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What is computer program and

programming
 Programming is an art, skill, poetry that is mastered through
immense practice, patience, and experience.
 what is a computer program?

What is a computer program?


A Program is a set of instructions compiled together in a file to
perform some specific task by the CPU (Central Processing Unit). It
is a series of binary numbers (0s and 1s) arranged in a sequence,
which when given to the computer performs some task.

Computer is a dumb machine with expeditious computational speed.


It can give quick results to many of the complex scientific
calculations but it can’t perform a task on its own. A computer
needs set of instructions to do some task. This set of instructions is
contained in a computer program. Computer program is basically in
binary language i.e. series of 0s and 1s. A large bunch of programs
makes the computer functional without which the computer would
be like a paralyzed machine.

You may think computer as an idiot person who does not know to
cook. If you provide ingredients for cooking Pasta to that idiot
person, you cannot expect a delicious dish. However, if you provide
ingredients along with the full step-by-step recipe of
cooking Pasta then you may expect a real Pasta from that idiot
person. Same is the concept with computers, for computers the
ingredients are data (might be an integer, string, images, videos or
anything) and the recipe is a program.
What is Programming?
Programming is the process of writing an algorithm into a sequence
of computer instructions. Or you can simply say it is the process of
writing programs. We generally transform the solution of a specific
problem into computer language. It is the only way through which
we can create our own programs and can execute them on a
computer. Programming requires skill, logical thinking and lots of
experience.

Programmers are the person who writes


programs in a specific computer programming language. They are
highly skilled, hard working, problem solvers. The world’s first
programmer was Ada Lovelace. She was widely known for her work
on Charles Babbage’s Analytical Engine (general-purpose
mechanical computer).

What is a compiler and its need?


A Compiler is a program or set of programs that converts source
code written in a high-level language to low-level language
(assembly language or machine language). A programming language
can have many compilers. For example – GCC C, Turbo C, Quick C
etc. are different compilers for C programming language.
Why do we need a compiler?
A Computer understands only binary language and executes
instructions coded in binary language. It cannot execute a single
instruction given in any other form. Therefore, we must provide
instructions to the computer in binary language. Means we must
write computer programs entirely in binary language (sequence of
0s and 1s).

But think for a while, how cumbersome programming would have


been, if we have to write every program as a sequence of 0s and 1s?
It would have been a nightmare to write complex software's.
Humans are good at giving instructions in English language,
whereas computers can only process binary language.

So, there was a need of a translator that translates the computer


instructions given in English language to binary language. Hence, to
accomplish the job of a translator compiler was invented. The
world’s first compiler was written by Grace Hopper in 1952 for the A-
0 programming language.

What do a compiler do?


Apart from translating source code from high level language to low
level language, compiler has other responsibilities too. After reading
source code written in high level language it performs below
operations -

1. Performs a pre-processing of source code. Gather all files required


for the source code to compile.
2. Parses the entire source code. Checks for any syntax errors in the
source code.
3. Performs a thorough syntax analysis of the source code. To
understand the structure and semantic of the source code.
4. Optionally translates the source code in an intermediate code
known as object code to enhance the performance.
5. Translates the object code to binary language known as executable
code.
Some
popular compilers
Languag
Compilers Developed by
e

FreeBASIC FreeBASIC development team

BASIC QuickBASIC Microsoft

Visual Basic Microsoft

GCC C GNU Project

Borland
C Embarcadero
Turbo C

Quick C Microsoft

GCC GNU Project

C++ Borland C++ Borland

Visual C++ Microsoft

Visual C# Microsoft
C#
Mono Xamarin

Java javac Sun Microsystems (Owned by


Oracle)

gcj GNU Project

What is an interpreter and its


need?
An interpreter is a program that translates source code written in
high-level language to machine code. It is similar to compiler and
does the same task of translation from high-level to low-level
language. Despite of its similarity, the working mechanism of
interpreter and compiler are different.

An interpreter does not translate whole code at once like compiler.


Rather, is reads entire source code at once. Translates single
instruction to machine code or some intermediate code. Then
executes the translated machine code instruction immediately and
translates next instruction if needed.

Why do we need an interpreter?


The first and vital need of an interpreter is to translate source code
from high-level language to machine language. However, for the
purpose there exists another program called compiler. The compiler
also translates source code from high-level language to machine
language. So, why we need an interpreter when there exists a
similar software compiler.

The real need of interpreter comes where compiler fails to satisfy


the software development needs. The compiler is a very powerful
tool for developing programs in high-level language. However, there
are several demerits associated with the compiler. If the source
code is huge in size, then it might take hours to compile the source
code. Which will significantly increase the compilation duration.
Here interpreter comes handy and can cut this huge compilation
duration. Interpreters are designed to translate single instruction at
a time and execute them immediately.
An interpreter also comes handy when you frequently update the source
code. As if it takes 5 minutes to compile entire source code. If you have
updated it 5 times. Then the total compile time would be 25 minutes which
is significantly big. However, if we use an interpreter we can reduce this
compile time.

Life cycle of a computer program


A computer program goes through many phases from its
development to execution. From the human readable format (source
code) to binary encoded computer instructions (machine code).
Here in this section, I will be explaining the different phases of a
program during its entire lifespan.

Various phases of a computer program

Source code
Source code is a plain text file containing computer instructions
written in human readable format. It is simple text file written by
programmers. It contain instructions in high-level language that the
programmer intended to perform by a program. Source code is later
compiled and translated to Object code.

Programmer writing source code


Object code
Object code is a sequence of computer instructions in an
intermediate language. It is generated by compiler after the
compilation process. The compiler reads source code written in
high-level language and translates it to an intermediate language.
After translation a file containing instructions encoded in some
intermediate language is generated called object code.

Note: The intermediate language may or may not be machine


language.

Despite of being in binary language object codes cannot execute by


its own as they lack the main entry point. Various object codes are
further linked together by a linker to generate final executable file.

Source code and object code


Machine code
Machine code is a set of computer instructions written or translated
in machine language. It is the final executable file generated by
compiling, assembling or linking several object files together. It is
the only code executed by the CPU.

Machine code and object code both are encoded in machine


language and may seem to be similar in nature. However, you can
directly execute a machine code, whereas object codes cannot
execute on their own. Machine code is the result of linking several
object files together. Whereas object code is a result of translating
source code of single module or program into machine language.
Machine code always contains an entry point to the program while
object code does not contain any entry point.

Machine code

Programming language – history


and popular languages
Programming language is made of two parts “programming” and
“language”. We already learn't about what is programming. Here we
will learn about language. Think for a while and try to define what
language means.

What is language?
Language is a medium of interaction between two objects. It is a
system of communication between any two objects either spoken or
written.
Humans have invented thousands of spoken languages to interact
with other human. Birds, animals, insects and every living creature
interact in their own language. Likewise machine also interact with
the other machines in the language of electrical signals. Computers
internally interact in the language of low voltage and high
voltage (known as binary).

Programming language
Programming language is the language of computers. Through
programming language, we can communicate with a computer
system. Computers can only understand binary, but humans are not
comfortable with binary number system. Humans cannot interact
fluently with computers in the language of 0's and 1's. Programming
language act as an interface between computers and humans.

Programming languages are used to create programs. A computer


program is intended to perform some specific task
through computer or to control the behavior of computer.

Using a programming language, we write instructions that the


computer should perform. Instructions are usually written using
characters, words, symbols and decimal. These instructions are
later encoded to the computer understandable language i.e. binary
language. So that the computer can understand the instructions
given by human and can perform specified task.

Thousands of programming language have been created till date and


many are still being developed every year. Every programming
language is designed for some specific purpose. Such as FORTRAN,
OCaml, Haskell are best suited for scientific and numerical
computations. Whereas Java, C++, C# are best suited for designing
server applications, games, desktop applications and many more.

History of programming language


Earlier when there was no concept of programming languages.
Computer instructions are directly given to the computer in decimal
or binary form. These instructions are given through punch
cards, magnetic tapesor through switches.
Later on when computer started growing, more and more programs
were written day-by-day. Writing programs completely in binary was
cumbersome and error prone. Therefore, we developed
various mnemonics for different instructions. These mnemonics are
in human readable format. Such as ADD foradding values of two
registers, JMP for conditional controls. Now, the programs were
written using mnemonics and decimal values known as assembly
language.

Mnemonics are short abbreviated English words used to specify a


computer instruction. Each instruction in binary has a specific
mnemonic. They are architecture dependent and there is a list of
separate mnemonics for different computer architectures.

Mnemonics gave relief to the programmers from writing programs


directly in binary language. However, it was still a tedious work to
remember the complete list of mnemonics for various computer
architectures.

During 1950's the first high-level programming


language Plankalkül was written. As the computer started
expanding from scientific to business and to many other fields. Many
more high-level programming languages were written for various
specific purposes. Unlike binary and assembly, programs in high-
level languages are written in English like statements. High-level
languages are programmer friendly, less error prone, easy to write
and maintain.

High-level languages were like a magic wand to the programmers.


However, they lack the facility to perform several low-level
activities. Which gave the birth to several other programming
languages with different paradigms. During 1960's to 1980's several
popular programming languages were written for specific purposes.
This was the phase when the programming languages were more
influenced. Popular languages developed during this period was
ALGOL, Lisp, C, Prolog etc. Languages that we use today are either
directly or indirectly inherited from this period.

Modern programming languages provide rich support of security and


error checking. They provide higher level of abstraction of hardware
details.
Popular programming languages
There are thousands of programming languages and many more are
being written every year. Here is a list of some popular
programming languages and software’s written using them.

Languag Popular software’s


Suited for
e developed

Server applications, Netbeans,

Web development, Eclipse,

Java Desktop applications, OpenOffice,

Android apps Google (backend),

development Facebook (backend)

System softwares, UNIX,

Device drivers, Linux,


C
Database packages, C++ (Programming language)

Operating Systems Microsoft Windows (Some parts)

Microsoft Windows,
Operating system,
Apple OS-X,
Game development,
Google (backend),
C++ Server applications,
Adobe Photoshop,
Database packages,
MySQL,
Desktop applications
Various popular games

Python Web development, Google,

Software development, YouTube,


Game development, Quora,

Network programming, Blender,

Mobile apps development BitTorrent

Windows Client

applications, Microsoft Office,

Web applications Visual Studio,

C# development, Almost all Microsoft websites

Mobile apps , (ASP.NET),

Cloud apps development, Microsoft SQL Server

Enterprises application

Facebook,

WordPress,

PHP Web development Wikipedia,

Yahoo,

Flipkart

Almost all popular website uses


Web development,
JavaScript JavaScript for client side
Apps development
activity.

Database development, Almost all software’s database


SQL
Database Query uses SQL as query language.

Twitter,
Ruby Website development
Github
Classification of programming
languages
Thousands of programming languages have been written till date.
Each for some specific purpose. Some programming languages
provide less or no abstraction from the hardware. Whereas some
provide higher abstraction. To separate programming languages on
the basis of level of abstraction from hardware, they are classified
into various categories.

Programming languages are basically classified into two main


categories – Low level language and High level language.
However, there also exists another category known as Middle level
language. Every programming language belongs to one of these
category and sub-category.

Classification of programming languages

elow image describes the abstraction level of programming


languages from hardware. As you can see machine language
provides no abstraction. Assembly language provide less
abstraction from the hardware. Whereas high level language
provides a higher level of abstraction.
Abstraction level programming language provide

Low level languages –


advantages and disadvantages
ow level language abbreviated as LLL, are languages close to the
machine level instruction set. They provide less or no abstraction
from the hardware. A low-level programming language interacts
directly with the registers and memory. Since, instructions written
in low level languages are machine dependent. Programs developed
using low level languages are machine dependent and are not
portable.

Low level language does not require any compiler or interpreter to


translate the source to machine code. An assembler may translate
the source code written in low level language to machine code.

Programs written in low level languages are fast and memory


efficient. However, it is nightmare for programmers to write, debug
and maintain low-level programs. They are mostly used to develop
operating systems, device drivers, databases and applications that
requires direct hardware access.

Low level languages are further classified in two more categories –


Machine language and assembly language.
Classification of low level
programming language

Machine language
Machine language is closest language to the hardware. It consists
set of instructions that are executed directly by the computer. These
instructions are a sequence of binary bits. Each instruction
performs a very specific and small task. Instructions written in
machine language are machine dependent and varies from computer
to computer.

Example: SUB AX, BX = 00001011 00000001 00100010 is an instruction set to subtract


values of two registers AX and BX.

In the starting days of programming, program were only written in machine language. Each
and every programs were written as a sequence of binaries.

A Programmer must have additional knowledge about the architecture of the particular
machine, before programming in machine language. Developing programs using machine
language is tedious job. Since, it is very difficult to remember sequence of binaries for
different computer architectures. Therefore, nowadays it is not much in practice.

Assembly language
Assembly language is an improvement over machine language.
Similar to machine language, assembly language also interacts
directly with the hardware. Instead of using raw binary sequence to
represent an instruction set, assembly language uses mnemonics.
Mnemonics are short abbreviated English words used to
specify a computer instruction. Each instruction in binary has
a specific mnemonic. They are architecture dependent and
there is a list of separate mnemonics for different computer
architectures.
Examples of mnemonics are – ADD, MOV, SUB etc.

Mnemonics gave relief to the programmers from remembering binary


sequence for specific instructions. As English words like ADD, MOV,
SUB are easy to remember, than binary sequence 10001011.
However, programmer still have to remember various mnemonics for
different computer architectures.

Assembly language uses a special program called assembler.


Assembler translates mnemonics to specific machine code.

Assembly language is still in use. It is used for developing operating


systems, device drivers, compilers and other programs that requires
direct hardware access.

Advantages of low level languages


1. Programs developed using low level languages are fast and memory
efficient.
2. Programmers can utilize processor and memory in better way using
a low level language.
3. There is no need of any compiler or interpreters to translate the
source to machine code. Thus, cuts the compilation and interpretation
time.
4. Low level languages provide direct manipulation of computer
registers and storage.
5. It can directly communicate with hardware devices.

Disadvantages of low level languages


1. Programs developed using low level languages are machine
dependent and are not portable.
2. It is difficult to develop, debug and maintain.
3. Low level programs are more error prone.
4. Low level programming usually results in poor programming
productivity.
5. Programmer must have additional knowledge of the computer
architecture of particular machine, for programming in low level language.

High level languages –


advantages and disadvantages
High level language is abbreviated as HLL. High level languages are
similar to the human language. Unlike low level languages, high
level languages are programmers friendly, easy to code, debug and
maintain.

High level language provides higher level of abstraction from


machine language. They do not interact directly with the hardware.
Rather, they focus more on the complex arithmetic operations,
optimal program efficiency and easiness in coding.

Low level programming uses machine friendly language.


Programmers writes code either in binary or assembly language.
Writing programs in binary is complex and cumbersome process.
Hence, to make programming more programmers friendly. Programs
in high level language is written using English statements.

High level programs require compilers/interpreters to translate


source code to machine language. We can compile the source code
written in high level language to multiple machine languages. Thus,
they are machine independent language.

Today almost all programs are developed using a high level


programming language. We can develop a variety of applications
using high level language. They are used to develop desktop
applications, websites, system software’s, utility software’s and
many more.

High level languages are grouped in two categories based on


execution model – compiled or interpreted languages.
Classification of high level
language on the basis of execution model

We can also classify high level language several other categories


based on programming paradigm.

Classification of high level language on the basis of paradigm

Advantages of High level language


1. High level languages are programmer friendly. They are easy to
write, debug and maintain.
2. It provide higher level of abstraction from machine languages.
3. It is machine independent language.
4. Easy to learn.
5. Less error prone, easy to find and debug errors.
6. High level programming results in better programming productivity.
Disadvantages of High level language
1. It takes additional translation times to translate the source to
machine code.
2. High level programs are comparatively slower than low level
programs.
3. Compared to low level programs, they are generally less memory
efficient.
4. Cannot communicate directly with the hardware.

Introduction to Programming –
Errors
Errors are the mistakes or faults in the program that causes our
program to behave unexpectedly and it is no doubt that the well
versed and experienced programmers also makes mistakes.
Programming error are generally known as Bugs and the process to
remove bugs from program is called as Debug/Debugging.

There are basically three types of error:

1. Compilation error or Syntax error


2. Runtime error or exception
3. Logical error

Example: Typing int as Int

Runtime error
Run Time errors are generated when the program is running and
leads to the abnormal behavior or termination of the program. The
general cause of Run time errors is because your program is trying
to perform an operation that is impossible to carry out.

Example: Dividing any number by zero, Accessing any file that


doesn't exist etc are common examples of such error.
Logical error
Logical error will cause your program to perform undesired
operations which you didn't intended your program to perform.
These errors occur generally due to improper logic used in program.
These types of errors are difficult to debug.

Example: Multiplying an uninitialized integer value with some other


value will result in undesired output.
What are Tokens in
programming
Smallest individual element of a program is called as Token.
Everything you see inside a program is a token.

For example - Suppose an English sentence. "C language is an


awesome language. C was developed by Dennis Ritchie at AT&T Bell
labs in 1972."

The above sentence is made of Alphabets (a-z A-Z), Blank


spaces, Digits (0-9) and special characters (full stop in our case).
These are building blocks or basic elements of our sentence.
Similarly there are various basic programming elements that makes
any program.

There are five types of tokens.

1. Keyword
2. Identifier
3. Operator
4. Separator
5. Literal

What are Keywords?


Keyword is a reserved word whose meaning is already defined by
the programming language. We cannot use keyword for any other
purpose inside programming. Every programming language have
some set of keywords.
Examples: int, do, while, void, return etc(Note: These keywords are
common to C and C influenced languages).

What are Identifiers?


Identifiers are the name given to different programming elements.
Either name given to a variable or a function or any other
programming element, all follow some basic naming conventions
listed below:
1. Keywords must not be used as an identifier.
2. Identifier must begin with an alphabet a-z A-Z or an
underscore_ symbol.
3. Identifier can contains alphabets a-z A-Z, digits 0-9 and
underscore _ symbol.
4. Identifier must not contain any special character (e.g. !@$*.'[] etc.)
except underscore _.

Examples of some valid identifiers


num, Num, _num, _Num, num1, Num1, _num1, _Num1, _1num, _1Num, _num_,
number_to_add

etc.

Examples of some invalid identifiers


1num, number to add, 1_num, num-to-add, num@

etc.

What are Operator?


Operators are the symbol given to any arithmetical or logical
operations. Various programming languages provides various sets of
operators some common operators are:
Lets suppose two variables a=10, b=5
- operator subtracts second operand from first i.e. a - b and results
5.
Operat
Description Example
or

Arithmetic operator

Arithmetic operator are used to perform basic arithmetic operations.

+ Adds two operand. a + b gives 15

* Multiplies two operands. a * b gives 50

/ Divides two operands. a / b gives 2


Modulus operator divides the first

operand from second and returns a % b gives 0 (As 10/5 will


%
the remainder. It is generally used have 0 remainder)

for checking divisibility.

Assignment operator

Assignment operator is used to assign value to a variable. The value is

assigned from right to left.

Assigns value from right operand


= a = 10 will assign 10 in a
to left operand.

Relational operator
Relational operator are used to check relation between any two

operands. Whether any of them is greater, equal or not equal.

If value of left operand is greater

> than right, returns true else (a > b) will return true

returns false

If value of right operand is greater

< than left, returns true else returns (a < b) will return false

false

If both operands are equal returns


== (a == b) will return false
true else false

!= If both operands are not equal (a != b) will return true


returns true else false.

If value of left operand is greater

>= or equal to right operand, returns (a >= b) will return true

true else false

If value of right operand is greater

<= or equal to left operand, returns (a <= b) will return false

true else false

Logical operator

Logical operator are used to combine two boolean expression together

and results in a single boolean value according to the operand and

operator used.

((a>=1) && (a<=10)) will


Used to combine two expressions.
return true since (a>=1) is
&& If both operands are true or Non-
true and also (a<=10) is
Zero, returns true else false
true.

((a>1) || (a<5)) will return

true. As (a>1) is true.

If any of the operand is true or Since first operand is


||
Non-zero, returns true else false true hence there is no

need to check for

second operand.

! Logical NOT operator is a unary !(a>1) will return false.

operator. Returns the complement Since (a>1) is true hence


of the boolean value. its complement is false.

Bitwise operator

Bitwise operator performs operations on Bits(Binary level). Lets

suppose a = 10, b = 5

a = 0000 1010 (8-bit binary representation of 10)

b = 0000 0101 (8-bit binary representation of 5)

Bitwise AND performs anding

operation on two binary bits 0000 1010

& 0000 0101


& value. If both the values are 1
____________
then will result is 1 else will
0000 0000
result in 0.

Bitwise OR returns 1 if any of the 0000 1010

| 0000 0101
| two binary bits are 1 else returns
___________
0.
0000 1111
Bitwise XOR returns 1 if both the 0000 1010

^ 0000 0101
^ binary bits are different else
___________
returns 0.
0000 1111
Bitwise COMPLEMENT is a unary

operator.It returns the


~ 0000 1010
~ complement of the binary value ___________

i.e. if the binary bit is 0 returns 1 1111 0101

else returns 0.

<< Bitwise LEFT SHIFT operator is 0000 1010 << 2

= 0010 1000
also unary operator. It shift the
binary bits to the left. It inserts a

0 bit value to the extreme right of

the binary value. Or we may say it

generally multiplies the value

with 2.

Bitwise RIGHT SHIFT operator is

an unary operator. It shifts the

binary bits to the right. It inserts


0000 1010 << 2
>>
a 0 bit value to the extreme left of = 0000 0010

the binary value. Or we may say it

generally divides the value with 2.

Increment/Decrement operator

Increment/Decrement operator is a unary operator used to increase an

integer value by 1 or decrease it by 1. Increment/decrement operator are

of two types Postfix and Prefix.

Increment operator will add 1 to a++ will give 11


++
an integer value. ++a will also give 11

Decrement operator will subtract a-- will give 9


--
1 from an integer value. --a will also give 9

Conditional/Ternary operator

Ternary operator as a conditional operator and is similar to simple if-

else. It takes three operand.

?: It is used as conditional operator. b = (a>1) ? a : b;


will store the value 10

in b as (a>1) is true hence


Syntax of using ternary operator:

(condition) ? (true part) : (false true part will execute,

part)
assigning the value

of a in b.

What are Separators?


Separators are used to separate different programming elements.
The various types of separators used in programming are:
(Space) \t(Tab) \n(New line) . , ; () {} []

What are Literals?


Literals are constant values that are used for performing various
operations and calculations. There are basically three types of
literals:

1. Integer literal
An integer literal represents integer or numeric values.
Example: 1, 100, -12312 etc

2. Floating point literal


Floating point literal represents fractional values.
Example: 2.123, 1.02, -2.33, 13e54, -23.3 etc

3. Character literal
Character literal represent character values. Single character are
enclosed in a single quote(' ') while sequence of character are
enclosed in double quotes(" ")
Example: 'a', 'n', "Hello", "Hello123" etc.
What are Escape sequence
characters?
Escape characters are sequence of characters that are converted to
some another character which are difficult or impossible to print
directly. Characters such as new lines, you cannot print a new line
directly in any programming language by hitting enter key. To print
new line an special character is given \n which is later converted to
new line by compiler. Likewise there are many escape sequence
character used in programming languages.
An escape character begin with backward slash \ followed by
escape character.

List of all escape sequence characters


Escape
Description
character

\0 NULL

\a Alert (Beep)

\b Backspace

\e Escape

\f Formfeed (Return)

\n New line

\r Carriage return

Horizontal Tab (Eight blank


\t
spaces)

\v Vertical Tab

\\ Backslash

\' Single quotes


Escape
Description
character

\" Double quotes

\? Question mark

What is ASCII character code?


ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange. It was
developed by ANSI (American National Standards Institute).
It is a set of decimal coded value for all basic printable and non-printable characters. For
example - A is represented as 65 in ASCII standard. Similarly, there exists an integer value to
represent every printable and non-printable character.

ASCII exists in two versions 7-bit ASCII and 8-bit ASCII. The first 7-bit version of ASCII
contains 128 characters (including upper and lower case alphabets, digits, punctuations,
special characters, non-printable and control characters). It uses 7 bit in memory to represent
single character.
Later 7 bit variant of ASCII was extended to 8 bit and is popularly known as Extended
ASCII. It uses 8 bit to represent a character and can represent upto 255 characters.

List of all ASCII character codes


Non-Printable ASCII characters
Printable ASCII characters
Extended ASCII characters

Binary Octal Decimal Hexadecimal Symbol

00000000 000 0 00 NULL

00000001 001 1 01 SOH

00000010 002 2 02 STX

00000011 003 3 03 ETX

00000100 004 4 04 EOT

00000101 005 5 05 ENQ


Binary Octal Decimal Hexadecimal Symbol

00000110 006 6 06 ACK

00000111 007 7 07 BEL

00001000 010 8 08 BS

00001001 011 9 09 HT

00001010 012 10 0A LF

00001011 013 11 0B VT

00001100 014 12 0C FF

00001101 015 13 0D CR

00001110 016 14 0E SO

00001111 017 15 0F SI

00010000 020 16 10 DLE

00010001 021 17 11 DC1

00010010 022 18 12 DC2

00010011 023 19 13 DC3

00010100 024 20 14 DC4

00010101 025 21 15 NAK

00010110 026 22 16 SYN

00010111 027 23 17 ETB

00011000 030 24 18 CAN

00011001 031 25 19 EM
Binary Octal Decimal Hexadecimal Symbol

00011010 032 26 1A SUB

00011011 033 27 1B ESC

00011100 034 28 1C FS

00011101 035 29 1D GS

00011110 036 30 1E RS

00011111 037 31 1F US

00100000 040 32 20 SPACE

00100001 041 33 21 !

00100010 042 34 22 "

00100011 043 35 23 #

00100100 044 36 24 $

00100101 045 37 25 %

00100110 046 38 26 &

00100111 047 39 27 '

00101000 050 40 28 (

00101001 051 41 29 )

00101010 052 42 2A *

00101011 053 43 2B +

00101100 054 44 2C ,

00101101 055 45 2D -
Binary Octal Decimal Hexadecimal Symbol

00101110 056 46 2E .

00101111 057 47 2F /

00110000 060 48 30 0

00110001 061 49 31 1

00110010 062 50 32 2

00110011 063 51 33 3

00110100 064 52 34 4

00110101 065 53 35 5

00110110 066 54 36 6

00110111 067 55 37 7

00111000 070 56 38 8

00111001 071 57 39 9

00111010 072 58 3A :

00111011 073 59 3B ;

00111100 074 60 3C <

00111101 075 61 3D =

00111110 076 62 3E >

00111111 077 63 3F ?

01000000 100 64 40 @

01000001 101 65 41 A
Binary Octal Decimal Hexadecimal Symbol

01000010 102 66 42 B

01000011 103 67 43 C

01000100 104 68 44 D

01000101 105 69 45 E

01000110 106 70 46 F

01000111 107 71 47 G

01001000 110 72 48 H

01001001 111 73 49 I

01001010 112 74 4A J

01001011 113 75 4B K

01001100 114 76 4C L

01001101 115 77 4D M

01001110 116 78 4E N

01001111 117 79 4F O

01010000 120 80 50 P

01010001 121 81 51 Q

01010010 122 82 52 R

01010011 123 83 53 S

01010100 124 84 54 T

01010101 125 85 55 U
Binary Octal Decimal Hexadecimal Symbol

01010110 126 86 56 V

01010111 127 87 57 W

01011000 130 88 58 X

01011001 131 89 59 Y

01011010 132 90 5A Z

01011011 133 91 5B [

01011100 134 92 5C

01011101 135 93 5D ]

01011110 136 94 5E ^

01011111 137 95 5F _

01100000 140 96 60 `

01100001 141 97 61 a

01100010 142 98 62 b

01100011 143 99 63 c

01100100 144 100 64 d

01100101 145 101 65 e

01100110 146 102 66 f

01100111 147 103 67 g

01101000 150 104 68 h

01101001 151 105 69 i


Binary Octal Decimal Hexadecimal Symbol

01101010 152 106 6A j

01101011 153 107 6B k

01101100 154 108 6C l

01101101 155 109 6D m

01101110 156 110 6E n

01101111 157 111 6F o

01110000 160 112 70 p

01110001 161 113 71 q

01110010 162 114 72 r

01110011 163 115 73 s

01110100 164 116 74 t

01110101 165 117 75 u

01110110 166 118 76 v

01110111 167 119 77 w

01111000 170 120 78 x

01111001 171 121 79 y

01111010 172 122 7A z

01111011 173 123 7B {

01111100 174 124 7C |

01111101 175 125 7D }


Binary Octal Decimal Hexadecimal Symbol

01111110 176 126 7E ~

01111111 177 127 7F DEL

10000000 200 128 80 Ç

10000001 201 129 81 ü

10000010 202 130 82 é

10000011 203 131 83 â

10000100 204 132 84 ä

10000101 205 133 85 à

10000110 206 134 86 å

10000111 207 135 87 ç

10001000 210 136 88 ê

10001001 211 137 89 ë

10001010 212 138 8A è

10001011 213 139 8B ï

10001100 214 140 8C î

10001101 215 141 8D ì

10001110 216 142 8E Ä

10001111 217 143 8F Å

10010000 220 144 90 É

10010001 221 145 91 æ


Binary Octal Decimal Hexadecimal Symbol

10010010 222 146 92 Æ

10010011 223 147 93 ô

10010100 224 148 94 ö

10010101 225 149 95 ò

10010110 226 150 96 û

10010111 227 151 97 ù

10011000 230 152 98 ÿ

10011001 231 153 99 Ö

10011010 232 154 9A Ü

10011011 233 155 9B ¢

10011100 234 156 9C £

10011101 235 157 9D ¥

10011110 236 158 9E ₧

10011111 237 159 9F ƒ

10100000 240 160 A0 á

10100001 241 161 A1 í

10100010 242 162 A2 ó

10100011 243 163 A3 ú

10100100 244 164 A4 ñ

10100101 245 165 A5 Ñ


Binary Octal Decimal Hexadecimal Symbol

10100110 246 166 A6 ª

10100111 247 167 A7 º

10101000 250 168 A8 ¿

10101001 251 169 A9 ⌐

10101010 252 170 AA ¬

10101011 253 171 AB ½

10101100 254 172 AC ¼

10101101 255 173 AD ¡

10101110 256 174 AE «

10101111 257 175 AF »

10110000 260 176 B0 ░

10110001 261 177 B1 ▒

10110010 262 178 B2 ▓

10110011 263 179 B3 │

10110100 264 180 B4 ┤

10110101 265 181 B5 ╡

10110110 266 182 B6 ╢

10110111 267 183 B7 ╖

10111000 270 184 B8 ╕

10111001 271 185 B9 ╣


Binary Octal Decimal Hexadecimal Symbol

10111010 272 186 BA ║

10111011 273 187 BB ╗

10111100 274 188 BC ╝

10111101 275 189 BD ╜

10111110 276 190 BE ╛

10111111 277 191 BF ┐

11000000 300 192 C0 └

11000001 301 193 C1 ┴

11000010 302 194 C2 ┬

11000011 303 195 C3 ├

11000100 304 196 C4 ─

11000101 305 197 C5 ┼

11000110 306 198 C6 ╞

11000111 307 199 C7 ╟

11001000 310 200 C8 ╚

11001001 311 201 C9 ╔

11001010 312 202 CA ╩

11001011 313 203 CB ╦

11001100 314 204 CC ╠

11001101 315 205 CD ═


Binary Octal Decimal Hexadecimal Symbol

11001110 316 206 CE ╬

11001111 317 207 CF ╧

11010000 320 208 D0 ╨

11010001 321 209 D1 ╤

11010010 322 210 D2 ╥

11010011 323 211 D3 ╙

11010100 324 212 D4 ╘

11010101 325 213 D5 ╒

11010110 326 214 D6 ╓

11010111 327 215 D7 ╫

11011000 330 216 D8 ╪

11011001 331 217 D9 ┘

11011010 332 218 DA ┌

11011011 333 219 DB █

11011100 334 220 DC ▄

11011101 335 221 DD ▌

11011110 336 222 DE ▐

11011111 337 223 DF ▀

11100000 340 224 E0 α

11100001 341 225 E1 ß


Binary Octal Decimal Hexadecimal Symbol

11100010 342 226 E2 Γ

11100011 343 227 E3 π

11100100 344 228 E4 Σ

11100101 345 229 E5 σ

11100110 346 230 E6 µ

11100111 347 231 E7 τ

11101000 350 232 E8 Φ

11101001 351 233 E9 Θ

11101010 352 234 EA Ω

11101011 353 235 EB δ

11101100 354 236 EC ∞

11101101 355 237 ED φ

11101110 356 238 EE ε

11101111 357 239 EF ∩

11110000 360 240 F0 ≡

11110001 361 241 F1 ±

11110010 362 242 F2 ≥

11110011 363 243 F3 ≤

11110100 364 244 F4 ⌠

11110101 365 245 F5 ⌡


Binary Octal Decimal Hexadecimal Symbol

11110110 366 246 F6 ÷

11110111 367 247 F7 ≈

11111000 370 248 F8 °

11111001 371 249 F9 ∙

11111010 372 250 FA ∙

11111011 373 251 FB √

11111100 374 252 FC ⁿ

11111101 375 253 FD ²

11111110 376 254 FE ■

1111111 FF
377 255
1

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