internal com-
bustion engines), however, high operating temperatures are desirable. The size and cost of the
cooling tower is proportional to the heat load. If heat load calculations are low undersized
equipment will be purchased. If the calculated load is high, oversize and more costly, equipment
will result.
Process heat loads may vary considerably depending upon the process involved.
Determination of accurate process heat loads can become very complex but proper considera-
tion can produce satisfactory results. On the other hand, air conditioning and refrigeration heat
loads can be determined with greater accuracy.
Information is available for the heat rejection requirements of various types of power equip-
ment. A sample list is as follows:
* Air Compressor
- Single-stage - 129 kCal/kW/hr
- Single-stage with after cooler - 862 kCal/kW/hr
- Two-stage with intercooler - 518 kCal/kW/hr
- Two-stage with intercooler and after cooler - 862 kCal/kW/hr
* Refrigeration, Compression - 63 kCal/min/TR
* Refrigeration, Absorption - 127 kCal/min/TR
* Steam Turbine Condenser - 555 kCal/kg of
steam
* Diesel Engine, Four-Cycle, Supercharged - 880 kCal/kW/hr
* Natural Gas Engine, Four-cycle - 1523 kCal/kW/hr
(18 kg/cm2 compression)

7. Cooling Tower
Wet Bulb Temperature

Wet bulb temperature is an important factor in performance of evaporative water cooling equip-
ment. It is a controlling factor from the aspect of minimum cold water temperature to which
water can be cooled by the evaporative method. Thus, the wet bulb temperature of the air enter-
ing the cooling tower determines operating temperature levels throughout the plant, process, or
system. Theoretically, a cooling tower will cool water to the entering wet bulb temperature,
when operating without a heat load. However, a thermal potential is required to reject heat, so
it is not possible to cool water to the entering air wet bulb temperature, when a heat load is
applied. The approach obtained is a function of thermal conditions and tower capability.
Initial selection of towers with respect to design wet bulb temperature must be made on the
basis of conditions existing at the tower site. The temperature selected is generally close to the
average maximum wet bulb for the summer months. An important aspect of wet bulb selection
is, whether it is specified as ambient or inlet. The ambient wet bulb is the temperature, which
exists generally in the cooling tower area, whereas inlet wet bulb is the wet bulb temperature of
the air entering the tower. The later can be, and often is, affected by discharge vapours being
recirculated into the tower. Recirculation raises the effective wet bulb temperature of the air
entering the tower with corresponding increase in the cold water temperature. Since there is no
initial knowledge or control over the recirculation factor, the ambient wet bulb should be spec-
ified. The cooling tower supplier is required to furnish a tower of sufficient capability to absorb
the effects of the increased wet bulb temperature peculiar to his own equipment.
It is very important to have the cold water temperature low enough to exchange heat or to
condense vapours at the optimum temperature level. By evaluating the cost and size of heat
exchangers versus the cost and size of the cooling tower, the quantity and temperature of the
cooling tower water can be selected to get the maximum economy for the particular process.
The Table 7.1 illustrates the effect of approach on the size and cost of a cooling tower. The
towers included were sized to cool 4540 m3/hr through a 16.67°C range at a 26.7°C design wet
bulb. The overall width of all towers is 21.65 meters; the overall height, 15.25 meters, and the
pump head, 10.6 m approximately.
TABLE 7.1 APPROACH VS. COOLING TOWER SIZE (4540 m3/hr; 16.67°C
Range 26.7°C Wet Bulb; 10.7 m Pump Head)
Approach °C 2.77 3.33 3.88 4.44 5.0 5.55

Hot Water °C 46.11 46.66 47.22 47.77 48.3 48.88
Cold Water °C 29.44 30 30.55 31.11 31.66 32.22
No. of Cells 4 4 3 3 3 3
Length of Cells Mts. 10.98 8.54 10.98 9.76 8.54 8.54
Overall Length Mts. 43.9 34.15 32.93 29.27 25.61 25.61
No. of Fans 4 4 3 3 3 3
Fan Diameter Mts. 7.32 7.32 7.32 7.32 7.32 6.71
Total Fan kW 270 255 240 202.5 183.8 183.8

7. Cooling Tower
Approach and Flow

Suppose a cooling tower is installed that is 21.65 m wide × 36.9 m long × 15.24m high, has
three 7.32 m diameter fans and each powered by 25 kW motors. The cooling tower cools from
3632 m3/hr water from 46.1°C to 29.4°C at 26.7°C WBT dissipating 60.69 million kCal/hr.
The Table 7.2 shows what would happen with additional flow but with the range remaining
constant at 16.67°C. The heat dissipated varies from 60.69 million kCal/hr to 271.3 million
kCal/hr.
TABLE 7.2 FLOW VS. APPROACH FOR A GIVEN TOWER (Tower is

21.65 m × 36.9 M; Three 7.32 M Fans; Three 25 kW
Motors; 16.7°C Range with 26.7°C Wet Bulb)
Flow m3/hr Approach Cold Water Hot Water Million

°C °C °C kCal/hr
3632 2.78 29.40 46.11 60.691
4086 3.33 29.95 46.67 68.318
4563 3.89 30.51 47.22 76.25
5039 4.45 31.07 47.78 84.05
5516 5.00 31.62 48.33 92.17
6060.9 5.56 32.18 48.89 101.28
7150.5 6.67 33.29 50.00 119.48
8736 8.33 35.00 51.67 145.63
11590 11.1 37.80 54.45 191.64
13620 13.9 40.56 57.22 226.91
16276 16.7 43.33 60.00 271.32
For meeting the increased heat load, few modifications would be needed to increase the
water flow through the tower. However, at higher capacities, the approach would increase.
Range, Flow and Heat Load

Range is a direct function of the quantity of water circulated and the heat load. Increasing
the range as a result of added heat load does require an increase in the tower size. If the
cold water temperature is not changed and the range is increased with higher hot water
temperature, the driving force between the wet bulb temperature of the air entering the
tower and the hot water temperature is increased, the higher level heat is economical to
dissipate.
If the hot water temperature is left constant and the range is increased by specifying a
lower cold water temperature, the tower size would have to be increased considerably. Not
only would the range be increased, but the lower cold water temperature would lower the

7. Cooling Tower
approach. The resulting change in both range and approach would require a much larger
cooling tower.
Approach & Wet Bulb Temperature

The design wet bulb temperature is determined by the geographical location. Usually the design
wet bulb temperature selected is not exceeded over 5 percent of the time in that area. Wet bulb
temperature is a factor in cooling tower selection; the higher the wet bulb temperature, the
smaller the tower required to give a specified approach to the wet bulb at a constant range and
flow rate.
A 4540 m3/hr cooling tower selected for a 16.67°C range and a 4.45°C approach to
21.11°C wet bulb would be larger than a 4540 m3/hr tower selected for a 16.67°C range and
a 4.45°C approach to a 26.67°C wet bulb. Air at the higher wet bulb temperature is capable
of picking up more heat. Assume that the wet bulb temperature of the air is increased by
approximately 11.1°C. As air removes heat from the water in the tower, each kg of air enter-
ing the tower at 21.1°C wet bulb would contain 18.86 kCals and if it were to leave the tower
at 33.2°C wet bulb it would contain 24.17 kCal per kg of air. In the second case, each kg of
air entering the tower at 26.67°C wet bulb would contain 24.17 kCals and were to leave at
37.8°C wet bulb it would contain 39.67 kCal per kg of air. In going from 21.1°C to 32.2°C,
12.1 kCal per kg of air is picked up, while 15.5 kCal/kg of air is picked up in going from
26.67°C to 37.8°C.
Fill Media Effects

In a cooling tower, hot water is distributed above fill media which flows down and is cooled
due to evaporation with the intermixing air. Air draft is achieved with use of fans. Thus some
power is consumed in pumping the water to a height above the fill and also by fans creating the
draft.
An energy efficient or low power consuming cooling tower is to have efficient designs of
fill media with appropriate water distribution, drift eliminator, fan, gearbox and motor. Power
savings in a cooling tower, with use of efficient fill design, is directly reflected as savings in fan
power consumption and pumping head requirement.
Function of Fill media in a Cooling Tower

Heat exchange between air and water is influenced by surface area of heat exchange, time of
heat exchange (interaction) and turbulence in water effecting thoroughness of intermixing. Fill
media in a cooling tower is responsible to achieve all of above.
Splash and Film Fill Media: As the name indicates, splash fill media generates the required
heat exchange area by splashing action of water over fill media and hence breaking into small-
er water droplets. Thus, surface of heat exchange is the surface area of the water droplets, which
is in contact with air.
Film Fill and its Advantages

In a film fill, water forms a thin film on either side of fill sheets. Thus area of heat exchange

7. Cooling Tower
is the surface area of the fill sheets, which is in contact with air.
TABLE 7.3 TYPICAL COMPARISONS BETWEEN VARIOUS FILL MEDIA
Splash Fill Film Fill Low Clog Film Fill

Possible L/G Ratio 1.1 – 1.5 1.5 – 2.0 1.4 – 1.8
2 3 2 3
Effective Heat Exchange Area 30 – 45 m /m 150 m /m 85 – 100 m2/m3
Fill Height Required 5 – 10 m 1.2 – 1.5 m 1.5 – 1.8 m
Pumping Head Requirement 9 – 12 m 5–8m 6–9m
Quantity of Air Required High Much low Low
Typical comparison between various fill media is shown in Table 7.3.

Due to fewer requirements of air and pumping head, there is a tremendous saving in power
with the invention of film fill.
Recently, low-clog film fills with higher flute sizes have been developed to handle high tur-
bid waters. For sea water, low clog film fills are considered as the best choice in terms of power
saving and performance compared to conventional splash type fills.
Choosing a Cooling Tower

The counter-flow and cross flows are two basic designs of cooling towers based on the funda-
mentals of heat exchange. It is well known that counter flow heat exchange is more effective as
compared to cross flow or parallel flow heat exchange.
Cross-flow cooling towers are provided with splash fill of concrete, wood or perforated
PVC. Counter-flow cooling towers are provided with both film fill and splash fill.
Typical comparison of Cross flow Spash Fill, Counter Flow Tower with Film Fill and
Splash fill is shown in Table 7.4. The power consumption is least in Counter Flow Film Fill fol-
TABLE 7.4 TYPICAL COMPARISON OF CROSS FLOW SPLASH FILL,

COUNTER FLOW TOWER WITH FILM FILL AND SPLASH FILL
Number of Towers : 2
Water Flow : 16000 m3/hr.
Hot Water Temperature : 41.5°C
Cold Water Temperature : 32.5°C
Design Wet Bulb Temperature : 27.6°C
Counter Flow Counter Flow Cross-Flow
Film Fill Splash Fill Splash Fill
Fill Height, Meter 1.5 5.2 11.0
Plant Area per Cell 14.4 × 14.4 14.4 × 14.4 12.64 × 5.49
Number of Cells per Tower 6 6 5
Power at Motor Terminal/Tower, kW 253 310 330
Static Pumping Head, Meter 7.2 10.9 12.05

7. Cooling Tower
lowed by Counter Flow Splash Fill and Cross-Flow Splash Fill.
7.3 Efficient System Operation
Cooling Water Treatment

Cooling water treatment is mandatory for any cooling tower whether with splash fill or with
film type fill for controlling suspended solids, algae growth, etc.
With increasing costs of water, efforts to increase Cycles of Concentration (COC), by
Cooling Water Treatment would help to reduce make up water requirements significantly. In
large industries, power plants, COC improvement is often considered as a key area for water
conservation.
Drift Loss in the Cooling Towers

It is very difficult to ignore drift problem in cooling towers. Now-a-days most of the end user
specification calls for 0.02% drift loss.
With technological development and processing of PVC, manufacturers have brought large
change in the drift eliminator shapes and the possibility of making efficient designs of drift
eliminators that enable end user to specify the drift loss requirement to as low as 0.003 –
0.001%.
Cooling Tower Fans

The purpose of a cooling tower fan is to move a specified quantity of air through the system,
overcoming the system resistance which is defined as the pressure loss. The product of air flow
and the pressure loss is air power developed/work done by the fan; this may be also termed as
fan output and input kW depends on fan efficiency.
The fan efficiency in turn is greatly dependent on the profile of the blade. An aerody-
namic profile with optimum twist, taper and higher coefficient of lift to coefficient of drop
ratio can provide the fan total efficiency as high as 85–92 %. However, this efficiency is
drastically affected by the factors such as tip clearance, obstacles to airflow and inlet shape,
etc.
As the metallic fans are manufactured by adopting either extrusion or casting process it is
always difficult to generate the ideal aerodynamic profiles. The FRP blades are normally hand
moulded which facilitates the generation of optimum aerodynamic profile to meet specific
duty condition more efficiently. Cases reported where replacement of metallic or Glass fibre
reinforced plastic fan blades have been replaced by efficient hollow FRP blades, with resultant
fan energy savings of the order of 20–30% and with simple pay back period of 6 to 7 months.
Also, due to lightweight, FRP fans need low starting torque resulting in use of lower HP
motors. The lightweight of the fans also increases the life of the gear box, motor and bearing
is and allows for easy handling and maintenance.
Performance Assessment of Cooling Towers

In operational performance assessment, the typical measurements and observations involved
are:

7. Cooling Tower
• Cooling tower design data and curves to be referred to as the basis.

• Intake air WBT and DBT at each cell at ground level using a whirling pyschrometer.
• Exhaust air WBT and DBT at each cell using a whirling psychrometer.
• CW inlet temperature at risers or top of tower, using accurate mercury in glass or a digital
thermometer.
• CW outlet temperature at full bottom, using accurate mercury in glass or a digital ther-
mometer.
• Process data on heat exchangers, loads on line or power plant control room readings, as
relevant.
• CW flow measurements, either direct or inferred from pump motor kW and pump head
and flow characteristics.
• CT fan motor amps, volts, kW and blade angle settings
• TDS of cooling water.
• Rated cycles of concentration at the site conditions.
• Observations on nozzle flows, drift eliminators, condition of fills, splash bars,
etc.
The findings of one typical trial pertaining to the Cooling Towers of a Thermal Power Plant
3 x 200 MW is given below:
Observations
* Unit Load 1 & 3 of the Station = 398 MW
* Mains Frequency = 49.3
* Inlet Cooling Water Temperature °C = 44 (Rated 43°C)
* Outlet Cooling Water Temperature °C = 37.6 (Rated 33°C)
* Air Wet Bulb Temperature near Cell °C = 29.3 (Rated 27.5°C)
* Air Dry Bulb Temperature near Cell °C = 40.8°C
* Number of CT Cells on line with water flow = 45 (Total 48)
* Total Measured Cooling Water Flow m3/hr = 70426.76
* Measured CT Fan Flow m3/hr = 989544
Analysis
* CT Water Flow/Cell, m3/hr = 1565 m3/hr (1565000 kg/hr)
(Rated 1875 m3/hr)
* CT Fan Air Flow, m3/hr (Avg.) = 989544 m3/hr
(Rated 997200 m3/hr)
* CT Fan Air Flow kg/hr (Avg.) = 1068708 kg/hr
@ Density of 1.08 kg/m3
* L/G Ratio of C.T. kg/kg = 1.46
(Rated 1.74 kg/kg)
* CT Range = (44 – 37.6) = 6.4°C
* CT Approach = (37.6 – 29.3) = 8.3°C
* % CT Effectiveness = Range x100
(Range + Approach)

7. Cooling Tower
= 6.4 x100
(6.4 + 8.3)
= 43.53
* Rated % CT Effectiveness = 100 * (43 – 33) / (43 – 27.5)
= 64.5%
* Cooling Duty Handled/Cell in kCal = 1565 * 6.4 * 103
(i.e., Flow * Temperature Difference in = 10016 * 103 kCal/hr
kCal/hr) (Rated 18750 *
103 kCal/hr)
* Evaporation Losses in m3/hr = 0.00085 x 1.8 x circulation
rate (m3/hr) x (T1-T2)
= 0.00085 x 1.8 x 1565 x (44-
37.6)
= 15.32 m3/hr per cell
* Percentage Evaporation Loss = [15.32/1565]*100
= 0.97%
* Blow down requirement for site COC of 2.7 = Evaporation losses/COC-1
= 15.32/(2.7-1) per cell i.e.,
9.01 m3/hr
* Make up water requirement/cell in m3/hr = Evaporation Loss + Blow
down Loss
= 15.32 + 9.01
= 24.33
Comments
• Cooling water flow per cell is much lower, almost by 16.5%, need to investigate
CW pump and system performance for improvements. Increasing CW flow
through cell was identified as a key result area for improving performance of cooling
towers.
• Flow stratification in 3 cooling tower cells identified.
• Algae growth identified in 6 cooling tower cells.
• Cooling tower fans are of GRP type drawing 36.2 kW average. Replacement by efficient
hollow FRP fan blades is recommended.

Control of tower air flow can be done by varying methods: starting and stopping (On-off) of
fans, use of two- or three-speed fan motors, use of automatically adjustable pitch fans, use of
variable speed fans.
On-off fan operation of single speed fans provides the least effective control. Two-speed
fans provide better control with further improvement shown with three speed fans. Automatic
adjustable pitch fans and variable-speed fans can provide even closer control of tower cold-

7. Cooling Tower
water temperature. In multi-cell towers, fans in adjacent cells may be running at different
speeds or some may be on and others off depending upon the tower load and required water
temperature. Depending upon the method of air volume control selected, control strategies can
be determined to minimise fan energy while achieving the desired control of the Cold water
temperature.
7.5 Energy Saving Opportunities in Cooling Towers

– Follow manufacturer's recommended clearances around cooling towers and relocate
or modify structures that interfere with the air intake or exhaust.
– Optimise cooling tower fan blade angle on a seasonal and/or load basis.
– Correct excessive and/or uneven fan blade tip clearance and poor fan
balance.
– On old counter-flow cooling towers, replace old spray type nozzles with new square
spray ABS practically non-clogging nozzles.
– Replace splash bars with self-extinguishing PVC cellular film fill.
– Install new nozzles to obtain a more uniform water pattern
– Periodically clean plugged cooling tower distribution nozzles.
– Balance flow to cooling tower hot water basins.
– Cover hot water basins to minimise algae growth that contributes to fouling.
– Optimise blow down flow rate, as per COC limit.
– Replace slat type drift eliminators with low pressure drop, self extinguishing, PVC
cellular units.
– Restrict flows through large loads to design values.
– Segregate high heat loads like furnaces, air compressors, DG sets, and isolate cool-
ing towers for sensitive applications like A/C plants, condensers of captive power
plant etc. A 1°C cooling water temperature increase may increase A/C compressor
kW by 2.7%. A 1°C drop in cooling water temperature can give a heat rate saving of
5 kCal/kWh in a thermal power plant.
– Monitor L/G ratio, CW flow rates w.r.t. design as well as seasonal variations.
It would help to increase water load during summer and times when approach
is high and increase air flow during monsoon times and when approach is
narrow.
– Monitor approach, effectiveness and cooling capacity for continuous optimisation
efforts, as per seasonal variations as well as load side variations.
– Consider COC improvement measures for water savings.
– Consider energy efficient FRP blade adoption for fan energy savings.
– Consider possible improvements on CW pumps w.r.t. efficiency improvement.
– Control cooling tower fans based on leaving water temperatures especially in case
of small units.
– Optimise process CW flow requirements, to save on pumping energy, cooling
load, evaporation losses (directly proportional to circulation rate) and blow down
losses.
Some typical problems and their trouble shooting for cooling towers are given in Table 7.5.

7. Cooling Tower
TABLE 7.5 TYPICAL PROBLEMS AND TROUBLE SHOOTING FOR COOLING TOWERS
Problem / Difficulty Possible Causes Remedies/Rectifying Action

Excessive absorbed 1. Voltage Reduction Check the voltage
current / electrical load 2a. Incorrect angle of axial fan blades Adjust the blade angle
2b. Loose belts on centrifugal fans Check belt tightness
(or speed reducers)
3. Overloading owing to excessive air Regulate the water flow by means
flow-fill has minimum water of the valve
loading per m2 of tower section
4. Low ambient air temperature The motor is cooled
proportionately and hence delivers
more than name plate power
Drift/carry-over of 1. Uneven operation of spray nozzles Adjust the nozzle orientation and
water outside the unit eliminate any dirt
2. Blockage of the fill pack Eliminate any dirt in the top of the
fill
3. Defective or displaced droplet Replace or realign the eliminators
eliminators
4. Excessive circulating water flow Adjust the water flow-rate by
(possibly owing to too high means of the regulating valves.
pumping head) Check for absence of damage to
the fill
Loss of water from 1. Float-valve not at correct level Adjust the make-up valve
basins/pans 2. Lack of equalising connections Equalise the basins of towers
operating in parallel
Lack of cooling and 1. Water flow below the design valve Regulated the flow by means
hence increase in of the valves
temperatures owing to 2. Irregular airflow or lack of air Check the direction of rotation of
increased temperature the fans and/or belt tension
range (broken belt possible)
3a. Recycling of humid discharge air Check the air descent velocity
3b. Intake of hot air from other sources Install deflectors
4a. Blocked spray nozzles (or even Clean the nozzles and/or the tubes
blocked spray tubes)
4b. Scaling of joints Wash or replace the item
5. Scaling of the fill pack Clean or replace the material
(washing with inhibited aqueous
sulphuric acid is possible but long,
complex and expensive)

7. Cooling Tower
QUESTIONS
1. What do you understand by the following terms in respect of cooling towers?
a) Approach, b) Cooling Duty c) Range d) Cooling Tower Effectiveness
2. Explain with a sketch the different types of cooling towers.
3. What do you mean by the term of Cycles of Concentration and how it is related to
cooling tower blow down?
4. Explain the term L/G ratio?
5. CT Observations at an industrial site were
* CW Flow : 5000 m3/hr
* CW in Temperature : 42°C
* CW Out Temperature : 36°C
* Wet Bulb Temperature : 29°C
What is the Effectiveness of the cooling tower?
6. What is the function of fill media in a cooling tower?
7. List the factors affecting cooling tower performance.
8. List the energy conservation opportunities in a cooling tower system.
9. Explain the difference between evaporation loss and drift loss?
10. What is the Blow-down Loss, if the Cycles of Concentration (COC) is 3.0?
REFERENCES
1. ASHRAE Handbook
2. NPC Case Studies

8. LIGHTING SYSTEM
Syllabus
Lighting System: Light source, Choice of lighting, Luminance requirements, and Energy
conservation avenues
8.1 Introduction
Lighting is an essential service in all the industries. The power consumption by the industrial
lighting varies between 2 to 10% of the total power depending on the type of industry.
Innovation and continuous improvement in the field of lighting, has given rise to tremendous
energy saving opportunities in this area.
Lighting is an area, which provides a major scope to achieve energy efficiency at the design
stage, by incorporation of modern energy efficient lamps, luminaires and gears, apart from good
operational practices.
8.2 Basic Terms in Lighting System and Features

Lamps
Lamp is equipment, which produces light. The most commonly used lamps are described
briefly as follows:
• Incandescent lamps:
Incandescent lamps produce light by means of a filament heated to incandescence by
the flow of electric current through it. The principal parts of an incandescent lamp, also
known as GLS (General Lighting Service) lamp include the filament, the bulb, the fill gas
and the cap.
• Reflector lamps:
Reflector lamps are basically incandescent, provided with a high quality internal mirror, which
follows exactly the parabolic shape of the lamp. The reflector is resistant to corrosion, thus
making the lamp maintenance free and output efficient.
• Gas discharge lamps:

The light from a gas discharge lamp is produced by the excitation of gas contained in either a
tubular or elliptical outer bulb.
The most commonly used discharge lamps are as follows:
• Fluorescent tube lamps (FTL)
• Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFL)
• Mercury Vapour Lamps
• Sodium Vapour Lamps
• Metal Halide Lamps

8. Lighting System
Luminaire
Luminaire is a device that distributes, filters or transforms the light emitted from one or
more lamps. The luminaire includes, all the parts necessary for fixing and protecting the
lamps, except the lamps themselves. In some cases, luminaires also include the necessary
circuit auxiliaries, together with the means for connecting them to the electric supply. The
basic physical principles used in optical luminaire are reflection, absorption, transmission
and refraction.
Control Gear
The gears used in the lighting equipment are as follows:
• Ballast:
A current limiting device, to counter negative resistance characteristics of any discharge lamps.
In case of fluorescent lamps, it aids the initial voltage build-up, required for starting.
• Ignitors:
These are used for starting high intensity Metal Halide and Sodium vapour lamps.
Illuminance
This is the quotient of the illuminous flux incident on an element of the surface at a point of
surface containing the point, by the area of that element.
The lighting level produced by a lighting installation is usually qualified by the
illuminance produced on a specified plane. In most cases, this plane is the major plane
of the tasks in the interior and is commonly called the working plane. The illuminance
provided by an installation affects both the performance of the tasks and the appearance
of the space.
Lux (lx)
This is the illuminance produced by a luminous flux of one lumen, uniformly distributed over
a surface area of one square metre. One lux is equal to one lumen per square meter.
Luminous Efficacy (lm/W)

This is the ratio of luminous flux emitted by a lamp to the power consumed by the lamp. It is a
reflection of efficiency of energy conversion from electricity to light form.
Colour Rendering Index (RI)

Is a measure of the degree to which the colours of surfaces illuminated by a given light source
confirm to those of the same surfaces under a reference illuminent; suitable allowance having
been made for the state of Chromatic adaptation.
8.3 Lamp Types and their Features

The Table 8.1 shows the various types of lamp available along with their features.

8. Lighting System
TABLE 8.1 LUMINOUS PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMONLY USED

LUMINARIES
Lumens / Watt Color Typical
Type of Lamp Range Avg. Rendering Typical Application Life
Index (hours)
Incandescent 8–18 14 Excellent Homes, restaurants, 1000
general lighting,
emergency lighting
Fluorescent Lamps 46–60 50 Good w.r.t. Offices, shops, 5000
coating hospitals, homes
Compact fluorescent 40–70 60 Very good Hotels, shops, 8000–10000
lamps (CFL) homes, offices
High pressure 44–57 50 Fair General lighting in 5000
mercury (HPMV) factories, garages,
car parking, flood
lighting
Halogen lamps 18–24 20 Excellent Display, flood 2000–4000
lighting, stadium
exhibition grounds,
construction areas
High pressure sodium 67–121 90 Fair General lighting 6000–12000
(HPSV) SON in factories, ware
houses, street
lighting
Low pressure sodium 101–175 150 Poor Roadways, tunnels, 6000–12000
(LPSV) SOX canals, street lighting
8.4 Recommended Illuminance Levels for Various

Tasks / Activities / Locations
Recommendations on Illuminance
Scale of Illuminance: The minimum illuminance for all non-working interiors, has been
mentioned as 20 Lux (as per IS 3646). A factor of approximately 1.5
represents the smallest significant difference in subjective effect of
illuminance. Therefore, the following scale of illuminances is
recommended.
20–30–50–75–100–150–200–300–500–750–1000–1500–2000, … Lux
Illuminance ranges: Because circumstances may be significantly different for different

interiors used for the same application or for different conditions for
the same kind of activity, a range of illuminances is recommended
for each type of interior or activity intended of a single value of
illuminance. Each range consists of three successive steps of the
recommended scale of illuminances. For working interiors the

8. Lighting System
middle value (R) of each range represents the recommended service

illuminance that would be used unless one or more of the factors
mentioned below apply.
The higher value (H) of the range should be used at exceptional cases where low
reflectances or contrasts are present in the task, errors are costly to rectify, visual work is criti-
cal, accuracy or higher productivity is of great importance and the visual capacity of the work-
er makes it necessary.
Similarly, lower value (L) of the range may be used when reflectances or contrasts are
unusually high, speed & accuracy is not important and the task is executed only occasionally.
Recommended Illumination
The following Table gives the recommended illuminance range for different tasks and activities
for chemical sector. The values are related to the visual requirements of the task, to user's sat-
isfaction, to practical experience and to the need for cost effective use of energy.(Source IS
3646 (Part I) : 1992).
For recommended illumination in other sectors, reader may refer Illuminating Engineers
Society Recommendations Handbook/
Chemicals
Petroleum, Chemical and Petrochemical works
Exterior walkways, platforms, stairs and ladders 30–50–100
Exterior pump and valve areas 50–100–150
Pump and compressor houses 100–150–200
Process plant with remote control 30–50–100
Process plant requiring occasional manual intervention 50–100–150
Permanently occupied work stations in process plant 150–200–300
Control rooms for process plant 200–300–500
Pharmaceuticals Manufacturer and Fine chemicals
manufacturer
Pharmaceutical manufacturer
Grinding, granulating, mixing, drying, tableting, s 300–500–750
terilising, washing, preparation of solutions, filling,
capping, wrapping, hardening
Fine chemical manufacturers
Exterior walkways, platforms, stairs and ladders 30–50–100
Process plant 50–100–150
Fine chemical finishing 300–500–750
Inspection 300–500–750
Soap manufacture
General area 200–300–500
Automatic processes 100–200–300
Control panels 200–300–500
Machines 200–300–500

8. Lighting System
Paint works
General 200–300–500
Automatic processes 150–200–300
Control panels 200–300–500
Special batch mixing 500–750–1000
Colour matching 750–100–1500
8.5 Methodology of Lighting System Energy Efficiency Study

A step-by-step approach for assessing energy efficiency of lighting system is given below:
Step–1: Inventorise the Lighting System elements, & transformers in the facility as per
following typical format (Table – 8.2 and 8.3).
TABLE 8.2 DEVICE RATING, POPULATION AND USE PROFILE
S. No. Plant Lighting Rating in Watts Population No. of hours

Location Device & Lamp & Ballast Numbers / Day
Ballast Type
TABLE 8.3 LIGHTING TRANSFORMER / RATING AND POPULATION

PROFILE:
S. No. Plant Lighting Numbers Meter Provisions Available
Location Transformer Installed Volts / Amps / kW / Energy
Rating (kVA)
In case of distribution boards (instead of transformers) being available, fuse ratings may be
inventorised along the above pattern in place of transformer kVA.
Step–2: With the aid of a lux meter, measure and document the lux levels at various plant
locations at working level, as daytime lux and night time lux values alongside the number of
lamps "ON" during measurement.

8. Lighting System
Step–3: With the aid of portable load analyzer, measure and document the voltage, current,
power factor and power consumption at various input points, namely the distribution boards or
the lighting voltage transformers at the same as that of the lighting level audit.
Step–4: Compare the measured lux values with standard values as reference and identify
locations as under lit and over lit areas.
Step–5: Collect and Analyse the failure rates of lamps, ballasts and the actual life expectan-
cy levels from the past data.
Step–6: Based on careful assessment and evaluation, bring out improvement options, which
could include :
i) Maximise sunlight use through use of transparent roof sheets, north light roof, etc.
ii) Examine scope for replacements of lamps by more energy efficient lamps, with due
consideration to luminiare, color rendering index, lux level as well as expected life
comparison.
iii) Replace conventional magnetic ballasts by more energy efficient ballasts, with due
consideration to life and power factor apart from watt loss.
iv) Select interior colours for light reflection.
v) Modify layout for optimum lighting.
vi) Providing individual / group controls for lighting for energy efficiency such as:
a. On / off type voltage regulation type (for illuminance control)
b. Group control switches / units
c. Occupancy sensors
d. Photocell controls
e. Timer operated controls
f. Pager operated controls
g. Computerized lighting control programs
vii) Install input voltage regulators / controllers for energy efficiency as well as longer life
expectancy for lamps where higher voltages, fluctuations are expected.
viii) Replace energy efficient displays like LED's in place of lamp type displays in control
panels / instrumentation areas, etc.
8.6 Case Examples

Energy Efficient Replacement Options
The lamp efficacy is the ratio of light output in lumens to power input to lamps in watts.
Over the years development in lamp technology has led to improvements in efficacy
of lamps. However, the low efficacy lamps, such as incandescent bulbs, still constitute
a major share of the lighting load. High efficacy gas discharge lamps suitable for differ-
ent types of applications offer appreciable scope for energy conservation. Typical energy
efficient replacement options, along with the per cent energy saving, are given in Table-
8.4.

8. Lighting System
TABLE 8.4 SAVINGS BY USE OF HIGH EFFICACY LAMPS
Lamp type Power saving

Sector
Existing Proposed Watts %
Domestic/Commercial GLS 100 W *CFL 25 W 75 75
Industry GLS 13 W *CFL 9W 4 31
GLS 200 W Blended 160 W 40 20
TL 40 W TLD 36 W 4 10
Industry/Commercial HPMV 250 W HPSV 150 W 100 37
HPMV 400 W HPSV 250 W 150 35
* Wattages of CFL includes energy consumption in ballasts.
Energy Saving Potential in Street Lighting

The energy saving potential, in typical cases of replacement of inefficient lamps with efficient
lamps in street lighting is given in the Table 8.5
TABLE 8.5 SAVING POTENTIAL BY USE OF HIGH

EFFICACY LAMPS FOR STREET LIGHTING
Existing lamp Replaced units Saving
Type W Life Type W Life W %

GLS 200 1000 ML 160 5000 40 7
GLS 300 1000 ML 250 5000 50 17
TL 2 X 40 5000 TL 2 X 36 5000 8 6
HPMV 125 5000 HPSV 70 12000 25 44
HPMV 250 5000 HPSV 150 12000 100 40
HPMV 400 5000 HPSV 250 12000 150 38
8.7 Some Good Practices in Lighting

Installation of energy efficient fluorescent lamps in place of "Conventional" fluorescent
lamps.
Energy efficient lamps are based on the highly sophisticated tri-phosphor fluorescent powder
technology. They offer excellent colour rendering properties in addition to the very high lumi-
nous efficacy.
Installation of Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFL's) in place of incandescent lamps.

Compact fluorescent lamps are generally considered best for replacement of lower wattage
incandescent lamps. These lamps have efficacy ranging from 55 to 65 lumens/Watt. The aver-
age rated lamp life is 10,000 hours, which is 10 times longer than that of a normal incandescent

8. Lighting System
lamps. CFL's are highly suitable for places such as Living rooms, Hotel lounges, Bars,
Restaurants, Pathways, Building entrances, Corridors, etc.
Installation of metal halide lamps in place of mercury / sodium vapour lamps.

Metal halide lamps provide high color rendering index when compared with mercury &
sodium vapour lamps. These lamps offer efficient white light. Hence, metal halide is the
choice for colour critical applications where, higher illumination levels are required. These
lamps are highly suitable for applications such as assembly line, inspection areas, painting
shops, etc. It is recommended to install metal halide lamps where colour rendering is more
critical.
Installation of High Pressure Sodium Vapour (HPSV) lamps for applications where colour
rendering is not critical.
High pressure sodium vapour (HPSV) lamps offer more efficacy. But the colour rendering prop-
erty of HPSV is very low. Hence, it is recommended to install HPSV lamps for applications
such street lighting, yard lighting, etc.
Installation of LED panel indicator lamps in place of filament lamps.

Panel indicator lamps are used widely in industries for monitoring, fault indication, signaling,
etc. Conventionally filament lamps are used for the purpose, which has got the following dis-
advantages:
• High energy consumption (15 W/lamp)
• Failure of lamps is high (Operating life less than 1,000 hours)
• Very sensitive to the voltage fluctuations Recently, the conventional filament lamps are
being replaced with Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs).
The LEDs have the following merits over the filament lamps.
• Lesser power consumption (Less than 1 W/lamp)
• Withstand high voltage fluctuation in the power supply.
• Longer operating life (more than 1,00,000 hours)
It is recommended to install LEDs for panel indicator lamps at the design stage.
Light distribution
Energy efficiency cannot be obtained by mere selection of more efficient lamps alone. Efficient
luminaires along with the lamp of high efficacy achieve the optimum efficiency. Mirror-optic
luminaires with a high output ratio and bat-wing light distribution can save energy.
For achieving better efficiency, luminaires that are having light distribution characteristics
appropriate for the task interior should be selected. The luminaires fitted with a lamp should
ensure that discomfort glare and veiling reflections are minimised. Installation of suitable lumi-
naires, depends upon the height - Low, Medium & High Bay. Luminaires for high intensity dis-
charge lamp are classified as follows:
• Low bay, for heights less than 5 metres.
• Medium bay, for heights between 5 – 7 metres.
• High bay, for heights greater than 7 metres.

8. Lighting System
System layout and fixing of the luminaires play a major role in achieving energy efficien-
cy. This also varies from application to application. Hence, fixing the luminaires at optimum
height and usage of mirror optic luminaries leads to energy efficiency.
Light Control
The simplest and the most widely used form of controlling a lighting installation is "On-Off"
switch. The initial investment for this set up is extremely low, but the resulting operational costs
may be high. This does not provide the flexibility to control the lighting, where it is not
required.
Hence, a flexible lighting system has to be provided, which will offer switch-off or reduc-
tion in lighting level, when not needed. The following light control systems can be adopted at
design stage:
• Grouping of lighting system, to provide greater flexibility in lighting control

Grouping of lighting system, which can be controlled manually or by timer control.
• Installation of microprocessor based controllers

Another modern method is usage of microprocessor / infrared controlled dimming or switching
circuits. The lighting control can be obtained by using logic units located in the ceiling, which
can take pre-programme commands and activate specified lighting circuits. Advanced lighting
control system uses movement detectors or lighting sensors, to feed signals to the controllers.
• Optimum usage of daylighting

Whenever the orientation of a building permits, day lighting can be used in combination with
electric lighting. This should not introduce glare or a severe imbalance of brightness in visual
environment. Usage of day lighting (in offices/air conditioned halls) will have to be very limit-
ed, because the air conditioning load will increase on account of the increased solar heat dissi-
pation into the area. In many cases, a switching method, to enable reduction of electric light in
the window zones during certain hours, has to be designed.
• Installation of "exclusive" transformer for lighting

In most of the industries, lighting load varies between 2 to 10%. Most of the problems faced by
the lighting equipment and the "gears" is due to the "voltage" fluctuations. Hence, the lighting
equipment has to be isolated from the power feeders. This provides a better voltage regulation
for the lighting. This will reduce the voltage related problems, which in turn increases the effi-
ciency of the lighting system.
• Installation of servo stabilizer for lighting feeder

Wherever, installation of exclusive transformer for lighting is not economically attractive, servo
stabilizer can be installed for the lighting feeders. This will provide stabilized voltage for the
lighting equipment. The performance of "gears" such as chokes, ballasts, will also improved
due to the stabilized voltage.
This set up also provides, the option to optimise the voltage level fed to the lighting feeder.
In many plants, during the non-peaking hours, the voltage levels are on the higher side. During
this period, voltage can be optimised, without any significant drop in the illumination level.

8. Lighting System
• Installation of high frequency (HF) electronic ballasts in place of conventional ballasts

New high frequency (28–32 kHz) electronic ballasts have the following advantages over the
traditional magnetic ballasts:
Energy savings up to 35%
Less heat dissipation, which reduces the air conditioning load
• Lights instantly
• Improved power factor
• Operates in low voltage load
• Less in weight
• Increases the life of lamp
The advantage of HF electronic ballasts, out weigh the initial investment (higher costs when
compared with conventional ballast). In the past the failure rate of electronic ballast in Indian
Industries was high. Recently, many manufacturers have improved the design of the ballast
leading to drastic improvement in their reliability. The life of the electronic ballast is high espe-
cially when, used in a lighting circuit fitted with a automatic voltage stabiliser.
The Table 8.6 gives the type of luminaire, gear and controls used in different areas of industry.
TABLE 8.6 TYPES OF LUMINAIRE WITH THEIR GEAR AND CONTROLS

USED IN DIFFERENT INDUSTRIAL LOCATIONS
Location Source Luminaire Gear Controls
Plant HID/FTL Industrial rail reflector: Conventional/low Manual/electronic
High bay loss electronic
Medium bay ballast
Low bay
Office FTL/CFL FTL/CFL Electronic/low Manual/auto
loss
Yard HID Flood light Suitable Manual
Road HID/PL Street light luminaire Suitable Manual
peripheral

8. Lighting System
QUESTIONS
1. What are the types of commonly used lamps?
2. What do the following terms mean?
– Illuminance
– Luminous efficacy
– Luminaire
– Control gear
– Colour rendering index
3. What is the function of ballast in a lighting system?
4. Rate the following with respect to their luminous efficacy
– GLS lamp
– FTL
– CFL
– HPSV
– LPSV
5. Rate the following with respect to colour rendering index
– GLS lamp
– HPSV lamp
– Metal halide lamps
– LPSV lamp
6. Briefly describe the methodology of lighting energy audit in an industrial facility?
7. List the energy savings opportunities in industrial lighting systems.
8. Explain how electronic ballast saves energy?
9. A CFL can replace
a) FTL b) GLS c) HPMV d) HPSV
10. Explain briefly about various lighting controls available?
REFERENCES
1. NPC Experiences

9. DG SET SYSTEM
Syllabus
Diesel Generating system: Factors affecting selection, Energy performance assessment of
diesel conservation avenues
9.1 Introduction
Diesel engine is the prime mover, which drives an alternator to produce electrical energy. In
the diesel engine, air is drawn into the cylinder and is compressed to a high ratio (14:1 to
25:1). During this compression, the air is heated to a temperature of 700–900°C. A metered
quantity of diesel fuel is then injected into the cylinder, which ignites spontaneously because
of the high temperature. Hence, the diesel engine is also known as compression ignition (CI)
engine.
DG set can be classified according to cycle type as: two stroke and four stroke. However,
the bulk of IC engines use the four stroke cycle. Let us look at the principle of operation of the
four-stroke diesel engine.
Four Stroke - Diesel Engine

The 4 stroke operations in a diesel engine are: induction stroke, compression stroke, ignition
and power stroke and exhaust stroke.
1st : Induction stroke - while the inlet valve is open, the descending piston draws in
fresh air.
2nd : Compression stroke - while the valves are closed, the air is compressed to a pressure of
up to 25 bar.
3rd : Ignition and power stroke - fuel is injected, while the valves are closed (fuel injection
actually starts at the end of the previous stroke), the fuel ignites spontaneously and
the piston is forced downwards by the combustion gases.
4th : Exhaust stroke - the exhaust valve is open and the rising piston discharges the spent
gases from the cylinder.
Figure 9.1 Schematic Diagram of Four-Stroke Diesel Engine

9. DG Set System
Since power is developed during only one stroke, the single cylinder four-stroke engine has
a low degree of uniformity. Smoother running is obtained with multi cylinder engines because
the cranks are staggered in relation to one another on the crankshaft. There are many variations
of engine configuration, for example. 4 or 6 cylinder, in-line, horizontally opposed, vee or radi-
al configurations.
DG Set as a System
A diesel generating set should be considered as a system since its successful operation depends
on the well-matched performance of the components, namely:
a) The diesel engine and its accessories.
b) The AC Generator.
c) The control systems and switchgear.
d) The foundation and power house civil works.
e) The connected load with its own components like heating, motor drives, lighting etc.
It is necessary to select the components with highest efficiency and operate them at their
optimum efficiency levels to conserve energy in this system.
Fig 9.2 DG Set System
Selection Considerations
To make a decision on the type of engine, which is most suitable for a specific application,
several factors need to be considered. The two most important factors are: power and speed
of the engine.
The power requirement is determined by the maximum load. The engine power rating
should be 10 – 20 % more than the power demand by the end use. This prevents overload-
ing the machine by absorbing extra load during starting of motors or switching of some
types of lighting systems or when wear and tear on the equipment pushes up its power
consumption.
Speed is measured at the output shaft and given in revolutions per minute (RPM). An
engine will operate over a range of speeds, with diesel engines typically running at lower

9. DG Set System
speeds (1300 – 3000 RPM). There will be an optimum speed at which fuel efficiency will
be greatest. Engines should be run as closely as possible to their rated speed to avoid poor
efficiency and to prevent build up of engine deposits due to incomplete combustion - which
will lead to higher maintenance and running costs. To determine the speed requirement of
an engine, one has to again look at the requirement of the load.
For some applications, the speed of the engine is not critical, but for other applications
such as a generator, it is important to get a good speed match. If a good match can be
obtained, direct coupling of engine and generator is possible; if not, then some form of gear-
ing will be necessary - a gearbox or belt system, which will add to the cost and reduce the
efficiency.
There are various other factors that have to be considered, when choosing an engine for
a given application. These include the following: cooling system, abnormal environmental
conditions (dust, dirt, etc.), fuel quality, speed governing (fixed or variable speed), poor
maintenance, control system, starting equipment, drive type, ambient temperature, altitude,
humidity, etc.
Suppliers or manufacturers literature will specify the required information when purchasing
an engine. The efficiency of an engine depends on various factors, for example, load factor (per-
centage of full load), engine size, and engine type.
Diesel Generator Captive Power Plants

Diesel engine power plants are most frequently used in small power (captive non-utility) sys-
tems. The main reason for their extensive use is the higher efficiency of the diesel engines com-
pared with gas turbines and small steam turbines in the output range considered. In applications
requiring low captive power, without much requirement of process steam, the ideal method of
power generation would be by installing diesel generator plants. The fuels burnt in diesel
engines range from light distillates to residual fuel oils. Most frequently used diesel engine sizes
are between the range 4 to 15 MW. For continuous operation, low speed diesel engine is more
cost-effective than high speed diesel engine.
Advantages of adopting Diesel Power Plants are:

■ Low installation cost
■ Short delivery periods and installation period
■ Higher efficiency (as high as 43 – 45 %)
■ More efficient plant performance under part loads
■ Suitable for different type of fuels such as low sulphur heavy stock and heavy fuel oil in
case of large capacities.
■ Minimum cooling water requirements,
■ Adopted with air cooled heat exchanger in areas where water is not available
■ Short start up time
A brief comparison of different types of captive power plants (combined gas turbine and
steam turbine, conventional steam plant and diesel engine power plant) is given in Table 9.1.
It can be seen from the Table that captive diesel plant wins over the other two in terms of
thermal efficiency, capital cost, space requirements, auxiliary power consumption, plant
load factor etc.

9. DG Set System
TABLE 9.1 COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF CAPTIVE POWER PLANT
Description Units Combined Conventional Diesel Engine

GT & ST Steam Plant Power Plants
Thermal Efficiency % 40 – 46 33 – 36 43 – 45
Initial Investment of Rs./kW 8,500 – 10,000 15,000 – 18,000 7,500 – 9,000
Installed Capacity
Space requirement 125 % (Approx.) 250 % (Approx.) 100 % (Approx.)
Construction time Months 24 – 30 42 – 48 12 – 15
Project period Months 30 – 36 52 – 60 12
Auxiliary Power % 2–4 8 – 10 1.3 - 2.1
Consumption
Plant Load Factor kWh/kW 6000 – 7000 5000 – 6000 7200 – 7500
Start up time from cold Minutes About 10 120 – 180 15 – 20
Diesel Engine Power Plant Developments

The diesel engine developments have been steady and
impressive. The specific fuel consumption has come
down from a value of 220 g/kWh in the 1970s to a value
around 160 g/kWh in present times.
Slow speed diesel engine, with its flat fuel consump-
tion curve over a wide load range (50%–100%), compares
very favourably over other prime movers such as medium
speed diesel engine, steam turbines and gas turbines.
With the arrival of modern, high efficiency tur-
bochargers, it is possible to use an exhaust gas driven
turbine generator to further increase the engine rated out-
put. The net result – lower fuel consumption per kWh
and further increase in overall thermal efficiency.
The diesel engine is able to burn the poorest quality
fuel oils, unlike gas turbine, which is able to do so with
only costly fuel treatment equipment. Figure 9.3 Turbocharger
Slow speed dual fuel engines are now available using
high-pressure gas injection, which gives the same thermal efficiency and power output as a reg-
ular fuel oil engine.
9.2 Selection and Installation Factors

Sizing of a Genset:
a) If the DG set is required for 100% standby, then the entire connected load in HP / kVA
should be added. After finding out the diversity factor, the correct capacity of a DG set
can be found out.

9. DG Set System
Example :
Connected Load = 650 kW
Diversity Factor = 0.54
(Demand / connected load)
Max. Demand = 650 x 0.54 = 350 kW
% Loading = 70
Set rating = 350/0.7 = 500 kW
At 0.8 PF, rating = 625 kVA
b) For an existing installation, record the current, voltage and power factors (kWh / kVAh)
reading at the main bus-bar of the system at every half-an-hour interval for a period of
2–3 days and during this period the factory should be having its normal operations. The
non-essential loads should be switched off to find the realistic current taken for running
essential equipment. This will give a fair idea about the current taken from which the
rating of the set can be calculated.
For existing installation:
kVA = √3 V I
kVA Rating = kVA / Load Factor
where Load factor = Average kVA / Maximum kVA
c) For a new installation, an approximate method of estimating the capacity of a DG set is
to add full load currents of all the proposed loads to be run in DG set. Then, applying a
diversity factor depending on the industry, process involved and guidelines obtained
from other similar units, correct capacity can be arrived at.
High Speed Engine or Slow/Medium Speed Engine

The normal accepted definition of high speed engine is 1500 rpm. The high speed sets have been
developed in India, whereas the slow speed engines of higher capacities are often imported. The
other features and comparison between high and medium / slow speed engines are mentioned below:
Factor Slow speed engine High speed engine

Break mean effective pressure - therefore Low High
wear and tear and consumption of spares
Weight to power ratio- therefore sturdiness More Less
and life
Space High Less
Type of use Continuous use Intermittent use
Period between overhauls* 8000 hours 3200
Direct operating cost (includes lubricating Less High
oils, filters etc.
* Typical recommendations from manufacturers
Keeping the above factors and available capacities of DG set in mind, the cost of econom-
ics for both the engines should be worked out before arriving at a decision.

9. DG Set System
Capacity Combinations
From the point of view of space, operation, maintenance and initial capital investment,
it is certainly economical to go in for one large DG set than two or more DG sets in
parallel.
Two or more DG sets running in parallel can be a advantage as only the short-fall in
power–depending upon the extent of power cut prevailing - needs to filled up. Also, flexibility
of operation is increased since one DG set can be stopped, while the other DG set is generating
at least 50% of the power requirement. Another advantage is that one DG set can become 100%
standby during lean and low power-cut periods.
Air Cooling Vs. Water Cooling

The general feeling has been that a water cooled DG set is better than an air cooled set, as most
users are worried about the overheating of engines during summer months. This is to some
extent is true and precautions have to be taken to ensure that the cooling water temperature does
not exceed the prescribed limits. However, from performance and maintenance point of view,
water and air cooled sets are equally good except that proper care should be taken to ensure
cross ventilation so that as much cool air as possible is circulated through the radiator to keep
its cooling water temperature within limits.
While, it may be possible to have air cooled engines in the lower capacities, it will be nec-
essary to go in for water cooled engines in larger capacities to ensure that the engine does not
get over-heated during summer months.
Safety Features
It is advisable to have short circuit, over load and earth fault protection on all the DG sets.
However, in case of smaller capacity DG sets, this may become uneconomical. Hence, it is
strongly recommended to install a circuit protection. Other safety equipment like high tem-
perature, low lube oil pressure cut-outs should be provided, so that in the event of any of
these abnormalities, the engine would stop and prevent damage. It is also essential to pro-
vide reverse power relay when DG sets are to run in parallel to avoid back feeding from one
alternator to another.
Parallel Operation with Grid

Running the DG set in parallel with the mains from the supply undertakings can be done in con-
sultation with concerned electricity authorities. However, some supply undertakings ask the
consumer to give an undertaking that the DG set will not be run in parallel with their supply.
The reasons stated are that the grid is an infinite bus and paralleling a small capacity DG set
would involve operational risks despite normal protections like reverse power relay, voltage and
frequency relays.
Maximum Single Load on DG Set

The starting current of squirrel cage induction motors is as much as six times the rated current
for a few seconds with direct-on-line starters. In practice, it has been found that the starting cur-
rent value should not exceed 200 % of the full load capacity of the alternator. The voltage and
frequency throughout the motor starting interval recovers and reaches rated values usually
much before the motor has picked up full speed.

9. DG Set System
In general, the HP of the largest motor that can be started with direct on line starting is
about 50 % of the kVA rating of the generating set. On the other hand, the capacity of the
induction motor can be increased, if the type of starting is changed over to star delta or to
auto transformer starter, and with this starting the HP of the largest motor can be upto 75 %
of the kVA of Genset.
Unbalanced Load Effects

It is always recommended to have the load as much balanced as possible, since unbalanced
loads can cause heating of the alternator, which may result in unbalanced output voltages. The
maximum unbalanced load between phases should not exceed 10 % of the capacity of the gen-
erating sets.
Neutral Earthing
The electricity rules clearly specify that two independent earths to the body and neutral
should be provided to give adequate protection to the equipment in case of an earth fault,
and also to drain away any leakage of potential from the equipment to the earth for safe
working.
Site Condition Effects on Performance Derating

Site condition with respect to altitude, intake temperature and cooling water temperature der-
ate diesel engine output as shown in following Tables: 9.2 and 9.3.
TABLE 9.2 ALTITUDE AND INTAKE TEMPERATURE CORRECTIONS
Correction Factors For Engine Output

Altitude Correction Temperature Correction
Altitude Meters Non Super Super Charged Intake °C Correction Factor
over MSL Charged
610 0.980 0.980 32 1.000
915 0.935 0.950 35 0.986
1220 0.895 0.915 38 0.974
1525 0.855 0.882 41 0.962
1830 0.820 0.850 43 0.950
2130 0.780 0.820 46 0.937
2450 0.745 0.790 49 0.925
2750 0.712 0.765 52 0.913
3050 0.680 0.740 54 0.900
3660 0.612 0.685
4270 0.550 0.630
4880 0.494 0.580

9. DG Set System
TABLE 9.3 DERATING DUE TO AIR INTER COOLER

WATER INLET TEMPERATURE
Water Temperature °C Flow % Derating %

25 100 0
30 125 3
35 166 5
40 166 8
9.3 Operational Factors
Load Pattern & DG Set Capacity

The average load can be easily assessed by logging the current drawn at the main switchboard on
an average day. The 'over load' has a different meaning when referred to the D.G. set. Overloads,
which appear insignificant and harmless on electricity board supply, may become detrimental to a
D.G.set, and hence overload on D.G.set should be carefully analysed. Diesel engines are designed
for 10% overload for 1 hour in every 12 hours of operation. The A.C. generators are designed to
meet 50% overload for 15 seconds as specified by standards. The D.G.set/s selection should be such
that the overloads are within the above specified limits. It would be ideal to connect steady loads
on DG set to ensure good performance. Alongside alternator loading, the engine loading in terms
of kW or BHP, needs to be maintained above 50%. Ideally, the engine and alternator loading con-
ditions are both to be achieved towards high efficiency.
Engine manufacturers offer curves indicating % Engine Loading vs fuel Consumption in
grams/BHP. Optimal engine loading corresponding to best operating point is desirable for ener-
gy efficiency.
Alternators are sized for kVA rating with highest efficiency attainable at a loading of around
70% and more. Manufacturers curves can be referred to for best efficiency point and corre-
sponding kW and kVA loading values.
Sequencing of Loads
The captive diesel generating set has certain limits in handling the transient loads. This
applies to both kW (as reflected on the engine) and kVA (as reflected on the generator). In
this context, the base load that exists before the application of transient load brings down
the transient load handling capability, and in case of A.C. generators, it increases the tran-
sient voltage dip. Hence, great care is required in sequencing the load on D.G.set/s. It is
advisable to start the load with highest transient kVA first followed by other loads in the
descending order of the starting kVA. This will lead to optimum sizing and better utilisation
of transient load handling capacity of D.G.set.
Load Pattern
In many cases, the load will not be constant throughout the day. If there is substantial variation
in load, then consideration should be given for parallel operation of D.G.sets. In such a situa-
tion, additional D.G. set(s) are to be switched on when load increases. The typical case may be

9. DG Set System
an establishment demanding substantially different powers in first, second and third shifts. By
parallel operation, D.G. sets can be run at optimum operating points or near about, for optimum
fuel consumption and additionally, flexibility is built into the system. This scheme can be also
be applied where loads can be segregated as critical and non-critical loads to provide standby
power to critical load in the captive power system.
Load Characteristics
Some of the load characteristics influence efficient use of D.G.set. These characteristics are
entirely load dependent and cannot be controlled by the D.G.set. The extent of detrimental influ-
ence of these characteristics can be reduced in several cases.
– Power Factor:
The load power factor is entirely dependent on the load. The A.C. generator is designed for
the power factor of 0.8 lag as specified by standards. Lower power factor demands higher
excitation currents and results in increased losses. Over sizing A.C. generators for operation
at lower power factors results in lower operating efficiency and higher costs. The econom-
ical alternative is to provide power factor improvement capacitors.
– Unbalanced Load:
Unbalanced loads on A.C. generator leads to unbalanced set of voltages and additional heat-
ing in A.C. generator. When other connected loads like motor loads are fed with unbalanced
set of voltages additional losses occur in the motors as well. Hence, the load on the A.C.
generators should be balanced as far as possible. Where single phase loads are predominant,
consideration should be given for procuring single phase A.C. generator.
– Transient Loading:
On many occasions to contain transient voltage dip arising due to transient load application,
a specially designed generator may have to be selected. Many times an unstandard
combination of engine and A.C. generator may have to be procured. Such a combination
ensures that the prime mover is not unnecessarily over sized which adds to capital cost and
running cost.
– Special Loads:
Special loads like rectifier / thyristor loads, welding loads, furnace loads need an applica-
tion check. The manufacturer of diesel engine and AC generator should be consulted for
proper recommendation so that desired utilisation of DG set is achieved without any prob-
lem. In certain cases of loads, which are sensitive to voltage, frequency regulation, voltage
wave form, consideration should be given to segregate the loads, and feed it by a dedicated
power supply which usually assumes the form of DG motor driven generator set. Such an
alternative ensures that special design of AC generator is restricted to that portion of the
load which requires high purity rather than increasing the price of the D.G.set by specially
designed AC generator for complete load.
Waste Heat Recovery in DG Sets

A typical energy balance in a DG set indicates following break-up:

9. DG Set System
Input : 100% Thermal Energy

Outputs : 35% Electrical Output
4% Alternator Losses
33% Stack Loss through Flue Gases
24% Coolant Losses
4% Radiation Losses
Among these, stack losses through flue gases or the exhaust flue gas losses on account of
existing flue gas temperature of 350°C to 550°C, constitute the major area of concern towards
operational economy. It would be realistic to assess the Waste Heat Recovery (WHR) potential
in relation to quantity, temperature margin, in kcals/Hour as:
Potential WHR = (kWh Output/Hour) x (8 kg Gases / kWh Output)
x 0.25 kcal/kg°C x (tg – 180°C)
Where, tg is the gas temperature after Turbocharger, (the criteria being that limiting exit gas
temperature cannot be less than 180°C, to avoid acid dew point corrosion), 0.25 being the spe-
cific heat of flue gases and kWh output being the actual average unit generation from the set
per hour. For a 1100 KVA set, at 800 KW loading, and with 480°C exhaust gas temperature, the
waste heat potential works out to:
800 kWh x 8 kg gas generation / kWh output x 0.25 kCal/kg°C
x (480 – 180), i.e., 4,80,000 kCal/hr
While the above method yields only the potential for heat recovery, the actual realisable
potential depends upon various factors and if applied judiciously, a well configured waste heat
recovery system can tremendously boost the economics of captive DG power generation.
The factors affecting Waste Heat Recovery from flue Gases are:
a) DG Set loading, temperature of exhaust gases
b) Hours of operation and
c) Back pressure on the DG set
* Consistent DG set loading (to over 60% of rating) would ensure a reasonable exit flue
gas quantity and temperature. Fluctuations and gross under loading of DG set results in
erratic flue gas quantity and temperature profile at entry to heat recovery unit, thereby
leading to possible cold end corrosion and other problems.
TABLE 9.4 TYPICAL FLUE GAS TEMPERATURE AND FLOW PATTERN IN A 5-MW DG SET
AT VARIOUS LOADS
100% Load 11.84 kgs/Sec 370°C

90% Load 10.80 kgs/Sec 350°C
70% Load 9.08 kgs/Sec 330°C
60% Load 7.50 kgs/Sec 325°C
If the normal load is 60%, the flue gas parameters for waste heat recovery unit would be 320°C inlet tempera-
ture, 180°C outlet temperature and 27180 kgs/Hour gas flow.
At 90% loading, however, values would be 355°C and 32,400 kgs/Hour, respectively

9. DG Set System
* Number of hours of operation of the DG Set has an influence on the thermal perfor-
mance of waste heat Recovery unit. With continuous DG Set operations, cost benefits
are favourable.
* Back pressure in the gas path caused by additional pressure drop in waste heat recovery
unit is another key factor. Generally, the maximum back pressure allowed is around
250–300 mmWC and the heat recovery unit should have a pressure drop lower than that.
Choice of convective waste heat recovery systems with adequate heat transfer area are
known to provide reliable service.
The configuration of heat recovery system and the choice of steam parameters can be judi-
ciously selected with reference to the specific industry (site) requirements. Much good work has
taken place in Indian Industry regarding waste heat recovery and one interesting configuration,
deployed is installation of waste heat boiler in flue gas path along with a vapour absorption
chiller, to produce 8°C chilled water working on steam from waste heat.
The favourable incentives offered by Government of India for energy efficient equipment
and technologies (100% depreciation at the end of first year), make the waste heat recovery
option. Payback period is only about 2 years
9.4 Energy Performance Assessment of DG Sets

Routine energy efficiency assessment of DG sets on shopfloor involves following typical steps:
1) Ensure reliability of all instruments used for trial.
2) Collect technical literature, characteristics, and specifications of the plant.
3) Conduct a 2 hour trial on the DG set, ensuring a steady load, wherein the following mea-
surements are logged at 15 minutes intervals.
a) Fuel consumption (by dip level or by flow meter)
b) Amps, volts, PF, kW, kWh
c) Intake air temperature, Relative Humidity (RH)
d) Intake cooling water temperature
e) Cylinder-wise exhaust temperature (as an indication of engine loading)
f) Turbocharger RPM (as an indication of loading on engine)
g) Charge air pressure (as an indication of engine loading)
h) Cooling water temperature before and after charge air cooler (as an indication of cool-
er performance)
i) Stack gas temperature before and after turbocharger (as an indication of turbocharger
performance)
4) The fuel oil/diesel analysis is referred to from an oil company data.
5) Analysis: The trial data is to be analysed with respect to:
a) Average alternator loading.
b) Average engine loading.
c) Percentage loading on alternator.
d) Percentage loading on engine.
e) Specific power generation kWh/liter.
f) Comments on Turbocharger performance based on RPM and gas temperature differ-
ence.
g) Comments on charge air cooler performance.

9. DG Set System
h) Comments on load distribution among various cylinders (based on exhaust tempera-

ture, the temperature to be ± 5% of mean and high/low values indicate disturbed
condition).
i) Comments on housekeeping issues like drip leakages, insulation, vibrations, etc.
A format as shown in the Table 9.5 is useful for monitoring the performance
TABLE 9.5TYPICAL FORMAT FOR DG SET MONITORING
DG Electricity Derated Type of Average Specific Specific

Set Generating Electricity Fuel Load as % Fuel Cons. Lube Oil
No. Capacity Generating used of Derated Lit/kWh Cons.
(Site), kW Capacity, kW Capacity Lit/kWh
1. 480 300 LDO 89 0.335 0.007
2. 480 300 LDO 110 0.334 0.024
3. 292 230 LDO 84 0.356 0.006
4. 200 160 HSD 89 0.325 0.003
5. 200 160 HSD 106 0.338 0.003
6. 200 160 HSD
7. 292 230 LDO 79 0.339 0.006
8. 292 230 LDO 81 0.362 0.005
9. 292 230 LDO 94 0.342 0.003
10. 292 230 LDO 88 0.335 0.006
11. 292 230 LDO 76 0.335 0.005
12. 292 230 LDO 69 0.353 0.006
13 400 320 HSD 75 0.334 0.004
14. 400 320 HSD 65 0.349 0.004
15. 880 750 LDO 85 0.318 0.007
16. 400 320 HSD 70 0.335 0.004
17. 400 320 HSD 80 0.337 0.004
18. 880 750 LDO 78 0.345 0.007
19. 800 640 HSD 74 0.324 0.002
20. 800 640 HSD 91 0.290 0.002
21. 880 750 LDO 96 0.307 0.002
22. 920 800 LDO 77 0.297 0.002

9. DG Set System
9.5 Energy Saving Measures for DG Sets

a) Ensure steady load conditions on the DG set, and provide cold, dust free air at intake (use
of air washers for large sets, in case of dry, hot weather, can be considered).
b) Improve air filtration.
c) Ensure fuel oil storage, handling and preparation as per manufacturers' guidelines/oil com-
pany data.
d) Consider fuel oil additives in case they benefit fuel oil properties for DG set usage.
e) Calibrate fuel injection pumps frequently.
f) Ensure compliance with maintenance checklist.
g) Ensure steady load conditions, avoiding fluctuations, imbalance in phases, harmonic loads.
h) In case of a base load operation, consider waste heat recovery system adoption for steam
generation or refrigeration chiller unit incorporation. Even the Jacket Cooling Water is
amenable for heat recovery, vapour absorption system adoption.
i) In terms of fuel cost economy, consider partial use of biomass gas for generation. Ensure
tar removal from the gas for improving availability of the engine in the long run.
j) Consider parallel operation among the DG sets for improved loading and fuel economy
thereof.
k) Carryout regular field trials to monitor DG set performance, and maintenance planning as
per requirements.

9. DG Set System
QUESTIONS
1. Explain the principle of a four stroke diesel engine.
2. The efficiency of a Genset ranges between:
a) 20 – 25% (b) 0 – 20% (c) 40 – 45% (d) 60 – 70%
3. What are the components of a DG Set System?
4. List briefly the salient developments in DG Plants.
5. Connected load of a plant is 1200 kW and Diversity factor is 1.8. What is the desir-
able set rating with respect to 0.8 PF and the set load factor of 75%?
6. What is the effect of altitude and intake air temperature on DG set output?
7. What is the function of turbo charger in DG set?
8. Draw a typical energy balance of a DG Set.
9. How do you assess waste heat recovery potential in a DG set?
10. What are the factors affecting waste heat recovery from DG sets?
11. What is the role of an energy manager/auditor for energy efficiency in DG plants of
an industrial unit?
12. List the energy savings opportunities in an industrial DG set plant.
REFERENCES
1. Proceedings of National Workshop on Efficient Captive Power Generation with
Industrial DG Sets
2. NPC Case Studies
3. Wartsila-NSD Literature

10. ENERGY EFFICIENT TECHNOLOGIES IN
ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS
Syllabus
Energy Efficient Technologies in Electrical Systems: Maximum demand controllers,
Automatic power factor controllers, Energy efficient motors, Soft starters with energy
saver, Variable speed drives, Energy efficient transformers, Electronic ballast,
Occupancy sensors, Energy efficient lighting controls, Energy saving potential of each
technology.
10.1. Maximum Demand Controllers

High-tension (HT) consumers have to pay a maximum demand charge in addition to the usual
charge for the number of units consumed. This charge is usually based on the highest amount
of power used during some period (say 30 minutes) during the metering month. The maximum
demand charge often represents a large proportion of the total bill and may be based on only
one isolated 30 minute episode of high power use.
Considerable savings can be realised by monitoring power use and turning off or reduc-
ing non-essential loads during such periods of high power use.
Maximum Demand
Controller (See Figure10.1)
is a device designed to meet
the need of industries con-
scious of the value of load
management. Alarm is
sounded when demand
approaches a preset value. If
corrective action is not
taken, the controller switch-
es off non-essential loads in
a logical sequence. This
sequence is predetermined
by the user and is pro-
grammed jointly by the user
and the supplier of the
device. The plant equip-
ments selected for the load
management are stopped Figure 10.1 Maximum Demand Controller
and restarted as per the
desired load profile. Demand control scheme is implemented by using suitable control contac-
tors. Audio and visual annunciations could also be used.

10. Energy Efficient Technologies in Electrical System
10.2 Automatic Power Factor Controllers

Various types of automatic power factor controls are available with relay / microprocessor
logic. Two of the most common controls are: Voltage Control and kVAr Control
Voltage Control
Voltage alone can be used as a source of intelligence when the switched capacitors are
applied at point where the circuit voltage decreases as circuit load increases. Generally, where
they are applied the voltage should decrease as circuit load increases and the drop in voltage
should be around 4 – 5 % with increasing load.
Voltage is the most common type of intelligence used in substation applications, when
maintaining a particular voltage is of prime importance. This type of control is independent of
load cycle. During light load time and low source voltage, this may give leading PF at the sub-
station, which is to be taken note of.
KILOVAR Control
Kilovar sensitive controls (see
Figure 10.2) are used at loca-
tions where the voltage level is
closely regulated and not avail-
able as a control variable. The
capacitors can be switched to
respond to a decreasing power
factor as a result of change in
system loading. This type of
control can also be used to avoid
penalty on low power factor by
adding capacitors in steps as the
system power factor begins to
lag behind the desired value.
Kilovar control requires two
inputs - current and voltage from
the incoming feeder, which are
fed to the PF correction mecha-
nism, either the microprocessor
or the relay.
Figure 10.2
Automatic Power Factor Control Relay
It controls the power factor of the installation by giving signals to switch on or off power fac-
tor correction capacitors. Relay is the brain of control circuit and needs contactors of appropri-
ate rating for switching on/off the capacitors.
There is a built-in power factor transducer, which measures the power factor of
the installation and converts it to a DC voltage of appropriate polarity. This is compared with
a reference voltage, which can be set by means of a knob calibrated in terms of power fac-
tor.

When the power factor falls below setting, the capacitors are switched on in sequence. The
relays are provided with First in First out (FIFO) and First in Last Out (FILO) sequence. The
capacitors controlled by the relay must be of the same rating and they are switched on/off in lin-
ear sequence. To prevent over correction hunting, a dead band is provided. This setting deter-
mines the range of phase angle over which the relay does not respond; only when the PF goes
beyond this range, the relay acts. When the load is low, the effect of the capacitors is more pro-
nounced and may lead to hunting. Under current blocking (low current cut out) shuts off the
relay, switching off all capacitors one by one in sequence, when load current is below setting.
Special timing sequences ensure that capacitors are fully discharged before they are switched
in. This avoids dangerous over voltage transient. The solid state indicating lamps (LEDS) dis-
play various functions that the operator should know and also and indicate each capacitor
switching stage.
Intelligent Power Factor Controller (IPFC)

This controller determines the rating of capacitance connected in each step during the first hour
of its operation and stores them in memory. Based on this measurement, the IPFC switches on
the most appropriate steps, thus eliminating the hunting problems normally associated with
capacitor switching.
10.3 Energy Efficient Motors

Minimising Watts Loss in Motors
Improvements in motor efficiency can be
achieved without compromising motor per-
formance - at higher cost - within the limits
of existing design and manufacturing tech-
nology.
From the Table 10.1, it can be seen that
any improvement in motor efficiency must
result from reducing the Watts losses. In
terms of the existing state of electric motor
technology, a reduction in watts losses can be
achieved in various ways.
All of these changes to reduce motor
losses are possible with existing motor
design and manufacturing technology.
They would, however, require addi- Figure 10.3 Energy Efficient Motor
tional materials and/or the use of higher
quality materials and improved manufacturing processes resulting in increased motor
cost.
Simply Stated: REDUCED LOSSES = IMPROVED EFFICIENCY

TABLE 10.1 WATT LOSS AREA AND EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT
Watts Loss Area Efficiency Improvement

1. Iron Use of thinner gauge, lower loss core steel reduces eddy current losses. Longer
core adds more steel to the design, which reduces losses due to lower operating
flux densities.
2. Stator I2 R Use of more copper and larger conductors increases cross sectional area of
stator windings. This lowers resistance (R) of the windings and reduces losses
due to current flow (I).
3. Rotor I2 R Use of larger rotor conductor bars increases size of cross section, lowering
conductor resistance (R) and losses due to current flow (I).
4. Friction & Windage Use of low loss fan design reduces losses due to air movement.
5. Stray Load Loss Use of optimised design and strict quality control procedures minimizes stray
load losses.
Thus energy-efficient electric motors

reduce energy losses through improved
design, better materials, and improved manu-
facturing techniques. Replacing a motor may
be justifiable solely on the electricity cost
savings derived from an energy-efficient
replacement. This is true if the motor runs
continuously, power rates are high, the motor
is oversized for the application, or its nomi-
nal efficiency has been reduced by damage or
previous rewinds. Efficiency comparison for
standard and high efficiency motors is shown
in Figure 10.4
Technical aspects of Energy Efficient

Motors Figure 10.4 Efficiency Range for Standard and
High Efficiency Motors
Energy-efficient motors last longer, and
may require less maintenance. At lower temperatures, bearing grease lasts longer;
required time between re-greasing increases. Lower temperatures translate to long
lasting insulation. Generally, motor life doubles for each 10°C reduction in operating
temperature.
Select energy-efficient motors with a 1.15 service factor, and design for operation at 85% of
the rated motor load.
Electrical power problems, especially poor incoming power quality can affect the operation
of energy-efficient motors.

Speed control is crucial in some applications. In polyphase induction motors, slip is a measure
of motor winding losses. The lower the slip, the higher the efficiency. Less slippage in energy
efficient motors results in speeds about 1% faster than in standard counterparts.
Starting torque for efficient motors may be lower than for standard motors. Facility managers
should be careful when applying efficient motors to high torque applications.
10.4 Soft Starter

When starting, AC Induction motor develops more torque than is
required at full speed. This stress is transferred to the mechanical trans-
mission system resulting in excessive wear and premature failure of
chains, belts, gears, mechanical seals, etc. Additionally, rapid accelera-
tion also has a massive impact on electricity supply charges with high
inrush currents drawing +600% of the normal run current.
The use of Star Delta only provides a partial solution to the
problem. Should the motor slow down during the transition period,
Figure 10.5 Soft Starter
the high peaks can be repeated and can even exceed direct on line
current.
Soft starter (see Figure 10.5) provides a reliable and economical solution to these problems
by delivering a controlled release of power to the motor, thereby providing smooth, stepless
acceleration and deceleration. Motor life will be extended as damage to windings and bearings
is reduced.
Soft Start & Soft Stop is built into 3 phase units, providing controlled starting and stopping
with a selection of ramp times and current limit settings to suit all applications (see Figure 10.6).
Figure 10.6 Soft Starter: Starting current, Stress profile during starting
Advantages of Soft Start
– Less mechanical stress

– Improved power factor.
– Lower maximum demand.
– Less mechanical maintenance

10.5 Variable Speed Drives

Speed Control of Induction Motors
Induction motor is the workhorse of the industry. It is cheap rugged and provides high power to
weight ratio. On account of high cost-implications and limitations of D.C. System, induction
motors are preferred for variable speed application, the speed of which can be varied by chang-
ing the supply frequency. The speed can also be varied through a number of other means,
including, varying the input voltage, varying the resistance of the rotor circuit, using multi
speed windings, using Scherbius or Kramer drives, using mechanical means such as gears and
pulleys and eddy-current or fluid coupling, or by using rotary or static voltage and frequency
converters.
Variable Frequency Drive

The VFD operates on a simple principle. The rotational speed of an AC induction motor
depends on the number of poles in that stator and the frequency of the applied AC power.
Although the number of poles in an induction motor cannot be altered easily, variable speed can
be achieved through a variation in frequency. The VFD rectifies standard 50 cycle AC line
power to DC, then synthesizes the DC to a variable frequency AC output.
Motors connected to VFD provide variable speed mechanical output with high efficiency.
These devices are capable of up to a 9:1 speed reduction ratio (11 percent of full speed), and a
3:1 speed increase (300 percent of full speed).
In recent years, the technology of AC variable frequency drives (VFD) has evolved into
highly sophisticated digital microprocessor control, along with high switching frequency IGBTs
(Insulated Gate Bi Polar Transistors) power devices. This has led to significantly advanced
capabilities from the ease of programmability to expanded diagnostics. The two most signifi-
cant benefits from the evolution in technology have been that of cost and reliability, in addition
to the significant reduction in physical size.
Variable Torque Vs. Constant Torque

Variable speed drives, and the loads that are applied to, can generally be divided into two
groups: constant torque and variable torque. The energy savings potential of variable torque
applications is much greater than that of constant torque applications. Constant torque loads
include vibrating conveyors, punch presses, rock crushers, machine tools, and other applica-
tions where the drive follows a constant V/Hz ratio. Variable torque loads include centrifugal
pumps and fans, which make up the majority of HVAC applications.
Why Variable Torque Loads Offer Greatest Energy Savings

In variable torque applications, the torque required varies with the square of the speed, and the
horsepower required varies with the cube of the speed, resulting in a large reduction of horse-
power for even a small reduction in speed. The motor will consume only 25% as much energy
at 50% speed than it will at 100% speed. This is referred to as the Affinity Laws, which define
the relationships between speed, flow, torque, and horsepower. The following laws illustrates
these relationships:
❖ Flow is proportional to speed
❖ Head is proportional to (speed)2

❖ Torque is proportional to (speed)2

❖ Power is proportional to (speed)3
Tighter process control with variable speed drives

No other AC motor control method compares to variable speed drives when it comes to accu-
rate process control. Full-voltage (across the line) starters can only run the motor at full speed,
and soft starts and reduced voltage soft starters can only gradually ramp the motor up to full
speed, and back down to shutdown. Variable speed drives, on the other hand, can be pro-
grammed to run the motor at a precise speed, to stop at a precise position, or to apply a specif-
ic amount of torque.
In fact, modern AC variable speed drives are very close to the DC drive in terms of fast
torque response and speed accuracy. However, AC motors are much more reliable and afford-
able than DC motors, making them far more prevalent.
Most drives used in the field utilize Volts/Hertz type control, which means they provide
open-loop operation. These drives are unable to retrieve feedback from the process, but are
sufficient for the majority of variable speed drive applications. Many open-loop variable
speed drives do offer slip compensation though, which enables the drive to measure its out-
put current and estimate the difference in actual speed and the set point (the programmed
input value). The drive will then automatically adjust itself towards the set point based on this
estimation.
Most variable torque drives have Proportional Integral Differential (PID) capability for fan
and pump applications, which allows the drive to hold the set point based on actual feedback
from the process, rather than relying on estimation. A transducer or transmitter is used to detect
process variables such as pressure levels, liquid flow rate, air flow rate, or liquid level. Then the
signal is sent to a PLC (Programmable Logic Controllers), which communicates the feedback
from the process to the drive. The variable speed drive uses this continual feedback to adjust
itself to hold the set point.
High levels of accuracy for other applications can also be achieved through drives that
offer closed-loop operation. Closed-loop operation can be accomplished with either a
field-oriented vector drive, or a sensor less vector drive. The field-oriented vector drive
obtains process feedback from an encoder, which measures and transmits to the drive the
speed and/or rate of the process, such as a conveyor, machine tool, or extruder. The drive
then adjusts itself accordingly to sustain the programmed speed, rate, torque, and/or
position.
Extended equipment life and reduced maintenance

Single-speed starting methods start motors abruptly, subjecting the motor to a high starting
torque and to current surges that are up to 10 times the full-load current. Variable speed drives,
on the other hand, gradually ramp the motor up to operating speed to lessen mechanical and
electrical stress, reducing maintenance and repair costs, and extending the life of the motor and
the driven equipment.
Soft starts, or reduced-voltage soft starters (RVSS), are also able to step a motor up grad-
ually, but drives can be programmed to ramp up the motor much more gradually and smooth-
ly, and can operate the motor at less than full speed to decrease wear and tear. Variable speed
drives can also run a motor in specialized patterns to further minimise mechanical and electri-

cal stress. For example, an S-curve pattern can be applied to a conveyor application for
smoother control, which reduces the backlash that can occur when a conveyor is accelerating
or decelerating.
Typical full-load efficiencies are 95% and higher. High power units are still more efficient.
The efficiency of VSDs generally decreases with speed but since the torque requirement also
decreases with speed for many VSD applications, the absolute loss is often not very significant.
The power factor of a VSD drops drastically with speed, but at low power requirement the
absolute kVAr requirement is low, so the loss is also generally not significant. In a suitable oper-
ating environment, frequency controllers are relatively reliable and need little maintenance. A
disadvantage of static converters is the generation of harmonics in the supply, which reduces
motor efficiency and reduces motor output - in some cases it may necessitate using a motor with
a higher rating.
Eddy Current Drives

This method employs an eddy-current clutch to vary
the output speed. The clutch consists of a primary
member coupled to the shaft of the motor and a freely
revolving secondary member coupled to the load
shaft. The secondary member is separately excited
using a DC field winding. The motor starts with the
load at rest and a DC excitation is provided to the sec-
ondary member, which induces eddy-currents in the
primary member. The interaction of the fluxes pro-
duced by the two currents gives rise to a torque at the Figure 10.7 Eddy Current Drive
load shaft. By varying the DC excitation the output
speed can be varied to match the load requirements. The major disadvantage of this system is
relatively poor efficiency particularly at low speeds. (see Figure 10.7)
Slip Power Recovery Systems

Slip power recovery is a more efficient alternative speed control mechanism for use with slip-
ring motors. In essence, a slip power recovery system varies the rotor voltage to control speed,
but instead of dissipating power through resistors, the excess power is collected from the slip
rings and returned as mechanical power to the shaft or as electrical power back to the supply
line. Because of the relatively sophisticated equipment needed, slip power recovery tends to be
economical only in relatively high power applications and where the motor speed range is 1:5
or less.
Fluid Coupling
Fluid coupling is one way of applying varying speeds to the driven equipment, without chang-
ing the speed of the motor.
Construction
Fluid couplings (see Figure 10.8) work on the hydrodynamic principle. Inside every
fluid coupling are two basic elements – the impeller and the runner and together they con-

stitute the working circuit. One can imagine the

impeller as a centrifugal pump and the runner as a
turbine. The impeller and the rotor are bowl
shaped and have large number of radial vanes.
They are suitably enclosed in a casing, facing each
other with an air gap. The impeller is connected to
the prime mover while the rotor has a shaft bolted
to it. This shaft is further connected to the driven
equipment through a suitable arrangement.
Thin mineral oil of low viscosity and good-
lubricating qualities is filled in the fluid coupling
from the filling plug provided on its body. A fusible
plug is provided on the fluid coupling which blows
off and drains out oil from the coupling in case of
sustained overloading.
Operating Principle
There is no mechanical inter-connection between Figure 10.8 Fluid Coupling
the impeller and the rotor and the power is
transmitted by virtue of the fluid filled in the coupling. When the impeller is rotated by the
prime mover, the fluid flows out radially and then axially under the action of centrifugal
force. It then crosses the air gap to the runner and is directed towards the bowl axis and back
to the impeller. To enable the fluid to flow from impeller to rotor it is essential that
there is difference in head between the two and thus it is essential that there is difference in
RPM known as slip between the two. Slip is an important and inherent characteristic of a
fluid coupling resulting in several desired advantages. As the slip increases, more and more
fluid can be transferred. However when the rotor is at a stand still, maximum fluid is
transmitted from impeller to rotor and maximum torque is transmitted from the coupling.
This maximum torque is the limiting torque. The fluid coupling also acts as a torque
limiter.
Characteristics
Fluid coupling has a centrifugal characteristic during starting thus enabling no-load start up of
prime mover, which is of great importance. The slipping characteristic of fluid coupling pro-
vides a wide range of choice of power transmission characteristics. By varying the quantity of
oil filled in the fluid coupling, the normal torque transmitting capacity can be varied. The max-
imum torque or limiting torque of the fluid coupling can also be set to a pre-determined safe
value by adjusting the oil filling. The fluid coupling has the same characteristics in both direc-
tions of rotation.
10.6 Energy Efficient Transformers

Most energy loss in dry-type transformers occurs through heat or vibration from the core. The
new high-efficiency transformers minimise these losses. The conventional transformer is made
up of a silicon alloyed iron (grain oriented) core. The iron loss of any transformer depends on

the type of core used in the transformer.

However the latest technology is to use
amorphous material - a metallic glass alloy
for the core (see Figure 10.9). The expected
reduction in energy loss over conventional
(Si Fe core) transformers is roughly around
70%, which is quite significant. By using
an amorphous core- with unique physical
and magnetic properties- these new type of
transformers have increased efficiencies
even at low loads – 98.5% efficiency at
35% load.
Electrical distribution transformers
made with amorphous metal cores provide
excellent opportunity to conserve energy
right from the installation. Though these
transformers are a little costlier than
conventional iron core transformers, the
overall benefit towards energy savings
will compensate for the higher initial
investment. At present amorphous metal
core transformers are available up to
1600 kVA.
Figure 10.9 1600 kVA Amorphous Core Transformer
10.7 Electronic Ballast

Role of Ballast
In an electric circuit the ballast acts as a stabilizer. Fluorescent lamp is an electric discharge
lamp. The two electrodes are separated inside a tube with no apparent connection between
them. When sufficient voltage is impressed on these electrodes, electrons are driven from one
electrode and attracted to the other. The current flow takes place through an atmosphere of low-
pressure mercury vapour.
Since the fluorescent lamps cannot produce light by direct connection to the power source,
they need an ancillary circuit and device to get started and remain illuminated. The auxillary
circuit housed in a casing is known as ballast.
Conventional Vs Electronic Ballasts

The conventional ballasts make use of the kick caused by sudden physical disruption
of current in an inductive circuit to produce the high voltage required for starting
the lamp and then rely on reactive voltage drop in the ballast to reduce the voltage applied
across the lamp. On account of the mechanical switch (starter) and low resistance of
filament when cold the uncontrolled filament current, generally tend to go beyond the limits
specified by Indian standard specifications. With high values of current and flux
densities the operational losses and temperature rise are on the higher side in conventional
choke.

The high frequency electronic ballast overcomes the above drawbacks. The basic functions
of electronic ballast are:
1. To ignite the lamp
2. To stabilize the gas discharge
3. To supply the power to the lamp
The electronic ballasts (see Figure 10.10)
make use of modern power semi-conductor
devices for their operation. The circuit compo-
nents form a tuned circuit to deliver power to the
lamp at a high resonant frequency (in the vicinity
of 25 kHz) and voltage is regulated through an in-
built feedback mechanism. It is now well estab-
lished that the fluorescent lamp efficiency in the
kHz range is higher than those attainable at low
frequencies. At lower frequencies (50 or 60 Hz)
the electron density in the lamp is proportional to
the instantaneous value of the current because the
ionisation state in the tube is able to follow the Figure 10.10 Electronic Ballast
instantaneous variations in the current. At higher
frequencies (kHz range), the ionisation state cannot follow the instantaneous variations of the
current and hence the ionisation density is approximately a constant, proportional to the RMS
(Root Mean Square) value of the current. Another significant benefit resulting from this phe-
nomenon is the absence of stroboscopic effect, thereby significantly improving the quality of
light output.
One of largest advantages of an electronic ballast is the enormous energy savings it pro-
vides. This is achieved in two ways. The first is its amazingly low internal core loss, quite
unlike old fashioned magnetic ballasts. And second is increased light output due to the excita-
tion of the lamp phosphors with high frequency. If the period of frequency of excitation is
smaller than the light retention time constant for the gas in the lamp, the gas will stay ionized
and, therefore, produce light continuously. This phenomenon along with continued persistence
of the phosphors at high frequency will improve light output from 8–12 percent. This is possi-
ble only with high frequency electronic ballast.
10.8 Energy Efficient Lighting Controls

Occupancy Sensors
Occupancy-linked control can be achieved using infra-red, acoustic, ultrasonic or
microwave sensors, which detect either movement or noise in room spaces. These sensors
switch lighting on when occupancy is detected, and off again after a set time period, when
no occupancy movement detected. They are designed to override manual switches and to
prevent a situation where lighting is left on in unoccupied spaces. With this type of system
it is important to incorporate a built-in time delay, since occupants often remain still or quiet
for short periods and do not appreciate being plunged into darkness if not constantly mov-
ing around.

Timed Based Control

Timed-turnoff switches are the least expensive type of
automatic lighting control. In some cases, their low
cost and ease of installation makes it desirable to use
them where more efficient controls would be too
expensive (see Figure 10.11).
Types and Features

The oldest and most common type of timed-turnoff
switch is the "dial timer," a spring-wound mechanical
timer that is set by twisting the knob to the desired time.
Typical units of this type are vulnerable to damage
because the shaft is weak and the knob is not securely
attached to the shaft. Some spring-wound units make an
annoying ticking sound as they operate. Newer types of
timed-turnoff switches are completely electronic and
Figure 10.11 Timed Turnoff Switch
silent. Electronic switches can be made much more
rugged than the spring-wound dial timer. These units
typically have a spring-loaded toggle switch that turns on the circuit for a preset time interval.
Some electronic models provide a choice of time intervals, which you select by adjusting a knob
located behind the faceplate. Most models allow occupants to turn off the lights manually. Some
models allow occupants to keep the lights on, overriding the timer. Timed-turnoff switches are
available with a wide range of time spans. The choice of time span is a compromise. Shorter time
spans waste less energy but increase the probability that the lights will turn off while someone is
in the space. Dial timers allow the occupant to set the time span, but this is not likely to be done
with a view toward optimising efficiency. For most applications, the best choice is an electronic
unit that allows the engineering staff to set a fixed time interval behind the cover plate.
Daylight Linked Control

Photoelectric cells can be used either simply to switch lighting on and off, or for dimming. They
may be mounted either externally or internally. It is however important to incorporate time delays
into the control system to avoid repeated rapid switching caused, for example, by fast moving
clouds. By using an internally mounted photoelectric dimming control system, it is possible to
ensure that the sum of daylight and electric lighting always reaches the design level by sensing
the total light in the controlled area and adjusting the output of the electric lighting accordingly. If
daylight alone is able to meet the design requirements, then the electric lighting can be turned off.
The energy saving potential of dimming control is greater than a simple photoelectric switching
system. Dimming control is also more likely to be acceptable to room occupants.
Localized Switching
Localized switching should be used in applications which contain large spaces. Local switches
give individual occupants control over their visual environment and also facilitate energy sav-
ings. By using localized switching it is possible to turn off artificial lighting in specific areas,
while still operating it in other areas where it is required, a situation which is impossible if the
lighting for an entire space is controlled from a single switch.

QUESTIONS
1. Explain how maximum demand control works.
2. Explain the principle of automatic power factor controller .
3. What are the advantages of energy efficient motors?
4. What are the precautions to be taken in the case of energy efficient motor application ?
5. Explain the working of a soft starter and its advantage over other conventional
starters.
6. Explain why centrifugal machines offers the greatest savings when used with
Variable Speed Drives.
7. Hydrodynamic principle for speed control is used in
a) DC drives b) Fluid coupling c) Pulse width modulation d) Eddy Current Drive
8. Typical loss in conventional magnetic chokes for a 40 W FTL is of the order of
a) 8 Watts b) 14 Watts c) 20 Watts d) 6 Watts
9. Which method uses infrared, acoustic, ultrasonic or microwave sensors for lighting
control?
a) Time-based control b) Daylight-linked control c) Occupancy-linked control
d) Localized switching
10. Slip Power Recovery system is used in
a) All kinds of motors b) Synchronous motors c) Slip - Ring Induction motor
d) None of the above
REFERENCES
1. Energy Management Supply and Conservation, Butterworth Heinemann, 2002 – Dr. Clive
Beggs.
2. Handbook of Energy Engineering, The Fairmont Press, INC. – Albert Thumann & Paul
Mehta.

ANNEXURE
CHECKLIST & TIPS FOR ENERGY EFFICIENCY
IN ELECTRICAL UTILITIES
Electricity
• Optimise the tariff structure with utility supplier

• Schedule your operations to maintain a high load factor
• Shift loads to off-peak times if possible.
• Minimise maximum demand by tripping loads through a demand controller
• Stagger start-up times for equipment with large starting currents to minimize load peaking.
• Use standby electric generation equipment for on-peak high load periods.
• Correct power factor to at least 0.90 under rated load conditions.
• Relocate transformers close to main loads.
• Set transformer taps to optimum settings.
• Disconnect primary power to transformers that do not serve any active loads
• Consider on-site electric generation or cogeneration.
• Export power to grid if you have any surplus in your captive generation
• Check utility electric meter with your own meter.
• Shut off unnecessary computers, printers, and copiers at night.
Motors
• Properly size to the load for optimum efficiency.

(High efficiency motors offer of 4 – 5% higher efficiency than standard motors)
• Use energy-efficient motors where economical.
• Use synchronous motors to improve power factor.
• Check alignment.
• Provide proper ventilation
(For every 10°C increase in motor operating temperature over recommended peak, the
motor life is estimated to be halved)
• Check for under-voltage and over-voltage conditions.
• Balance the three-phase power supply.
(An Imbalanced voltage can reduce 3 – 5% in motor input power)
• Demand efficiency restoration after motor rewinding.
(If rewinding is not done properly, the efficiency can be reduced by 5 – 8%)
Drives
• Use variable-speed drives for large variable loads.

• Use high-efficiency gear sets.
• Use precision alignment.
• Check belt tension regularly.
• Eliminate variable-pitch pulleys.
• Use flat belts as alternatives to v-belts.

Checklist & Tips for Energy Efficiency in Electrical Utilities
• Use synthetic lubricants for large gearboxes.

• Eliminate eddy current couplings.
• Shut them off when not needed.
Fans
• Use smooth, well-rounded air inlet cones for fan air intakes.
• Avoid poor flow distribution at the fan inlet.
• Minimize fan inlet and outlet obstructions.
• Clean screens, filters, and fan blades regularly.
• Use aerofoil-shaped fan blades.
• Minimize fan speed.
• Use low-slip or flat belts.
• Eliminate variable pitch pulleys.
• Use variable speed drives for large variable fan loads.
• Use energy-efficient motors for continuous or near-continuous operation
• Eliminate leaks in ductwork.
• Minimise bends in ductwork
• Turn fans off when not needed.
Blowers
• Use smooth, well-rounded air inlet ducts or cones for air intakes.
• Minimize blower inlet and outlet obstructions.
• Clean screens and filters regularly.
• Minimize blower speed.
• Use low-slip or no-slip belts.
• Eliminate variable pitch pulleys.
• Use variable speed drives for large variable blower loads.
• Use energy-efficient motors for continuous or near-continuous operation.
• Eliminate ductwork leaks.
• Turn blowers off when they are not needed.
Pumps
• Operate pumping near best efficiency point.

• Modify pumping to minimize throttling.
• Adapt to wide load variation with variable speed drives or sequenced control of smaller
units.
• Stop running both pumps -- add an auto-start for an on-line spare or add a booster pump
in the problem area.
• Use booster pumps for small loads requiring higher pressures.
• Increase fluid temperature differentials to reduce pumping rates.
• Repair seals and packing to minimize water waste.

• Balance the system to minimize flows and reduce pump power requirements.
• Use siphon effect to advantage: don't waste pumping head with a free-fall (gravity)
return.
Compressors
• Consider variable speed drive for variable load on positive displacement compressors.
• Use a synthetic lubricant if the compressor manufacturer permits it.
• Be sure lubricating oil temperature is not too high (oil degradation and lowered viscosity)
and not too low (condensation contamination).
• Change the oil filter regularly.
• Periodically inspect compressor intercoolers for proper functioning.
• Use waste heat from a very large compressor to power an absorption chiller or preheat
process or utility feeds.
• Establish a compressor efficiency-maintenance program. Start with an energy audit and
follow-up, then make a compressor efficiency-maintenance program a part of your contin-
uous energy management program.
Compressed air
• Install a control system to coordinate multiple air compressors.

operating multiple air compressors.
• Avoid over sizing -- match the connected load.
• Load up modulation-controlled air compressors. (They use almost as much power at par-
tial load as at full load.)
• Turn off the back-up air compressor until it is needed.
• Reduce air compressor discharge pressure to the lowest acceptable setting.
(Reduction of 1 kg/cm2 air pressure (8 kg/cm2 to 7 kg/cm2) would result in 9% input power
savings. This will also reduce compressed air leakage rates by 10%)
• Use the highest reasonable dryer dew point settings.
• Turn off refrigerated and heated air dryers when the air compressors are off.
• Use a control system to minimize heatless desiccant dryer purging.
• Minimize purges, leaks, excessive pressure drops, and condensation accumulation.
(Compressed air leak from 1 mm hole size at 7 kg/cm2 pressure would mean power loss
equivalent to 0.5 kW)
• Use drain controls instead of continuous air bleeds through the drains.
• Consider engine-driven or steam-driven air compression to reduce electrical demand
charges.
• Replace standard v-belts with high-efficiency flat belts as the old v-belts wear out.
• Use a small air compressor when major production load is off.
• Take air compressor intake air from the coolest (but not air conditioned) location.
(Every 5°C reduction in intake air temperature would result in 1% reduction in compres-
sor power consumption)
• Use an air-cooled aftercooler to heat building makeup air in winter.
• Be sure that heat exchangers are not fouled (e.g. -- with oil).

• Be sure that air/oil separators are not fouled.

• Monitor pressure drops across suction and discharge filters and clean or replace filters
promptly upon alarm.
• Use a properly sized compressed air storage receiver.
Minimize disposal costs by using lubricant that is fully demulsible and an effective oil-
water separator.
• Consider alternatives to compressed air such as blowers for cooling, hydraulic rather than
air cylinders, electric rather than air actuators, and electronic rather than pneumatic
controls.
• Use nozzles or venturi-type devices rather than blowing with open compressed air lines.
• Check for leaking drain valves on compressed air filter/regulator sets. Certain rubber-type
valves may leak continuously after they age and crack.
• In dusty environments, control packaging lines with high-intensity photocell units instead
of standard units with continuous air purging of lenses and reflectors.
• Establish a compressed air efficiency-maintenance program. Start with an energy audit and
follow-up, then make a compressed air efficiency-maintenance program a part of your con-
tinuous energy management program.
Chillers
• Increase the chilled water temperature set point if possible.

• Use the lowest temperature condenser water available that the chiller can handle.
(Reducing condensing temperature by 5.5°C, results in a 20 – 25% decrease in compres-
sor power consumption)
• Increase the evaporator temperature
(5.5°C increase in evaporator temperature reduces compressor power consumption by
20 – 25%)
• Clean heat exchangers when fouled.
(1 mm scale build-up on condenser tubes can increase energy consumption by 40%)
• Optimize condenser water flow rate and refrigerated water flow rate.
• Replace old chillers or compressors with new higher-efficiency models.
• Use water-cooled rather than air-cooled chiller condensers.
• Use energy-efficient motors for continuous or near-continuous operation.
• Specify appropriate fouling factors for condensers.
• Do not overcharge oil.
• Install a control system to coordinate multiple chillers.
operating multiple chillers.
• Run the chillers with the lowest operating costs to serve base load.
• Avoid oversizing -- match the connected load.
• Isolate off-line chillers and cooling towers.
• Establish a chiller efficiency-maintenance program. Start with an energy audit and follow-
up, then make a chiller efficiency-maintenance program a part of your continuous energy
management program.

HVAC (Heating / Ventilation / Air Conditioning)
• Tune up the HVAC control system.

• Consider installing a building automation system (BAS) or energy management system
(EMS) or restoring an out-of-service one.
• Balance the system to minimize flows and reduce blower/fan/pump power requirements.
• Eliminate or reduce reheat whenever possible.
• Use appropriate HVAC thermostat setback.
• Use morning pre-cooling in summer and pre-heating in winter (i.e. -- before electrical peak
hours).
• Use building thermal lag to minimize HVAC equipment operating time.
• In winter during unoccupied periods, allow temperatures to fall as low as possible without
freezing water lines or damaging stored materials.
• In summer during unoccupied periods, allow temperatures to rise as high as possible with-
out damaging stored materials.
• Improve control and utilization of outside air.
• Use air-to-air heat exchangers to reduce energy requirements for heating and cooling of
outside air.
• Reduce HVAC system operating hours (e.g. -- night, weekend).
• Optimize ventilation.
• Ventilate only when necessary. To allow some areas to be shut down when unoccupied,
install dedicated HVAC systems on continuous loads (e.g. -- computer rooms).
• Provide dedicated outside air supply to kitchens, cleaning rooms, combustion equipment,
etc. to avoid excessive exhausting of conditioned air.
• Use evaporative cooling in dry climates.
• Reduce humidification or dehumidification during unoccupied periods.
• Use atomization rather than steam for humidification where possible.
• Clean HVAC unit coils periodically and comb mashed fins.
• Upgrade filter banks to reduce pressure drop and thus lower fan power requirements.
• Check HVAC filters on a schedule (at least monthly) and clean/change if appropriate.
• Check pneumatic controls air compressors for proper operation, cycling, and maintenance.
• Isolate air conditioned loading dock areas and cool storage areas using high-speed doors
or clear PVC strip curtains.
• Install ceiling fans to minimize thermal stratification in high-bay areas.
• Relocate air diffusers to optimum heights in areas with high ceilings.
• Consider reducing ceiling heights.
• Eliminate obstructions in front of radiators, baseboard heaters, etc.
• Check reflectors on infrared heaters for cleanliness and proper beam direction.
• Use professionally-designed industrial ventilation hoods for dust and vapor control.
• Use local infrared heat for personnel rather than heating the entire area.
• Use spot cooling and heating (e.g. -- use ceiling fans for personnel rather than cooling the
entire area).
• Purchase only high-efficiency models for HVAC window units.
• Put HVAC window units on timer control.
• Don't oversize cooling units. (Oversized units will "short cycle" which results in poor
humidity control.)

• Install multi-fueling capability and run with the cheapest fuel available at the time.
• Consider dedicated make-up air for exhaust hoods. (Why exhaust the air conditioning or
heat if you don't need to?)
• Minimize HVAC fan speeds.
• Consider desiccant drying of outside air to reduce cooling requirements in humid climates.
• Consider ground source heat pumps.
• Seal leaky HVAC ductwork.
• Seal all leaks around coils.
• Repair loose or damaged flexible connections (including those under air handling units).
• Eliminate simultaneous heating and cooling during seasonal transition periods.
• Zone HVAC air and water systems to minimize energy use.
• Inspect, clean, lubricate, and adjust damper blades and linkages.
• Establish an HVAC efficiency-maintenance program. Start with an energy audit and
follow-up, then make an HVAC efficiency-maintenance program a part of your continuous
energy management program.
Refrigeration
• Use water-cooled condensers rather than air-cooled condensers.

• Challenge the need for refrigeration, particularly for old batch processes.
• Avoid oversizing -- match the connected load.
• Consider gas-powered refrigeration equipment to minimize electrical demand charges.
• Use "free cooling" to allow chiller shutdown in cold weather.
• Use refrigerated water loads in series if possible.
• Convert firewater or other tanks to thermal storage.
• Don't assume that the old way is still the best -- particularly for energy-intensive low
temperature systems.
• Correct inappropriate brine or glycol concentration that adversely affects heat transfer
and/or pumping energy.
If it sweats, insulate it, but if it is corroding, replace it first.
• Make adjustments to minimize hot gas bypass operation.
• Inspect moisture/liquid indicators.
• Consider change of refrigerant type if it will improve efficiency.
• Check for correct refrigerant charge level.
• Inspect the purge for air and water leaks.
• Establish a refrigeration efficiency-maintenance program. Start with an energy audit and
follow-up, then make a refrigeration efficiency-maintenance program a part of your con-
tinuous energy management program.
Cooling towers
• Control cooling tower fans based on leaving water temperatures.

• Control to the optimum water temperature as determined from cooling tower and chiller
performance data.
• Use two-speed or variable-speed drives for cooling tower fan control if the fans are few.
Stage the cooling tower fans with on-off control if there are many.

• Turn off unnecessary cooling tower fans when loads are reduced.
• Cover hot water basins (to minimize algae growth that contributes to fouling).
• Balance flow to cooling tower hot water basins.
• Periodically clean plugged cooling tower water distribution nozzles.
• Install new nozzles to obtain a more-uniform water pattern.
• Replace splash bars with self-extinguishing PVC cellular-film fill.
• On old counterflow cooling towers, replace old spray-type nozzles with new square-spray
ABS practically-non-clogging nozzles.
• Replace slat-type drift eliminators with high-efficiency, low-pressure-drop, self-extin-
guishing, PVC cellular units.
• If possible, follow manufacturer's recommended clearances around cooling towers and
relocate or modify structures, signs, fences, dumpsters, etc. that interfere with air intake or
exhaust.
• Optimize cooling tower fan blade angle on a seasonal and/or load basis.
• Correct excessive and/or uneven fan blade tip clearance and poor fan balance.
• Use a velocity pressure recovery fan ring.
• Divert clean air-conditioned building exhaust to the cooling tower during hot weather.
• Re-line leaking cooling tower cold water basins.
• Check water overflow pipes for proper operating level.
• Optimize chemical use.
• Consider side stream water treatment.
• Restrict flows through large loads to design values.
• Shut off loads that are not in service.
• Take blowdown water from the return water header.
• Optimize blowdown flow rate.
• Automate blowdown to minimize it.
• Send blowdown to other uses (Remember, the blowdown does not have to be removed at
the cooling tower. It can be removed anywhere in the piping system.)
• Implement a cooling tower winterization plan to minimize ice build-up.
• Install interlocks to prevent fan operation when there is no water flow.
• Establish a cooling tower efficiency-maintenance program. Start with an energy audit and
follow-up, then make a cooling tower efficiency-maintenance program a part of your
continuous energy management program.
Lighting
• Reduce excessive illumination levels to standard levels using switching, delamping, etc.
(Know the electrical effects before doing delamping.)
• Aggressively control lighting with clock timers, delay timers, photocells, and/or occupan-
cy sensors.
• Install efficient alternatives to incandescent lighting, mercury vapor lighting, etc.
Efficiency (lumens/watt) of various technologies range from best to worst approximately
as follows: low pressure sodium, high pressure sodium, metal halide, fluorescent, mercury
vapor, incandescent.
• Select ballasts and lamps carefully with high power factor and long-term efficiency in
mind.
• Upgrade obsolete fluorescent systems to Compact fluorescents and electronic ballasts

• Consider lowering the fixtures to enable using less of them.
• Consider daylighting, skylights, etc.
• Consider painting the walls a lighter color and using less lighting fixtures or lower wattages.
• Use task lighting and reduce background illumination.
• Re-evaluate exterior lighting strategy, type, and control. Control it aggressively.
• Change exit signs from incandescent to LED.
DG sets
• Optimise loading
• Use waste heat to generate steam/hot water /power an absorption chiller or preheat process
or utility feeds.
• Use jacket and head cooling water for process needs
• Clean air filters regularly
• Insulate exhaust pipes to reduce DG set room temperatures
• Use cheaper heavy fuel oil for capacities more than 1MW
Buildings
• Seal exterior cracks/openings/gaps with caulk, gasketing, weatherstripping, etc.

• Consider new thermal doors, thermal windows, roofing insulation, etc.
• Install windbreaks near exterior doors.
• Replace single-pane glass with insulating glass.
• Consider covering some window and skylight areas with insulated wall panels inside the
building.
• If visibility is not required but light is required, consider replacing exterior windows with
insulated glass block.
• Consider tinted glass, reflective glass, coatings, awnings, overhangs, draperies, blinds, and
shades for sunlit exterior windows.
• Use landscaping to advantage.
• Add vestibules or revolving doors to primary exterior personnel doors.
• Consider automatic doors, air curtains, strip doors, etc. at high-traffic passages between
conditioned and non-conditioned spaces. Use self-closing doors if possible.
• Use intermediate doors in stairways and vertical passages to minimize building stack effect.
• Use dock seals at shipping and receiving doors.
• Bring cleaning personnel in during the working day or as soon after as possible to mini-
mize lighting and HVAC costs.
Water & Wastewater
• Recycle water, particularly for uses with less-critical quality requirements.

• Recycle water, especially if sewer costs are based on water consumption.
• Balance closed systems to minimize flows and reduce pump power requirements.
• Eliminate once-through cooling with water.
• Use the least expensive type of water that will satisfy the requirement.

• Fix water leaks.

• Test for underground water leaks. (It's easy to do over a holiday shutdown.)
• Check water overflow pipes for proper operating level.
• Automate blowdown to minimize it.
• Provide proper tools for wash down -- especially self-closing nozzles.
• Install efficient irrigation.
• Reduce flows at water sampling stations.
• Eliminate continuous overflow at water tanks.
• Promptly repair leaking toilets and faucets.
• Use water restrictors on faucets, showers, etc.
• Use self-closing type faucets in restrooms.
• Use the lowest possible hot water temperature.
• Do not use a heating system hot water boiler to provide service hot water during the cooling
season -- install a smaller, more-efficient system for the cooling season service hot water.
• If water must be heated electrically, consider accumulation in a large insulated storage tank
to minimize heating at on-peak electric rates.
• Use multiple, distributed, small water heaters to minimize thermal losses in large piping systems.
• Use freeze protection valves rather than manual bleeding of lines.
• Consider leased and mobile water treatment systems, especially for deionized water.
• Seal sumps to prevent seepage inward from necessitating extra sump pump operation.
• Install pretreatment to reduce TOC and BOD surcharges.
• Verify the water meter readings. (You'd be amazed how long a meter reading can be esti-
mated after the meter breaks or the meter pit fills with water!)
• Verify the sewer flows if the sewer bills are based on them
Miscellaneous
• Meter any unmetered utilities. Know what is normal efficient use. Track down causes of
deviations.
• Shut down spare, idling, or unneeded equipment.
• Make sure that all of the utilities to redundant areas are turned off -- including utilities like
compressed air and cooling water.
• Install automatic control to efficiently coordinate multiple air compressors, chillers, cool-
ing tower cells, boilers, etc.
• Renegotiate utilities contracts to reflect current loads and variations.
• Consider buying utilities from neighbors, particularly to handle peaks.
• Leased space often has low-bid inefficient equipment. Consider upgrades if your lease will
continue for several more years.
• Adjust fluid temperatures within acceptable limits to minimize undesirable heat transfer in
long pipelines.
• Minimize use of flow bypasses and minimize bypass flow rates.
• Provide restriction orifices in purges (nitrogen, steam, etc.).
• Eliminate unnecessary flow measurement orifices.
• Consider alternatives to high pressure drops across valves.
• Turn off winter heat tracing that is on in summer.

1. ENERGY PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT
OF BOILERS
1.1 Introduction
Performance of the boiler, like efficiency and evaporation ratio reduces with time, due to
poor combustion, heat transfer fouling and poor operation and maintenance. Deterioration
of fuel quality and water quality also leads to poor performance of boiler. Efficiency test-
ing helps us to find out how far the boiler efficiency drifts away from the best efficiency.
Any observed abnormal deviations could therefore be investigated to pinpoint the problem
area for necessary corrective action. Hence it is necessary to find out the current level of
efficiency for performance evaluation, which is a pre requisite for energy conservation
action in industry.
1.2 Purpose of the Performance Test
• To find out the efficiency of the boiler

• To find out the Evaporation ratio
The purpose of the performance test is to determine actual performance and efficien-
cy of the boiler and compare it with design values or norms. It is an indicator for tracking
day-to-day and season-to-season variations in boiler efficiency and energy efficiency
improvements
1.3 Performance Terms and Definitions
1.4 Scope
The procedure describes routine test for both oil fired and solid fuel fired boilers using coal,
agro residues etc. Only those observations and measurements need to be made which can be
readily applied and is necessary to attain the purpose of the test.

1. Energy Performance Assessment of Boilers
1.5 Reference Standards
British standards, BS845: 1987

The British Standard BS845: 1987 describes the methods and conditions under which a boil-
er should be tested to determine its efficiency. For the testing to be done, the boiler should
be operated under steady load conditions (generally full load) for a period of one hour after
which readings would be taken during the next hour of steady operation to enable the effi-
ciency to be calculated.
The efficiency of a boiler is quoted as the % of useful heat available, expressed as a per-
centage of the total energy potentially available by burning the fuel. This is expressed on the
basis of gross calorific value (GCV).
This deals with the complete heat balance and it has two parts:
• Part One deals with standard boilers, where the indirect method is specified
• Part Two deals with complex plant where there are many channels of heat flow. In this
case, both the direct and indirect methods are applicable, in whole or in part.
ASME Standard: PTC-4-1 Power Test Code for Steam Generating Units
This consists of
• Part One: Direct method (also called as Input -output method)
• Part Two: Indirect method (also called as Heat loss method)
IS 8753: Indian Standard for Boiler Efficiency Testing

Most standards for computation of boiler efficiency, including IS 8753 and BS845 are designed
for spot measurement of boiler efficiency. Invariably, all these standards do not include blow
down as a loss in the efficiency determination process.
Basically Boiler efficiency can be tested by the following methods:
1) The Direct Method: Where the energy gain of the working fluid (water and steam) is
compared with the energy content of the boiler fuel.
2) The Indirect Method: Where the efficiency is the difference between the losses and the
energy input.
1.6 The Direct Method Testing

1.6.1 Description
This is also known as 'input-output method' due to the fact that it needs only the useful output
(steam) and the heat input (i.e. fuel) for evaluating the efficiency. This efficiency can be eval-
uated using the formula:
x 100

1.6.2 Measurements Required for Direct Method Testing

Heat input
Both heat input and heat output must be measured. The measurement of heat input requires
knowledge of the calorific value of the fuel and its flow rate in terms of mass or volume, accord-
ing to the nature of the fuel.
For gaseous fuel: A gas meter of the approved type can be used and the measured volume should
be corrected for temperature and pressure. A sample of gas can be collected for calorific value
determination, but it is usually acceptable to use the calorific value declared by the gas suppliers.
For liquid fuel: Heavy fuel oil is very viscous, and this property varies sharply with tem-
perature. The meter, which is usually installed on the combustion appliance, should be
regarded as a rough indicator only and, for test purposes, a meter calibrated for the partic-
ular oil is to be used and over a realistic range of temperature should be installed. Even
better is the use of an accurately calibrated day tank.
For solid fuel: The accurate measurement of the flow of coal or other solid fuel is very
difficult. The measurement must be based on mass, which means that bulky apparatus
must be set up on the boiler-house floor. Samples must be taken and bagged throughout
the test, the bags sealed and sent to a laboratory for analysis and calorific value determi-
nation. In some more recent boiler houses, the problem has been alleviated by mounting
the hoppers over the boilers on calibrated load cells, but these are yet uncommon.
Heat output
There are several methods, which can be used for measuring heat output. With steam boilers,
an installed steam meter can be used to measure flow rate, but this must be corrected for tem-
perature and pressure. In earlier years, this approach was not favoured due to the change in

accuracy of orifice or venturi meters with flow rate. It is now more viable with modern flow
meters of the variable-orifice or vortex-shedding types.
The alternative with small boilers is to measure feed water, and this can be done by previ-
ously calibrating the feed tank and noting down the levels of water during the beginning and
end of the trial. Care should be taken not to pump water during this period. Heat addition for
conversion of feed water at inlet temperature to steam, is considered for heat output.
In case of boilers with intermittent blowdown, blowdown should be avoided during the trial
period. In case of boilers with continuous blowdown, the heat loss due to blowdown should be
calculated and added to the heat in steam.
1.6.3 Boiler Efficiency by Direct Method: Calculation and Example
Test Data and Calculation
Water consumption and coal consumption were measured in a coal-fired boiler at hourly inter-
vals. Weighed quantities of coal were fed to the boiler during the trial period. Simultaneously
water level difference was noted to calculate steam generation during the trial period. Blow
down was avoided during the test. The measured data is given below.

1.6.4 Merits and Demerits of Direct Method

Merits
• Plant people can evaluate quickly the efficiency of boilers
• Requires few parameters for computation
• Needs few instruments for monitoring
Demerits
• Does not give clues to the operator as to why efficiency of system is lower
• Does not calculate various losses accountable for various efficiency levels
• Evaporation ratio and efficiency may mislead, if the steam is highly wet due to water carryover
1.7 The Indirect Method Testing
1.7.1 Description
The efficiency can be measured easily by measuring all the losses occurring in the boilers using
the principles to be described. The disadvantages of the direct method can be overcome by this
method, which calculates the various heat losses associated with boiler. The efficiency can be
arrived at, by subtracting the heat loss fractions from 100.An important advantage of this
method is that the errors in measurement do not make significant change in efficiency.
Thus if boiler efficiency is 90% , an error of 1% in direct method will result in significant
change in efficiency. i.e. 90 ± 0.9 = 89.1 to 90.9. In indirect method, 1% error in measurement
of losses will result in
Efficiency = 100 – (10 ± 0.1) = 90 ± 0.1 = 89.9 to 90.1
The various heat losses occurring in the boiler are:

The following losses are applicable to liquid, gas and solid fired boiler
L1– Loss due to dry flue gas (sensible heat)
L2– Loss due to hydrogen in fuel (H2)
L3– Loss due to moisture in fuel (H2O)
L4– Loss due to moisture in air (H2O)
L5– Loss due to carbon monoxide (CO)
L6– Loss due to surface radiation, convection and other unaccounted*.
*Losses which are insignificant and are difficult to measure.
The following losses are applicable to solid fuel fired boiler in addition to above
L7– Unburnt losses in fly ash (Carbon)
L8– Unburnt losses in bottom ash (Carbon)
Boiler Efficiency by indirect method = 100 – (L1 + L2 + L3 + L4 + L5 + L6 + L7 + L8)
1.7.2 Measurements Required for Performance Assessment Testing

The following parameters need to be measured, as applicable for the computation of boiler effi-
ciency and performance.
a) Flue gas analysis

1. Percentage of CO2 or O2 in flue gas
2. Percentage of CO in flue gas
3. Temperature of flue gas
b) Flow meter measurements for

1. Fuel
2. Steam
3. Feed water
4. Condensate water
5. Combustion air
c) Temperature measurements for

1. Flue gas
2. Steam
3. Makeup water
4. Condensate return
5. Combustion air
6. Fuel
7. Boiler feed water
d) Pressure measurements for

1. Steam
2. Fuel
3. Combustion air, both primary and secondary
4. Draft

e) Water condition
1. Total dissolved solids (TDS)
2. pH
3. Blow down rate and quantity
The various parameters that were discussed above can be measured with the instruments
that are given in Table 1.1.
TABLE 1.1 TYPICAL INSTRUMENTS USED FOR BOILER PERFORMANCE

ASSESSMENT.
Instrument Type Measurements

Flue gas analyzer Portable or fixed % CO2 , O2 and CO
Temperature indicator Thermocouple, liquid in Fuel temperature, flue gas
glass temperature, combustion air
temperature, boiler surface
temperature, steam temperature
Draft gauge Manometer, differential Amount of draft used
pressure or available
TDS meter Conductivity Boiler water TDS, feed water TDS,
make-up water TDS.
Flow meter As applicable Steam flow, water flow, fuel flow,
air flow
1.7.3 Test Conditions and Precautions for Indirect Method Testing

A) The efficiency test does not account for:
• Standby losses. Efficiency test is to be carried out, when the boiler is operating under a
steady load. Therefore, the combustion efficiency test does not reveal standby losses,
which occur between firing intervals
• Blow down loss. The amount of energy wasted by blow down varies over a wide range.
• Soot blower steam. The amount of steam used by soot blowers is variable that depends on
the type of fuel.
• Auxiliary equipment energy consumption. The combustion efficiency test does not
account for the energy usage by auxiliary equipments, such as burners, fans, and pumps.
B) Preparations and pre conditions for testing
• Burn the specified fuel(s) at the required rate.
• Do the tests while the boiler is under steady load. Avoid testing during warming up of boil-
ers from a cold condition
• Obtain the charts /tables for the additional data.
• Determination of general method of operation
• Sampling and analysis of fuel and ash.
• Ensure the accuracy of fuel and ash analysis in the laboratory.
• Check the type of blow down and method of measurement
• Ensure proper operation of all instruments.
• Check for any air infiltration in the combustion zone.

C) Flue gas sampling location

It is suggested that the exit duct of the boiler be probed and traversed to find the location of the
zone of maximum temperature. This is likely to coincide with the zone of maximum gas flow
and is therefore a good sampling point for both temperature and gas analysis.
D) Options of flue gas analysis

Check the Oxygen Test with the Carbon Dioxide Test
If continuous-reading oxygen test equipment is installed in boiler plant, use oxygen reading.
Occasionally use portable test equipment that checks for both oxygen and carbon dioxide. If the car-
bon dioxide test does not give the same results as the oxygen test, something is wrong. One (or both)
of the tests could be erroneous, perhaps because of stale chemicals or drifting instrument calibration.
Another possibility is that outside air is being picked up along with the flue gas. This occurs if the
combustion gas area operates under negative pressure and there are leaks in the boiler casing.
Carbon Monoxide Test

The carbon monoxide content of flue gas is a good indicator of incomplete combustion with all
types of fuels, as long as they contain carbon. Carbon monoxide in the flue gas is minimal with
ordinary amounts of excess air, but it rises abruptly as soon as fuel combustion starts to be incom-
plete.
E) Planning for the testing

• The testing is to be conducted for a duration of 4 to 8 hours in a normal production day.
• Advanced planning is essential for the resource arrangement of manpower, fuel, water and
instrument check etc and the same to be communicated to the boiler Supervisor and
Production Department.
• Sufficient quantity of fuel stock and water storage required for the test duration should be
arranged so that a test is not disrupted due to non-availability of fuel and water.
• Necessary sampling point and instruments are to be made available with working condition.
• Lab Analysis should be carried out for fuel, flue gas and water in coordination with lab per-
sonnel.
• The steam table, psychometric chart, calculator are to be arranged for computation of boil-
er efficiency.
1.7.4 Boiler Efficiency by Indirect Method: Calculation Procedure and Formula

In order to calculate the boiler efficiency by indirect method, all the losses that occur in the
boiler must be established. These losses are conveniently related to the amount of fuel burnt.
In this way it is easy to compare the performance of various boilers with different ratings.
Conversion formula for proximate analysis to ultimate analysis
%C = 0.97C + 0.7 (VM + 0.1A) – M(0.6 – 0.01M)
%H2 = 0.036C + 0.086 (VM – 0.1xA) – 0.0035M2 (1 – 0.02M)
%N2 = 2.10 – 0.020 VM
where C = % of fixed carbon
A = % of ash
VM = % of volatile matter
M = % of moisture
However it is suggested to get a ultimate analysis of the fuel fired periodically from a
reputed laboratory.
Theoretical (stoichiometric) air fuel ratio and excess air supplied are to be determined first
for computing the boiler losses. The formula is given below for the same.
The various losses associated with the operation of a boiler are discussed below with
required formula.
1. Heat loss due to dry flue gas

This is the greatest boiler loss and can be calculated with the following formula:
m x Cp x (Tf - Ta )
L1 = x 100
GCV of fuel
Where,
L1 = % Heat loss due to dry flue gas
m = Mass of dry flue gas in kg/kg of fuel
= Combustion products from fuel: CO2 + SO2 + Nitrogen in fuel +
Nitrogen in the actual mass of air supplied + O2 in flue gas.
(H2O/Water vapour in the flue gas should not be considered)

Cp = Specific heat of flue gas in kCal/kg°C

Tf = Flue gas temperature in °C
Note–1:
For Quick and simple calculation of boiler efficiency use the following.
A: Simple method can be used for determining the dry flue gas loss as given below.
m x Cp x (Tf – Ta) x 100
GCV of fuel
Total mass of flue gas (m)/kg of fuel = mass of actual air supplied/kg of fuel + 1 kg of fuel
Note-2: Water vapour is produced from Hydrogen in fuel, moisture present in fuel and air dur-
ing the combustion. The losses due to these components have not been included in the dry flue
gas loss since they are separately calculated as a wet flue gas loss.
2. Heat loss due to evaporation of water formed due to H2 in fuel (%)

The combustion of hydrogen causes a heat loss because the product of combustion is water.
This water is converted to steam and this carries away heat in the form of its latent heat.
9 x H2 x {584 + Cp (Tf – Ta )}
L2 = x 100
GCV of fuel
Where
H2 = kg of hydrogen present in fuel on 1 kg basis
Cp = Specific heat of superheated steam in kCal/kg°C
584 = Latent heat corresponding to partial pressure of water vapour
3. Heat loss due to moisture present in fuel

Moisture entering the boiler with the fuel leaves as a superheated vapour. This moisture loss is
made up of the sensible heat to bring the moisture to boiling point, the latent heat of evapora-
tion of the moisture, and the superheat required to bring this steam to the temperature of the
exhaust gas. This loss can be calculated with the following formula
M x {584 + Cp (Tf – Ta)}

L3 = X 100
GCV of fuel

where
M = kg moisture in fuel on 1 kg basis
584 = Latent heat corresponding to partial pressure of water vapour
4. Heat loss due to moisture present in air

Vapour in the form of humidity in the incoming air, is superheated as it passes through the boil-
er. Since this heat passes up the stack, it must be included as a boiler loss.
To relate this loss to the mass of coal burned, the moisture content of the combustion air and
the amount of air supplied per unit mass of coal burned must be known.
The mass of vapour that air contains can be obtained from psychrometric charts and typical
values are included below:
Dry-Bulb Wet Bulb Relative Humidity Kilogram water

per Kilogram dry
Temp °C Temp °C (%) air (Humidity Factor)
20 20 100 0.016
20 14 50 0.008
30 22 50 0.014
40 30 50 0.024
AAS x humidity factor x Cp x (Tf – Ta ) x 100

L4 =
GCV of fuel
where
AAS = Actual mass of air supplied per kg of fuel
Humidity factor = kg of water/kg of dry air
Ta = Ambient temperature in °C (dry bulb)
5. Heat loss due to incomplete combustion:

Products formed by incomplete combustion could be mixed with oxygen and burned again with
a further release of energy. Such products include CO, H2, and various hydrocarbons and are
generally found in the flue gas of the boilers. Carbon monoxide is the only gas whose concen-
tration can be determined conveniently in a boiler plant test.

%CO x C 5744
L5 = x x 100
% CO + % CO2 GCV of fuel
L5 = % Heat loss due to partial conversion of C to CO

CO = Volume of CO in flue gas leaving economizer (%)
CO2 = Actual Volume of CO2 in flue gas (%)
C = Carbon content kg / kg of fuel
or
When CO is obtained in ppm during the flue gas analysis
CO formation (Mco) = CO (in ppm) x 10–6 x Mf x 28
Mf = Fuel consumption in kg/hr
L5 = Mco x 5744*
* Heat loss due to partial combustion of carbon.
6. Heat loss due to radiation and convection:

The other heat losses from a boiler consist of the loss of heat by radiation and convection from
the boiler casting into the surrounding boiler house.
Normally surface loss and other unaccounted losses is assumed based on the type and size
of the boiler as given below
For industrial fire tube / packaged boiler = 1.5 to 2.5%

For industrial watertube boiler = 2 to 3%
For power station boiler = 0.4 to 1%
However it can be calculated if the surface area of boiler and its surface temperature are
known as given below :
L6 = 0.548 x [ (Ts / 55.55)4 – (Ta / 55.55)4] + 1.957 x (Ts – Ta)1.25 x sq.rt of

[(196.85 Vm + 68.9) / 68.9]
where
L6 = Radiation loss in W/m2
Vm = Wind velocity in m/s
Ts = Surface temperature (K)
Ta = Ambient temperature (K)
Heat loss due to unburned carbon in fly ash and bottom ash:
Small amounts of carbon will be left in the ash and this constitutes a loss of potential heat in
the fuel. To assess these heat losses, samples of ash must be analyzed for carbon content. The
quantity of ash produced per unit of fuel must also be known.

7. Heat loss due to unburnt in fly ash (%).
Total ash collected / kg of fuel burnt x G.C.V of fly ash x 100

L7 =
GCV of fuel
8. Heat loss due to unburnt in bottom ash (%)
Total ash collected per kg of fuel burnt x G.C.V of bottom ash x 100
L8 =
GCV of fuel
Heat Balance:
Having established the magnitude of all the losses mentioned above, a simple heat balance
would give the efficiency of the boiler. The efficiency is the difference between the energy
input to the boiler and the heat losses calculated.
Boiler Heat Balance:
Input/Output Parameter kCal / kg of fuel %

Heat Input in fuel = 100
Various Heat losses in boiler
1. Dry flue gas loss =
2. Loss due to hydrogen in fuel
3. Loss due to moisture in fuel =
4. Loss due to moisture in air =
5. Partial combustion of C to CO =
6. Surface heat losses =
7. Loss due to Unburnt in fly ash =
8. Loss due to Unburnt in bottom ash =
Total Losses =
Boiler efficiency = 100 – (1+2+3+4+5+6+7+8)
1.8 Example: Boiler Efficiency Calculation

1.8.1 For Coal fired Boiler
The following are the data collected for a boiler using coal as the fuel. Find out the boiler effi-
ciency by indirect method.

Fuel firing rate = 5599.17 kg/hr

Steam generation rate = 21937.5 kg/hr
Steam pressure = 43 kg/cm2(g)
Steam temperature = 377 °C
Feed water temperature = 96 °C
%CO2 in Flue gas = 14
%CO in flue gas = 0.55
Average flue gas temperature = 190 °C
Ambient temperature = 31 °C
Humidity in ambient air = 0.0204 kg / kg dry air
Surface temperature of boiler = 70 °C
Wind velocity around the boiler = 3.5 m/s
Total surface area of boiler = 90 m2
GCV of Bottom ash = 800 kCal/kg
GCV of fly ash = 452.5 kCal/kg
Ratio of bottom ash to fly ash = 90:10
Fuel Analysis (in %)
Ash content in fuel = 8.63
Moisture in coal = 31.6
Carbon content = 41.65
Hydrogen content = 2.0413
Nitrogen content = 1.6
Oxygen content = 14.48
GCV of Coal = 3501 kCal/kg
Boiler efficiency by indirect method
Step – 1 Find theoretical air requirement
Theoretical air required for = [(11.6 x C) + {34.8 x (H2 – O2/8)} + (4.35 x S)] /100
complete combustion kg/kg of coal
= [(11.6 x 41.65) + {34.8 x (2.0413 – 14.48/8)} +

(4.35 x 0)] / 100
= 4.91 kg / kg of coal

Step – 3 To find Excess air supplied
Actual CO2 measured in flue gas = 14.0%
7900 x [ ( CO2%)t – (CO2%)a]

% Excess air supplied (EA) =
(CO2%)a x [100 – (CO2%)t ]
7900 x [20.37 – 14 ]
=
14a x [100 – 20.37]
= 45.17 %
Step – 4 to find actual mass of air supplied
Actual mass of air supplied = {1 + EA/100} x theoretical air

= {1 + 45.17/100} x 4.91
= 7.13 kg/kg of coal

Step – 5 to find actual mass of dry flue gas
Mass of dry flue gas = Mass of CO2 + Mass of N2 content in the fuel +
Mass of N2 in the combustion air supplied + Mass of
oxygen in flue gas
0.4165 x 44 7.13 x 77 (7.13–4.91) x 23

Mass of dry flue gas = + 0.016 + +
12 100 100
= 7.54 kg / kg of coal
Step – 6 to find all losses
m x Cp x (Tf – Ta)
1. % Heat loss in dry flue gas (L1) = x 100
GCV of fuel
7.54 x 0.23 x (190 – 31)

= x 100
3501
L1 = 7.88 %
2. % Heat loss due to formation = 9 x H2 x {584 + Cp (Tf – Ta)}

of water from H2 in fuel (L2) x 100
GCV of fuel
9 x .02041 x {584 + 0.45(190 – 31)}

= x 100
3501
L2 = 3.44 %

M x {584 + Cp ( Tf – Ta )}
3. % Heat loss due to moisture in = X 100
fuel (L3) GCV of fuel
0.316 x {584 + 0.45 ( 190 - 31) }

= x 100
3501
L3 = 5.91 %
AAS x humidity x Cp x (Tf – Ta ) x 100

4. % Heat loss due to moisture =
in air (L4) GCV of fuel
7.13 x 0.0204 x 0.45 x (190 – 31) x 100

=
3501
L4 = 0.29 %
%CO x C 5744
5. % Heat loss due to partial = x x 100
conversion of C to CO (L5) % CO + (% CO2)a GCV of fuel
0.55 x 0.4165 5744

= x x 100
0.55 + 14 3501
L5 = 2.58 %
6. Heat loss due to radiation and = 0.548 x [ (343/55.55)4 – (304/55.55)4] + 1.957 x

convection (L6) (343 – 304)1.25 x sq.rt of [(196.85 x 3.5 + 68.9) / 68.9]
= 633.3 w/m2
= 633.3 x 0.86
= 544.64 kCal / m2

Total radiation and convection = 544.64 x 90

loss per hour = 49017.6 kCal
49017.6 x 100
% radiation and convection loss =
3501 x 5599.17
L6 = 0.25 %
7. % Heat loss due to unburnt in fly ash

% Ash in coal = 8.63
Ratio of bottom ash to fly ash = 90:10
GCV of fly ash = 452.5 kCal/kg
Amount of fly ash in 1 kg of coal = 0.1 x 0.0863
= 0.00863 kg
Heat loss in fly ash = 0.00863 x 452.5
= 3.905 kCal / kg of coal
% heat loss in fly ash = 3.905 x 100 / 3501
L7 = 0.11 %
8. % Heat loss due to unburnt in bottom ash

GCV of bottom ash = 800 kCal/kg
Amount of bottom ash in 1 kg of = 0.9 x 0.0863
coal
= 0.077 kg
Heat loss in bottom ash = 0.077 x 800
= 62.136 kCal/kg of coal
% Heat loss in bottom ash = 62.136 x 100 / 3501
L8 = 1.77 %
Boiler efficiency by indirect = 100 – (L1 + L2 + L3 + L4 + L5 + L6 + L7 + L8)

method
= 100 – (7.88 + 3.44 + 5.91 + 0.29 + 2.58 + 0.25
+ 0.11 + 1.77)
= 100 – 22.23
= 77.77 %

SUMMARY OF HEAT BALANCE FOR COAL FIRED BOILER
Input/Output Parameter kCal / kg of % loss

coal
Heat Input = 3501 100
Losses in boiler
1. Dry flue gas, L1 = 275.88 7.88
2. Loss due to hydrogen in fuel, L2 = 120.43 3.44
3. Loss due to moisture in fuel, L3 = 206.91 5.91
4. Loss due to moisture in air, L4 = 10.15 0.29
5. Partial combustion of C to CO, L5 = 90.32 2.58
6. Surface heat losses, L6 = 8.75 0.25
7. Loss due to Unburnt in fly ash, L7 = 3.85 0.11
8. Loss due to Unburnt in bottom ash, L8 = 61.97 1.77
Boiler Efficiency = 100 – (L1 + L2 + L3 + L4 + L5 + L6 + L7 + L8) = 77.77 %
1.8.2 Efficiency for an oil fired boiler

The following are the data collected for a boiler using furnace oil as the fuel. Find out the boil-
er efficiency by indirect method.
Ultimate analysis (%)

Carbon = 84
Hydrogen = 12
Nitrogen = 0.5
Oxygen = 1.5
Sulphur = 1.5
Moisture = 0.5
GCV of fuel = 10000 kCal/kg
Fuel firing rate = 2648.125 kg/hr
Surface Temperature of boiler = 80 °C
Surface area of boiler = 90 m2
Humidity = 0.025 kg/kg of dry air
Wind speed = 3.8 m/s
Flue gas analysis (%)

Flue gas temperature = 190°C
Co2% in flue gas by volume = 10.8
O2% in flue gas by volume = 7.4

a) Theoretical air required = [(11.6 x C) + [{34.8 x (H2 – O2/8)} + (4.35 x S)] /100
kg/kg of fuel. [from fuel analysis]
= [(11.6 x 84) + [{34.8 x (12 – 1.5/8)}
+ (4.35 x 1.5)] / 100
= 13.92 kg/kg of oil
b) Excess Air supplied (EA) = (O2 x 100) / (21 – O2)
= (7.4 x 100) / (21 – 7.4)
= 54.4 %
c) Actual mass of air supplied/ kg = {1 + EA/100} x theoretical air
of fuel (AAS)
= {1 + 54.4/100} x 13.92
= 21.49 kg / kg of fuel
Mass of dry flue gas = Mass of (CO2 + SO2 + N2 + O2) in flue gas + N2
in air we are supplying
0.84 x 44 0.015 x 64 7.4x23 21.49 x 77
= + + 0.005 + +
12 32 100 100
m x Cp x (Tf – Ta)
% Heat loss in dry flue gas = x 100
GCV of fuel
21.36 x 0.23 x (190 – 30)
= x 100
10000
L1 = 7.86 %
9 x H2 x{584 + Cp (Tf – Ta )}
Heat loss due to evaporation of = x 100
water due to H2 in fuel (%) GCV of fuel
9 x 0.12 x {584 + 0.45 (190 – 30)}

= x 100
10000
L2 = 7.08 %

M x {584 + Cp ( Tf - Ta )}
% Heat loss due to moisture = X 100
in fuel GCV of fuel
0.005 x {584 + 0.45 (190 – 30)}
= x 100
10000
L3 = 0.033%
AAS x humidity x Cp x (Tf – Ta ) x 100

% Heat loss due to moisture in air =
GCV of fuel
21.36 x 0.025 x 0.45 x (190 – 30) x 100
=
10000
L4 = 0.38 %
Radiation and convection loss = 0.548 x [ (Ts / 55.55)4 – (Ta / 55.55)4] + 1.957
(L6) x (Ts – Ta)1.25 x sq.rt of [(196.85 Vm + 68.9) / 68.9]
= 0.548 x [ (353 / 55.55)4 – (303 / 55.55)4] + 1.957
x (353 – 303)1.25 x sq.rt of [(196.85 x 3.8 + 68.9)/ 68.9]
= 1303 W/m2
= 1303 x 0.86
= 1120.58 kCal / m2
Total radiation and convection = 1120 .58 x 90 m2
loss per hour = 100852.2 kCal
% Radiation and convection loss = 100852.2 x 100
10000 x 2648.125
L6 = 0.38 %
Normally it is assumed as 0.5 to 1 % for simplicity
Boiler efficiency by indirect = 100 – (L1 + L2 + L3 + L4 + L6)

method = 100 – (7.86 + 7.08 + 0.033 + 0.38 + 0.38)
= 100 – 15.73
= 84.27 %

Summary of Heat Balance for the Boiler Using Furnace Oil
Input/Output Parameter kCal / kg of %Loss

furnace oil
Heat Input = 10000 100
Losses in boiler :
1. Dry flue gas, L1 = 786 7.86
2. Loss due to hydrogen in fuel, L2 = 708 7.08
3. Loss due to Moisture in fuel, L3 = 3.3 0.033
4. Loss due to Moisture in air, L4 = 38 0.38
5. Partial combustion of C to CO, L5 = 0 0
6. Surface heat losses, L6 = 38 0.38
Boiler Efficiency = 100 – (L1 + L2 + L3 + L4 + L6) = 84.27 %
Note:
For quick and simple calculation of boiler efficiency use the following.
A: Simple method can be used for determining the dry flue gas loss as given below.
m x Cp x (Tf – Ta ) x 100
GCV of fuel
Total mass of flue gas (m) = mass of actual air supplied (ASS)+ mass of fuel supplied
= 21.49 + 1=22.49
%Dry flue gas loss = 22.49 x 0.23 x (190-30) x 100 = 8.27%

10000
1.9 Factors Affecting Boiler Performance

The various factors affecting the boiler performance are listed below:
• Periodical cleaning of boilers
• Periodical soot blowing
• Proper water treatment programme and blow down control
• Draft control
• Excess air control
• Percentage loading of boiler
• Steam generation pressure and temperature
• Boiler insulation
• Quality of fuel

All these factors individually/combined, contribute to the performance of the boiler and
reflected either in boiler efficiency or evaporation ratio. Based on the results obtained from the
testing further improvements have to be carried out for maximizing the performance. The test
can be repeated after modification or rectification of the problems and compared with standard
norms. Energy auditor should carry out this test as a routine manner once in six months and
report to the management for necessary action.
1.10 Data Collection Format for Boiler Performance Assessment
Sheet 1 – Technical specification of boiler

1 Boiler ID code and Make
2 Year of Make
3 Boiler capacity rating
4 Type of Boiler
5 Type of fuel used
6 Maximum fuel flow rate
7 Efficiency by GCV
8 Steam generation pressure &superheat temperature
9 Heat transfer area in m2
10 Is there any waste heat recovery device installed
11 Type of draft
12 Chimney height in metre
Sheet 2 – Fuel analysis details
Fuel Fired
GCV of fuel
Specific gravity of fuel (Liquid)
Bulk density of fuel (Solid)
Proximate Analysis Date of Test:

1 Fixed carbon %
2 Volatile matter %
3 Ash %
4 Moisture %
Ultimate Analysis Date of Test:

1 Carbon %
2 Hydrogen %
3 Sulphur %

4 Nitrogen %
5 Ash %
6 Moisture %
7 Oxygen %
Water Analysis Date of Test:

1 Feed water TDS ppm
2 Blow down TDS ppm
3 PH of feed water
4 PH of blow down
Flue gas Analysis Date of Test:

1 CO2 %
2 O2 %
3 CO %
4 Flue gas temperature °C
1.11 Boiler Terminology

MCR: Steam boilers rated output is also usually defined as MCR (Maximum Continuous
Rating). This is the maximum evaporation rate that can be sustained for 24 hours and may be
less than a shorter duration maximum rating
Boiler Rating
Conventionally, boilers are specified by their capacity to hold water and the steam generation
rate. Often, the capacity to generate steam is specified in terms of equivalent evaporation (kg
of steam / hour at 100°C). Equivalent evaporation- "from and at" 100°C. The equivalent of the
evaporation of 1 kg of water at 100°C to steam at 100°C.
Efficiency : In the boiler industry there are four common definitions of efficiency:
a. Combustion efficiency
Combustion efficiency is the effectiveness of the burner only and relates to its ability to completely burn
the fuel. The boiler has little bearing on combustion efficiency. A well-designed burner will operate
with as little as 15 to 20% excess air, while converting all combustibles in the fuel to useful energy.
b. Thermal efficiency
Thermal efficiency is the effectiveness of the heat transfer in a boiler. It does not take into account
boiler radiation and convection losses - for example from the boiler shell water column piping etc.
c. Boiler efficiency
The term boiler efficiency is often substituted for combustion or thermal efficiency. True boil-
er efficiency is the measure of fuel to steam efficiency.


d. Fuel to steam efficiency

Fuel to steam efficiency is calculated using either of the two methods as prescribed by the
ASME (American Society for Mechanical Engineers) power test code, PTC 4.1. The first
method is input output method. The second method is heat loss method.
Boiler turndown
Boiler turndown is the ratio between full boiler output and the boiler output when operating at
low fire. Typical boiler turndown is 4:1. The ability of the boiler to turndown reduces frequent
on and off cycling. Fully modulating burners are typically designed to operate down to 25% of
rated capacity. At a load that is 20% of the load capacity, the boiler will turn off and cycle fre-
quently.
A boiler operating at low load conditions can cycle as frequently as 12 times per hour or 288
times per day. With each cycle, pre and post purge airflow removes heat from the boiler and
sends it out the stack. Keeping the boiler on at low firing rates can eliminate the energy loss.
Every time the boiler cycles off, it must go through a specific start-up sequence for safety assur-
ance. It requires about a minute or two to place the boiler back on line. And if there is a sud-
den load demand the start up sequence cannot be accelerated. Keeping the boiler on line assures
the quickest response to load changes. Frequent cycling also accelerates wear of boiler com-
ponents. Maintenance increases and more importantly, the chance of component failure
increases.
Boiler(s) capacity requirement is determined by many different type of load variations in
the system. Boiler over sizing occurs when future expansion and safety factors are added to
assure that the boiler is large enough for the application. If the boiler is oversized the ability of
the boiler to handle minimum loads without cycling is reduced. Therefore capacity and turn-
down should be considered together for proper boiler selection to meet overall system load
requirements.
Primary air: That part of the air supply to a combustion system which the fuel first encoun-
ters.
Secondary air: The second stage of admission of air to a combustion system, generally to
complete combustion initiated by the primary air. It can be injected into the furnace of a boil-
er under relatively high pressure when firing solid fuels in order to create turbulence above the
burning fuel to ensure good mixing with the gases produced in the combustion process and
thereby complete combustion
Tertiary air: A third stage of admission of air to a combustion system, the reactions of which
have largely been completed by secondary air. Tertiary air is rarely needed.
Stoichiometric: In combustion technology, stoichiometric air is that quantity of air, and no

more, which is theoretically needed to burn completely a unit quantity of fuel. 'Sub-stoichio-
metric' refers to the partial combustion of fuel in a deficiency of air
Balanced draught: The condition achieved when the pressure of the gas in a furnace is the
same as or slightly below that of the atmosphere in the enclosure or building housing it.

Gross calorific value (GCV): The amount of heat liberated by the complete combustion,
under specified conditions, by a unit volume of a gas or of a unit mass of a solid or liquid fuel,
in the determination of which the water produced by combustion of the fuel is assumed to be
completely condensed and its latent and sensible heat made available.
Net calorific value (NCV): The amount of heat generated by the complete combustion, under
specified conditions, by a unit volume of a gas or of a unit mass of a solid or liquid fuel, in the
determination of which the water produced by the combustion of the fuel is assumed to remain
as vapour.
Absolute pressure The sum of the gauge and the atmospheric pressure. For instance, if the
steam gauge on the boiler shows 9 kg/cm2g the absolute pressure of the steam is 10 kg/cm2(a).
Atmospheric pressure The pressure due to the weight of the atmosphere. It is expressed in
pounds per sq. in. or inches of mercury column or kg/cm2. Atmospheric pressure at sea level is
14.7 lbs./ sq. inch. or 30 inch mercury column or 760mm of mercury (mm Hg) or 101.325 kilo
Pascal (kPa).
Carbon monoxide (CO): Produced from any source that burns fuel with incomplete com-
bustion, causes chest pain in heart patients, headaches and reduced mental alertness.
Blow down: The removal of some quantity of water from the boiler in order to achieve an
acceptable concentration of dissolved and suspended solids in the boiler water.
Complete combustion: The complete oxidation of the fuel, regardless of whether it is

accomplished with an excess amount of oxygen or air, or just the theoretical amount required
for perfect combustion.
Perfect combustion: The complete oxidation of the fuel, with the exact theoretical (stoi-
chiometric) amount of oxygen (air) required.
Saturated steam: It is the steam, whose temperature is equal to the boiling point corre-
sponding to that pressure.
Wet Steam Saturated steam which contains moisture
Dry Steam Either saturated or superheated steam containing no moisture.
Superheated Steam Steam heated to a temperature above the boiling point or saturation tem-
perature corresponding to its pressure
Oxygen trim sensor measures flue gas oxygen and a closed loop controller compares the
actual oxygen level to the desired oxygen level. The air (or fuel) flow is trimmed by
the controller until the oxygen level is corrected. The desired oxygen level for each firing
rate must be entered into a characterized set point curve generator. Oxygen Trim maintains

the lowest possible burner excess air level from low to high fire. Burners that don't have
Oxygen Trim must run with Extra Excess Air to allow safe operation during variations in
weather, fuel, and linkage.
Heat transfer mediums

There are different types of heat transfer medium e.g. steam, hot water and thermal oil. Steam
and Hot water are most common and it will be valuable to briefly examine these common heat
transfer mediums and associated properties.
Thermic Fluid
Thermic Fluid is used as a heat transfer mechanism in some industrial process and heating
applications. Thermic Fluid may be a vegetable or mineral based oil and the oil may be raised
to a high temperature without the need for any pressurization. The relatively high flow and
return temperatures may limit the potential for flue gas heat recovery unless some other system
can absorb this heat usefully. Careful design and selection is required to achieve best energy
efficiency.
Hot water
Water is a fluid with medium density, high specific heat capacity, low viscosity and relatively
low thermal conductivity. At relatively low temperature e.g. 70°C – 90°C, hot water is useful
for smaller heating installations.
Steam
When water is heated its temperature will rise. The heat added is called sensible heat and the
heat content of the water is termed its enthalpy. The usual datum point used to calculate
enthalpy is 0°C.
When the water reaches its boiling point, any further heat input will result in some propor-
tion of the water changing from the liquid to the vapour state, i.e. changing to steam. The heat
required for this change of state is termed the 'latent heat of evaporation' and is expressed in
terms of a fixed mass of water. Where no change in temperature occurs during the change of
state, the steam will exist in equilibrium with the water. This equilibrium state is termed 'satu-
ration conditions'. Saturation conditions can occur at any pressure, although at each pressure
there is only one discrete temperature at which saturation can occur.
If further heat is applied to the saturated steam the temperature will rise and the steam will
become 'superheated'. Any increase in temperature above saturated conditions will be accom-
panied by a further rise in enthalpy.
Steam is useful heat transfer medium because, as a gas, it is compressible. At high pressure
and consequently density, steam can carry large quantities of heat with relatively small volume.

QUESTIONS
1) Define boiler efficiency.
2) Why boiler efficiency by indirect method is more useful than direct method?
3) What instruments are required for indirect efficiency testing?
4) What is the difference between dry flue gas loss and wet flue gas loss?
5) Which is the best location for sampling flue gas analysis?
6) Find out the efficiency by direct method from the data given below.
An oil fired package boiler was tested for 2 hours duration at steady state condition.
The fuel and water consumption were 250 litres and 3500 litres respectively. The
specific gravity of oil is 0.92. The saturated steam generation pressure is
7 kg/cm2(g). The boiler feed water temperature is 30°C. Determine the boiler effi-
ciency and evaporation ratio.
7) What is excess air? How to determine excess air if oxygen / carbon dioxide percent-
age is measured in the flue gas?
8) As a means of performance evaluation, explain the difference between efficiency and
evaporation ratio.
9) Testing coal-fired boiler is more difficult than oil-fired boiler. Give reasons.
10) What is controllable and uncontrollable losses in a boiler?
REFERENCES
1. Energy audit Reports of National Productivity Council
2. Energy Hand book, Second edition, Von Nostrand Reinhold Company - Robert
L.Loftness
3. Industrial boilers, Longman Scientific Technical 1999
www.boiler.com
www.eng-tips.com
www.worldenergy.org

2. ENERGY PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT OF FURNACES
2.1 Industrial Heating Furnaces

Furnace is by definition a device for heating materials and therefore a user of energy. Heating
furnaces can be divided into batch-type (Job at stationary position) and continuous type (large
volume of work output at regular intervals). The types of batch furnace include box, bogie,
cover, etc. For mass production, continuous furnaces are used in general. The types of continu-
ous furnaces include pusher-type furnace (Figure 2.1), walking hearth-type furnace, rotary
hearth and walking beam-type furnace.(Figure 2.2)
The primary energy required for reheating / heat treatment (say annealing) furnaces are in
the form of Furnace oil, LSHS, LDO or electricity
Figure 2.1: Pusher-Type 3-Zone Reheating Furnace Figure 2.2: Walking Beam-Type Reheating Furnace
To find out the efficiency of the furnace

To find out the Specific energy consumption
The purpose of the performance test is to determine efficiency of the furnace and specific
energy consumption for comparing with design values or best practice norms. There are many
factors affecting furnace performance such as capacity utilization of furnaces, excess air ratio,
final heating temperature etc. It is the key for assessing current level of performances and find-
ing the scope for improvements and productivity.
Heat Balance of a Furnace

Heat balance helps us to numerically understand the present heat loss and efficiency and
improve the furnace operation using these data. Thus, preparation of heat balance is a
pre-requirement for assessing energy conservation potential.

2. Energy Performance Assessment of Furnaces
Heat output
1. Furnace Efficiency, η = x 100
Heat Input
Heat in stock (material) (kCals)

= x 100
Heat in Fuel /electricity (kCals)
Quantity of fuel or energy consumed

2. Specific Energy Consumption =
Quantity of material processed.

In addition to conventional methods, Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS) GO702 "Method of
heat balance for continuous furnaces for steel" is used for the purpose of establishing the heat
losses and efficiency of reheating furnaces.
2.5 Furnace Efficiency Testing Method

The energy required to increase the temperature of a material is the product of the mass, the
change in temperature and the specific heat. i.e. Energy = Mass x Specific Heat x rise in
temperature. The specific heat of the material can be obtained from a reference manual and
describes the amount of energy required by different materials to raise a unit of weight through
one degree of temperature.
If the process requires a change in state, from solid to liquid, or liquid to gas, then an
additional quantity of energy is required called the latent heat of fusion or latent heat of
evaporation and this quantity of energy needs to be added to the total energy requirement.
However in this section melting furnaces are not considered.
The total heat input is provided in the form of fuel or power. The desired output is the heat
supplied for heating the material or process. Other heat outputs in the furnaces are undesirable
heat losses.
The various losses that occur in the fuel fired furnace (Figure 2.3) are listed below.
1. Heat lost through exhaust gases either as sensible heat, latent heat or as incomplete
combustion
2. Heat loss through furnace walls and hearth
3. Heat loss to the surroundings by radiation and convection from the outer surface of the
walls
4. Heat loss through gases leaking through cracks, openings and doors.

Furnace Efficiency
The efficiency of a furnace is
the ratio of useful output to heat
input. The furnace efficiency can
be determined by both direct and
indirect method.
2.5.1 Direct Method Testing

The efficiency of the furnace can
be computed by measuring the
amount of fuel consumed per unit
weight of material produced from
the furnace.
Heat in the stock

Thermal efficiency of the furnace =
Heat in the fuel consumed
The quantity of heat to be imparted (Q) to the stock can be found from the formula
Q = m x Cp (t2 – t1)
Where
Q = Quantity of heat in kCal
m = Weight of the material in kg
Cp = Mean specific heat, kCal/kg°C
t2 = Final temperature desired, °C
t1 = Initial temperature of the charge before it enters the furnace, °C
2.5.2 Indirect Method Testing
Similar to the method of evaluating boiler efficiency by indirect method, furnace efficiency can
also be calculated by indirect method. Furnace efficiency is calculated after subtracting sensi-
ble heat loss in flue gas, loss due to moisture in flue gas, heat loss due to openings in furnace,
heat loss through furnace skin and other unaccounted losses from the input to the furnace.
In order to find out furnace efficiency using indirect method, various parameters that are
required are hourly furnace oil consumption, material output, excess air quantity, temperature
of flue gas, temperature of furnace at various zones, skin temperature and hot combustion air
temperature. Efficiency is determined by subtracting all the heat losses from 100.
Measurement Parameters
The following measurements are to be made for doing the energy balance in oil fired reheating
furnaces (e.g. Heating Furnace)
i) Weight of stock / Number of billets heated
ii) Temperature of furnace walls, roof etc
iii) Flue gas temperature
iv) Flue gas analysis
v) Fuel Oil consumption

Instruments like infrared thermometer, fuel consumption monitor, surface thermocouple

and other measuring devices are required to measure the above parameters. Reference manual
should be referred for data like specific heat, humidity etc.
Example: Energy Efficiency by Indirect Method

An oil-fired reheating furnace has an operating temperature of around 1340°C. Average fuel con-
sumption is 400 litres/hour. The flue gas exit temperature after air preheater is 750°C. Air is pre-
heated from ambient temperature of 40°C to 190°C through an air pre-heater. The furnace has 460
mm thick wall (x) on the billet extraction outlet side, which is 1 m high (D) and 1 m wide. The
other data are as given below. Find out the efficiency of the furnace by both indirect and direct
method.
Flue gas temperature after air preheater = 750°C
Preheated air temperature = 190°C
Specific gravity of oil = 0.92
Average fuel oil consumption = 400 Litres / hr
= 400 x 0.92 =368 kg/hr
Calorific value of oil = 10000 kCal/kg
Average O2 percentage in flue gas = 12%
Weight of stock = 6000 kg/hr
Specific heat of Billet = 0.12 kCal/kg/°C
Surface temperature of roof and side walls = 122 °C
Surface temperature other than heating and soaking zone = 85 °C
Solution
1. Sensible Heat Loss in Flue Gas:
O2%
Excess air = ———— × 100
21–O2%
(Where O2 is the % of oxygen in flue gas = 12% )
= 12 x 100 / (21 - 12)
= 133% excess air
Theoretical air required to burn 1 kg of oil = 14 kg (Typical value for all fuel oil)
Total air supplied = Theoretical air x (1 + excess air/100)
Total air supplied = 14 x 2.33 kg / kg of oil
Sensible heat loss = m x Cp x ∆T
m = Weight of flue gas
= Actual mass of air supplied / kg of
fuel + mass of fuel (1kg)
= 32.62 + 1.0 = 33.62 kg / kg of oil.
Cp = Specific heat of flue gas
= 0.24 kCal/kg/°C
∆T = Temperature difference

Heat loss = m x Cp x ∆T = 33.62 x 0.24 x (750- 40)

= 5729 kCal / kg of oil
5729 x 100
% Heat loss in flue gas = —————— = 57.29%
10000
2. Loss Due to Evaporation of Moisture Present in Fuel
M {584 + 0.45 (Tfg–Tamb)}
% Loss = ——————————— × 100
GCV of Fuel
Where,
M - kg of Moisture in 1 kg of fuel oil (0.15 kg/kg of fuel oil)
Tfg - Flue Gas Temperature
Tamb - Ambient temperature
GCV - Gross Calorific Value of Fuel
0.15 {584 +0.45 (750-40)}
% Loss = -------------------------------- x 100
10000
= 1.36 %
3. Loss Due to Evaporation of Water Formed due to Hydrogen in Fuel
% Loss 9 x H2 {584 + 0.45 (Tfg-Tamb)}

= --------------------------------------- x 100
GCV of Fuel
Where, H2 – kg of H2 in 1 kg of fuel oil (0.1123 kg/kg of fuel oil)
= 9 x 0.1123 {584 + 0.45 (750-40)}
------------------------------------------ x 100
10000
= 9.13 %
4. Heat Loss due to Openings:

If a furnace body has an opening on it, the heat in the furnace escapes to the outside as
radiant heat. Heat loss due to openings can be calculated by computing black body radiation at
furnace temperature, and multiplying these values with emissivity (usually 0.8 for furnace brick
work), and the factor of radiation through openings. Factor for radiation through openings can
be determined with the help of graph as shown in figure 2.4. The black body radiation losses
can be directly computed from the curves as given in the figure 2.5 below.

Figure 2.4 Factor for Determining the Equivalent of Heat Release from Openings to the Quality of Heat
Release from Perfect Black Body
TOTAL BLACK BODY RADIATION (kCal/cm2/hr)
Temperature (°C)
Figure 2.5 Graph for Determining Black Body Radiation at a Particular Temperature
The reheating furnace in example has 460mm thick wall (X) on the billet extraction outlet
side, which is 1m high (D) and 1m wide. With furnace temperature of 1340°C, the quantity (Q)
of radiation heat loss from the opening is calculated as follows:
The shape of the opening is square and D/X = 1/0.46 = 2.17

The factor of radiation (Refer Figure 2.4) = 0.71
Black body radiation corresponding to 1340°C = 36.00 kCal/cm2/hr
(Refer Figure 2.5 On black body radiation)

Area of opening = 100 cm x 100 cm

= 10000 cm2
Emissivity = 0.8
Total heat loss = Black body radiation x area of opening x factor of radiation x emissivity
= 36 x 10000 x 0.71 x 0.8

= 204480 kCal/hr
Equivalent Oil loss = 204480/10,000

= 20.45 kg/hr
% of heat loss = 20.45 /368 x 100

= 5.56 %
5. Heat Loss through Skin:
Method 1: Radiation Heat Loss from Surface of Furnace
The quantity of heat loss from surface of furnace body is the sum of natural convection and
thermal radiation. This quantity can be calculated from surface temperatures of furnace. The
temperatures on furnace surface should be measured at as many points as possible, and their
average should be used. If the number of measuring points is too small, the error becomes
large.
The quantity (Q) of heat release from a reheating furnace is calculated with the following
formula:
where
Q : Quantity of heat release in kCal / W / m2
a : factor regarding direction of the surface of natural convection ceiling = 2.8,
side walls = 2.2, hearth = 1.5
tl : temperature of external wall surface of the furnace (°C)
t2 : temperature of air around the furnace (°C)
E : emissivity of external wall surface of the furnace
The first term of the formula above represents the quantity of heat release by natural con-
vection, and the second term represents the quantity of heat release by radiation.
Method 2 : Radiation Heat Loss from Surface of Furnace

The following Figure 2.6 shows the relation between the temperature of external wall surface
and the quantity of heat release calculated with this formula.

Figure 2.6 Quantity of Heat Release at Various

Temperatures
From the Figure 2.6, the quantities of heat release from ceiling, sidewalls and hearth per unit
area can be found.
5a). Heat loss through roof and sidewalls:

Total average surface temperature = 122°C
Heat loss at 122 °C = 1252 kCal / m2 / hr
Total area of heating + soaking zone = 70.18 m2
Heat loss = 1252 kCal / m2 / hr x 70.18 m2
= 87865 kCal/hr
Equivalent oil loss (a) = 8.78 kg / hr
5b). Total average surface temperature of
area other than heating and soaking zone = 85°C
Heat loss at 85°C = 740 kCal / m2 / hr
Total area = 12.6 m2
Heat loss = 740 kCal / m2 / hr x 12.6 m2
= 9324 kCal/hr
Equivalent oil loss (b) = 0.93 kg / hr
Total loss of fuel oil = a + b = 9.71 kg/hr
Total percentage loss = 9.71 / 368
= 2.64%
6. Unaccounted Loss
These losses comprise of heat storage loss, loss of furnace gases around charging door and
opening, heat loss by incomplete combustion, loss of heat by conduction through hearth, loss
due to formation of scales.

Furnace Efficiency (Direct Method)

Fuel input = 400 litres / hr
= 368 kg/hr
Heat input = 368 x 10000 = 36,80,000 kCal
Heat output = m x Cp x ∆T
= 6000 kg x 0.12 x (1340 – 40)
= 936000 kCal
Efficiency = 936000 x 100 / (368 x 10000)
= 25.43 %
= 25% (app)
Total Losses = 75% (app)
Furnace Efficiency (Indirect Method)
1. Sensible heat loss in flue gas = 57.29%

2. Loss due to evaporation of moisture in fuel = 1.36 %
3. Loss due to evaporation of water
formed from H2 in fuel = 9.13 %
4. Heat loss due to openings = 5.56 %
5. Heat loss through skin = 2.64%
Total losses = 75.98%
Furnace Efficiency = 100 - 75.98

= 24.02 %
Specific Energy Consumption = 400 litre /hour (fuel consumption)

6 Tonnes/hour (Wt of stock)
= 66.6 Litre of fuel /tonne of Material (stock)
2.5.4 Factors Affecting Furnace Performance

The important factors, which affect the efficiency, are listed below for critical analysis.
Under loading due to poor hearth loading and improper production scheduling
Improper Design
Use of inefficient burner
Insufficient draft/chimney
Absence of Waste heat recovery
Absence of Instruments/Controls
Improper operation/Maintenance
High stack loss
Improper insulation /Refractories

2.6 Data Collection Format for Furnace Performance Assessment

The field-testing format for data collection and parameter measurements are shown below
Stock
Charged amount in Charging Discharging Discharge
furnace temperature temperature material
Tons/hr °C °C kg/ton
Fuel Analysis
Fuel Consumption Components of heavy oil Gross Temperature

type C H2 O2 N2 S Water calorific
content value
Kg/hr % % % % % % kCal/kg °C
Flue gas Analysis
Temperature Composition of dry exhaust gas

CO2 O2 CO
°C % % %
Cooling water
Amount of Water Inlet temperature Outlet temperature

kg/ton °C °C
Temperature of combustion air =

Ambient air temperature =

The Table 2.1 can be used to construct a heat balance for a typical heat treatment furnace
TABLE 2.1 HEAT BALANCE TABLE
Heat Input Heat output

Item kCal/t % Item kCal/t %
Combustion heat of fuel Quantity of heat in steel
Sensible heat in flue gas
Moisture and
hydrogen loss of fuel
Heat loss by
Incomplete combustion
(CO loss)
Heat loss in
cooling water
Sensible heat
of scale
Heat Loss Due To
Openings
Radiation and Other
unaccounted heat loss
Total = 100% Total = 100%
2.7 Useful Data
Radiation Heat Transfer

Heat transfer by radiation is proportional to the absolute temperature to the power 4.
Consequently the radiation losses increase considerably as temperature increases.
°C1 °C2 K1 K2 (K1/K2)4 Relative

(°C1 +273) (°C2 +273) Radiation
700 20 973 293 122 1.0
900 20 1173 293 255 2.1
1100 20 1373 293 482 3.96
1300 20 1573 293 830 6.83
1500 20 1773 293 1340 11.02
1700 20 1973 293 2056 16.91

In practical terms this means the radiation losses from an open furnace door at 1500°C are
11 times greater than the same furnace at 700°C. A good incentive for the iron and steel melters
is to keep the furnace lid closed at all times and maintaining a continuous feed of cold charge
onto the molten bath.
Furnace Utilization Factor

Utilization has a critical effect on furnace efficiency and is a factor that is often ignored or
under-estimated. If the furnace is at temperature then standby losses of a furnace occur whether
or not a product is in the furnace.
Standby Losses
Energy is lost from the charge or its enclosure in the way of heat: (a) conduction, (b) convec-
tion; or/and (c) radiation
Furnace Draft Control
Furnace pressure control has a major effect on fuel fired furnace efficiency. Running a furnace
at a slight positive pressure reduces air ingress and can increase the efficiency.
Theoretical Heat
Example of melting one tonne of steel from an ambient temperature of 20°C . Specific heat of
steel = 0.186 Wh/kg/°C, latent heat for melting of steel = 40 Wh/kg/°C. Melting point of steel
= 1600°C.
Theoretical Total heat = Sensible heat + Latent heat
Sensible Heat = 1000 kg x 0.186 Wh /kg °C x (1600-20)°C = 294 kWh/T
Latent heat = 40 Wh/ kg x 1000 kg = 40 kWh/T
Total Heat = 294 + 40 = 334 kWh/T
So the theoretical energy needed to melt one tonne of steel from 20°C = 334 kWh.
Actual Energy used to melt to 1600°C is 700 kWh
Efficiency = 334 kWh x 100 = 48%
700 kwh

Typical furnace efficiency for reheating and forging furnaces (As observed in few trials
undertaken by an Energy Auditing Agency on such furnaces)
Pusher Type Billet Reheating Furnace (for rolling mills)
Furnace Specific Fuel Thermal Efficiency

Capacity Consumption Achieved
Upto 6 T/hr 40-45 Ltrs/tonne 52%

7-8 T / hr 35-40 Ltrs/tonne 58.5%
10-12 T/hr 33-38 Ltrs/tonne 63%
15-20 T/hr 32-34 Ltrs/tonne 66.6%
20 T/hr & above 30-32 Ltrs/tonne 71%
Pusher type forging furnace
Furnace Specific Fuel Thermal Efficiency

Capacity Consumption Achieved
500-600 kg/hr 80-90 Ltrs/tonne 26%

1.0 T/hr 70-75 Ltrs/tonne 30%
1.5-2.0 T/hr 65-70 Ltrs/tonne 32.5%
2.5-3.0 T/hr 55-60 Ltrs/tonne 38%
The above fuel consumption figures were valid when the furnaces were found to be operat-
ing continuously at their rated capacity.
Note: These are the trial figures and cannot be presumed as standards for the furnaces
in question.

QUESTIONS
1) What is a heating Furnace and give two examples?
2) Define furnace efficiency.
3) How do you determine the furnace efficiency by direct method?
4) How do you determine the furnace efficiency by Indirect method?
5) Between efficiency and specific energy consumption, which is a better mean of com-
paring furnaces?
6) List down the various heat losses taking place in oil-fired furnace.
7) What are the major factors affecting the furnace performance?
8) Apart from the furnace operating parameters, energy auditor needs certain data from
reference book/manual for assessing furnace. Name few of them
9) What will be the difference in approach for conducting efficiency testing of batch
and continuous type furnace?
10) How will you measure the temperature of the stock inside the furnace?
REFERENCES
1. Handbook of Energy Conservation for Industrial Furnaces, Japan Industrial Furnace
Association.
2. Energy audit reports of National Productivity Council
3. Industrial Furnace, Volume 1 and Volume 2, John Wiley & Sons - Trinks
4. Improving furnace efficiency, Energy Management Journal

3. ENERGY PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT OF
COGENERATION AND TURBINES (GAS, STEAM)
3.1 Introduction
Cogeneration systems can be broadly classified as those using steam turbines, Gas turbines and
DG sets. Steam turbine cogeneration systems involve different types of configurations with
respect to mode of power generation such as extraction, back pressure or a combination of back-
pressure, extraction and condensing.
Gas turbines with heat recovery steam generators is another mode of cogeneration.
Depending on power and steam load variations in the plant the entire system is dynamic. A per-
formance assessment would yield valuable insights into cogeneration system performance and
need for further optimisation.

The purpose of the cogeneration plant performance test is to determine the power output and
plant heat rate. In certain cases, the efficiency of individual components like steam turbine is
addressed specifically where performance deterioration is suspected. In general, the plant per-
formance will be compared with the base line values arrived at for the plant operating condi-
tion rather than the design values. The other purpose of the performance test is to show the
maintenance accomplishment after a major overhaul. In some cases the purpose of evaluation
could even be for a total plant revamp.

3. Energy Performance Assessment of Cogeneration and Turbine
kCal/kg
kCal/kg
3.4 Reference standards

Modern power station practices by British electricity International (Pergamon Press) ASME
PTC 22 - Gas turbine performance test.
3.5 Field Testing Procedure

The test procedure for each cogeneration plant will be developed individually taking into con-
sideration the plant configuration, instrumentation and plant operating conditions. A method is

outlined in the following section for the measurement of heat rate and efficiency of a
co-generation plant. This part provides performance-testing procedure for a coal fired steam
based co-generation plant, which is common in Indian industries.
3.5.1 Test Duration
The test duration is site specific and in a continuous process industry, 8-hour test data should
give reasonably reliable data. In case of an industry with fluctuating electrical/steam load pro-
file a set 24-hour data sampling for a representative period.
3.5.2 Measurements and Data Collection
The suggested instrumentation (online/ field instruments) for the performance measurement is
as under:
Steam flow measurement : Orifice flow meters
Fuel flow measurements : Volumetric measurements / Mass flow meters
Air flow / Flue gas flow : Venturi / Orifice flow meter / Ion gun / Pitot tubes
Flue gas Analysis : Zirconium Probe Oxygen analyser
Unburnt Analysis : Gravimetric Analysis
Temperature : Thermocouple
Cooling water flow : Orifice flow meter / weir /channel flow/
non-contact flow meters
Pressure : Bourdon Pressure Gauges
Power : Trivector meter / Energy meter
Condensate : Orifice flow meter
It is essential to ensure that the data is collected during steady state plant running conditions.
Among others the following are essential details to be collected for cogeneration plant perfor-
mance evaluation.

II. Electrical Energy:
1. Total power generation for the trial period from individual turbines.
2. Hourly average power generation
3. Quantity of power import from utility ( Grid )*
4. Quantity of power generation from DG sets.*
5. Auxiliaries power consumption
* Necessary only when overall cogeneration plant adequacy and system optimization / upgra-
dation are the objectives of the study.
3.5.3 Calculations for Steam Turbine Cogeneration System

The process flow diagram for cogeneration plant is shown in figure 3.1. The following calcu-
lation procedures have been provided in this section.
• Turbine cylinder efficiency.
• Overall plant heat rate
Figure 3.1 Process Flow Diagram for Cogeneration Plant
Step 1 :
Calculate the actual heat extraction in turbine at each stage,
Steam Enthalpy at turbine inlet : h1 kCal / kg

Steam Enthalpy at 1st extraction : h2 kCal / kg
Steam Enthalpy at 2nd extraction : h3 kCal / kg
Steam Enthalpy at Condenser : h4* kCal / kg
* Due to wetness of steam in the condensing stage, the enthalpy of steam cannot be considered
as equivalent to saturated steam. Typical dryness value is 0.88 – 0.92. This dryness value can be
used as first approximation to estimate heat drop in the last stage. However it is suggested to cal-
culate the last stage efficiency from the overall turbine efficiency and other stage efficiencies.

Heat extraction from inlet : h1 – h2 kCal / kg

to stage –1 extraction (h5)
Heat extraction from : h2 – h3 kCal / kg

1st –2nd extraction (h6)
Heat extraction from 2nd : h3 – h4 kCal / kg

Extraction – condenser (h7)
Step 2:
From Mollier diagram (H-S Diagram) estimate the theoretical heat extraction for the conditions
mentioned in Step 1. Towards this:
a) Plot the turbine inlet condition point in the Mollier chart - corresponding to steam
pressure and temperature.
b) Since expansion in turbine is an adiabatic process, the entropy is constant. Hence draw
a vertical line from inlet point (parallel to y-axis) upto the condensing conditions.
c) Read the enthalpy at points where the extraction and condensing pressure lines meet
the vertical line drawn.
d) Compute the theoretical heat drop for different stages of expansion.
Theoretical Enthalpy after 1st extraction : H1
Theoretical Enthalpy after 2nd extraction : H2
Theoretical Enthalpy at condenser conditions H3
Theoretical heat extraction from inlet to : h1 – H1

stage 1 extraction, h8
Theoretical heat extraction from : H1 – H2

1st – 2nd extraction, h9
Theoretical heat extraction from : H2 – H3

2nd extraction – condensation, h10
Step 3 :

Step 4 :
Calculate plant heat rate*
M x (h1 – h11)
Heat rate, kCal / kWh =
P
M – Mass flow rate of steam in kg/hr

h1 – Enthalpy of inlet steam in kCal/kg
h11 – Enthalpy of feed water in kCal/kg
P – Average Power generated in kW
*Alternatively the following guiding parameter can be utilised
Plant heat consumption = fuel consumed for power generation, kg/hr

Power generated, kW
3.6 Example
3.6.1 Small Cogeneration Plant

A distillery plant having an average production of 40 kilolitres of ethanol is having a cogener-
ation system with a backpressure turbine. The plant steam and electrical demand are 5.1
Tons/hr and 100 kW. The process flow diagram is shown in figure 3.2.Gross calorific value of
Indian coal is 4000kCal/kg
Figure 3.2 Process Flow Diagram for Small Cogeneration Plant
Calculations :
Step 1 :
Total heat of steam at turbine inlet conditions at 15kg / cm2 and 250°C, h1 =698 kCal/kg

Step 2 :
Total heat of steam at turbine outlet conditions at 2 kg/cm2 and 130°C, h2 = 648 kCal/kg
Step 3 :
Heat energy input to turbine per kg of inlet steam (h1– h2) = (698-648) = 50 kCal/kg
Step 4 :
Total steam flow rate, Q1 = 5100 kg/hr

Power generation = 100 kW
Equivalent thermal energy = 100 x 860 = 86,000 kCal /hr
Step 5 :
Energy input to the turbine = 5100 x 50 = 2,55,000 kCal/hr.
Step 6 :
Energy output
Power generation efficiency of the turbo alternator = --------------------- x 100
Energy Input
86,000
= ------------- x 100 = 34%
2,55,000
Step 7 :
Efficiency of the turbo alternator = 34%
Efficiency of Alternator = 92 %
Efficiency of gear transmission = 98 %
Step 8 :
Quantity of steam bypassing the turbine = Nil
Step 9 :
Coal consumption of the boiler = 1550 kg/hr.

Step 10:
Overall plant heat rate, kCal/kWh
= Mass flow rate of steam x ((Enthalpy of steam, kCal/kg – Enthalpy of feed water, kCal/kg)
Power output, kW
= 5100 x (698 – 30)
100
= 34068 kCal/kWh*
*Note: The plant heat rate is in the order of 34000 kCal/kWh because of the use of backpres-
sure turbine. This value will be around 3000 kcal/kWh while operating on fully condensing
mode. However with backpressure turbine, the energy in the steam is not wasted, as it is utilised
in the process.
Overall plant fuel rate including boiler = 1550/100

= 15.5 kg coal / kW
Analysis of Results:
The efficiency of the turbine generator set is as per manufacturer design specification. There is
no steam bypass indicating that the power generation potential of process steam is fully utilized.
At present the power generation from the process steam completely meets the process electri-
cal demand or in other words, the system is balanced.
Remarks: Similar steps can be followed for the evaluation of performance of gas turbine
based cogeneration system.

QUESTIONS
1. What is meant by plant heat rate? What is its significance?
2. What is meant by turbine cylinder efficiency? How is it different from turbo-genera-
tor efficiency?
3. What parameters should be monitored for evaluating the efficiency of the turbine?
4. What is the need for performance assessment of a cogeneration plant?
5. The parameters for back pressure steam turbine cogeneration plant is given below
Inlet Steam: P =16 kg/cm2, T = 310°C, Q = 9000kg/hr
Outlet Steam: P = 5.0 kg/cm2, T = 235°C, Q = 9000kg/hr
Find out the turbine cylinder efficiency?
6. Explain why heat rate for back pressure turbine is greater than condensing turbine.
7. Explain the methodology of evaluating performance of a gas turbine with a heat
recovery steam generator.
REFERENCES
1. NPC report on 'Assessing cogeneration potential in Indian Industries'
2. Energy Cogeneration Handbook, George Polimeros, Industrial Press Inc.

OF HEAT EXCHANGERS
4.1 Introduction
Heat exchangers are equipment that transfer heat from one medium to another. The proper
design, operation and maintenance of heat exchangers will make the process energy efficient
and minimize energy losses. Heat exchanger performance can deteriorate with time, off
design operations and other interferences such as fouling, scaling etc. It is necessary to
assess periodically the heat exchanger performance in order to maintain them at a high effi-
ciency level. This section comprises certain proven techniques of monitoring the perfor-
mance of heat exchangers, coolers and condensers from observed operating data of the
equipment.

To determine the overall heat transfer coefficient for assessing the performance of the heat
exchanger. Any deviation from the design heat transfer coefficient will indicate occurrence of
fouling.

Overall heat transfer coefficient, U
Heat exchanger performance is normally evaluated by the overall heat transfer coefficient U
that is defined by the equation
When the hot and cold stream flows and inlet temperatures are constant, the heat transfer
coefficient may be evaluated using the above formula. It may be observed that the heat pick up
by the cold fluid starts reducing with time.

4. Energy Performance Assessment Of Heat Exchangers
Nomenclature
A typical heat exchanger is shown in figure 4.1 with nomenclature.
Heat duty of the exchanger can be calculated either on the hot side fluid or cold side fluid
as given below.
Heat Duty for Hot fluid, Qh = Wx Cph x (Ti–To) ………..Eqn–1,
Heat Duty for Cold fluid, Qc = wx Cpc x ( to–ti) ………...Eqn–2
If the operating heat duty is less than design heat duty, it may be due to heat losses, fouling
in tubes, reduced flow rate (hot or cold) etc. Hence, for simple performance monitoring of
exchanger, efficiency may be considered as factor of performance irrespective of other para-
meter. However, in industrial practice, fouling factor method is more predominantly used.
4.4 Methodology of Heat Exchanger Performance Assessment

4.4.1 Procedure for determination of Overall heat transfer Coefficient, U at field
This is a fairly rigorous method of monitoring the heat exchanger performance by calculating
the overall heat transfer coefficient periodically. Technical records are to be maintained for all
the exchangers, so that problems associated with reduced efficiency and heat transfer can be
identified easily. The record should basically contain historical heat transfer coefficient data
versus time / date of observation. A plot of heat transfer coefficient versus time permits ratio-
nal planning of an exchanger-cleaning program.
The heat transfer coefficient is calculated by the equation
U = Q / (A x LMTD)
Where Q is the heat duty, A is the heat transfer area of the exchanger and LMTD is tem-
perature driving force.
The step by step procedure for determination of Overall heat transfer Coefficient are
described below

Density and viscosity can be determined by analysis of the samples taken from the flow
stream at the recorded temperature in the plant laboratory. Thermal conductivity and specific
heat capacity if not determined from the samples can be collected from handbooks.


4.4.2 Examples
a. Liquid - Liquid Exchanger
A shell and tube exchanger of following configuration is considered being used for oil cool-
er with oil at the shell side and cooling water at the tube side.
Tube Side
• 460 Nos x 25.4mmOD x 2.11mm thick x 7211mm long
• Pitch - 31.75mm 30° triangular
• 2 Pass
Shell Side
• 787 mm ID
• Baffle space - 787 mm
• 1 Pass


Heat Duty: Actual duty differences will be practically negligible as these duty differences
could be because of the specific heat capacity deviation with the temperature. Also, there could
be some heat loss due to radiation from the hot shell side.
Pressure drop: Also, the pressure drop in the shell side of the hot fluid is reported normal
(only slightly less than the design figure). This is attributed with the increased average bulk
temperature of the hot side due to decreased performance of the exchanger.
Temperature range: As seen from the data the deviation in the temperature ranges could be
due to the increased fouling in the tubes (cold stream), since a higher pressure drop is noticed.
Heat Transfer coefficient: The estimated value has decreased due to increased fouling that has
resulted in minimized active area of heat transfer.
Physical properties: If available from the data or Lab analysis can be used for verification
with the design data sheet as a cross check towards design considerations.
Troubleshooting: Fouled exchanger needs cleaning.
b. Surface Condenser
A shell and tube exchanger of following configuration is considered being used for Condensing
turbine exhaust steam with cooling water at the tube side.
Tube Side
20648 Nos x 25.4mmOD x 1.22mm thk x 18300mm long
Pitch - 31.75mm 60° triangular
1 Pass
The monitored parameters are as below:
Parameters Units Inlet Outlet

Hot fluid flow, W kg/h 939888 939888
Cold fluid flow, w kg/h 55584000 55584000
Hot fluid Temp, T °C No data 34.9
Cold fluid Temp, t °C 18 27
Hot fluid Pressure, P m Bar g 52.3 mbar 48.3
Cold fluid Pressure, p Bar g 4 3.6
Calculation of Thermal data:

Area = 27871 m2
1. Duty:
Q = qS + qL
Hot fluid, Q = 576990 kW
Cold Fluid, Q = 581825.5 kW

2. Hot Fluid Pressure Drop

Pressure Drop = Pi – Po = 52.3 – 48.3 = 4.0 mbar.
3. Cold Fluid Pressure Drop
Pressure Drop = pi – po = 4 – 3.6 = 0.4 bar.
4. Temperature range hot fluid
Temperature Range ∆T = Ti– To = No data
5. Temperature Range Cold Fluid
Temperature Range ∆t = ti – to = 27 – 18 = 9 °C.
6. Capacity Ratio
Capacity ratio, R = Not significant in evaluation here.
7. Effectiveness
Effectiveness, S = (to – ti) / (Ti – ti) = Not significant in evaluation here.
8. LMTD
Calculated considering condensing part only
a). LMTD, Counter Flow = ((34.9 – 18)–(34.9–27))/ ln ((34.9–18)/(34.9–27))
= 11.8 deg C.
b). Correction Factor to account for Cross flow
F = 1.0.
9. Corrected LMTD
MTD = F x LMTD = 1.0 x 11.8 = 11.8 deg C.
10. Heat Transfer Co-efficient
Overall HTC, U = Q/ A ∆T = 576990/ (27871 x 11.8) = 1.75 kW/m2. K
Comparison of Calculated data with Design Data
Parameters Units Test Data Design Data

Duty, Q kW 576990 588430
Hot fluid side pressure drop, ∆Ph mBar 4 mbar 3.7 mbar
Cold fluid side pressure drop, ∆Pc Bar 0.4
Temperature Range hot fluid, ∆T °C
Temperature Range cold fluid, ∆t °C (27–18) = 9 (28–19) = 9
Capacity ratio, R -----
Effectiveness, S -----
Corrected LMTD, MTD °C 11.8 8.9
Heat Transfer Coefficient, U kW/(m2. K) 1.75 2.37

Heat Duty: Actual duty differences will be practically negligible as these duty differences
could be because of the specific heat capacity deviation with the temperature. Also, there could
be some heat loss due to radiation from the hot shell side.
Pressure drop: The condensing side operating pressure raised due to the backpressure
caused by the non-condensable. This has resulted in increased pressure drop across the steam
side
Temperature range: With reference to cooling waterside there is no difference in the range
however, the terminal temperature differences has increased indicating lack of proper heat
transfer.
Heat Transfer coefficient: Heat transfer coefficient has decreased due to increased amount of
non-condensable with the steam.
Trouble shooting: Operations may be checked for tightness of the circuit and ensure
proper venting of the system. The vacuum source might be verified for proper
functioning.
C. Vaporizer
A shell and tube exchanger of following configuration is considered being used for vaporizing
chlorine with steam at the shell side.
Tube Side
200 Nos x 25.4mmOD x 1.22mm thick x 6000mm long
Pitch - 31.75mm 30° triangular
2 Pass
Area = 95.7.m2


Hot fluid Temp, T °C 108 108
Hot fluid Pressure, P Bar g 0.4 0.3
Cold fluid Pressure, p Bar g 9 8.8
1. Duty:
Q = qS + qL
Cold Fluid, Q = qS + qL = 180.3 kW + 2948 kW = 3128.3 kW
Pressure Drop = Pi – Po = 0.4 – 0.3 = 0.1 bar
Pressure Drop = pi – po = 9 – 8.8 = 0.2 bar.
Temperature Range ∆T = Ti – To = 0 °C
6. Capacity Ratio
7. Effectiveness
8. LMTD
a). LMTD, Counter Flow =((108 – 30)–(108–34))/ ln ((108–30)/(108–34)) = 76 °C.
b). Correction Factor to account for Cross flow
F = 1.0.
9. Corrected LMTD
MTD = F x LMTD = 1.0 x 76 = 76 °C.
10. Heat Transfer Co-efficient
Overall HTC, U = Q/ A ∆T = 3130/ (95.7 x 76) = 0.43 kW/m2. K


Duty, Q kW 3130 3130
Hot fluid side pressure drop, ∆Ph Bar 0.1 Neg
Cold fluid side pressure drop, ∆Pc Bar 0.2
Temperature Range cold fluid, ∆t °C 4 4
Corrected LMTD, MTD °C 76
Heat Duty: There is no difference inferred from the duty as the exchanger is performing as per
the requirement
Pressure drop: The steam side pressure drop has increased in spite of condensation at the
steam side. Indication of non-condensable presence in steam side
Temperature range: No deviations

Heat Transfer coefficient: Even at no deviation in the temperature profile at the chlorine side,
heat transfer coefficient has decreased with an indication of overpressure at the shell side. This
indicates disturbances to the condensation of steam at the shell side. Non-condensable suspect-
ed at steam side.
Trouble shooting: Operations may be checked for presence of chlorine at the shell side
through tube leakages. Observing the steam side vent could do this. Alternately condensate pH
could be tested for presence of acidity.

d. Air heater
A finned tube exchanger of following configuration is considered being used for heating air
with steam in the tube side.

Hot fluid Temp, T °C 150 150
Hot fluid Pressure, P Bar g
Cold fluid Pressure, p mBar g 200 mbar 180 mbar

Bare tube Area = 42.8 m2; Fined tube area = 856 m2
1.Duty:
Cold Fluid, Q = 1726 kW
Pressure Drop = Pi – Po = Neg
Pressure Drop = pi – po = 200–180 = 20 mbar.
Temperature Range ∆T = Ti – To = Not required.
6. Capacity Ratio
7. Effectiveness
8. LMTD
a). LMTD, Counter Flow =((150 – 30)–(150–95)/ ln ((150–30)/(150–95)) = 83.3 °C.
b). Correction Factor to account for cross flow
F = 0.95
9. Corrected LMTD
MTD = F x LMTD = 0.95 x 83.3 = 79 °C.
10. Overall Heat Transfer Co-efficient (HTC)
U = Q/ A ∆T = 1748/ (856 x 79) = 0.026 kW/m2 . K


Duty, Q kW 1748 1800
Hot fluid side pressure drop, ∆Ph Bar Neg Neg
Cold fluid side pressure drop, ∆Pc Bar 20 15
Temperature Range cold fluid, ∆t °C 65 65
Corrected LMTD, MTD °C 79 79
Heat Duty: The difference inferred from the duty as the exchanger is under performing than
required
Pressure drop: The airside pressure drop has increased in spite of condensation at the steam
side. Indication of choking and dirt blocking at the airside.
Temperature range: No deviations
Heat Transfer coefficient: Decreased because of decreased fin efficiency due to choking on
air side.
Trouble shooting: Operations may be checked to perform pulsejet cleaning with steam / blow
air jet on air side if the facility is available. Mechanical cleaning may have to be planned dur-
ing any down time in the immediate future.

4.4.3 Instruments for monitoring:

The test and evaluation of the performance of the heat exchanger equipment is carried out by
measurement of operating parameters upstream and downstream of the exchanger. Due care
needs to be taken to ensure the accuracy and correctness of the measured parameter. The instru-
ments used for measurements require calibration and verification prior to measurement.
Parameters Units Instruments used

Fluid flow kg/h Flow can be measured with instruments like
Orifice flow meter, Vortex flow meter, Venturi
meters, Coriollis flow meters, Magnetic flow
meter
as applicable to the fluid service and flow ranges
Temperature °C Thermo gauge for low ranges, RTD, etc.
Pressure Bar g Liquid manometers, Draft gauge, Pressure
gauges Bourdon and diaphragm type, Absolute
pressure transmitters, etc.
Density kg/m3 Measured in the Laboratory as per ASTM
standards, hydrometer, etc
Viscosity MpaS Measured in the Laboratory as per ASTM
standards, viscometer, etc.
Specific heat capacity J/(kg.K) Measured in the Laboratory as per ASTM
standards
Thermal conductivity W/(m.K) Measured in the Laboratory as per ASTM
standards
Composition+ %wt (or) % Vol Measured in the Laboratory as per ASTM
standards using Chemical analysis, HPLC, GC,
Spectrophotometer, etc.
4.4.4 Terminology used in Heat Exchangers
Terminology Definition Unit

Capacity ratio Ratio of the products of mass flow rate and specific
heat capacity of the cold fluid to that of the hot fluid.
Also computed by the ratio of temperature range of the
hot fluid to that of the cold fluid.
Higher the ratio greater will be size of the exchanger
Co current flow An exchanger wherein the fluid flow direction of the
exchanger cold and hot fluids are same
Counter flow Exchangers wherein the fluid flow direction of the cold and
exchanger hot fluids are opposite. Normally preferred
Cross flow An exchanger wherein the fluid flow direction of the
cold and hot fluids are in cross

Density It is the mass per unit volume of a material kg/m3

Effectiveness Ratio of the cold fluid temperature range to that of
the inlet temperature difference of the hot and
cold fluid. Higher the ratio lesser will be requirement
of heat transfer surface
Fouling The phenomenon of formation and development of
scales and deposits over the heat transfer surface
diminishing the heat flux. The process of fouling will
get indicated by the increase in pressure drop
Fouling Factor The reciprocal of heat transfer coefficient of the
dirt formed in the heat exchange process.
Higher the factor lesser will be the overall heat
transfer coefficient. (m2.K)/W
Heat Duty The capacity of the heat exchanger equipment
expressed in terms of heat transfer rate, viz.
magnitude of energy or heat transferred per time.
It means the exchanger is capable of performing at
this capacity in the given system W
Heat exchanger Refers to the nomenclature of equipment designed
and constructed to transmit heat content
(enthalpy or energy) of a comparatively high
temperature hot fluid to a lower temperature cold
fluid wherein the temperature of the hot fluid
decreases (or remain constant in case of losing latent
heat of condensation) and the temperature of the cold
fluid increases (or remain constant in case of gaining
latent heat of vaporisation). A heat exchanger will
normally provide indirect contact heating. E.g. A
cooling tower cannot be called a heat exchanger
where water is cooled by direct contact with air
Heat Flux The rate of heat transfer per unit surface of a heat
exchanger W/ m2
Heat transfer The process of transport of heat energy from a
hot source to the comparatively cold surrounding
Heat transfer Refers to the surface area of the heat exchanger that
surface or heat provides the indirect contact between the hot and cold
Transfer area fluid in effecting the heat transfer. Thus the heat transfer
area is defined as the surface having both sides
wetted with one side by the hot fluid and the other
side by the cold fluid providing indirect contact for
heat transfer m2
Individual The heat flux per unit temperature difference across
Heat transfer boundary layer of the hot / cold fluid film formed
Coefficient at the heat transfer surface. The magnitude of heat
transfer coefficient indicates the ability of heat
conductivity of the given fluid. It increases with increase
in density, velocity, specific heat, geometry of the film
forming surface W/( m2.K)

LMTD Calculated considering the Capacity and effectiveness

Correction of a heat exchanging process. When multiplied with
factor LMTD gives the corrected LMTD thus accounting
for the temperature driving force for the cross flow
pattern as applicable inside the exchanger
Logarithmic The logarithmic average of the terminal temperature
Mean approaches across a heat exchanger
Temperature
difference,
LMTD °C
Overall Heat The ratio of heat flux per unit difference in approach
transfer across a heat exchange equipment considering the
Coefficient individual coefficient and heat exchanger metal surface
conductivity. The magnitude indicates the ability of
heat transfer for a given surface. Higher the coefficient
lesser will be the heat transfer surface requirement W/(m2.K)
Pressure drop The difference in pressure between the inlet and
outlet of a heat exchanger Bar
Specific The heat content per unit weight of any material per
heat capacity degree raise/fall in temperature J/(kg.K)
Temperature The difference in the temperature between the hot and
Approach cold fluids at the inlet / outlet of the heat exchanger.
The greater the difference greater will be heat
transfer flux °C
Temperature The difference in the temperature between the inlet
Range and outlet of a hot/cold fluid in a heat exchanger °C
Terminal The temperatures at the inlet / outlet of the hot / cold
temperature fluid steams across a heat exchanger °C
Thermal The rate of heat transfer by conduction though any
Conductivity substance across a distance per unit
temperature difference W/(m2.K)
Viscosity The force on unit volume of any material that
will cause per velocity Pa

QUESTIONS
1. What is meant by LMTD ?
2. Distinguish between heat exchanger efficiency and effectiveness.
3. Explain the terms heat duty and capacity ratio.
4. What is meant by fouling?
5. List five heat exchangers used in industrial practice.
6. What are the parameters, which are to be monitored for the performance assessment
of heat exchangers?
7. In a heat exchanger the hot stream enters at 70°C and leaves at 55°C. On the other
side the cold stream enters at 30°C and leaves at 55°C. Find out the LMTD of the
heat exchanger.
8. In a condenser what type of heats are considered in estimating the heat duty?
a) Latent Heat b) Sensible heat c) Specific heat d) Latent heat and sensible heat
9. What is the need for performance assessment of a heat exchanger?
10. The unit of overall coefficient of heat transfer is
a) kCal/hr/m2 °C b) kCal/kg °C c) kCal/m2 hr d) kCal/hg m2
REFERENCES
1. "Process Heat Transfer" by D.Q.Kern, Edn. 1965.
2. "Modern Power Station Practice" - British Electricity International- Volume - G;
Chapter - 7 - " Plant performance and performance monitoring.
3. Coulsons & Richardson's CHEMICAL ENGINEERING Volume 3 third edition
4. Scimod " Scientific Modeling Software", techno software International, India
5. Ganapathy. V, "Fouling factor estimated quickly", O&G Journal, Aug 1992.
6. Liberman, Norman P, Trouble shooting Process Operations, Penwell Books, Tulsa,
Oklahoma

5. ENERGY PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT OF MOTORS
AND VARIABLE SPEED DRIVES
5.1 Introduction
The two parameters of importance in a motor are effi-
ciency and power factor. The efficiencies of induction
motors remain almost constant between 50% to 100%
loading (Refer figure 5.1). With motors designed to
perform this function efficiently; the opportunity for
savings with motors rests primarily in their selection
and use. When a motor has a higher rating than that
required by the equipment, motor operates at part load.
In this state, the efficiency of the motor is reduced.
Replacement of under loaded motors with smaller
motors will allow a fully loaded smaller motor to oper-
ate at a higher efficiency. This arrangement is general- Figure 5.1 Efficiency vs. Loading
ly most economical for larger motors, and only when
they are operating at less than one-third to one-half
capacity, depending on their size.
Efficiency :
The efficiency of the motor is given by
Pout Ploss
η = —— = 1 – ——
Pin Pin
Where Pout – Output power of the motor

Pin – Input power of the motor
PLoss – Losses occurring in motor
Motor Loading :
Actual operating load of the motor

Motor Loading % = x 100
Rated capacity of the motor

5. Energy Performance Assessment of Motors and Variable Speed Drives
5.3 Efficiency Testing

While input power measurements are fairly simple, measurement of output or losses need a labo-
rious exercise with extensive testing facilities. The following are the testing standards widely used.
Europe: IEC 60034-2, and the new IEC 61972
US: IEEE 112 - Method B
Japan: JEC 37
Even between these standards the difference in efficiency value is up to 3%.
For simplicity nameplate efficiency rating may be used for calculations if the motor load is in
the range of 50 -100 %.
Field Tests for Determining Efficiency

(Note: The following section is a repeat of material provided in the chapter-2 on Electrical
Motors in Book-3.)
No Load Test :
The motor is run at rated voltage and frequency without any shaft load. Input power, current,
frequency and voltage are noted. The no load P.F. is quite low and hence low PF watt meters
are required. From the input power, stator I2R losses under no load are subtracted to give the
sum of Friction and Windage (F&W) and core losses. To separate core and F & W losses, test
is repeated at variable voltages. It is worthwhile plotting no-load input kW versus Voltage; the
intercept is F & W kW loss component.
F&W and core losses = No load power (watts) – (No load current)2 x Stator resistance
Stator and Rotor I2R Losses :

The stator winding resistance is directly measured by a bridge or volt amp method. The resis-
tance must be corrected to the operating temperature. For modern motors, the operating tem-
perature is likely to be in the range of 100°C to 120°C and necessary correction should be made.
Correction to 75°C may be inaccurate. The correction factor is given as follows :
R2 235 + t2
—– = ———– , where, t1 = ambient temperature, °C & t2 = operating temperature, °C.
R1 235 + t1
The rotor resistance can be determined from locked rotor test at reduced frequency, but rotor
I2R losses are measured from measurement of rotor slip.
Rotor I2R losses = Slip x (Stator Input - Stator I2R Losses - Core Loss)
Accurate measurement of slip is possible by stroboscope or non-contact type tachometer. Slip
also must be corrected to operating temperature.
Stray Load Losses :

These losses are difficult to measure with any accuracy. IEEE Standard 112 gives a complicated
method, which is rarely used on shop floor. IS and IEC standards take a fixed value as 0.5 % of

output. It must be remarked that actual value of stray losses is likely to be more. IEEE - 112 spec-
ifies values from 0.9 % to 1.8 %.
Motor Rating Stray Losses

1 – 125 HP 1.8 %
125 – 500 HP 1.5 %
501 – 2499 HP 1.2 %
2500 and above 0.9 %
Points for Users :

It must be clear that accurate determination of efficiency is very difficult. The same motor test-
ed by different methods and by same methods by different manufacturers can give a difference
of 2 %.
Estimation of efficiency in the field can be summarized as follows:
a) Measure stator resistance and correct to operating temperature. From rated current
value, I2R losses are calculated.
b) From rated speed and output, rotor I2R losses are calculated
c) From no load test, core and F & W losses are determined for stray loss
The method is illustrated by the following example :

Example :
Motor Specifications
Rated power = 34 kW/45 HP
Voltage = 415 Volt
Current = 57 Amps
Speed = 1475 rpm
Insulation class = F
Frame = LD 200 L
Connection = Delta
No load test Data

Voltage, V = 415 Volts
Current, I = 16.1 Amps
Frequency, F = 50 Hz
Stator phase
resistance at 30°C = 0.264 Ohms
a) Calculate iron plus friction and windage losses
b) Calculate stator resistance at 120°C
235 + t2
R2 = R1 x ————
235 + t1
c) Calculate stator copper losses at operating temperature of resistance at 120°C

d) Calculate full load slip(s) and rotor input assuming rotor losses are slip times rotor input.
e) Determine the motor input assuming that stray losses are 0.5 % of the motor rated power
f) Calculate motor full load efficiency and full load power factor
Solution
a) Let Iron plus friction and windage loss, Pi + fw
Stator Copper loss, P st-30°C (Pst.cu)
= 3 x (16.1 / √3)2 x 0.264
= 68.43 Watts
Pi + fw = Pnl - Pst.cu
= 1063.74 – 68.43
= 995.3 W
b) Stator Resistance at 120°C,
120 + 235
R120°C = 0.264 x —————
30 + 235
= 0.354 ohms per phase
c) Stator copper losses at full load, Pst.cu 120°C
= 3 x (57 / √3)2 x 0.354
= 1150.1 Watts
d) Full load slip
S = (1500 – 1475) / 1500
= 0.0167
Rotor input, Pr = Poutput/ (1-S)
= 34000 / (1-0.0167)
= 34577.4 Watts
e) Motor full load input power, P input
= Pr + Pst.cu 120°C + (Pi + fw) + Pstray
= 34577.4 + 1150.1 + 995.3 + (0.005* x 34000)
= 36892.8 Watts
*
where, stray losses = 0.5% of rated output (assumed)
f) Motor efficiency at full load
Poutput
Efficiency = ——– x 100
Pinput
34000
= ——–
36892.8
= 92.2%

= Pinput
Full Load PF = —————–
= √3 x V x Ifl
= 36892.8
= ——————–
= √3 x 415 x 57
= 0.90
Comments :
a) The measurement of stray load losses is very difficult and not practical even on test beds.
b) The actual value of stray loss of motors up to 200 HP is likely to be 1 % to 3 % compared
to 0.5 % assumed by standards.
c) The value of full load slip taken from the nameplate data is not accurate. Actual measure-
ment under full load conditions will give better results.
d) The friction and windage losses really are part of the shaft output; however, in the above
calculation, it is not added to the rated shaft output, before calculating the rotor input
power. The error however is minor.
e) When a motor is rewound, there is a fair chance that the resistance per phase would
increase due to winding material quality and the losses would be higher. It would be inter-
esting to assess the effect of a nominal 10 % increase in resistance per phase.
5.4 Determining Motor Loading
1. By Input Power Measurements
• First measure input power Pi with a hand held or in-line power meter
Pi = Three-phase power in kW
• Note the rated kW and efficiency from the motor name plate
• The figures of kW mentioned in the name plate is for output conditions.

So corresponding input power at full-rated load
Nameplate full rated kW

Pir = ————————————————
ηfl
ηfl = Efficiency at full-rated load

Pir = Input power at full-rated load in kW
• The percentage loading can now be calculated as follows

Pi
Load = — x 100%
Pir

Example
The nameplate details of a motor are given as power = 15 kW, efficiency η = 0.9. Using a power
meter the actual three phase power drawn is found to be 8 kW. Find out the loading of the motor.
Input power at full-rated power in kW, Pir = 15 /0.9
= 16.7 kW
Percentage loading = 8/16.7
= 48 %
2. By Line Current Measurements

The line current load estimation method is used when input power cannot be measured and only
amperage measurements are possible. The amperage draw of a motor varies approximately lin-
early with respect to load, down to about 75% of full load. Below the 75% load point, power
factor degrades and the amperage curve becomes increasingly non-linear. In the low load
region, current measurements are not a useful indicator of load. However, this method may
be used only as a preliminary method just for the purpose of identification of oversized motors.
Input load current
% Load = ———————— *100 (Valid up to 75% loading)
Input rated current
3. Slip Method
In the absence of a power meter, the slip method can be used which requires a tachometer. This
method also does not give the exact loading on the motors.
Slip
Load = —— *100%
Ss–Sr
Where:
Load = Output power as a % of rated power
Slip = Synchronous speed - Measured speed in rpm
Ss = Synchronous speed in rpm at the operating frequency
Sr = Nameplate full-load speed
Example: Slip Load Calculation
Given: Synchronous speed in rpm = 1500 at 50 HZ operating frequency.
(Synchronous speed = 120f/P) f: frequency, P: Number of poles
Nameplate full load speed = 1450
Measured speed in rpm = 1480
Nameplate rated power = 7.5 kW
Determine actual output power.
1500 – 1480
Load = ————— *100% = 40%
1500 – 1450
From the above equation, actual output power would be 40% x 7.5 kW = 3 kW

The speed/slip method of determining motor part-load is often favored due to its simplicity
and safety advantages. Most motors are constructed such that the shaft is accessible to a
tachometer or a strobe light.
The accuracy of the slip method, however, is limited. The largest uncertainty relates to
the accuracy with which manufacturers report the nameplate full-load speed. Manufacturers
generally round their reported full-load speed values to some multiple of 5 rpm. While 5 rpm is
but a small percent of the full-load speed and may be considered as insignificant, the slip
method relies on the difference between full-load nameplate and synchronous speeds. Given a
40 rpm "correct" slip, a seemingly minor 5 rpm disparity causes a 12% change in calculated
load.
Slip also varies inversely with respect to the motor terminal voltage squared. A voltage cor-
rection factor can, also, be inserted into the slip load equation. The voltage compensated load
can be calculated as shown
Slip
Load = ———————– x 100%
(Ss – Sr) x (Vr/V)2
Where:
Load = Output power as a % of rated power
Slip = Synchronous speed - Measured speed in rpm
Ss = Synchronous speed in rpm
Sr = Nameplate full-load speed
V = RMS voltage, mean line to line of 3 phases
Vr = Nameplate rated voltage
5.5 Performance Evaluation of Rewound Motors

Ideally, a comparison should be made of the efficiency before and after a rewinding. A
relatively simple procedure for evaluating rewind quality is to keep a log of no-load input
current for each motor in the population. This figure increases with poor quality rewinds. A
review of the rewind shop's procedure should also provide some indication of the quality of
work. When rewinding a motor, if smaller diameter wire is used, the resistance and the I2R
losses will increase.

5.6 Format for Data Collection

The motor loading survey can be performed using the format given below:
Motor Field Measurement Format

Company_________________________ Location_______________________
Date ________ Process________________________
Department_____________________
General Data
Driven Equipment__________________ Motor Operating Profile:
Motor Name Plate Data No of hours of operation
Manufacturer ______________________ I Shift _____________
Model ___________________________ II Shift _____________
Serial Number _____________________ III Shift _____________
Type :Squirrel cage/Slp ring__________
Size (hp/kW)______________________ Annual Operating Time ______ hours/year
Synchronous Speed (RPM) ___________
Full-Load Speed (RPM) _____________ Type of load
Voltage Rating _____________________ 1.Load is quite steady, motor "On" during shift
Full-Load Amperage ________________ 2.Load starts, stops, but is constant when "On"
Full-Load Power Factor (%) __________ 3.Load starts, stops, and fluctuates when "On"
Full-Load Efficiency (%) ____________
Temperature Rise __________________ Measured Data
Insulation Class ____________________ Supply Voltage
By Voltmeter
VRY ________
From Test Certificate VYB ________ V avg ______
Load 100% 75% 25% No Load VBR ________
Input Amps
Current By Ammeter
PF A a __________
A b __________ A avg ______
Efficiency
A c __________
Power Factor (PF) _____________________
Stator resistance per phase = Input Power (kW) ______________________
Motor Operating Speed ____________RPM

Rewound Yes ,if yes How many

At frequency of __________
times rewound ?--- Driven Equipment Operating Speed
No
__________RPM
Motor Loading %_________________ Type of Transmission (Direct/Gear/Fluid coupling)

The monitoring format for rewound motor is given below:
5.7 Application of Variable Speed Drives (VSD)

Although there are many methods of varying the speeds of the driven equipment such as
hydraulic coupling, gear box, variable pulley etc., the most possible method is one of
varying the motor speed itself by varying the frequency and voltage by a variable
frequency drive.
5.7.1 Concept of Variable Frequency Drive
The speed of an induction motor is proportional to the frequency of the AC voltage applied to
it, as well as the number of poles in the motor stator. This is expressed by the equation:
RPM = (f x 120) / p
Where f is the frequency in Hz, and p is the number of poles in any multiple of 2.
Therefore, if the frequency applied to the motor is changed, the motor speed changes in
direct proportion to the frequency change. The control of frequency applied to the motor is the
job given to the VSD.
The VSD's basic principle of operation is to convert the electrical system frequency and volt-
age to the frequency and voltage required to drive a motor at a speed other than its rated speed.
The two most basic functions of a VSD are to provide power conversion from one frequency to
another, and to enable control of the output frequency.
VSD Power Conversion
As illustrated by Figure 5.1,

there are two basic components,
a rectifier and an inverter, to
accomplish power conversion.
The rectifier receives the
50-Hz AC voltage and con-
verts it to direct current (DC)
voltage. A DC bus inside the
VSD functions as a "parking
lot" for the DC voltage. The Figure 5.1 Components of a Variable Speed Drive

DC bus energizes the inverter, which converts it back to AC voltage again. The inverter can
be controlled to produce an output frequency of the proper value for the desired motor shaft
speed.
5.7.2 Factors for Successful Implementation of Variable Speed Drives
a) Load Type for Variable Frequency Drives

The main consideration is whether the variable frequency drive application require a variable
torque or constant torque drive. If the equipment being driven is centrifugal, such as a fan or
pump, then a variable torque drive will be more appropriate. Energy savings are usually the pri-
mary motivation for installing variable torque drives for centrifugal applications. For example,
a fan needs less torque when running at 50% speed than it does when running at full speed.
Variable torque operation allows the motor to apply only the torque needed, which results in
reduced energy consumption.
Conveyors, positive displacement pumps, punch presses, extruders, and other similar type
applications require constant level of torque at all speeds. In which case, constant torque vari-
able frequency drives would be more appropriate for the job. A constant torque drive should
have an overload current capacity of 150% or more for one minute. Variable torque variable
frequency drives need only an overload current capacity of 120% for one minute since cen-
trifugal applications rarely exceed the rated current.
If tight process control is needed, then you may need to utilize a sensor less vector, or flux
vector variable frequency drive, which allow a high level of accuracy in controlling speed,
torque, and positioning.
b) Motor Information
The following motor information will be needed to select the proper variable frequency drive:
Full Load Amperage Rating. Using a motor's horsepower is an inaccurate way to size vari-
able frequency drives.
Speed Range. Generally, a motor should not be run at any speed less than 20% of its specified
maximum speed allowed. If it is run at a speed less than this without auxiliary motor cooling,
the motor will overheat. Auxiliary motor cooling should be used if the motor must be operated
at very slow speeds.
Multiple Motors. To size a variable frequency drive that will control more than one motor, add
together the full-load amp ratings of each of the motors. All motors controlled by a single drive
must have an equal voltage rating.
c) Efficiency and Power Factor

The variable frequency drive should have an efficiency rating of 95% or better at full load.
Variable frequency drives should also offer a true system power factor of 0.95 or better
across the operational speed range, to save on demand charges, and to protect the equipment
(especially motors).
d) Protection and Power Quality

Motor overload Protection for instantaneous trip and motor over current.

Additional Protection: Over and under voltage, over temperature, ground fault, control or
microprocessor fault. These protective circuits should provide an orderly shutdown of the VFD,
provide indication of the fault condition, and require a manual reset (except under voltage)
before restart. Under voltage from a power loss shall be set to automatically restart after return
to normal. The history of the previous three faults shall remain in memory for future review.
If a built-up system is required, there should also be externally-operated short circuit protec-
tion, door-interlocked fused disconnect and circuit breaker or motor circuit protector (MCP)
To determine if the equipment under consideration is the right choice for a variable speed
drive:
The load patterns should be thoroughly studied before exercising the option of VSD. In effect
the load should be of a varying nature to demand a VSD ( refer figure 5.3 & 5.4).
Figure 5.3 Example of an excellent variable Figure 5.4 Example of a poor variable speed
speed drive candidate drive candidate
The first step is to identify the number of operating hours of the equipment at various load
conditions. This can be done by using a Power analyzer with continuous data storage or by a
simple energy meter with periodic reading being taken.
5.7.3 Information needed to Evaluate Energy Savings for Variable Speed Application
1. Method of flow control to which adjustable speed is compared:
o output throttling (pump) or dampers (fan)
o recirculation (pump) or unrestrained flow (fan)
o adjustable-speed coupling (eddy current coupling)
o inlet guide vanes or inlet dampers (fan only)
o two-speed motor.
2. Pump or fan data:
o head v's flow curve for every different type of liquid (pump) or gas (fan) that is
handled
o Pump efficiency curves.

3. Process information:
o specific gravity (for pumps) or specific density of products (for fans)
o system resistance head/flow curve
o equipment duty cycle, i.e. flow levels and time duration.
4. Efficiency information on all relevant electrical system apparatus:
o motors, constant and variable speed
o variable speed drives
o gears
o transformers.
If we do not have precise information for all of the above, we can make reasonable assump-
tions for points 2 and 4.

QUESTIONS
1) Define motor efficiency.
2) Why it is difficult to measure motor efficiency at site?
3) Describe the various methods by which you calculate motor loading.
4) If no instrument other than tachometer is available, what method you would suggest
for measuring the motor load?
5) A 20 kW rated motor is drawing actual measured power of 14 kW. If the rated effi-
ciency is 92%, determine the motor loading?
6) What are the limitations of slip method in determining motor loading?
7) A 4 pole motor is operating at a frequency of 50 Hz. Find the RPM of the motor?
8) What are the two factors influencing the speed of induction motor?
9) A fan's operating hours and loading are given below:
15 hours at 100% load
8 hours at 95% load
1 hour at 40% load
Is the application suitable candidate for application of VSD?
11) The losses in a variable speed drive is a) 12% b) 8% c) <5% d) no losses at all
REFERENCES
1. Motor challenge: Office of Industrial Technologies, Department of Energy, USA
2. Energy audit Reports of National Productivity Council

6. ENERGY PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT OF
FANS AND BLOWERS
6.1 Introduction
This section describes the method of testing a fan installed on site in order to determine the
performance of the fan in conjunction with the system to which it is connected.

The purposes of such a test are to determine, under actual operating conditions, the volume flow
rate, the power input and the total pressure rise across the fan.
These test results will provide actual value for the flow resistance of the air duct system,
which can be compared with the value specified by supplier.
Static Pressure: The absolute pressure at a point minus the reference atmospheric pressure.
Dynamic Pressure: The rise in static pressure which occurs when air moving with specified
velocity at a point is bought to rest without loss of mechanical energy. It is also known as veloc-
ity pressure.
Total Pressure: The sum of static pressures and dynamic pressures at a point.
Fan Shaft Power: The mechanical power supplied to the fan shaft
Motor Input Power: The electrical power supplied to the terminals of an electric motor
drive.
6.4 Scope
The procedure describes field testing of centrifugal fans and blowers for assessing performance
and efficiency.

British Standard, BS 848 - Fans for general purposes Part 1, Methods of testing performance

6. Energy Performance Assessment of Fans and Blowers
6.6 Field Testing

6.6.1 Instruction for Site Testing
Before site tests are carried out, it should be ensured that:
• Fan and its associated equipment are functioning properly, and at the rated speed
• Operations are at stable conditions, e.g. steady temperatures, densities, system resistance
etc.
6.6.2 Location of Measurement Planes
General: The flow measurement plane shall be located in any suitable straight length,
(preferably on the inlet side of the fan) where the airflow conditions are substantially axial,
symmetrical and free from turbulence. Leakage of air from or into the air duct shall be negligi-
ble between the flow measuring plane and the fan. Bends and obstructions in an air duct can
disturb the airflow for a considerable distance downstream, and should be avoided for the pur-
poses of the test.
Test length: That part of the duct in which the flow measurement plane is located, is termed
the 'test length' and shall be straight, of uniform cross section and free from any obstructions
which may modify the airflow. It shall have a length equal to not less than twice the equiva-
lent diameter of the air duct (i.e. 2De). For rectangular duct, equivalent diameter, De is given by
2 LW/(L + W) where L, W is the length and width of the duct. For circular ducts De is the same
as diameter of the duct.
Inlet side of the fan: Where the 'test length' is on the inlet side of the fan, its downstream end
shall be at a distance from the fan inlet equal to atleast 0.75De. See figure 6.1. In the case of a
fan having an inlet box , the downstream end of the test length shall be at a distance from the
nearest part of the inlet cone of the fan equal to at least 0.75De.
Outlet side of the fan: Where the 'test length' is on the outlet side of the fan, the upstream
end of the 'test length' shall be at a distance from the fan outlet of at least 3De. See figure 6.2.
For this purpose, the fan outlet shall be considered as being the outlet of any expander on the
outlet side of the fan.
Location of the Flow Measurement Plane within the 'Test Length': The flow measure-
ment plane shall be located within the 'test length' at a distance from the downstream end of the
'test length' equal to at least 1.25De.
Location of Pressure Measurement Plane: For the purpose of determining the pressure rise
produced by the fan, the static pressure shall be measured at planes on the inlet and/or the out-
let side of the fan sufficiently close to it to ensure that the pressure losses between the measur-
ing planes and the fan are calculable in accordance with available friction factor data without
adding excessively to the uncertainty of fan pressure determination.
If conveniently close to the fan, the 'test length' selected for air flow measurement should
also be used to pressure measurement. Other planes used for pressure measurement should be

no closer than 0.25De from the fan inlet and no closer than 4De from the fan outlet. The plane
of pressure measurement should be selected at least 4De downstream of any bend, expander or

obstruction which are likely to cause separated flow or otherwise interfere with uniformity of
pressure distribution.
6.6.3 Measurement of Air Velocity on Site

Velocity shall be measured by either pitot tube or a rotating vane anemometer. When in use, the
pitot tube shall be connected by means of airtight tubes to a pressure measuring instrument. The
anemometer shall be calibrated before the test.
Pitot Tube: In Figure 6.4, note that separate static connections (A) and total pressure con-
nections (B) can be connected simultaneously across a manometer (C). Since the static pressure
is applied to both sides of the manometer, its effect is canceled out and the manometer indicates
only the velocity pressure.
In practice this type of measurement is usually made with a Pitot tube which incorporates both
static and total pressure sensors in a single unit. Essentially, a Pitot tube consists of an impact tube
(which receives total pressure input) fastened concentrically inside a second tube of slightly larger
diameter which receives static pressure input from radial sensing holes around the tip. The air space
between inner and outer tubes permits transfer of pressure from the sensing holes to the static pres-
sure connection at the opposite end of the Pitot and then, through connecting tubing, to the low or
negative pressure side of a manometer. When the total pressure tube is connected to the high pres-
sure side of the manometer, velocity pressure is indicated directly. See Figure 6.5.
To ensure accurate velocity pressure readings, the Pitot tube tip must be pointed directly into
(parallel with) the air stream. As the Pitot tube tip is parallel with the static pressure outlet tube,
the latter can be used as a pointer to align the tip properly. When the Pitot tube is correctly
aligned, the pressure indication will be maximum.

Figure 6.4 Types of Pressure Measurement
Figure 6.5 Pitot tube senses total and static pressure. Manometer measures
velocity pressure (Difference between total and static pressures)
Traverse readings: In practical situations, the velocity of the air stream is not uniform across
the cross section of a duct. Friction slows the air moving close to the walls, so the velocity is
greater in the center of the duct.
To obtain the average total velocity in ducts of 100 mm diameter or larger, a series of
velocity pressure readings must be taken at points of equal area. A formal pattern of sensing
points across the duct cross section is recommended. These are known as traverse readings.
Figure 6.6 shows recommended Pitot tube locations for traversing round and rectangular
ducts.

Figure 6.6 Traverse on Round and Square Duct Areas
In round ducts, velocity pressure readings should be taken at centers of equal concentric areas.
At least 20 readings should be taken along two diameters. In rectangular ducts, a minimum of 16
and a maximum of 64 readings are taken at centers of equal rectangular areas. Actual velocities for
each area are calculated from individual velocity pressure readings. This allows the readings and
velocities to be inspected for errors or inconsistencies. The velocities are then averaged.
By taking Pitot tube readings with extreme care, air velocity can be determined within an
accuracy of ± 2%. For maximum accuracy, the following precautions should be observed:
Example-Traverse point determination for round duct

Round duct: Let us calculate various traverse points for a duct of 1 m diameter. From Figure
6.4, for round duct of 1 m diameter (D). The radius, R is 0.5 m. The various points from the
port holes are given below:
0.5 – 0.949 x 0.5 0.0255

0.5 – 0.837 x 0.5 0.0815
0.5 – 0.707 x 0.5 0.1465
0.5 – 0.548 x 0.5 0.226
0.5 – 0.316 x 0.5 0.342
0.5 + 0.316 x 0.5 0.658
0.5 + 0.548 x 0.5 0.774
0.5 + 0.707 x 0.5 0.8535
0.5 + 0.837 x 0.5 0.9185
0.5 + 0.949 x 0.5 0.9745

Example-Traverse point determination for rectangular duct

Rectangular duct: For 1.4 m x 0.8 m rectangular duct, let us calculate the traverse points. 16
points are to be measured.
Dividing the area 1.4 x 0.8 = 1.12 m2 into 16 equal areas, each area is 0.07 m2. Taking
dimensions of 0.35 m x 0.20 m per area, we can now mark the various points in the rectangu-
lar duct as follows:
In small ducts or where traverse operations are otherwise impossible, an accuracy of ± 5%

can frequently be achieved by placing Pitot in center of duct.
Calculation of Velocity: After taking velocity pressures readings, at various traverse points,
the velocity corresponding to each point is calculated using the following expression.
Anemometer: The indicated velocity shall be measured at each traverse point in the cross
section by holding the anemometer stationary at each point for a period of time of not less than
1 minute. Each reading shall be converted to velocity in m/s and individually corrected in accor-
dance with the anemometer calibration. The arithmetic mean of the corrected point velocities
gives the average velocity in the air duct and the volume flow rate is obtained by multiplying
the area of the air duct by the average velocity.

6.6.4 Determination of Flow

Once the cross-sectional area of the duct is measured, the flow can be calculated as follows:
Flow, (m3/s) = Area (m2) x Velocity (m/s)
6.6.5 Determination of Fan Pressure

General: Precautions shall be taken so that the measurements of the static pressure on the
inlet and outlet sides of the fan are taken relative to the atmosphere pressure.
Measurement of Static Pressure: This shall be done by using a manometer in conjunction

with the static pressure connection of a pitot tube or a U tube manometer.
When using a pitot tube it is necessary to carry out a traverse in the pressure measurement
plane taking individual point pressure readings in a manner similar to that for determining flow
rate. In general, a smaller number of readings will be found adequate where individual readings
do not vary by more than 2% from each other. The average of all the individual readings shall
be taken as the static pressure of that section.
6.6.6 Determination of Power Input

Power Measurement: The power measurements can be done using a suitable clamp- on
power meter. Alternatively by measuring the amps, voltage and assuming a power factor of 0.9
the power can be calculated as below:
Transmission Systems: The interposition of a transmission system may be unavoidable

introducing additional uncertainties. The following values shall be used as a basis for transmis-
sion efficiency in the case of drives rated at 20 kW and above unless other reliable information
is available:
Properly lubricated precision spur gears 98% for each step

Flat belt drive 97%
V-belt drive 95%
Other Prime Movers: When the fan forms one unit with a non-electric prime mover it is rec-
ommended that the fuel consumption (oil, steam, compressed air etc.) should be specified and
determined in place of the overall power.
input to fan shaft in kW

6.7 Example: Performance Test Report on Cooling Air Fan

The following is a typical report on measurements taken and calculations made for a
double inlet fan in a palletizing plant.
A. Design Parameters:
Volume = 292 m3/sec.
Static Pressure = 609.6 mmwc
B. Measurements:
Temperature = 32°C
Speed = 740 RPM
Inlet Suction Outlet Measured Volume Amps Power

Damper Pressure Pressure Velocity m3/Sec. (I) Consumption
Position (-) mmwc (+) mmwc ∆ p),
Pressure (∆ (kW)
% mmwc
80% ONE SIDE 455, 462, Average = 70

25, 22, 20 480,478
Average=22.33 Avg.=468.75
ANOTHER 166.6 220 2127 KW

SIDE
15, 18, 23, 21 459, 464, 473
Average=19.25 479, 480, 470
Avg.=470.83 Average = 70
Instruments used
a) Suction pressure, outlet pressure = 'U' tube manometer
b) For differential pressure = Inclined tube manometer
c) For temperature = Mercury in glass thermometer
d) Fan speed = Tachometer
e) Line current = Tong tester
C. Performance calculations:
a) Gas Density = 273 x 1.293
(Corrected to NTP) 273 + T°C (at site condition)
= 273 x 1.293
273 + 32°C (at site condition)
= 1.15 kg/m3

d) P = Power input to the fan shaft

= Power input to the motor (kW) x Efficiency of motor (%) at the
operating load x transmission efficiency
Motor efficiency = 0.94
P = 2263 x 0.94 x 1 (as motor was direct coupled)
= 2127 kW
Volume in m3 / Sec x total pressure in mmwc

e) Fan Efficiency % =
102 x Power input to the shaft in (kW)
Where 102 is a conversion constant
For double inlet fan,

The total Volume of
air, m3 / Sec = 166.6 x 2 = 333.2

Total static pressure, = 468.75 – (–22.33) = 491

mmwc (∆ pStatic,
across the fan)
Fan Efficiency = 333.2 x 491 x 100

102 x 2127
Static Fan Efficiency = 75%
6.8 Factors that Could Affect Performance
• Leakage, re-circulation or other defects in the system;

• Inaccurate estimation of flow resistance;
• Erroneous application of the standardized test data;
• Excessive loss in a system component located too close to the fan outlet;
• Disturbance of the fan performance due to a bend or other system component located too
close to the fan inlet;
• Error in site measurement

QUESTIONS
1) What is the relationship between static pressure, dynamic pressure and total pres-
sure?
2) For determining fan efficiency, why static pressure readings should be taken as close
to fan as possible?
3) What is the significance of having traverse points in velocity measurement?
4) What is fan efficiency?
5) Determine various traverse points for a round duct of 0.5 m diameter.
6) Why flow should not be measured very close to inlet and outlet of fan?
7) Calculate the flow rate for the following data:
Diameter of duct: 0.5 m, differential pressure: 100mmWC,
Density of air at 0°C: 1.293, Temperature of air in the duct: 100°C, pitot coefficient:
0.85
8) How many traverse points you would propose for a rectangular duct of 1 m x 1 m
dimensions?
9) What are the various ways of measuring the flow?
10) What are the various factors, which can affect fan performance?
REFERENCES
1. British Standard: BS 848 : Part 1 : 1980
2. Energy and Environmental Audit Reports of National Productivity Council

OF WATER PUMPS
7.1 Introduction
Pumping is the process of addition of kinetic and potential energy to a liquid for the
purpose of moving it from one point to another. This energy will cause the liquid to do work
such as flow through a pipe or rise to a higher level. A centrifugal pump transforms mechan-
ical energy from a rotating impeller into a kinetic and potential energy required by the
system.
The most critical aspect of energy efficiency in a pumping system is matching of pumps to
loads. Hence even if an efficient pump is selected, but if it is a mismatch to the system then the
pump will operate at very poor efficiencies. In addition efficiency drop can also be expected
over time due to deposits in the impellers. Performance assessment of pumps would reveal the
existing operating efficiencies in order to take corrective action.
• Determination of the pump efficiency during the operating condition

• Determination of system resistance and the operating duty point of the pump and compare
the same with design.
Pump Capacity, Q = Volume of liquid delivered by pump per unit time,m3/hr or m3/sec
Q is proportional to N, where N- rotational speed of the pump
Total developed head, H = The difference of discharge and suction pressure
The pump head represents the net work done on unit weights of a liquid in passing from
inlet of the pump to the discharge of the pump.
There are three heads in common use in pumps namely
(i) Static head
(ii) Velocity head
(iii) Friction head.
The frictional head in a system of pipes, valves and fittings varies as a function (roughly as
the square) of the capacity flow through the system.
System resistance: The sum of frictional head in resistance & total static head.

7. Energy Performance Assessment of Water Pumps
Pump Efficiency: Fluid power and useful work done by the pump divided by the power input
in the pump shaft.
7.4 Field Testing for Determination of Pump Efficiency

To determine the pump efficiency, three key parameters are required: Flow, Head and Power.
Of these, flow measurement is the most crucial parameter as normally online flow meters are
hardly available, in a majority of pumping system. The following methods outlined below can
be adopted to measure the flow depending on the availability and site conditions.
7.4.1 Flow Measurement, Q

The following are the methods for flow measurements:
• Tracer method BS5857
• Ultrasonic flow measurement
• Tank filling method
• Installation of an on-line flowmeter
Tracer Method
The Tracer method is particularly suitable for cooling water flow measurement because of their
sensitivity and accuracy.
This method is based on injecting a tracer into the cooling water for a few minutes at an
accurately measured constant rate. A series of samples is extracted from the system at a point
where the tracer has become completely mixed with the cooling water. The mass flow rate is
calculated from:
qcw = q1 x C1/C2
where qcw = cooling water mass flow rate, kg/s

q1 = mass flow rate of injected tracer, kg/s
C1 = concentration of injected tracer, kg/kg

C2 = concentration of tracer at downstream position during the 'plateau' period

of constant concentration, kg/kg
The tracer normally used is sodium chloride.
Ultrasonic Flow meter

Operating under Doppler effect principle these meters are non-invasive, meaning measurements
can be taken without disturbing the system. Scales and rust in the pipes are likely to impact the
accuracy.
• Ensure measurements are taken in a sufficiently long length of pipe free from flow distur-
bance due to bends, tees and other fittings.
• The pipe section where measurement is to be taken should be hammered gently to enable
scales and rusts to fall out.
• For better accuracy, a section of the pipe can be replaced with new pipe for flow mea-
surements.
Tank filing method

In open flow systems such as water getting pumped to an overhead tank or a sump, the flow
can be measured by noting the difference in tank levels for a specified period during which
the outlet flow from the tank is stopped. The internal tank dimensions should be preferable
taken from the design drawings, in the absence of which direct measurements may be
resorted to.
Installation of an on-line flowmeter

If the application to be measured is going to be critical and periodic then the best option would
be to install an on-line flowmeter which can get rid of the major problems encountered with
other types.
7.4.3 Determination of total head, H
Suction head (hs)

This is taken from the pump inlet pressure gauge readings and the value to be converted in to
meters (1kg/cm2 = 10. m). If not the level difference between sump water level to the center-
line of the pump is to be measured. This gives the suction head in meters.
Discharge head (hd)

This is taken from the pump discharge side pressure gauge. Installation of the pressure gauge
in the discharge side is a must, if not already available.
7.4.4 Determination of hydraulic power (Liquid horse power),

Hydraulic power Ph(kW) = Q x (hd – hs) x ρ x g / 1000
Q = Volume flow rate (m3/s), ρ = density of the fluid (kg/m3), g = acceleration due to gravity
(m/s2), (hd - hs) = Total head in metres

7.4.5 Measurement of motor input power

The motor input power Pm can be measured by using a portable power analyser.
7.4.6 Pump shaft power
The pump shaft power Ps is calculated by multiplying the motor input power by motor effi-
ciency at the existing loading.
Ps = Pm x ηMotor
7.4.7 Pump efficiency

This is arrived at by dividing the hydraulic power by pump shaft power
ηPump = Ph
Ps
Example of pump efficiency calculation

Illustration of calculation method outlined
A chemical plant operates a cooling water pump for process cooling and refrigeration
applications. During the performance testing the following operating parameters were
measured;
Measured Data
Pump flow, Q 0.40 m3/ s

Power absorbed, P 325 kW
Suction head (Tower basin level), h1 +1 M
Delivery head, h2 55 M
Height of cooling tower 5M
Motor efficiency 88 %
Type of drive Direct coupled
Density of water 996 kg/ m3
Pump efficiency
Flow delivered by the pump 0.40 m3/s

Total head, h2 –(+h1) 54 M
Hydraulic power 0.40 x 54 x 996 x 9.81/1000 = 211 kW
Actual power consumption 325 kW
Overall system efficiency (211 x 100) / 325 = 65 %
Pump efficiency 65/0.88 = 74 %
7.5 Determining the System resistance and Duty point

Determination of the system resistance curve and imposing the pump curve over it will give an
idea of the operating efficiency of the pump and also the drop in efficiencies when the system

curve changes from normal / design. The example following from the earlier example outlines
the method of constructing a system curve.
Example:
Location of equipments
The Refrigeration plant is located at +0.00 level and the Process plant condensers are located at
+15 M level. One cooler having a design pressure drop of 1.9 kg/cm2 is located at the 0.00 level
(ground level). Other relevant data can be inferred from the earlier section. See schematic in
Figure 7.1.
The step-by-step approach for determining system resistance curve is given

below.
Step-1 Divide system resistance into Static and dynamic head
Find static head;

Static head (Condenser floor height) ; 15M
Find dynamic head;

Dynamic Head = Total Head – Static Head
Dynamic head = (54–15) = 39 M

Step-2 Check the maximum resistance circuit
Resistance in the different circuits is as under
S.no System Condenser loop Reactor loop Cooler loop

resistance, M resistance, M resistance, M
1. Supply line from 15 10 15
pump
2. Static head 15 5 Nil (cooler at
ground level)
3. Equipment 5 5 19
4. Return line from 15 10 15
equipment to CT
5. Tower head - - 5
6. Total 50 30 54
It can be noted that at full load the condenser and cooler circuits offer the maximum resis-
tance to flow.
Step 3; Draw system resistance curve
Choose the condenser loop as it offers maximum resistance and is also having a static head
component
Static head: 15 M
Dynamic head at full load; 39 M
Compute system resistance at different flow rates
S.No. Flow (%) Dynamic head Static head M Total head M

= 39x (%flow)2
1. 100 39 15 54
2. 75 21.9 15 36.9
3. 50 9.75 15 24.75
4. 25 2.44 15 17.44
Step 4 - Plot the system resistance against flow in the pump efficiency curves (see Figure 7.2)
provided by the vendor and compare actual operating duty point and see whether it operates at
maximum efficiency. In the example provided it is found that the pump system efficiency is
lower by 4 % due to change in operating conditions.


QUESTIONS
1) How would you measure the flow by using tracer method?
2) What are the various ways of measuring flow?
3) A pump motor draws 75 A current. The voltage is 415 V. Assuming a power factor of
0.9. Calculate the power drawn?
4) The suction head is 1m below the pump centerline. The discharge pressure shows 3
kg/cm2. The flow is calculated to be 100 m3/hr. Find out the pump efficiency.
5) The pump efficiency is 70%. The hydraulic power is calculated to be 22 kW. Find
out the motor power required to drive the pump.
REFERENCES
1. Pump handbook by Karassik
2. Energy Audit Reports of National Productivity Council

OF COMPRESSORS
8.1 Introduction
The compressed air system is not only an energy intensive utility but also one of the least ener-
gy efficient. Over a period of time, both performance of compressors and compressed air sys-
tem reduces drastically. The causes are many such as poor maintenance, wear and tear etc. All
these lead to additional compressors installations leading to more inefficiencies. A periodic per-
formance assessment is essential to minimize the cost of compressed air.

To find out:
• Actual Free Air Delivery (FAD) of the compressor
• Isothermal power required
• Volumetric efficiency
• Specific power requirement
The actual performance of the plant is to be compared with design / standard values for
assessing the plant energy efficiency.
8.4 Field Testing

8.4.1 Measurement of Free Air Delivery (FAD) by Nozzle method
Principle: If specially shaped nozzle discharge air to the atmosphere from a receiver getting
its supply from a compressor, sonic flow conditions sets in at the nozzle throat for a particular

8. Energy Performance Assessment of Compressors
ratio of upstream pressure (receiver) to the downstream pressure (atmospheric) i.e. Mach num-
ber equals one.
When the pressure in the receiver is kept constant for a reasonable intervals of time, the air-
flow output of the compressor is equal to that of the nozzle and can be calculated from the
known characteristic of the nozzle.
8.4.2 Arrangement of test equipment

The arrangement of test equipment and measuring device shall confirm to Figure 8.1.
8.4.3 Nozzle Sizes

The following sizes of nozzles are recommended for the range of capacities indicated below:
Flow Nozzle: Flow nozzle with profile as desired in IS 10431:1994 and dimensions
Nozzle size (mm) Capacity (m3/hr)

6 3–9
10 9 – 30
16 27 – 90
22 60 – 170
33 130 – 375
50 300 – 450
80 750 – 2000
125 1800 – 5500
165 3500 – 10000
8.4.4 Measurements and duration of the test.

The compressor is started with the air from the receiver discharging to the atmosphere through
the flow nozzle. It should be ensured that the pressure drop through the throttle valve should be
equal to or twice the pressure beyond the throttle. After the system is stabilized the following
measurements are carried out:
• Receiver pressure
• Pressure and temperature before the nozzle
• Pressure drop across the nozzle
• Speed of the compressor
• kW, kWh and amps drawn by the compressor
The above readings are taken for the 40%, 60%, 100% and 110% of discharge pressure values.
Measuring instruments required for test
• Thermometers or Thermocouple
• Pressure gauges or Manometers
• Differential pressure gauges or Manometers
• Standard Nozzle

• Psychrometer
• Tachometer/stroboscope
• Electrical demand analyser
8.5 Calculation Procedure for Nozzle Method
k : Flow coefficient – as per IS

d : Nozzle diameter M
T1 : Absolute inlet temperature °K
P1 : Absolute inlet pressure kg/cm2
P3 : Absolute Pressure before nozzle kg/cm2
T3 : Absolute temperature before nozzle °K
Ra : Gas constant for air 287.1 J/kg k
P3–P4 : Differential pressure across the nozzle kg/cm2

II. Isothermal Efficiency = Isothermal power/Input power
Isothermal power(kW) = P1 x Qf x loger

36.7
P1 = Absolute intake pressure kg/ cm2
Qf = Free air delivered m3/hr.
r = Pressure ratio P2/P1
III. Specific power consumption = Power consumption ,kW

at rated discharge pressure Free Air Delivered, m3/hr
IV. Volumetric efficiency = Free air delivered m3/min x 100

Compressor displacement, m3/min
Compressor Displacement = π
x D2 x L x S x χ x n
4
D = Cylinder bore, metre
L = Cylinder stroke, metre
S = Compressor speed rpm
χ = 1 for single acting and
2 for double acting cylinders
n = No. of cylinders
8.6 Example
Calculation of Isothermal Efficiency for a Reciprocating Air Compressor.
Step – 1 : Calculate Volumetric Flow Rate
k : Flow coefficient (Assumed as 1)

d : Nozzle diameter : 0.08 metre
P2 : Receiver Pressure – 3.5 kg / cm2 (a)
P1 : Inlet Pressure – 1.04 kg / cm2(a)
T1 : Inlet air temperature 30°C or 303°K
P3 : Pressure before nozzle – 1.08 kg / cm2
T3 : Temperature before the nozzle 40°C or 313°K
P3 – P4 : Pressure drop across the nozzle = 0.036 kg / cm2
Ra : Gas constant : 287 Joules / kg K

Step – 2 : Calculate Isothermal Power Requirement

Isothermal Power (kW) = P1 x Qf x loger
36.7
P1 - Absolute intake pressure = 1.04 kg / cm2 (a)
Qf - Free Air Delivered = 1407.6 m3 / h.
Compression ratio r = 3.51 = 3.36
1.04
Isothermal Power = 1.04 x 1407.6 x loge3.36 = 48.34 kW
36.7
Step – 3 : Calculate Isothermal Efficiency
Motor input power = 100 kW

Motor and drive efficiency = 86 %
Compressor input power = 86 kW
Isothermal efficiency = Isothermal Power x 100
Compressor input Power
= 48.34 x 100 = 56%
86.0
8.7 Assessment of Specific Power requirement
Specific power consumption = Actual power consumed by the compressor

Measured Free Air Delivery
In the above example the measured flow is 1407.6 m3/hr and actual power consumption is
100 kW.
Specific power requirement = 100

1407.6
= 0.071 kW/m3/hr
8.8 Measurement of FAD by Pump Up Method

(Note: The following section is a repeat of material provided in the chapter-3 on Compressed
Air System in Book-3.)

Another way of determining the Free Air Delivery of the compressor is by Pump Up
Method - also known as receiver filling method. Although this is less accurate, this can be
adopted where the elaborate nozzle method is difficult to be deployed.
Simple method of Capacity Assessment in Shop floor
• Isolate the compressor along with its individual receiver being taken for test from main
compressed air system by tightly closing the isolation valve or blanking it, thus closing
the receiver outlet.
• Open water drain valve and drain out water fully and empty the receiver and the pipeline.
Make sure that water trap line is tightly closed once again to start the test.
• Start the compressor and activate the stopwatch.
• Note the time taken to attain the normal operational pressure P2 (in the receiver) from ini-
tial pressure P1.
• Calculate the capacity as per the formulae given below:
Actual Free air discharge

P2 – P1 V
Q = X Nm3/Minute
P0 T
Where
P2 = Final pressure after filling (kg/cm2 a)
P1 = Initial pressure (kg/cm2a) after bleeding
P0 = Atmospheric Pressure (kg/cm2 a)
V = Storage volume in m3 which includes receiver,
after cooler, and delivery piping
T = Time take to build up pressure to P2 in minutes
The above equation is relevant where the compressed air temperature is same as the ambi-
ent air temperature, i.e., perfect isothermal compression. In case the actual compressed air tem-
perature at discharge, say t2°C is higher than ambient air temperature say t1°C (as is usual case),
the FAD is to be corrected by a factor (273 + t1) / (273 + t2).
EXAMPLE
An instrument air compressor capacity test gave the following results (assume the final com-
pressed air temperature is same as the ambient temperature) - Comment?
Piston displacement : 16.88 m3/minute

Theoretical compressor capacity : 14.75 m3/minute @ 7 kg/cm2
Compressor rated rpm 750 : Motor rated rpm : 1445
Receiver Volume : 7.79 m3
Additional hold up volume,
i.e., pipe / water cooler, etc., is : 0.4974 m3
Total volume : 8.322 m3

Initial pressure P1 : 0.5 kg/cm2

Final pressure P2 : 7.03 kg/cm2
Atmospheric pressure P0 : 1.026 kg/cm2,a
Time taken to buildup pressure
from P1 to P2 : 4.021 minutes
(P2 – P1) × Total Volume
Compressor output m3/minute :
Atm. Pressure × Pumpup time
(7.03 – 0.5) × 8.322
: = 13.17 m3/minute
1.026 × 4.021
Capacity shortfall with respect to 14.75 m3/minute rating is 1.577 m3/minute i.e.,
10.69 %, which indicates compressor performance needs to be investigated further.

QUESTIONS
1) What is meant by Free Air Delivery?
2) Describe the method of estimating flow by nozzle method.
3) Describe the method of estimating flow by pump up method.
4) Define the term isothermal efficiency and explain its significance.
5) Define the term volumetric efficiency and explain its significance.
6) How is specific power requirement calculated?
REFERENCES
1. IS 10431:1994: Measurement of airflow of compressors and exhausters by nozzles.
2. IS 5456:1985 code of practice for testing of positive displacement type air compressors
and exhausters
3. Compressor performance – Aerodynamics for the user by M Theodore Gresh-
Butterworth Heinemann.

OF HVAC SYSTEMS
9.1 Introduction
Air conditioning and refrigeration consume significant amount of energy in buildings and in
process industries. The energy consumed in air conditioning and refrigeration systems is sensi-
tive to load changes, seasonal variations, operation and maintenance, ambient conditions etc.
Hence the performance evaluation will have to take into account to the extent possible all these
factors.

The purpose of performance assessment is to verify the performance of a refrigeration system
by using field measurements. The test will measure net cooling capacity (tons of refrigeration)
and energy requirements, at the actual operating conditions. The objective of the test is to esti-
mate the energy consumption at actual load vis-à-vis design conditions.

Tons of refrigeration (TR): One ton of refrigeration is the amount of cooling obtained by one
ton of ice melting in one day: 3024 kCal/h, 12,000 Btu/h or 3.516 thermal kW.
Net Refrigerating Capacity. A quantity defined as the mass flow rate of the evaporator water
multiplied by the difference in enthalpy of water entering and leaving the cooler, expressed in
kCal/h, tons of Refrigeration.
kW/ton rating: Commonly referred to as efficiency, but actually power input to compressor
motor divided by tons of cooling produced, or kilowatts per ton (kW/ton). Lower kW/ton indi-
cates higher efficiency.
Coefficient of Performance (COP): Chiller efficiency measured in Btu output (cooling) divid-
ed by Btu input (electric power).
Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER): Performance of smaller chillers and rooftop units is fre-
quently measured in EER rather than kW/ton. EER is calculated by dividing a chiller's cooling
capacity (in Btu/h) by its power input (in watts) at full-load conditions. The higher the EER, the
more efficient the unit.
9.4 Preparatory for Measurements

After establishing that steady-state conditions, three sets of data shall be taken, at a minimum
of five-minute intervals. To minimize the effects of transient conditions, test readings should be
taken as nearly simultaneously.

9. Energy Performance Assessment of HVAC Systems
9.5 Procedure
9.5.1 To determine the net refrigeration capacity
The test shall include a measurement of the net heat removed from the water as it passes
through the evaporator by determination of the following:
a. Water flow rate
b. Temperature difference between entering and leaving water
The heat removed from the chilled water is equal to the product of the chilled water flow
rate, the water temperature difference, and the specific heat of the water is defined as
follows
The net refrigeration capacity in tons shall be obtained by the following equation:
The accurate temperature measurement is very vital in refrigeration and air conditioning and
least count should be at least one decimal.
Methods of measuring the flow

In the absence of an on-line flow meter the chilled water flow can be measured by the follow-
ing methods
• In case where hot well and cold well are available, the flow can be measured from the tank
level dip or rise by switching off the secondary pump.
• Non invasive method would require a well calibrated ultrasonic flow meter using which
the flow can be measured without disturbing the system
• If the waterside pressure drops are close to the design values, it can be assumed that the
water flow of pump is same as the design rated flow.
9.5.2 Measurement of compressor power

The compressor power can be measured by a portable power analyser which would give read-
ing directly in kW.
If not, the ampere has to be measured by the available on-line ammeter or by using a tong
tester. The power can then be calculated by assuming a power factor of 0.9
Power (kW) = √3 x V x I x cosφ

9.5.3 Performance calculations

The energy efficiency of a chiller is commonly expressed in one of the three following
ratios:
First calculate the kW/ton rating from the measured parameters.
a) kW/ton rating = Measured compressor power, kW

Net refrigeration Capacity (TR)
Use this data to calculate other energy efficiency parameters with the following
relations
COP = 0.293 EER EER = 3.413 COP

kW/Ton = 12 / EER EER = 12 / (kW/Ton)
kW/Ton = 3.516 / COP COP = 3.516 / (kW/Ton)
* Source : American Refrigeration Institute
b) Coefficient of performance (COP) = 3.516

kW/ton rating
c) Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER) = 12

kW/ton rating
9.5.4 Performance evaluation of air conditioning systems

For centralized air conditioning systems the air flow at the air handling unit (AHU) can be mea-
sured with an anemometer. The dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures can be measured at the
AHU inlet and outlet. The data can be used along with a psychrometric chart (Figure 9.1) to
determine the enthalpy (heat content of air at the AHU inelt and outlet)

Heat load (TR) = m x (hin – hout)

4.18 x 3024
m – mass flow rate of air, kg/hr

hin – enthalpy of inlet air at AHU, kJ/kg
hout – enthalpy of outlet air at AHU, kJ/kg
Heat load can also be calculated theoretically by estimating the various heat loads, both sen-
sible and latent, in the air-conditioned room (refer standard air conditioning handbooks). The
difference between these two indicates the losses by way of leakages, unwanted loads, heat
ingress etc.
9.6 Measurements to be Recorded During the Test

All instruments, including gauges and thermometers shall be calibrated over the range of test
readings for the measurement of following parameters.
Evaporator
a. Temperature of water entering evaporator
b. Temperature of water leaving evaporator
c. Chilled water flow rates
d. Evaporator water pressure drop (inlet to outlet)
Compressor
e. Power input to compressor electrical power, kW
9.7 Example
In a brewery chilling system, ethylene glycol is used a secondary refrigerant. The designed
capacity is 40 TR. A test was conducted to find out the operating capacity and energy perfor-
mance ratios. The flow was measured by switching off the secondary pump and measuring the
tank level difference in hot well.
Measurements data:
Temperature of ethylene glycol entering evaporator = (-) 1°C

Temperature of ethylene glycol leaving evaporator = (-) 4°C
Ethylene glycol flow rates = 13200 kg/hr
Evaporator ethylene glycol pressure drop (inlet to outlet) = 0.7 kg/cm2
Power input to compressor electrical power, kW = 39.5 kW
Specific heat capacity of ethylene glycol = 2.34 kCal/kg°C



QUESTIONS
1) What is meant by a ton of refrigeration?
2) Define the terms net refrigeration capacity, COP, energy efficiency ratio.
3) What is the relation between COP and kW/ton of refrigeration?
4) How would you calculate the heat load for a room to be air-conditioned?
5) If the power consumed by a refrigerating unit / ton of refrigeration is 2 kW then find
energy efficiency ratio?
REFERENCES
1. Refrigeration and Air Conditioning by Richard C.Jordan & Gayle B.Priester - Prentice
Hall of India pvt.ltd.
2. Modern Air Conditioning Practice by Norman C.Harris - McGraw-Hill International
Edition.

10. ENERGY PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT OF LIGHTING
SYSTEMS
10.1 Introduction
Lighting is provided in industries, commercial buildings, indoor and outdoor for
providing comfortable working environment. The primary objective is to provide the
required lighting effect for the lowest installed load i.e highest lighting at lowest power
consumption.

Most interior lighting requirements are for meeting average illuminance on a horizontal plane,
either throughout the interior, or in specific areas within the interior combined with general
lighting of lower value.
The purpose of performance test is to calculate the installed efficacy in terms of
lux/watt/m² (existing or design) for general lighting installation. The calculated value can
be compared with the norms for specific types of interior installations for assessing
improvement options.
The installed load efficacy of an existing (or design) lighting installation can be assessed
by carrying out a survey as indicated in the following pages.

Lumen is a unit of light flow or luminous flux. The lumen
rating of a lamp is a measure of the total light output of the
lamp. The most common measurement of light output (or
luminous flux) is the lumen. Light sources are labeled with
an output rating in lumens.
Lux is the metric unit of measure for illuminance of a sur-
face. One lux is equal to one lumen per square meter.
Circuit Watts is the total power drawn by lamps and ballasts in a lighting circuit under
assessment.
Installed Load Efficacy is the average maintained illuminance provided on a horizontal work-
ing plane per circuit watt with general lighting of an interior. Unit: lux per watt per square
metre (lux/W/m²)
Lamp Circuit Efficacy is the amount of light (lumens) emitted by a lamp for each watt of
power consumed by the lamp circuit, i.e. including control gear losses. This is a more
meaningful measure for those lamps that require control gear. Unit: lumens per circuit
watt (lm/W)
Installed Power Density. The installed power density per 100 lux is the power needed per
square metre of floor area to achieve 100 lux of average maintained illuminance on a horizon-

10. Energy Performance Assessment of Lighting Systems
tal working plane with general lighting of an interior. Unit: watts per square metre per 100 lux
(W/m²/100 lux)
100
Installed power density (W/m²/100 lux) = —————————————–
Installed load efficacy (lux/W/m²)
Installed Load Efficacy Ratio (ILER)

= Actual Lux/W/m² Target W/m²/100lux
——————— or ————————
Target Lux/W/m² Actual W/m²/100lux
Average maintained illuminance is the average of lux levels measured at various points in a
defined area.
Color Rendering Index (CRI) is a measure of the effect of light on the perceived color of objects.
To determine the CRI of a lamp, the color appearances of a set of standard color chips are measured
with special equipment under a reference light source with the same correlated color temperature as
the lamp being evaluated. If the lamp renders the color of the chips identical to the reference light
source, its CRI is 100. If the color rendering differs from the reference light source, the CRI is less
than 100. A low CRI indicates that some colors may appear unnatural when illuminated by the lamp.
10.4 Preparation (before Measurements)

Before starting the measurements, the following care should be taken:
• All lamps should be operating and no luminaires should be dirty or stained.
• There should be no significant obstructions to the flow of light throughout the interior,
especially at the measuring points.
• Accuracies of readings should be ensured by
– Using accurate illuminance meters for measurements
– Sufficient number and arrangement of measurement points within the interior
– Proper positioning of illuminance meter
– Ensuring that no obstructions /reflections from surfaces affect measurement.
• Other precautions
– If the illuminance meter is relatively old and has not been checked recently, it
should be compared with one that has been checked over a range of illuminances,
e.g. 100 to 600 lux, to establish if a correction factor should be applied.
– that the number and arrangement of measurement points are sufficient and
suitable to obtain a reasonably accurate assessment of the average illuminance
throughout an interior. The procedure recommended in the CIBSE Code for
such site measurements is as follows:
The interior is divided into a number of equal areas, which should be as square as possible.
The illuminance at the centre of each area is measured and the mean value calculated. This
gives an estimate of the average illuminance on the horizontal working plane.

10.5 Procedure for Assessment of Lighting Systems
10.5.1 To Determine the Minimum Number and Positions of Measurement Points
Calculate the Room Index: RI = LxW

————–
Hm(L + W)
Where L = length of interior; W = width of interior; Hm = the mounting height, which

is the height of the lighting fittings above the horizontal working plane. The working plane
is usually assumed to be 0.75m above the floor in offices and at 0.85m above floor level in
manufacturing areas.
It does not matter whether these dimensions are in metres, yards or feet as long as the
same unit is used throughout. Ascertain the minimum number of measurement points from
Table10.1.
TABLE 10.1 DETERMINATION OF

MEASUREMENT POINTS
Room Index Minimum number of

measurement points
Below 1 9
1 and below 2 16
2 and below 3 25
3 and above 36
To obtain an approximately "square array", i.e. the spacing between the points on
each axis to be approximately the same, it may be necessary to increase the number of
points.
For example, the dimensions of an interior are:
Length = 9m, Width = 5m, Height of luminaires above working plane (Hm) = 2m
Calculate RI = 9 x 5 = 1.607
2(9 + 5)
From Table 10.1 the minimum number of measurement points is 16

As it is not possible to approximate a "square array" of 16 points within such a rectan-
gle it is necessary to increase the number of points to say 18, i.e. 6 x 3. These should be
spaced as shown below:

Therefore in this example the spacing between points along rows along the length of the
interior = 9 ÷ 6 = 1.5m and the distance of the 'end' points from the wall = 1.5 ÷ 2 = 0.75m.
Similarly the distance between points across the width of the interior = 5 ÷ 3 = 1.67m with
half this value, 0.83m, between the 'end' points and the walls.
If the grid of the measurement points coincides with that of the lighting fittings, large errors
are possible and the number of measurement points should be increased to avoid such an
occurrence.
10.5.2 Calculation of the Installed Load Efficacy and Installed Load Efficacy Ratio of a
General Lighting Installation in an Interior
STEP 1 Measure the floor area of the interior: Area = -------------------- m²

STEP 2 Calculate the Room Index RI = -----------------------
STEP 3 Determine the total circuit watts of the installation by a power Total circuit watts = --------
meter if a separate feeder for lighting is available. If the actual
value is not known a reasonable approximation can be obtained by
totaling up the lamp wattages including the ballasts:
STEP 4 Calculate Watts per square metre, Value of step 3 ÷ value of step 1 W/m² = ----------------------
STEP 5 Ascertain the average maintained illuminance by
using lux meter, Eav. Maintained Eav.maint. = ----------------
STEP 6 Divide 5 by 4 to calculate lux per watt per square Metre Lux/W/m² = ---------------
STEP 7 Obtain target Lux/W/m² lux for type of the type of
interior/application and RI (2): Target Lux/W/m² =
STEP 8 Calculate Installed Load Efficacy Ratio ( 6 ÷ 7 ). ILER =

TABLE 10.2 Target lux/W/m² (W/m²/100lux) values for

maintained illuminance on horizontal
plane for all room indices and applica-
tions:
Ra : Colour rendering index
The principal difference between the targets for Commercial and Industrial Ra: 40-85
(Cols.2 & 3) of Table 10.2 is the provision for a slightly lower maintenance factor for the lat-
ter. The targets for very clean industrial applications, with Ra: of 40 -85, are as column 2.
10.5.3 ILER Assessment

Compare the calculated ILER with the information in Table 10.3.
TABLE 10.3 INDICATORS OF

PERFORMANCE
ILER Assessment
0.75 or over Satisfactory to Good
0.51 – 0.74 Review suggested
0.5 or less Urgent action required
ILER Ratios of 0.75 or more may be considered to be satisfactory. Existing installations

with ratios of 0.51 - 0.74 certainly merit investigation to see if improvements are possible. Of
course there can be good reasons for a low ratio, such as having to use lower efficacy lamps or
less efficient luminaires in order to achieve the required lighting result -but it is essential to
check whether there is a scope for a more efficient alternative. Existing installations with an
ILER of 0.5 or less certainly justify close inspection to identify options for converting the
installation to use more efficient lighting equipment.

Having derived the ILER for an existing lighting installation, then the difference between
the actual ILER and the best possible (1.0) can be used to estimate the energy wastage. For a
given installation:
Annual energy wastage (in kWh)
= (1.0 - ILER) x Total load (kW) x annual operating hours (h)
This process of comparing the installed load efficacy (ILE) with the target value for the
Room Index and type of application can also be used to assess the efficiency of designs for new
or replacement general lighting installations. If, when doing so, the calculated ILE (lux/W/m²)
is less than the target value then it is advisable to ascertain the reasons. It may be that the
requirements dictate a type of luminaire that is not as efficient as the best, or the surface
reflectances are less than the normal maxima, or the environment is dirty, etc., Whatever the
reasons, they should be checked to see if a more efficient solution is possible.
10.6 Example of ILER Calculation (for the room as mentioned in

paragraph 10.5.1)
STEP 1 Measure the floor area of the interior: Area = 45 m²

STEP 2 Calculate the Room Index RI = 1.93
STEP 3 Determine the total circuit watts of the installation by a power
meter if a separate feeder for lighting is available. If the actual Total circuit watts = 990 W
value is not known a reasonable approximation can be obtained by
totaling up the lamp wattages including the ballasts:
STEP 4 Calculate Watts per square metre, 3 ÷1 : W/m² = 22
STEP 5 Ascertain the average maintained illuminance, Eav. Maintained
(average lux levels measured at 18 points) Eav.maint. = 700
STEP 6 Divide 5 by 4 to calculate the actual lux per watt per square Metre Lux/W/m² = 31.8
STEP 7 Obtain target Lux/W/m² lux for type of the type of interior/
application and RI (2):(Refer Table 10.2) Target Lux/W/m² = 46
STEP 8 Calculate Installed Load Efficacy Ratio ( 6 ÷ 7 ). ILER = 0.7
Referring to table 3, ILER of 0.7 means that there is scope for review of the lighting system.
Annual energy wastage = (1 - ILER) x watts x no. of operating hours
= (1 - 0.7) x 990 x 8 hrs/day x 300 days
= 712 kWh/annum
10.7 Areas for Improvement
• Look for natural lighting opportunities through windows and other openings
• In the case of industrial lighting, explore the scope for introducing translucent sheets
• Assess scope for more energy efficient lamps and luminaries
• Assess the scope for rearrangement of lighting fixtures

10.8 Other Useful Information
10.8.1 IES - Recommendations

The Illuminating Engineering Society (IES) has published illuminance recommendations for
various activities. These tables cover both generic tasks (reading, writing etc), and 100's of
very specific tasks and activities (such as drafting, parking, milking cows, blowing glass and
baking bread).
All tasks fall into 1 of 9 illuminance categories, covering from 20 to 20,000 lux, (2 to 2000
foot candles). The categories are known as A - I, and each provide a range of 3 iluminance val-
ues (low, mid and high). See Table 10.4.
TABLE 10.4 IES ILLUMINANCE CATEGORIES AND VALUES - FOR GENERIC INDOOR
ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITY CATEGORY LUX FOOTCANDLES

Public spaces with dark surroundings A 20-30-50 2-3-5
Simple orientation for short temporary visits B 50-75-100 5-7.5-10
Working spaces where visual tasks are only C 100-150-200 10-15-20
occasionally performed
Performance of visual tasks of high contrast D 200-300-500 20-30-50
or large size
Performance of visual tasks of medium E 500-750-1000 50-75-100
contrast or small size
Performance of visual tasks of low contrast F 1000-1500-2000 100-150-200
or very small size
Performance of visual tasks of low contrast G 2000-3000-5000 200-300-500
or very small size over a prolonged period
Performance of very prolonged and exacting H 5000-7500-10000 500-750-1000
visual tasks
Performance of very special visual tasks of I 10000-15000-20000 1000-1500-2000
extremely low contrast
A-C for illuminances over a large area (i.e. lobby space)

D-F for localized tasks
G-I for extremely difficult visual tasks
10.8.2 Example Using IES Recommendations

Let us determine the appropriate light level for a card file area in a library.
Step 1: The visual task is reading card files in a library. A number of tasks are accomplished in
the room. In such a cases, a category is chosen based on the generic descriptions in the IES
Illuminance Category and Illuminance table discussed in step 3. For example, offices will usu-
ally require Category E: 500-750-1000 lux.

Step 2: More detailed task descriptions are given in the recommended illuminance level tables
in the IES Handbook. (For an intensive lighting survey) Under the task category "Libraries,"
subheading "Card files," the illuminance category is E.
Step 3: From the IES Illuminance Category and Ranges table, find category E and choose 500-750-
1000 lux for the range of illuminance recommended. The first column in the table is illuminance
values in units of lux, the metric version of footcandle. Notice that categories A through C are for
general illumination throughout the area, but D through I are for illuminance on the task. Categories
G through I would require a combination of general lighting and task lighting.
Step 4: Use the weighting factors to decide which of the values in the illuminance range to use.
Since libraries are public facilities, there may be many individuals over 55 years of age so select
the category 'Over 55' for a weighting factor of +1.
Next, decide whether the demand for speed and accuracy is not important, important or crit-
ical. Filing of cards correctly is not a critical activity, so the weighting factor of zero (0) is
selected. An example of critical might be drafting work. The task background reflectance for
black type on a white page is 85%. So choose "greater than 70 percent" for a weighting factor
of -1. The total weighting factor is 0. So use the middle recommended illuminance, or 750 lux.
For more detailed information on this the IES handbook may be referred.
10.8.3 Characteristics of Different Types of Lamps
Type Lamp Lumens Lamp Efficiency Choke Life of Capacitor Color

of Wattage (Lumens/Watt) Rating Lamp Rating Rendering
Lamp (Watts) (Watts) (Hours) Required Index
(Micro
farads)
HPSV 70 5600 80 13 15000 - 0.2 - 0.39 12
20000
HPSV 150 14000 93 20 15000 - 0.2 - 0.39 20
20000
HPSV 250 25000 100 20 15000 - 0.2 - 0.39 32
20000
HPSV 400 47000 118 40 15000 - 0.2 - 0.39 45
20000
HPSV 70 --- --- --- --- --- ---
Super
HPSV 100 9500 95 18 15000 - 0.2 - 0.39 ---
Super 20000
HPSV 150 15500 103 20 15000 - 0.2 - 0.39 ---
Super 20000
HPSV 250 30000 120 25 15000 - 0.2 - 0.39 ---
Super 20000
HPSV 400 54000 129 40 15000 - 0.2 - 0.39 ---

Super 20000
HPSV 600 --- --- --- --- --- ---
Super
HPMV 80 3400 43 9 4000 - 0.6 - 0.69 8
5000
HPMV 125 6300 50 12 4000 - 0.6 - 0.69 10
5000
HPMV 250 13000 52 16 4000 - 0.6 - 0.69 18
5000
HPMV 400 22000 55 25 4000 - 0.6 - 0.69 18
5000
Metal 70 4200 84 26 10000 0.9 - 0.93 ---
Halide
Metal 150 10500 70 20 10000 0.9 - 0.93 ---
Halide
Metal 250 19000 76 25 10000 0.9 - 0.93 ---
Halide
Metal 400 31000 76 60 10000 0.9 - 0.93 ---
Halide
Metal 1000 80000 80 65 10000 0.9 - 0.93 ---
Halide
FTL 40 2400 60 15 4400 0.8 - 0.89 3.2 - 3.8
FTL 36 3250 90 5 14000 0.8 - 0.89 3.2 - 3.8
Super

QUESTIONS
1) What is circuit watts?
2) Define ILER and its significance.
3) Distinguish between lux and lumens.
4) What do you understand by the term colour rendering index?
5) Define room index?
6) For a room of length 10 m and width 20 m, calculate room index?
7) For a room of 9 x 6 m, determine the appropriate number of measuring points for lux
levels?
8) What possible improvement measures you would look for in a general lighting sys-
tem?
9) Which of the following lamps has the maximum lamp efficiency?
(lumes/Watt) a) Metal Hallide b) Fluorescent c) Incandescent d) HPSV
REFERENCES
1. Illumination engineering for energy efficient luminous environments by Ronald N.
Helms, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
2. The 'LIGHTSWITCH' programme, Energy Saving Trust, UK

11. PERFORMING FINANCIAL ANALYSIS
11.1 Introduction
When planning an energy efficiency or energy management project, the costs involved
should always be considered. Therefore, as with any other type of investment, energy man-
agement proposals should show the likely return on any capital that is invested. Consider the
case of an energy auditor who advises the senior management of an organisation that capi-
tal should be invested in new boiler plant. Inevitably, the management of the organisation
would ask:
• How much will the proposal cost?
• How much money will be saved by the proposal?
These are, of course, not unreasonable questions, since within any organisation there are
many worthy causes, each of which requires funding and it is the job of senior management to
invest in capital where it is going to obtain the greatest return. In order to make a decision about
any course of action, management needs to be able to appraise all the costs involved in a pro-
ject and determine the potential returns.
This however, is not quite as simple as it might first appear. The capital value of plant
or equipment usually decreases with time and it often requires more maintenance as it gets
older. If money is borrowed from a bank to finance a project, then interest will have to be
paid on the loan. Inflation too will influence the value of any future energy savings that
might be achieved. It is therefore important that the cost appraisal process allows for all
these factors, with the aim of determining which investments should be undertaken, and of
optimising the benefits achieved. To this end a number of accounting and financial appraisal
techniques have been developed which help energy managers and auditors make correct and
objective decisions.
The financial issues associated with capital investment in energy saving projects are inves-
tigated in this chapter. In particular, the discounted cash flow techniques of net present value
and internal rate of return are discussed in detail.
11.2 Fixed and Variable Costs

When appraising the potential costs involved in a project it is important to understand the dif-
ference between fixed and variable costs. Variable costs are those which vary directly with the
output of a particular plant or production process, such as fuel costs. Fixed costs are those costs,
which are not dependent on plant or process output, such as site-rent and insurance. The total
cost of any project is therefore the sum of the fixed and variable costs. Example 1 illustrates
how both fixed and variable costs combine to make the total operating cost.
Example 1
The capital cost of the DG set is Rs.9,00,000, the annual output is 219 MWh, and the mainte-
nance cost is Rs.30,000 per annum. The cost of producing each unit of electricity is 3.50
Rs./kWh. The total cost of a diesel generator operating over a 5-year period, taking into con-
sideration both fixed and variable cost is:

11. Performing Financial Analysis
Item Type of cost Calculation Cost

Capital cost of generator Fixed - 9,00,000
Annual maintenance Fixed 30,000 x 5 (years) 1,50,000
Fuel cost Variable 219,000 x 3.50 x 5 3,83,2500
Total cost 4,88,2500
From Example 1, it can be seen that the fixed costs represent 21.5% of the total cost. In fact,
the annual electricity output of 219 MWh assumes that the plant is operating with an average
output of 50 kW. If this output were increased to an average of 70 kW, then the fuel cost would
become Rs. 53,65,500, with the result that the fixed costs would drop to 16.37% of the total.
Thus the average unit cost of production decreases as output increases.
The concept of fixed and variable costs can be used to determine the break-even point
for a proposed project. The break-even point can be determined by using the following
equation.
Example 2
If the electricity bought from a utility company costs an average of Rs.4.5/kWh, the break-
even point for the generator described in Example 1, when the average output is 50 kW is
given by:
4.5 x 50 x n = (9,00,000 + 150000) + (3.5 x 50 x n)
n = 21000 hours
If the average output is 70 kW, the break-even point is given by:
4.5 x 70 x n = (9,00,000 + 150000) + (3.50 x 70 x n)
n = 15000 hours
Thus, increasing the average output of the generator significantly reduces the break-even
time for the project. This is because the capital investment (i.e. the generator) is being better
utilised.

11.3 Interest Charges

In order to finance projects, organizations often borrow money from banks or other leading
organizations. Projects financed in this way cost more than similar projects financed from
organisation's own funds, because interest charges must be paid on the loan. It is therefore
important to understand how interest charges are calculated. Interest charges can be calculated
by lending organization in two different ways: simple interest and compound interest.
(i) Simple interest: If simple interest is applied, then charges are calculated as a fixed per-
centage of the capital that is borrowed. A fixed interest percentage is applied to each year of
the loan and repayments are calculated using the equation.
(ii) Compound interest: Compound interest is usually calculated annually (although this is
not necessarily the case). The interest charged is calculated as a percentage of the outstanding
loan at the end of each time period. It is termed 'compound' because the outstanding loan is
the sum of the unpaid capital and the interest charges up to that point. The value of the total
repayment can be calculated using the equation.
Example 3
A company borrows Rs.3,00,00,00 to finance a new boiler installation. If the interest rate is
10% per annum and the repayment period is 5 years, let us calculate the value of the total
repayment and the monthly repayment value, assuming (i) simple interest and (ii) compound
interest.
(i) Assuming simple interest:

Total repayment = 30,00,000 + (10/100 x 30,00,000 x 5) = Rs.45,00,000
Monthly repayment = 45,00,000 / (5 x 12) = Rs.75,000
(ii) Assuming compound interest

Repayment at end of year 1 = 30,00,000 + (10/100 x 30,00,000) = Rs.33,00,000
Repayment at end of year 2 = 33,00,000 + (10/100 x 33,00,000) = Rs.36,30,000

Similarly, the repayments at the end of years 3, 4 and 5 can be calculated:

Repayment at end of year 3 = Rs. 39,93,000
Repayment at end of year 4 = Rs. 43,92,300
Repayment at end of year 5 = Rs. 48,31530
Alternatively, the following equation can be used to determine the compound interest repay-
ment value.
Total repayment value = 30,00,000 x (1 + 10 / 100)5 = Rs.48,31,530

4831530
Monthly repayment = = Rs.80,525
5 x 12
It can be seen that by using compound interest, the lender recoups an additional Rs.33,1530.
It is not surprisingly lenders usually charge compound interest on loans.
11.4 Simple Payback Period

This is the simplest technique that can be used to appraise a proposal. The simple payback peri-
od can be defined as 'the length of time required for the running total of net savings before
depreciation to equal the capital cost of the project'. In theory, once the payback period has
ended, all the project capital costs will have been recouped and any additional cost savings
achieved can be seen as clear 'profit'. Obviously, the shorter the payback period, the more
attractive the project becomes. The length of the maximum permissible payback period gener-
ally varies with the business culture concerned. In some companies, payback periods in excess
of 3 years are considered acceptable.
The payback period can be calculated using the equation
The annual net cost saving (AS) is the least savings achieved after all the operational costs have
been met. Simple payback period is illustrated in Example 4.

Example 4
A new small cogeneration plant installation is expected to reduce a company's annual energy
bill by Rs.4,86,000. If the capital cost of the new boiler installation is Rs.22,20,000 and the
annual maintenance and operating costs are Rs. 42,000, the expected payback period for the
project can be worked out as.
Solution
PB = 22,20,000 / (4,86,000 – 42,000) = 5.0 years
11. 5 Discounted Cash Flow Methods

The payback method is a simple technique, which can easily be used to provide a quick evalu-
ation of a proposal. However, it has a number of major weaknesses:
• The payback method does not consider savings that are accrued after the payback period
has finished.
• The payback method does not consider the fact that money, which is invested, should
accrue interest as time passes. In simple terms there is a 'time value' component to cash
flows. Thus Rs.1000 today is more valuable than Rs.1000 in 10 years' time.
In order to overcome these weaknesses a number of discounted cash flow techniques have
been developed, which are based on the fact that money invested in a bank will accrue annual
interest. The two most commonly used techniques are the 'net present value' and the 'internal
rate of return' methods.
Net Present Value Method

The net present value method considers the fact that a cash saving (often referred to as a
'cash flow') of Rs.1000 in year 10 of a project will be worth less than a cash flow of Rs.1000
in year 2. The net present value method achieves this by quantifying the impact of time on
any particular future cash flow. This is done by equating each future cash flow to its current
value today, in other words determining the present value of any future cash flow. The pre-
sent value (PV) is determined by using an assumed interest rate, usually referred to as a dis-
count rate. Discounting is the opposite process to compounding. Compounding determines
the future value of present cash flows, where" discounting determines the present value of
future cash flows.
In order to understand the concept of present vale, consider the case described in Example 3.
If instead of installing a new cogeneration system, the company invested Rs.22,20,000 in a
bank at an annual interest rate of 8%, then:
The value of the sum at the end of year 1 = 22,20,000 + (0.08 x 22,20,000) = Rs.23,97,600
The value of the sum at the end of year 2 = 23,97,600 + (0.08 x 23,97,600) = Rs.25,89,408
The value of the investment would grow as compound interest is added, until after n years
the value of the sum would be:

Example :
The future value of the investment made at present, after 5 years will be:
FV = 22,20,000 x (1 + 8/100)5 = Rs.32,61,908.4
So in 5 years the initial investment of 22,20,000 will accrue Rs.10,41,908.4 in interest and will
be worth Rs.32,61,908.4. Alternatively, it could equally be said that Rs.32,61908.4 in 5 years
time is worth Rs.22,20,000 now (assuming an annual interest rate of 8%). In other words the
present value of Rs.32,61,908.40 in 5 years time is Rs.22,00,000 now.
The present value of an amount of money at any specified time in the future can be deter-
mined by the following equation.
The net present value method calculates the present value of all the yearly cash flows (i.e.
capital costs and net savings) incurred or accrued throughout the life of a project, and summates
them. Costs are represented as a negative value and savings as a positive value. The sum of all
the present values is known as the net present value (NPV). The higher the net present value,
the more attractive the proposed project.
The present value of a future cash flow can be determined using the equation above.
However, it is common practice to use a discount factor (DF) when calculating present value.
The discount factor is based on an assumed discount rate (i.e. interest rate) and can be deter-
mined by using equation.
DF = (1 + IR/100)–n
The product of a particular cash flow and the discount factor is the present value.
PV = S x DF
The values of various discount factors computed for a range of discount rates (i.e. interest rates)
are shown in Table 11.1. The Example 5 illustrates the process involved in a net present value
analysis.

TABLE 11.1COMPUTED DISCOUNT FACTORS
Discount rate % (or interest rate %)

Year 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
0 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
1 0.980 0.962 0.943 0.926 0.909 0.893 0.877 0.862
2 0.961 0.825 0.890 0.857 0.826 0.797 0.769 0.743
3 0.942 0.889 0.840 0.794 0.751 0.712 0.675 0.641
4 0.924 0.855 0.792 0.735 0.683 0.636 0.592 0.552
5 0.906 0.822 0.747 0.681 0.621 0.567 0.519 0.476
6 0.888 0.790 0.705 0.630 0.564 0.507 0.456 0.410
7 0.871 0.760 0.665 0.583 0.513 0.452 0.400 0.354
8 0.853 0.731 0.627 0.540 0.467 0.404 0.351 0.305
9 0.837 0.703 0.592 0.500 0.424 0.361 0.308 0.263
10 0.820 0.676 0.558 0.463 0.386 0.322 0.270 0.227
11 0.804 0.650 0.527 0.429 0.350 0.287 0.237 0.195
12 0.788 0.625 0.497 0.397 0.319 0.257 0.208 0.168
13 0.773 0.601 0.469 0.368 0.290 0.229 0.182 0.145
14 0.758 0.577 0.442 0.340 0.263 0.205 0.160 0.125
15 0.743 0.555 0.417 0.315 0.239 0.183 0.140 0.108
16 0.728 0.534 0.394 0.292 0.218 0.163 0.123 0.093
17 0.714 0.513 0.371 0.270 0.198 0.146 0.108 0.080
18 0.700 0.494 0.350 0.250 0.180 0.130 0.095 0.069
19 0.686 0.475 0.331 0.232 0.164 0.116 0.083 0.060
20 0.673 0.456 0.312 0.215 0.149 0.104 0.073 0.051
Example 5
Using the net present value analysis technique, let us evaluate the financial merits of the proposed
projects shown in the Table below. Assume an annual discount rate of 8% for each project.
Project – 1 Project – 2
Capital cost (Rs.) 30 000.00 30 000.00
Year Net annual saving (Rs.) Net annual saving (Rs.)
1 +6 000.00 +6 600.00
2 +6 000.00 +6 600.00
3 +6 000.00 +6 300.00

4 +6 000.00 +6 300.00
5 +6 000.00 +6 000.00
6 +6 000.00 +6 000.00
7 +6 000.00 +5 700.00
8 +6 000.00 +5 700.00
9 +6 000.00 +5 400.00
10 +6 000.00 +5 400.00
Total net saving at +60 000.00 + 60 000.00
end of year 10
Solution
The annual cash flows should be multiplied by the annual discount factors for a rate of 8% to
determine the annual present values, as shown in the Table below:
Year Discount Project 1 Project 2

Factor for Net Present Net Present
8% savings value (Rs.) savings value (Rs.)
(a) (Rs.) (a x b) (Rs.) (a x c)
(b) (c)
0 1.000 –30 000.00 –30 000.00 –30 000.00 –30 000.00
1 0.926 +6 000.00 +5 556.00 +6 600.00 +6 111.60
2 0.857 +6 000.00 +5 142.00 +6 600.00 +5 656.20
3 0.794 +6 000.00 +4 764.00 +6 300.00 +5 002.20
4 0.735 +6 000.00 +4 410.00 +6 300.00 +4 630.50
5 0.681 +6 000.00 +4 086.00 +6 000.00 +4 086.00
6 0.630 +6 000.00 +3 780.00 +6 000.00 +3 780.00
7 0.583 +6 000.00 +3 498.00 +5 700.00 +3323.10
8 0.540 +6 000.00 +3 240.00 +5 700.00 +3 078.00
9 0.500 +6 000.00 +3 000.00 +5 400.00 +2 700.00
10 0.463 +6 000.00 +2 778.00 +5 400.00 +2 500.20
NPV = +10 254.00 NPV = +10 867.80
It can be seen that over a 10 year life-span the net present value for Project 1 is
Rs.10,254.00, while for Project 2 it is Rs.10,867.80. Therefore Project 2 is the preferential
proposal.

The whole credibility of the net present value method depends on a realistic prediction of
future interest rates, which can often be unpredictable. It is prudent therefore to set the discount
rate slightly above the interest rate at which the capital for the project is borrowed. This will
ensure that the overall analysis is slightly pessimistic, thus acting against the inherent uncertain
ties in predicting future savings.
Internal rate of return method

It can be seen from Example 5 that both projects returned a positive net present value over 10
years, at a discount rate of 8%. However, if the discount rate were reduced there would come a
point when the net present value would become zero. It is clear that the discount rate which
must be applied, in order to achieve a net present value of zero, will be higher for Project 2 than
for Project 1. This means that the average rate of return for Project 2 is higher than for Project
1, with the result that Project 2 is the better proposition.
Example 6 illustrates how an internal rate of return analysis is performed.
Example 6
A proposed project requires an initial capital investment of Rs.20 000. The cash flows generat-
ed by the project are shown in the table below:
Year Cash flow (Rs.)

0 –20,000.00
1 +6000.00
2 +5500.00
3 +5000.00
4 +4500.00
5 +4000.00
6 +4000.00
Given the above cash flow data, let us find out the internal rate of return for the project.

Solution
Cash 8% discount rate 12% discount rate 16% discount rate

flow Discount Present Discount Present Discount Present
(Rs.) factor value factor value factor value
(Rs.) (Rs.) (Rs.)
0 –20000 1.000 –20000 1.000 –20000 1.000 –20000
1 6000 0.926 5556 0.893 5358 0.862 5172
2 5500 0.857 4713.5 0.797 4383.5 0.743 4086.5
3 5000 0.794 3970 0.712 3560 0.641 3205
4 4500 0.735 3307.5 0.636 3862 0.552 2484
5 4000 0.681 2724 0.567 2268 0.476 1904
6 4000 0.630 2520 0.507 2028 0.410 1640
NPV = 2791 NPV = 459.5 NPV = –1508.5
It can clearly be seen that the discount rate which results in the net present value being zero
lies somewhere between 12% and 16%.
For12% discount rate, NPV is positive; for 16% discount rate, NPV is negative. Thus
for some discount rate between 12 and 16 percent, present value benefits are equated to
present value costs. To find the value exactly, one can interpolate between the two rates
as follows:
459.5
Internal rate of return = 0.12 + (0.16 – 0.12) x x 100
(459.5 – (–1508.5))
459.5
Internal rate of return = 0.12 + (0.16 – 0.12) x x 100 = 12.93%
(459.5 + 1508.5)
Thus the internal rate of return for the project is 12.93 %. At first sight both the net present
value and internal rate of return methods look very similar, and in some respects are. Yet there
is an important difference between the two. The net present value method is essentially a com-
parison tool, which enables a number of projects to be compared, while the internal rate of
return method is designed to assess whether or not a single project will achieve a target rate of
return.
Profitability index
Another technique, which can be used to evaluate the financial viability of projects, is the prof-
itability index. The profitability index can be defined as:

The application of profitability index is illustrated in Example 7.
Example 7
Determine the profitability index for the projects outlined in Example 5
10254
For Project 1: Profitability index = = 0.342
30,000
10867
For Project 2: Profitability index = = 0.362
30,000
Project 2 is therefore a better proposal than Project 1.
11.6 Factors Affecting Analysis

Although the Examples 5 and 6 illustrate the basic principles associated with the financial
analysis of projects, they do not allow for the following important considerations:
• The capital value of plant and equipment generally depreciates over time
• General inflation reduces the value of savings as time progresses. For example, Rs.1000
saved in 1 year's time will be worth more than Rs.1000 saved in 10 years time.
The capital depreciation of an item of equipment can be considered in terms of its salvage
value at the end of the analysis period. The Example 8 illustrates the point.
Example 8
It is proposed to install a heat recovery equipment in a factory. The capital cost of installing the
equipment is Rs.20,000 and after 5 years its salvage value is Rs.1500. If the savings accrued by
the heat recovery device are as shown below, we have to find out the net present value after
5 years. Discount rate is assumed to be 8%.
Data
Year 1 2 3 4 5
7000 6000 6000 5000 5000

Solution
Year Discount Capital Net Present

Factor for Investment Savings Value
8% (Rs.) (Rs.) (Rs.)
(a) (b) (c) (a) x (b + c)
0 1,000 –20,000.00 –20,000.00
1 0.926 +7000.00 +6482.00
2 0.857 +6000.00 +5142.00
3 0.794 +6000.00 +4764.00
4 0.735 +6000.00 +3675.00
5 0.681 +1,500.00 +5000.00 +4426.50
NPV = +4489.50
It is evident that over a 5-year life span the net present value of the project is Rs.4489.50.
Had the salvage value of the equipment not been considered, the net present value of the pro-
ject would have been only Rs.3468.00.
Real value
Inflation can be defined as the rate of increase in the average price of goods and services. In
some countries, inflation is expressed in terms of the retail price index (RPI), which is deter-
mined centrally and reflects average inflation over a range of commodities. Because of infla-
tion, the real value of cash flow decreases with time. The real value of sum of money (S)
realised in n years time can be determined using the equation.
RV = S x (1 + R/100)–n
Where RV is the real value of S realized in n years time. S is the value of cash flow in n
years time and R is the inflation rate (%).
As with the discount factor it is common practice to use an inflation factor when assessing
the impact of inflation on a project. The inflation factor can be determined using the equation.
IF = (1 + R/100)–n
The product of a particular cash flow and inflation factor is the real value of the cash flow.
RV = S x IF
The application of inflation factors is considered in Example 9.
Example 9
Recalculate the net present value of the energy recovery scheme in Example 8, assuming the
discount rate remains at 8% and that the rate of inflation is 5%.

Solution
Because of inflation; Real interest rate = Discount rate – Rate of inflation
Therefore Real interest rate = 8 – 5 = 3%
Year Capital Net real Inflation Net real Real Present

Investment Savings Factor Savings Discount Value
(Rs.) (Rs.) For 5% (Rs.) Factor (Rs.)
For 3%
0 –20,000.00 1.000 –20,000.00 1.000 –20,000.00
1 +7000.00 0.952 +6664.00 0.971 +6470.74
2 +6000.00 0.907 +5442.00 0.943 +5131.81
3 +6000.00 0.864 +5184.00 0.915 +4743.36
4 +5000.00 0.823 +4145.00 0.888 +3654.12
5 +1500.00 +5000.00 0.784 +5096.00 0.863 +4397.85
NPV = +4397.88
The Example 9 shows that when inflation is assumed to be 5%, the net present value of the
project reduces from Rs.4489.50 to Rs.4397.88. This is to be expected, because general infla-
tion will always erode the value of future 'profits' accrued by a project.

QUESTIONS
1. Why fresh investments are needed for energy conservation in industry ?
2. Cost of an heat exchanger is Rs.1.00 lakhs. Calculate simple pay back period consid-
ering annual saving potential of Rs.60,000/- and annual operating cost of
Rs.15,000/-.
3. What is the main draw back of simple pay back method?
4. Calculate simple pay back period for a boiler that cost Rs.75.00 lakhs to purchase
and Rs.5 lakhs per year on an average to operate and maintain and is expected to
save Rs.30 lakhs.
5. What are the advantages of simple pay back method?
6. What do you understand by the term " present value of money"?
7. Define ROI.
8. What is the objective of carrying out sensitivity analysis?
9. You are investing Rs.100 in a bank. The bank gives 10% interest per year for two
years. What is the present value and what is the future value?
REFERENCES
1. Energy Management, Supply and Conservation, Dr. Clive Beggs, .Butterworth
Heinemann

12. APPLICATION OF NON-CONVENTIONAL &
RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES
12.1 Concept of Renewable Energy

Renewable energy sources also called non-conventional energy, are sources that are continu-
ously replenished by natural processes. For example, solar energy, wind energy, bio-energy -
bio-fuels grown sustain ably), hydropower etc., are some of the examples of renewable energy
sources
A renewable energy system converts the energy found in sunlight, wind, falling-water, sea-
waves, geothermal heat, or biomass into a form, we can use such as heat or electricity. Most of
the renewable energy comes either directly or indirectly from sun and wind and can never be
exhausted, and therefore they are called renewable.
However, most of the world's energy sources are derived from conventional sources-fossil
fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gases. These fuels are often termed non-renewable energy
sources. Although, the available quantity of these fuels are extremely large, they are neverthe-
less finite and so will in principle 'run out' at some time in the future
Renewable energy sources are essentially flows of energy, whereas the fossil and nuclear
fuels are, in essence, stocks of energy
Various forms of renewable energy

Solar energy
Wind energy
Bio energy
Hydro energy
Geothermal energy
Wave and tidal energy
This chapter focuses on application potential of commercially viable renewable energy
sources such as solar, wind, bio and hydro energy in India.
12.2 Solar Energy

Solar energy is the most readily available and free
source of energy since prehistoric times. It is esti-
mated that solar energy equivalent to over 15,000
times the world's annual commercial energy con-
sumption reaches the earth every year.
India receives solar energy in the region of 5 to
7 kWh/m2 for 300 to 330 days in a year. This ener-
gy is sufficient to set up 20 MW solar power plant per square kilometre land area.
Solar energy can be utilised through two different routes, as solar thermal route and solar
electric (solar photovoltaic) routes. Solar thermal route uses the sun's heat to produce hot water
or air, cook food, drying materials etc. Solar photovoltaic uses sun's heat to produce electricity
for lighting home and building, running motors, pumps, electric appliances, and lighting.

12. Application of Non-Conventional & Renewable Energy Sources
Solar Thermal Energy Application

In solar thermal route, solar energy can be converted into thermal energy with the help of solar
collectors and receivers known as solar thermal devices.
The Solar-Thermal devices can be classified into three categories:
Low-Grade Heating Devices - up to the temperature of 100°C.
Medium-Grade Heating Devices -up to the temperature of 100°-300°C
High-Grade Heating Devices -above temperature of 300°C
Low-grade solar thermal devices are used in solar water heaters, air-heaters, solar cookers
and solar dryers for domestic and industrial applications.
Solar water heaters

Most solar water heating systems have two main parts: a
solar collector and a storage tank. The most common col-
lector is called a flat-plate collector (see Figure 12.1). It
consists of a thin, flat, rectangular box with a transparent
cover that faces the sun, mounted on the roof of building
or home. Small tubes run through the box and carry the
fluid - either water or other fluid, such as an antifreeze
solution – to be heated. The tubes are attached to an
absorber plate, which is painted with special coatings to
absorb the heat. The heat builds up in the collector, which
is passed to the fluid passing through the tubes. Figure 12.1 Solar Flat plate collector
An insulated storage tank holds the hot water. It is
similar to water heater, but larger is size. In case of systems that use fluids, heat is passed from
hot fluid to the water stored in the tank through a coil of tubes.
Solar water heating systems can be either active or passive systems. The active system,
which are most common, rely on pumps to move the liquid between the collector and
the storage tank. The passive systems rely on gravity and the tendency for water to
naturally circulate as it is heated. A few industrial application of solar water heaters are list-
ed below:
❑ Hotels: Bathing, kitchen, washing, laundry applications
❑ Dairies: Ghee (clarified butter) production, cleaning and sterilizing, pasteurization
❑ Textiles: Bleaching, boiling, printing, dyeing, curing, ageing and finishing
❑ Breweries & Distilleries: Bottle washing, wort preparation, boiler feed heating
❑ Chemical /Bulk drugs units: Fermentation of mixes, boiler feed applications
❑ Electroplating/galvanizing units: Heating of plating baths, cleaning, degreasing applica-
tions
❑ Pulp and paper industries: Boiler feed applications, soaking of pulp.
Solar Cooker
Solar cooker is a device, which uses solar energy for cooking, and thus saving fossil fuels, fuel
wood and electrical energy to a large extent. However, it can only supplement the cooking fuel,
and not replace it totally. It is a simple cooking unit, ideal for domestic cooking during most of
the year except during the monsoon season, cloudy days and winter months

Box type solar cookers: The box type solar cookers with a
single reflecting mirror are the most popular in India.
These cookers have proved immensely popular in rural
areas where women spend considerable time for collecting
firewood. A family size solar cooker is sufficient for 4 to
5 members and saves about 3 to 4 cylinders of LPG every
year. The life of this cooker is upto 15 years. This cooker
costs around Rs.1000 after allowing for subsidy. Solar
cookers.(Figure 12.2) are widely available in the market. Figure 12.2 Box Type Solar Collector
Parabolic concentrating solar cooker:
A parabolic solar concentrator comprises of sturdy Fibre
Reinforced Plastic (FRP) shell lined with Stainless Steel
(SS) reflector foil or aluminised polyester film. It can accom-
modate a cooking vessel at its focal point. This cooker is
designed to direct the solar heat to a secondary reflector
inside the kitchen, which focuses the heat to the bottom of a
cooking pot. It is also possible to actually fry, bake and roast
food. This system generates 500 kg of steam, which is
enough to cook two meals for 500 people (see Figure 12.3).
This cooker costs upward of Rs.50,000.
Positioning of solar panels or collectors can greatly
influence the system output, efficiency and payback. Tilting
mechanisms provided to the collectors need to be adjusted
according to seasons (summer and winter) to maximise the
collector efficiency.
The period four to five hours in late morning and early
Figure 12.3 Parabolic Collector
afternoon (between 9 am to 3pm) is commonly called the
"Solar Window". During this time, 80% of the total collectable energy for the day falls on
a solar collector. Therefore, the collector should be free from shade during this solar win-
dow throughout the year - Shading, may arise from buildings or trees to the south of the
location.
Solar Electricity Generation
Solar Photovoltaic (PV): Photovoltaic is the technical
term for solar electric. Photo means "light" and voltaic
means "electric". PV cells are usually made of silicon,
an element that naturally releases electrons when
exposed to light. Amount of electrons released from
silicon cells depend upon intensity of light incident
on it. The silicon cell is covered with a grid of
metal that directs the electrons to flow in a path
to create an electric current. This current is guided
into a wire that is connected to a battery or DC appli-
ance. Typically, one cell produces about 1.5 watts of
power. Individual cells are connected together to form a Figure 12.4 Solar Photovoltaic Array

solar panel or module, capable of producing 3 to 110 Watts power. Panels can be connected
together in series and parallel to make a solar array (see Figure 12.4), which can produce
any amount of Wattage as space will allow. Modules are usually designed to supply
electricity at 12 Volts. PV modules are rated by their peak Watt output at solar noon on a
clear day.
Some applications for PV systems are lighting for commercial buildings, outdoor (street)
lighting (see Figure 12.5),
rural and village lighting
etc. Solar electric power
systems can offer indepen-
dence from the utility grid
and offer protection during
extended power failures.
Solar PV systems are
found to be economical
especially in the hilly and Figure 12.5 Photovoltaic Domestic and Streetlights
far flung areas where con-
ventional grid power supply will be expensive to reach.
PV tracking systems is an alternative to the fixed, stationary PV panels. PV tracking sys-

tems are mounted and provided with tracking mechanisms to follow the sun as it moves through
the sky. These tracking systems run entirely on their own power and can increase output by
40%.
Back-up systems are necessary since PV systems only generate electricity when the sun is
shining. The two most common methods of backing up solar electric systems are connecting the
system to the utility grid or storing excess electricity in batteries for use at night or on cloudy
days.
Performance
The performance of a solar cell is measured in terms of its efficiency at converting sunlight into
electricity. Only sunlight of certain energy will work efficiently to create electricity, and much
of it is reflected or absorbed by the material that make up the cell. Because of this, a typical
commercial solar cell has an efficiency of 15%—only about one-sixth of the sunlight striking
the cell generates electricity. Low efficiencies mean that larger arrays are needed, and higher
investment costs. It should be noted that the first solar cells, built in the 1950s, had efficiencies
of less than 4%.
Solar Water Pumps

In solar water pumping system, the pump is driven by motor run by solar electricity instead
of conventional electricity drawn from utility grid. A SPV water pumping system consists of
a photovoltaic array mounted on a stand and a motor-pump set compatible with the photo-
voltaic array. It converts the solar energy into electricity, which is used for running the motor
pump set. The pumping system draws water from the open well, bore well, stream, pond,
canal etc

Case Example:
Under the Solar Photovolatic
Water Pumping Programme
of the Ministry of Non-
conventional Energy Sources
during 2000-01 the Punjab
Energy Development Agency
(PEDA) has completed
installation of 500 solar
pumps in Punjab for agricul-
tural uses.
Under this project, 1800
watt PV array was coupled
with a 2 HP DC motor pump Figure 12.6 Photovoltaic Water Pumping
set. The system is capable of
delivering about 140,000 litres water every day from a depth of about 6 – 7 metres. This quan-
tity of water is considered adequate for irrigating about 5 – 8 acres land holding for most of the
crops. Refer Figure 12.6.
12.3 Wind Energy

Wind energy is basically harnessing of wind power to
produce electricity. The kinetic energy of the wind is
converted to electrical energy. When solar radiation enters
the earth's atmosphere, different regions of the atmosphere
are heated to different degrees because of earth curvature.
This heating is higher at the equator and lowest at the poles.
Since air tends to flow from warmer to cooler regions,
this causes what we call winds, and it is these airflows that
are harnessed in windmills and wind turbines to produce
power.
Wind power is not a new development as this power, in the
form of traditional windmills -for grinding corn, pumping
water, sailing ships - have been used for centuries. Now wind
power is harnessed to generate electricity in a larger scale with
better technology.
Wind Energy Technology

The basic wind energy conversion device is the wind turbine. Although various designs and
configurations exist, these turbines are generally grouped into two types:
1. Vertical-axis wind turbines, in which the axis of rotation is vertical with respect to the
ground (and roughly perpendicular to the wind stream),
2. Horizontal-axis turbines, in which the axis of rotation is horizontal with respect to the
ground (and roughly parallel to the wind stream.)

Figure 12.7 Wind Turbine Configuration
The Figure 12.7 illustrates the two types of turbines and typical subsystems for an electric-
ity generation application. The subsystems include a blade or rotor, which converts the energy
in the wind to rotational shaft energy; a drive train, usually including a gearbox and a genera-
tor, a tower that supports the rotor and drive train, and other equipment, including controls, elec-
trical cables, ground support equipment, and interconnection equipment.
Wind electric generators (WEG)

Wind electric generator converts kinetic energy available in wind to electrical energy by using
rotor, gear box and generator. There are a large number of manufacturers for wind electric gen-
erators in India who have foreign collaboration with different manufacturers of Denmark,
Germany, Netherlands, Belgium, USA, Austria, Sweden, Spain, and U.K. etc. At present,
WEGs of rating ranging from 225 kW to 1000 kW are being installed in our country.
Evaluating Wind Mill Performance

Wind turbines are rated at a certain wind speed and annual energy output
Annual Energy Output = Power x Time

Example: For a 100 kW turbine producing 20 kW at an average wind speed of 25 km/h, the cal-
culation would be:
100 kW x 0.20 (CF) = 20 kW x 8760 hours = 175,200 kWh
The Capacity Factor (CF) is simply the wind turbine's actual energy output for the year
divided by the energy output if the machine operated at its rated power output for the entire
year. A reasonable capacity factor would be 0.25 to 0.30 and a very good capacity factor would
be around 0.40. It is important to select a site with good capacity factor, as economic viability
of wind power projects is extremely sensitive to the capacity factor.
Wind Potential
In order for a wind energy system to be feasible there must be an adequate wind supply. A wind
energy system usually requires an average annual wind speed of at least 15 km/h. The following
table represents a guideline of different wind speeds and their potential in producing electricity.

Average Wind Speed Suitability

km/h (mph)
Up to 15 (9.5) No good
18 (11.25) Poor
22 (13.75) Moderate
25 (15.5) Good
29 (18) Excellent
A wind generator will produce lesser power in summer than in winter at the same wind
speed as air has lower density in summer than in winter.
Similarly, a wind generator will produce lesser power in higher altitudes - as air pressure as
well as density is lower -than at lower altitudes.
The wind speed is the most important factor influencing the amount of energy a wind tur-
bine can produce. Increasing wind velocity increases the amount of air passing the rotor, which
increases the output of the wind system.
In order for a wind system to be effective, a relatively consistent wind flow is required.
Obstructions such as trees or hills can interfere with the wind supply to the rotors. To avoid
this, rotors are placed on top of towers to take advantage of the strong winds available
high above the ground. The towers are generally placed 100 metres away from the nearest
obstacle. The middle of the rotor is placed 10 metres above any obstacle that is within
100 metres.
Wind Energy in India

India has been rated as one of the most promising countries for wind power development, with
an estimated potential of 20,000 MW. Total installed capacity of wind electric generators in the
world as on Sept. 2001 is 23270 MW. Germany 8100 MW, Spain- 3175 MW, USA 4240 MW,
Denmark 2417 MW, and India - 1426 MW top the list of countries. Thus, India ranks fifth in
the world in Wind power generation.
There are 39 wind potential stations in Tamil Nadu, 36 in Gujarat, 30 in Andhra Pradesh, 27
in Maharashtra, 26 in Karnataka, 16 in Kerala, 8 in Lakshadweep, 8 Rajasthan, 7 in Madhya
Pradesh, 7 in Orissa, 2 in West Bengal, 1 in Andaman Nicobar and 1 in Uttar Pradesh. Out of
208 suitable stations 7 stations have shown wind power density more than 500 Watts/ m2.
Central Govt. Assistance and Incentives
The following financial and technical assistance are provided to promote,
support and accelerate the development of wind energy in India:
Five years tax holiday
100% depreciation in the first year
Facilities by SEB's for grid connection
Energy banking and wheeling and energy buy back
Industry status and capital subsidy
Electricity tax exemption
Sales tax exemption

Applications
• Utility interconnected wind turbines generate power which is synchronous with the grid and
are used to reduce utility bills by displacing the utility power used in the household and by
selling the excess power back to the electric company.
• Wind turbines for remote homes (off the grid) generate DC current for battery charging.
• Wind turbines for remote water pumping generate 3 phase AC current suitable for driving
an electrical submersible pump directly. Wind turbines suitable for residential or village
scale wind power range from 500 Watts to 50 kilowatts.
12.4 Bio Energy

Biomass is a renewable energy resource derived from the car-
bonaceous waste of various human and natural activities. It is
derived from numerous sources, including the by-products from
the wood industry, agricultural crops, raw material from the for-
est, household wastes etc.
Biomass does not add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere as it absorbs the same amount of
carbon in growing as it releases when consumed as a fuel. Its advantage is that it can be used
to generate electricity with the same equipment that is now being used for burning fossil fuels.
Biomass is an important source of energy and the most important fuel worldwide after coal, oil
and natural gas. Bio-energy, in the form of biogas, which is derived from biomass, is expected
to become one of the key energy resources for global sustainable development. Biomass offers
higher energy efficiency through form of Biogas than by direct burning (see chart below).
Application
Biogas Plants
Biogas is a clean and efficient fuel, generated from cow-dung,
human waste or any kind of biological materials derived through
anaerobic fermentation process. The biogas consists of 60%
methane with rest mainly carbon-di-oxide. Biogas is a safe fuel
for cooking and lighting. By-product is usable as high-grade
manure.
A typical biogas plant has the following components: A digester in which the slurry (dung
mixed with water) is fermented, an inlet tank - for mixing the feed and letting it into the
digester, gas holder/dome in which the generated gas is collected, outlet tank to remove the

spent slurry, distribution pipeline(s) to transport the gas into the kitchen, and a manure pit,
where the spent slurry is stored.
Biomass fuels account for about one-third of the total fuel used in the country. It is the most
important fuel used in over 90% of the rural households and about 15% of the urban households.
Using only local resources, namely cattle waste and other organic wastes, energy and manure are
derived. Thus the biogas plants are the cheap sources of energy in rural areas. The types of biogas
plant designs popular are: floating drum type, fixed dome-type and bag-type portable digester.
Biomass Briquetting
The process of densifying loose agro-waste into a
solidified biomass of high density, which can be
conveniently used as a fuel, is called Biomass
Briquetting (see Figure 12.8). Briquette is also
termed as "Bio-coal". It is pollution free and eco-
friendly. Some of the agricultural and forestry
residues can be briquetted after suitable pre-treat-
ment. A list of commonly used biomass materials
that can be briquetted are given below:
CornCob, JuteStick, Sawdust, PineNeedle,
Bagasse, CoffeeSpent, Tamarind, CoffeeHusk,
AlmondShell, Groundnutshells, CoirPith, Figure 12.8 Biomass Briquetting
BagaseePith, Barleystraw, Tobaccodust, RiceHusk, Deoiled Bran
Advantages
Some of advantages of biomass briquetting are high calorific value with low ash content,
absence of polluting gases like sulphur, phosphorus fumes and fly ash- which eliminate the need
for pollution control equipment, complete combustion, ease of handling, transportation & stor-
age - because of uniform size and convenient lengths.
Application
Biomass briquettes can replace almost all conventional fuels like coal, firewood and lignite in
almost all general applications like heating, steam generation etc. It can be used directly as fuel
instead of coal in the traditional chulhas and furnaces or in the gasifier. Gasifier converts solid
fuel into a more convenient-to-use gaseous form of fuel called producer gas.
Biomass Gasifiers
Biomass gasifiers (see Figure 12.9) convert the
solid biomass (basically wood waste, agricul-
tural residues etc.) into a combustible gas mix-
ture normally called as producer gas. The con-
version efficiency of the gasification process is
in the range of 60%–70%. The producer gas
consists of mainly carbon-monoxide, hydro-
gen, nitrogen gas and methane, and has a lower
calorific value (1000–1200 kcal/Nm3). Figure 12.9 Biomass Gasifiers

Gasification of biomass and using it in place of conventional direct burning devices will
result in savings of atleast 50% in fuel consumption. The gas has been found suitable for com-
bustion in the internal combustion engines for the production of power.
Applications:
Water pumping and Electricity generation: Using biomass gas, it possible to operate a diesel
engine on dual fuel mode-part diesel and part biomass gas. Diesel substitution of the order of
75 to 80% can be obtained at nominal loads. The mechanical energy thus derived can be used
either for energizing a water pump set for irrigational purpose or for coupling with an alterna-
tor for electrical power generation - 3.5 KW - 10 MW
Heat generation: A few of the devices, to which gasifier could be retrofitted, are dryers- for
drying tea, flower, spices, kilns for baking tiles or potteries, furnaces for melting non-ferrous
metals, boilers for process steam, etc.
Direct combustion of biomass has been recognized as an important route for generation of
power by utilization of vast amounts of agricultural residues, agro-industrial residues and for-
est wastes. Gasifiers can be used for power generation and available up to a capacity 500 kW.
The Government of India through MNES and IREDA is implementing power-generating sys-
tem based on biomass combustion as well as biomass gasification
High Efficiency Wood Burning Stoves

These stoves save more than 50% fuel wood consumption. They reduce drudgery of women
saving time in cooking and fuel collection and consequent health hazards. They also help in sav-
ing firewood leading to conservation of forests. They also create employment opportunities for
people in the rural areas.
Bio fuels
Unlike other renewable energy sources, biomass can be converted
directly into liquid fuels— biofuels— for our transportation needs
(cars, trucks, buses, airplanes, and trains). The two most common
types of biofuels are ethanol and biodiesel. See Figure 12.10.
Ethanol is an alcohol, similar to that used in beer and wine. It
is made by fermenting any biomass high in carbohydrates (starch-
es, sugars, or celluloses) through a process similar to brewing beer.
Ethanol is mostly used as a fuel additive to cut down a vehicle's
carbon monoxide and other smog-causing emissions. Flexible-fuel
Figure 12.10 Biodiesel
vehicles, which run on mixtures of gasoline and up to 85% Driven Bus
ethanol, are now available.
Biodiesel, produced by plants such as rapeseed (canola), sunflowers and soybeans, can be
extracted and refined into fuel, which can be burned in diesel engines and buses. Biodiesel can
also made by combining alcohol with vegetable oil, or recycled cooking greases. It can be used
as an additive to reduce vehicle emissions (typically 20%) or in its pure form as a renewable
alternative fuel for diesel engines.

Biopower
Biopower, or biomass power, is the use of biomass to generate electricity. There are six
major types of biopower systems: direct-fired, cofiring, gasification, anaerobic digestion,
pyrolysis, and small - modular.
Most of the biopower plants in the world use direct-fired systems. They burn bioenergy
feedstocks directly in boiler to produce steam. This steam drives the turbo-generator. In some
industries, the steam is also used in manufacturing processes or to heat buildings. These are
known as combined heat and power facilities. For example, wood waste is often used to pro-
duce both electricity and steam at paper mills.
Many coal-fired power plants use cofiring systems to significantly reduce emissions, espe-
cially sulfur dioxide emissions. Cofiring involves using bio energy feedstock as a supplemen-
tary fuel source in high efficiency boilers.
Gasification systems use high temperatures and an oxygen-starved environment to convert
biomass into a gas (a mixture of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and methane). The gas fuels a gas
turbine, which runs an electric generator for producing power.
The decay of biomass produces methane gas, which can be used as an energy source.
Methane can be produced from biomass through a process called anaerobic digestion.
Anaerobic digestion involves using bacteria to decompose organic matter in the absence of oxy-
gen. In landfills -scientific waste disposal site - wells can be drilled to release the methane from
the decaying organic matter. The pipes from each well carry the gas to a central point where it
is filtered and cleaned before burning. Methane can be used as an energy source in many ways.
Most facilities burn it in a boiler to produce steam for electricity generation or for industrial
processes. Two new ways include the use of microturbines and fuel cells. Microturbines have
outputs of 25 to 500 kilowatts. About the size of a refrigerator, they can be used where there are
space limitations for power production. Methane can also be used as the "fuel" in a fuel cell.
Fuel cells work much like batteries, but never need recharging, producing electricity as long as
there is fuel.
In addition to gas, liquid fuels can be produced from biomass through a process called
pyrolysis. Pyrolysis occurs when biomass is heated in the absence of oxygen. The biomass then
turns into liquid called pyrolysis oil, which can be burned like petroleum to generate electrici-
ty. A biopower system that uses pyrolysis oil is being commercialized.
Several biopower technologies can be used in small, modular systems. A small, modular
system generates electricity at a capacity of 5 megawatts or less. This system is designed
for use at the small town level or even at the consumer level. For example, some farmers
use the waste from their livestock to provide their farms with electricity. Not only do
these systems provide renewable energy, they also help farmers meet environmental
regulations.
Biomass Cogeneration
Cogeneration improves viability and profitability of sugar industries. Indian sugar mills are
rapidly turning to bagasse, the leftover of cane after it is crushed and its juice extracted, to gen-
erate electricity. This is mainly being done to clean up the environment, cut down power costs
and earn additional revenue. According to current estimates, about 3500 MW of power can be
generated from bagasse in the existing 430 sugar mills in the country. Around 270 MW of
power has already been commissioned and more is under construction.

12.5 Hydro Energy

The potential energy of falling
water, captured and converted to
mechanical energy by water-
wheels, powered the start of the
industrial revolution.
Wherever sufficient head, or
change in elevation, could be
found, rivers and streams were
dammed and mills were built.
Water under pressure flows
through a turbine causing it to
spin. The Turbine is connected to
a generator, which produces
electricity (see Figure 12.11). In
order to produce enough elec-
Figure 12.11 Hydro Power Plant
tricity, a hydroelectric system
requires a location with the fol-
lowing features:
Change in elevation or head: 20 feet @ 100 gal/min = 200 Watts.
100 feet head @ 20 gal/min gives the same output.
In India the potential of small hydro power is estimated about 10,000 MW. A total of 183.45
MW small Hydro project have been installed in India by the end of March 1999. Small Hydro
Power projects of 3 MW capacity have been also installed individually and 148 MW project is
under construction.
Small Hydro
Small Hydro Power is a reliable, mature and proven technology. It
is non-polluting, and does not involve setting up of large dams or
problems of deforestation, submergence and rehabilitation. India
has an estimated potential of 10,000 MW
Micro Hydel
Hilly regions of India, particularly the Himalayan belts, are endowed with
rich hydel resources with tremendous potential. The MNES has launched
a promotional scheme for portable micro hydel sets for these areas. These
sets are small, compact and light weight. They have almost zero mainte-
nance cost and can provide electricity/power to small cluster of villages.
They are ideal substitutes for diesel sets run in those areas at high genera-
tion cost.
Micro (upto 100kW) mini hydro (101-1000 kW) schemes can
provide power for farms, hotels, schools and rural communities, and help create local
industry.

12.6 Tidal and Ocean Energy

Tidal Energy
Tidal electricity generation involves the construction of a bar-
rage across an estuary to block the incoming and outgoing tide.
The head of water is then used to drive turbines to generate
electricity from the elevated water in the basin as in hydro-
electric dams.
Barrages can be designed to generate electricity on the ebb
side, or flood side, or both. Tidal range may vary over a wide
range (4.5-12.4 m) from site to site. A tidal range of at least 7
m is required for economical operation and for sufficient head
of water for the turbines.
Ocean Energy
Oceans cover more than 70% of Earth's surface, making them the world's largest solar collec-
tors. Ocean energy draws on the energy of ocean waves, tides, or on the thermal energy (heat)
stored in the ocean. The sun warms the surface water a lot more than the deep ocean water, and
this temperature difference stores thermal energy.
The ocean contains two types of energy: thermal energy from the sun's heat, and mechan-
ical energy from the tides and waves.
Ocean thermal energy is used for many applications, including electricity generation. There
are three types of electricity conversion systems: closed-cycle, open cycle, and hybrid. Closed
cycle systems use the ocean's warm surface water to vaporize a working fluid, which has a low
boiling point, such as ammonia. The vapour expands and turns a turbine. The turbine then acti-
vates a generator to produce electricity. Open-cycle systems actually boil the seawater by oper-
ating at low pressures. This produces steam that passes through a turbine / generator. The hybrid
systems combine both closed-cycle and open-cycle systems.
Ocean mechanical energy is quite different from ocean thermal energy. Even though
the sun affects all ocean activity, tides are driven primarily by the gravitational pull of the
moon, and waves are driven primarily by the winds. A barrage (dam) is typically used
to convert tidal energy into electricity by forcing the water through turbines, activating a
generator.
India has the World's largest programmes for renewable energy. Several renewable energy
technologies have been developed and deployed in villages and cities of India. A Ministry of
Non-Conventional Energy Sources (MNES) created in 1992 for all matters relating to Non-
Conventional / Renewable Energy. Government of India also created Renewable Energy
Development Agency Limited (IREDA) to assist and provide financial assistance in the form
of subsidy and low interest loan for renewable energy projects.
IREDA covers a wide spectrum of financing activities including those that are connected to
energy conservation and energy efficiency. At present, IREDA's lending is mainly in the fol-
lowing areas: -

• Solar energy technologies, utilization of solar thermal and solar photo voltaic systems
• Wind energy setting up grid connected Wind farm projects
• Small hydro setting up small, mini and micro hydel projects
• Bio-energy technologies, biomass based co-generation projects, biomass gasification, ener-
gy from waste and briquetting projects
• Hybrid systems
• Energy efficiency and conservation
The estimated potential of various Renewable Energy technologies in India by IREDA are
given below.
Energy source estimated potential

Solar Energy 20 MW / sq. km
Wind Energy 20,000 MW
Small Hydro 10,000 MW
Ocean Thermal Power 50,000 MW
Sea Wave Power 20,000 MW
Tidal Power 10,000 MW
Bio energy 17,000 MW
Draught Animal Power 30,000 MW
Energy from MSW 1,000 MW
Biogas Plants 12 Million Plants
Improved Wood Burning Stoves 120 Million Stoves
Bagasse-based cogeneration 3500 MW
Cumulative achievements in renewable energy sector (As on 31.03.2000)

Sources / Technologies Unit Upto31.03.2000
Wind Power MW 1167
Small Hydro MW 217
Biomass Power & Co-generation MW 222
Solar PV Power MW / Sq. km 42
Urban & MSW MW 15.21
Solar Heater m2. Area 480000
Solar Cookers No. 481112
Biogas Plants Nos. in Million 2.95
Biomas Gasifier MW 34
Improved Chulhas Nos. in Million 31.9

QUESTIONS
1 What do you mean by renewable energy
2 Why is solar energy potential high in India?
3. Explain working of solar water heater?
4. List few applications of low temperature water heaters in domestic and industrial use
5. What are the two methods by which energy can be recovered from solar radiation
6. How can the performance of solar collectors be improved?
7. Explain any two applications of concentrated solar energy?
8. What do you mean by photovoltaic?
9. Explain the terms cell, module and array as applicable to photovoltaic.
10. What are the typical applications of photovoltaic power?
11. Name the few states with high wind energy potential in India.
12. What are the criteria for selection of wind mill installation?
13. What ere the incentives available for wind mill installation?
14. Explain the bio-energy potential in India and its applications.
15. What are the various methods by which power can be generated from biomass?
16. What is the role of IREDA in renewable energy sector
17. India has recorded good growth in wind energy sector. Do you agree? What are the
factors responsible for such a high growth?
REFERENCES
1. Alternate Energy Sources by T H Taylor.Adam Hilger Ltd, Bristol
2. Renewable Energy Sources for rural areas in Asia and Pacific, APO, Tokyo, 2000
3. www.ireda.org
4. www.windenergy.com

13. WASTE MINIMISATION AND RESOURCE
CONSERVATION
13.1 Introduction
Traditionally, waste is viewed as an unnecessary element arising from the activities of any
industry. In reality, waste is a misplaced resource, existing at a wrong place at a wrong time.
Waste is also the inefficient use of utilities such as electricity, water, and fuel, which are
often considered unavoidable overheads. The costs of these wastes are generally underestimat-
ed by managers. It is important to realise that the cost of waste is not only the cost of waste dis-
posal, but also other costs such as:
Disposal cost
Inefficient energy use cost
Purchase cost of wasted raw material
Production cost for the waste material
Management time spent on waste material
Lost revenue for what could have been a product instead of waste
Potential liabilities due to waste.
What is waste minimisation?
Waste minimisation can be defined as "systematically reducing waste at source". It means:
• Prevention and/or reduction of waste generated
• Efficient use of raw materials and packaging
• Efficient use of fuel, electricity and water
• Improving the quality of waste generated to facilitate recycling and/or reduce hazard
• Encouraging re-use, recycling and recovery.
Waste minimisation is also known by other terms such as waste reduction, pollution preven-
tion, source reduction and cleaner technology. It makes use of managerial and/or technical inter-
ventions to make industrial operations inherently pollution free
It should be also clearly understood that waste minimization, however attractive, is not a
panacea for all environmental problems and may have to be supported by conventional treat-
ment/disposal solutions.
Waste minimization is best practiced by reducing the generation of waste at the source itself.
After exhausting the source reduction opportunities, attempts should be made to recycle the
TABLE 13.1 WASTES AND POSSIBLE RESOURCES
Wastes Resources
Fly ash from power plant Raw material for cement or brick
manufacture
Bagasse wastes from sugar manufacture Fuel for boiler
CO2 release from ammonia plant Raw material for Urea manufacture

13. Waste Minimisation and Resource Conservation
waste within the unit. Finally, modification or reformulation of products so as to manufacture

it with least waste generation should be considered. Few wastes and possible resources are indi-
cated in the Table 13.1
13.2 Classification of Waste Minimization (WM) Techniques

The waste minimization is based on different techniques. These techniques are classified as
hereunder.
Source Reduction
Under this category, four techniques of WM are briefly discussed below:
a) Good Housekeeping- Systems to prevent leakages & spillages through preventive main-
tenance schedules and routine equipment inspections. Also, well-written working instructions,
supervision, awareness and regular training of workforce would facilitate good housekeeping.
b) Process Change: Under this head, four CP techniques are covered:
(i) Input Material Change - Substitution of input materials by eco-friendly (non-

toxic or less toxic than existing and renewable) material preferably having longer
service time.

(ii) Better Process Control - Modifications of the working procedures, machine-oper-

ating instructions and process record keeping in order to run the processes at higher
efficiency and with lower waste generation and emissions.
(iii) Equipment Modification - Modification of existing production equipment and

utilities, for instance, by the addition of measuring and controlling devices, in order
to run the processes at higher efficiency and lower waste and emission generation
rates.
(iv) Technology change - Replacement of the technology, processing sequence

and/or synthesis route, in order to minimise waste and emission generation during
production.
c) Recycling
i) On-site Recovery and Reuse - Reuse of wasted materials in the same process or
for another useful application within the industry.
ii) Production of Useful by-product - Modification of the waste generation process

in order to transform the wasted material into a material that can be reused or recy-
cled for another application within or outside the company.
d) Product Modification
Characteristics of the product can be modified to minimise the environmental impacts
of its production or those of the product itself during or after its use (disposal).
13.3 Waste Minimization Methodology

For an effective Waste Minimization programme, it is essential to bring together various
groups in the industry to ensure implementation. How formalised the programme would
be depends upon the size and composition of the industry and its waste and emission prob-
lems. The programme should be flexible enough so that it can adapt itself to changing cir-
cumstances. A methodical step-by-step procedure ensures exploitation of maximum waste
minimization opportunities. The steps in a typical waste minimization progamme are
illustrated below:

Step 1: Getting Started
Form a Waste Minimization Team

Waste Minimization (WM) concept encompasses all departments and sections in an industry.
Activities involved in WM audits require assistance and cooperation not only from the person-
nel belonging to concerned department, but also from other related departments. Hence, making

an inter-disciplinary and inter-departmental team is a prerequisite for successful conduct of a

WM audit. In special cases, it would be advantageous to have external experts in order to have
an unbiased, professional approach.
List Process Steps / Unit Operations

The WM team should familiarize itself with the manufacturing processes including utilities,
waste treatment and disposal facilities, and list all the process steps. Preparation of sketches of
process layout drainage system, vents and material-loss areas would be useful. This helps in
establishing cause-effect relationships and ensuring that important areas are not overlooked.
Periodic, intermittent and continuous discharge streams should be appropriately labeled.
Identify and Select Wasteful Process Steps

In multi-process type industries, it may be difficult to start detailed Waste minimization activi-
ties covering the complete unit. In such cases, it is advisable to start with fewer process steps
to begin with. The selected step(s) could be the most wasteful and / or one with very high waste
minimization potential.
This activity could also be considered a preliminary prioritization activity. All the various
wasteful steps identified in 1.2 should be broadly assessed in terms of volume of waste, sever-
ity of impact on the environment, Waste minimization opportunities, estimated benefits (spe-
cially cost savings), cost of implementation etc. Such assessment would help in focusing on the
process steps / areas for detailed analysis.
Step 2: Analysing Process Steps
Prepare Process Flow Charts

This activity follows the activity described at 1.2. Flow charts are diagrammatic / schemat-
ic representation of production, with the purpose of identifying process steps and the
source of waste streams and emissions. A flow chart should list, and characterize the input
and output streams, as well as recycle streams. Even the so called free or less costly inputs
like water, air, sand, etc should be taken into account as these often end up in being the
major cause of wastes. Wherever required, the process flow diagram should be supple-
mented with chemical equations to facilitate understanding of the process. Also the mate-
rials which are used occasionally and / or which do not appear in output streams (for exam-
ple catalysts, coolant oil) should be specified. The periodic / batch / continuous steps
should also be appropriately highlighted. Preparation of a detailed and correct process flow
diagram is a key step in the entire analysis and forms the basis for compilation of materi-
als and energy balance.
Make material and Energy Balances

Material and Energy balances are important for any Waste minimization programme since they
make it possible to identify and quantify, previously unknown losses or emissions. These bal-
ances are also useful for monitoring the progress achieved in a prevention programme, and
evaluating the costs and benefits. Typical components of a material balance and energy balance
are given below (see Figures 13.1 & 13.2):

It is not advisable to spent more time and money to make a perfect material balance. Even
a rough / preliminary material balance throws open Waste Minimization opportunities which
can be profitably exploited.
On the other hand, the precision of analytical data and flow measurements is important as
it is not possible to obtain a reliable estimate of the waste stream by subtracting the materials
in the product from those in the raw materials. In such cases, a direct monitoring and analysis
of waste streams should be carried out.
Assign Costs To Waste Stream

In order to assess the profit potential of waste streams, a basic requirement would be to assign
costs to them. This cost essentially reflects the monetary loss arising from waste. Apparently, a
waste stream does not appear to have any quantifiable cost attached to it, except where direct
raw material / product loss is associated with it. However, a deeper analysis would show sev-
eral direct and indirect cost components associated with waste streams such as:
Cost of raw materials in waste.

Manufacturing cost of material in waste
Cost of product in waste
Cost of treatment of waste to comply with regulatory requirements
Cost of waste disposal
Cost of waste transportation

Cost of maintaining required work environment

Cost due to waste cess.
Based on this, for each waste stream, total cost per unit of waste (Rs/KL or Rs/Kg)
should be worked out. This figure would be useful in working out the feasibility of the waste
minimization measures. The result can also be used to categorize the waste streams for
priority action.
Review of Process
Through the material and energy balances, it is possible to carry out a cause analysis to locate
and pinpoint the causes of waste generation. These causes would subsequently become the tools
for evolving Waste Minisation measures. There could be a wide variety of causes for waste
generation ranging from simple lapses of housekeeping to complex technological reasons as
indicated below.
Typical Causes Of Waste

Poor housekeeping ;
Leaking taps / valves / flanges
Spillages
Overflowing tanks
Worn out material transfer belts

Operational and maintenance negligence
Unchecked water / air consumption

Unnecessary running of equipment
Sub optimal loading
Lack of preventive maintenance
Sub-optimal maintenance of process condition
Ritualistic operation
Poor raw material quality
Use of substandard cheap raw material

Lack of quality specification
Improper purchase management system
Improper storage
Poor process / equipment design
Mismatched capacity of equipment

Wrong material selection
Maintenance prone design
Adoption of avoidable process steps
Lack of information / design capability
Poor layout
Unplanned / adhoc expansion

Poor space utilization plan
Bad material movement plan
Bad technology
Continuation of obsolete technology

Despite product / raw material change
High cost of better technology
Lack of availability of trained manpower
Small plant size
Lack of information
Inadequately trained personnel
Increased dependence on casual / contract labour

Lack of formalized training system
Lack of training facilities
Job insecurity
Fear of losing trade secrets
Lack of availability of personnel
Understaffing hence work over pressure

Employee Demotivation
Lack of recognition
Absence of reward
Emphasis only on production, not on people
Lack of commitment and attention by top management
Step 3: Generating Waste Minimization Opportunities
Develop Waste Minimization Opportunities

Once the origin and causes of waste and emissions are known, the process enters the creative
phase. The WM team should now start looking for possible opportunities for reducing waste.
Finding potential options depends on the knowledge and creativity of your team members. The
potential sources of help in finding Waste Minimization Opportunities are:
Other personnel from the same or similar plant elsewhere

Trade associations
Consultancy organizations
Equipment suppliers
Consultants
The process of finding Waste Minimization opportunities should take place in an

environment, which stimulates creativity and independent thinking. It would be benefi-
cial to move away from the routine working environment for better results. Various
analysis tools and techniques like "brainstorming", "group discussions" etc would be use-
ful in this step.
Select Workable Opportunities

The Waste Minimization opportunities developed should be screened and those, which are
impractical, should be discarded.
The discarding process should be simple, and straightforward and may often be only
qualitative. There should be no ambiguity or bias. Unnecessary effort in doing detailed fea-
sibility analysis of opportunities, which are impractical or non-feasible, should be avoided.
The remaining Waste Minimization opportunities are then subjected to a more detailed
feasibility analysis.
Step 4: Selecting Waste Minimization Solutions
The selection of a Waste Minimization solution for implementation requires that it should not
only be techno-economically viable, but also environmentally desirable.
Assess Technical Feasibility

The technical evaluation determines whether a proposed Waste Minimization option will work
for the specific application. The impact of the proposed measure on product production rate
should be evaluated first. In case of significant deviation from the present process practices, lab-
oratory testing trial runs might be required to assess the technical feasibility.

A typical checklist for technical evaluation could be as follows:
Availability of equipment
Availability of operating skills
Space availability
Effect on production
Effect on product quality
Safety aspects
Maintenance requirements
Effect on operational flexibility
Shut down requirements for implementation
Assess Economic Viability

Economic viability would often be the key parameter to promote or discourage Waste
Minimization. For a smooth take-off, it is therefore essential that the first few Waste
Minimization measures should be economically very attractive. Such a strategy helps in creat-
ing more interest and sustains commitment.
Options requiring little investment, but involving more of procedural changes (housekeep-
ing measures, measures, operational improvements) do not need an intensive economic analy-
sis and simple methods like pay back period could be used. However as Waste Minimization
measures become more involved and capital intensive, other profitability analysis methods viz.
Return on Investment (IRR) or Net Present Value (NPV) are recommended to get the total
picture.
While doing the economic investment, the costs may include fixed capital i.e. cost of equip-
ment, working capital cost, shutdown cost, O & M costs etc. The savings could be direct sav-
ings of input materials / energy, increased production levels and hence lower specific input cost,
lower O & M cost, value of by products, reduction in environmental cost i.e. waste treatment
transportation and disposal cost etc.
Evaluate Environmental Aspects

The options for Waste Minimization with respect to their impact on the environment
should be assessed. In many cases the environmental advantage will be obvious if there
is a net reduction in the toxicity and / or quantity of waste. Other impacts could be
changes in treatment of the wastes. In the initial stages, environmental aspects may not
appear to be as compelling as economic aspects. In future as in developed countries,
environmental aspects would become the most important criteria irrespective of the eco-
nomic viability.
Select Solutions for Implementation

After technical, economic and environmental assessment, Waste Minimization measures should
be selected for implementation. Understandably, the most attractive ones would be those hav-
ing best financial benefits, provided technical feasibility is favourable. However, in a growing
number of cases especially when active pressure groups are present, environmental priorities
may become the final deciding factor.

The work done so far should be documented. Apart from becoming a reference document
for seeking approvals in implementation, the document would also be useful in obtaining
finances from external finance institutions, reporting status to other agencies, and establishing
base levels for performance evaluation and review.
Step 5: Implementing Waste Minimization Solutions
Prepare for Implementation

The selected solutions could be taken for implementation. Apart from simple housekeeping
measures several others would require a systematic plan of implementation.
The Waste Minimization team should be well prepared to take up the job of implementa-
tion. The preparation would include arranging finances, establishing linkages in case of multi-
department solutions, technical preparations, etc.
Implement Solutions
The task comprises layout and drawing preparation equipment fabrication / procurement, trans-
portation to site, installation and commissioning. Whenever required, simultaneous training of
manpower should be taken up as many excellent measures have failed miserably because of
non-availability of adequately trained people.
Monitor and Evaluate Results

The WM solutions should be monitored for performance. The results obtained should be
matched with those estimated / worked out during technical evaluation to establish causes for
deviation, if any. The implementation job is considered to be over, only after successful com-
missioning and sustained stable performance over a reasonable length of time.
Step 6: Sustain Waste Minimization
The biggest challenges in Waste Minimization lies in sustaining Waste Minimization. The
enthusiasm of the Waste Minimization team wanes off with time. Such tragic ends should be
avoided. Backing out from commitment, predominance of production at any cost, absence of
rewards and appreciation, and shifting of priorities are some of the commonly encountered rea-
sons, which one should check and avoid.
Also monitoring and review of the implemented measures should be communicated to all
employees in the industry so that it fans the desires for minimizing wastes. Involvement of as
large a number of employees as possible and rewarding the deserving ones, will help long term
sustenance of Waste Minimization.
Having implemented Waste Minimization solutions in the area under study, the Waste
Minimization team should go back to Step-2 i.e. analysing the process steps and identifying
and selecting the next wasteful area. In this way, the cycle continues, till all the steps are
exhausted.
In a nutshell, a philosophy of minimizing waste must be developed within the compa-
ny. This means that Waste Minimization should become an integral part of company's
activities. All successful Waste Minimization programmes, till date, have been founded on
this philosophy.

13.4 Case Study
Maximising Cullet Recovery Reduces Batch Costs

At a Lead Crystal Glass Works, glass was produced by melting a charge of blended raw mate-
rials together with process cullet. However, only about 30% of the cullet produced at the glass-
works was of a size appropriate for remelting. Concern about the significant amounts of valu-
able raw materials lost in this cullet and being sent for waste disposal, led to the installation of
a crushing unit to reduce the cullet to an optimum size for recovery. Operation of the crushing
unit was subsequently enhanced by the addition of a vibrating screen and cullet washing
system.
The ideal size for cullet pieces, to produce a high quality melt of uniform composition and
avoid faults in the blown glass, is 12 – 20 mm. Most of the heavy cullet at the company was
present in large pieces that cannot be easily broken up manually to the optimum size. Lighter
pieces such as those from wine glasses, were also difficult to recycle because they have to be
broken up manually to obtain a satisfactory charge weight. This generates a lot of fine materi-
al, which was unsuitable because it tends to result in air bubbles being trapped in the glass gath-
ered from the furnace pot by the glass blower.
Before waste minimization programme, about 560 tonnes of cullet were disposed for waste
disposal each year, costing the company considerably in terms of lost raw materials. The com-
pany therefore decided to install a crushing plant capable of producing a consistent output of a
size suitable for remelting and with minimum generation of fine material. Such a plant would
allow more cullet to be recycled, leading to a reduction in the cost of both primary raw materi-
als and cullet disposal.
Following discussions with suppliers of crushing plant, the company installed a rotary ham-
mer mill. This resulted in recycling of 74% of process cullet as against 30% previously. Also
alternative uses avoiding waste disposal have been found for the crusher fines and other forms
of waste glass. Crushing has also increased the bulk density of the cullet by a factor of three and
improved its size distribution.
The benefits of maximising inhouse cullet recovery include:

• Cost savings
• Reduction of 37% in the purchase of primary raw materials
• Improved yield of first quality glass
• Payback period of three weeks
Associated Waste Minimization Measures

In addition to installing the cullet crusher, the company had initiated a number of other associated
waste minimization measures such as segregation by source of inhouse cullet, segregating stones
from cullet, lead recovery from reject cullet, crusher fines and waste glass prior to disposal.

QUESTIONS
1. Explain the concept of waste minimization with suitable examples.
2. "Waste is a misplaced resource" Explain.
3. What are the 3R's in waste minimization techniques?
4. Which would you prefer between recycling and source reduction? Justify.
5. List down few housekeeping measures by which wastes can be reduced.
6. Explain how modifying a product can help minimize the wastes with few examples.
7. For a coal-fired boiler, draw a block diagram and indicate various material and ener-
gy inputs, outputs and wastes.
8. Can employee be a factor in reducing wastes? Explain.
REFERENCES
1. From Waste to Profits, Guidelines for Waste Minimization by National Productivity
Council, New Delhi
2. Waste Minimization Manual for Textile Processing by National Productivity Council,
Chennai.

Eenrgy Audit and Management Books-Guide

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Eenrgy Audit and Management Books-Guide

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Energy Audit and Management

• Primary and Secondary energy

1.2 Primary and Secondary Energy

Bureau of Energy Efficiency 1

1.3 Commercial Energy and Non Commercial Energy

1.4 Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy

Figure 1.2 Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy

Bureau of Energy Efficiency 2

1.5 Global Primary Energy Reserves*

Global Primary Energy Consumption

Figure 1.3 Global Primary Energy Consumption

Bureau of Energy Efficiency 3

TABLE 1.1 PRIMARY ENERGY CONSUMPTION BY FUEL, 2003

In Million tonnes oil equivalent

Energy Distribution Between Developed and Developing Countries

Bureau of Energy Efficiency 4

1.6 Indian Energy Scenario

Bureau of Energy Efficiency 5

Natural Gas Supply

Electrical Energy Supply

Nuclear Power Supply

Hydro Power Supply

Final Energy Consumption

TABLE 1.2 DEMAND FOR COMMERCIAL ENERGY FOR FINAL

Source Units 1994-95 2001-02 2006-07 2011-12

Bureau of Energy Efficiency 6

Sector Wise Energy Consumption in India

India's Energy Needs

Figure 1.6 Expenditure Towards Energy Sector

Per Capita Energy Consumption

Bureau of Energy Efficiency 7

Figure 1.7 Per Capita Energy Consumption

1.8 Long Term Energy Scenario for India

Bureau of Energy Efficiency 8

ed to go down to 8% by 2020. As shown in

10%, the Government 0

Thermal Gas / LNG / Nuclear Hydro Total(MW)

Bureau of Energy Efficiency 9

1.9 Energy Pricing in India

Bureau of Energy Efficiency 10

1.10 Energy Sector Reforms

Oil and Natural Gas

Electricity Act, 2003

Bureau of Energy Efficiency 11

The salient features of the Electricity Act, 2003 are:

Bureau of Energy Efficiency 12

1.11 Energy and Environment

Evolutionary Trends in Pollution Problems

Bureau of Energy Efficiency 13

Nitrogen oxides are formed during high temperature combustion

Bureau of Energy Efficiency 14

Carbon monoxide (CO) is a toxic gas, which is emitted into the

Ground-level ozone (O3), unlike other primary pollutants mentioned

Bureau of Energy Efficiency 15

Heavy Metals and Lead

Greenhouse Effect and the Carbon Cycle

Bureau of Energy Efficiency 16

Figure 1.11 The Greenhouse Effect

Current Evidence of Climatic Change

Severe Storms and Flooding

Dwindling Freshwater supply

Bureau of Energy Efficiency 18

A World Under Stress

Bureau of Energy Efficiency 19